JournalofGeochemicalExploration, 43 (1992) 127-155 127

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

Application of metal zoning to gold exploration in

porphyry copper systems

Brian K. Jones
9851 South, 2270East, Sandy, UT84092, USA
(Received 20 November 1990; accepted after revision 6 June 1991 )

ABSTRACT

Jones, B.K., 1992. Application of metal zoning to gold exploration in porphyry copper systems. J.
Geochem. Explor., 43:127-155.

Recent gold discoveries peripheral to gold-enriched porphyry copper deposits demonstrate the po-
tential for gold mineralization within roughly concentric zones surrounding the copper deposits. In
gold-enriched porphyry copper systems the close correlation between gold grade and copper grade in
the potassic altered zone is well documented (Dos Pobres, Granisle, Bell, Dizon, and others). More
recently discoveries at Fortitude (Copper Canyon ), Star Pointer (Ely), and elsewhere point to a gold-
rich zone that falls outside of the copper ore body, and inside of the lead-zinc halo. This zone, referred
to as the intermediate gold zone, is partly coincident with the pyrite zone peripheral to many porphyry
copper systems. Some Carlin-type gold deposits (Barneys Canyon, Bau, Yauricocha), located 3-5
kilometers from the outer margin of gold-enriched porphyry copper deposits, suggest the existence of
a distal gold zone. Within an idealized gold-enriched porphyry system, a composite zoning pattern
from the center of the system outward may include the following zones: ( 1) barren (or subeconomic )
core; ( 2 ) molybdenum; ( 3 ) bornite-gold; ( 4 ) chalcopyrite; ( 5 ) pyrite halo (gold in shear zones, and
distal skarns); (6) lead-zinc-silver; and (or) (7) distal epithermal gold. Considerable variability
exists from district to district in the details of the zoning relationships. Initial gold distribution can be
significantly modified by late-stage remobilization and redeposition. In many gold-enriched porphyry
copper districts there has been little systematic exploration for gold mineralization peripheral to the
copper deposit. These zoning relations can define multiple gold target areas within gold-bearing por-
phyry systems, especially those intruding carbonate sequences. Metal ratios, particularly Pb/Cu,
Pb+Zn/Cu, Cu/Au, and Au/Ag are useful for clarifying zoning patterns and, in conjunction with
structure and stratigraphy, can be used to define and evaluate specific exploration targets.

INTRODUCTION

Gold-enriched porphyry copper deposits are currently among the largest

revenue generators in the mining industry, and are therefore an important
exploration target. The exploration community has recognized for at least 80
years that gold deposits can be found in porphyry systems, and exploration in
long-active camps has resulted in some remarkable gold discoveries in recent
years.

0375-6742/92/$05.00 © 1992 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved.

128 B.K.JONES

The cause of gold enrichment in some porphyry systems is a subject that

has been addressed by Titley (1978), Kesler (1973), Sillitoe (1979), Keith
(1984), Cox and Singer (1988), and Leveille et al. (1988). No simple rela-
tionship exists between petrologic association and gold-enriched porphyry
systems; however, gold-enriched systems are most likely to form in slightly
mafic igneous rocks (diorite, quartz diorite) and felsic to alkali-rich igneous
rocks (granite, syenite). Typical quartz monzonite- or granodiorite-hosted
porphyry copper deposits in the western United States or South America are
generally gold-poor. Although these generalizations have some merit, there
are notable exceptions. The Fortitude (Nevada), and, Ajo, and Dos Pobres
(Arizona) systems are all gold-bearing porphyry copper deposits but are pe-
trologically similar to other gold-poor quartz monzonite or granodiorite-hosted
systems. A key in distinguishing gold-rich intermediate intrusions from gold-
poor ones may lie in the oxidation state of the intrusive rock (Leveille et al.,
1988 ). For example, the reduced state of the Battle Mountain, Nevada, intru-
sion is the principle petrologic characteristic distinguishing that system.
This study is an attempt to explain the systematics of gold distribution
within the metal and alteration zoning patterns characteristic of porphyry
systems, with the idea of developing guidelines for gold exploration within
such systems.

GOLD IN PORPHYRYCOPPERZONING SCHEMES

Classical studies of hypogene metal and mineralogical zoning were sum-

marized by Emmons (1927). The application of his generalized empirical
scheme to porphyry copper deposits is shown in Fig. 1. He recognized two
gold zones, one in the central copper orebody, and another peripheral to the
copper zone that more or less overlapped the lead-zinc mineralization. In a
later review, Jerome (1966) outlined a gold-enriched porphyry copper ore
body, surrounded by a pyrite halo with lead-zinc-silver-manganese miner-
alization roughly encircling the pyrite zone (Fig. 2 ). He did not describe any
peripheral gold mineralization.
The writer has examined the gold distribution in known gold-bearing por-
phyry copper systems. Four categories of gold-bearing porphyry copper sys-
tems are defined. These include systems having: ( 1 ) a central copper-gold
zone; (2) an intermediate gold zone; ( 3 ) a distal gold zone; and (4) multiple
gold zones.

THE CENTRALCOPPER-GOLD ZONE

The close correlation between the gold grade and copper grade in the potas-
sic alteration zone of some porphyry copper deposits has been well docu-
mented (Sillitoe, 1979, 1988), (Perello and Cabello, 1989). Gold is often
APPLICATIONOF METALZONING TO GOLD EXPLORATIONIN PORPHYRYCOPPER SYSTEMS 129

Hg

Sb

Ag
V

Pb

Zn
Mn
Au

(;;u
F9
Bi

Fig. 1. Classical hypogene metal and mineralogical zoning scheme of Emmons ( 1927 ) showing
central and peripheral gold zones.

associated with bornite in a potassic assemblage dominated by secondary bio-

tite and magnetite (Sillitoe, 1979; Cox and Singer, 1988 ).
Many gold-bearing porphyry copper deposits have a high correlation be-
tween hypogene copper and gold grades. Examples include Dizon (Lowell,
1988 ), and Panguna (Clark, 1987 ), as well as Bell and Granisle (Carson et
al., 1976 ), Dos Pobres (Langton and Williams, 1982 ), and Sapo Alegre (Cox
et al., 1975).

Panguna

At the Panguna deposit, Papua New Guinea, mineralization is hosted in a

diorite porphyry that intrudes andesitic volcanic rocks (Clark, 1987). Cop-
per and gold are closely associated within the potassic altered zone and form
a distinct zone around a barren core (Fig. 3 ). Gold grades are highest in bor-
nite-rich areas. The potassic alteration is dominated by secondary biotite and
abundant magnetite. A pyrite halo ( > 5% pyrite by volume) encircles the
copper-gold deposit. Clark ( 1987 ) did not publish any data on the gold con-
tent in the pyrite halo.
130 ~.K.JONES

ft
2
F

UJ

Py
Prop,/ ~ ....... ~ ~_
Itic Potassic <<:
Phyllic n-
Argillic

_ I _ _

// \l

t\l I

:!iiii
:!ii
, ~s ~

~DISSEMINATED COPPER j'-/ ~"~IINTRLISION

~ SKARN REPLACEMENT
[]LIMESTONE

Fig. 2. Porphyry copper zoning model of Jerome (1966). Note absence of peripheral gold zone.

Bell and Granisle, British Columbia

Primary dispersion halos at Bell Copper are described by Carson et al.

(1976). Gold is concentrated in the copper zone, where it coincides with
quartz-sericite alteration and shows a close positive spatial correlation with
chalcopyrite and pyrite (Fig. 4 ) (Cuddy and Kesler, 1982 ). The average gold
grade of the deposit is about 0.3 ppm. Lead and zinc both average less than
100 ppm in the copper deposit and are slightly higher in the periphery, with
the maximum abundance near the outer edge of the pyrite halo. Although
lead and zinc concentrations are low (Pb, 40-100 ppm; Zn, 100-1185 ppm ),
their common distribution outlines a well defined Pb-Zn halo, particularly
when Cu:Zn and Cu:Pb ratios are considered.
Metal zoning at the Granisle deposit (not illustrated) is similar (Cuddy
and Kesler, 1982 ). The average gold grade is 0.16 ppm. Gold is closely asso-
ciated with bornite, and copper and gold maxima coincide closely in the cen-
ter of the system. Lead and zinc, although low, clearly define a halo of miner-
alization coincident with the outer limit of the pyrite halo. According to Cuddy
and Kesler ( 1982 ) only 17 samples were analyzed throughout the district for
gold. This may be insufficient to determine the existence of a distal or inter-
mediate gold zone.
A P P L I C A T I O N O F M E T A L Z O N I N G T O G O L D E X P L O R A T I O N IN P O R P H Y R Y C O P P E R S Y S T E M S 131

>0.5ppm Au f " - " "~,

./ /" ~\
Cu grade contours | |

-,-r-r r--~ ..............~':i::~i:~i':ii~C "

,"~ .':':"":i.~. :~:':-'"'":~'":i:i:!:::it

~...~ . .~. . ~ N :.:.:-t
•::::::::::::::.." ~:::::::; ":0
--, o
/ ~,, ~ i:i:i:i~:!:.: o -,I:.:i:i:i:!::~-~: ft

,f,~ '--,4 ~fi::i::i::i::~ / ,~i::i::i::t::i::~i:~,

\"-~ z--, " ~'~"ii~ ; !.l:i!iii!ii:;i:oii;iiii:I!i:
!,." "~,"~ ".:~::i::i::!.t:~:~iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii~:~:iiii ~? }
_ ,.. • • ... -... ................. ......... o ."l

( t, . ~ .... ~.;:ii~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
v' ",~":~::ii ~i!i!:!!i!iiiiiiiiii!i!:i::~:::::i:/:!::!i:~
-
~\v,~
- - \
-

- - ,,or.
,,~ 1
"~
,, <
"N"'::::!:!~ii :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
z .,~ \ , ::~!ii:i:i:i:i:i:!:i:i:i:i:i~
.~:.:..,.......=._;~:
4,.,, \. k ( 1 ~
/
,

Fig. 3. C o r r e l a t i o n o f c o p p e r a n d gold grades, a n d a l t e r a t i o n zones, P a n g u n a deposit, P a p u a

N e w G u i n e a . A f t e r Clark ( 1 9 8 7 ) .

Sapo Alegre, Puerto Rico

Cox et al. ( 1975 ) ran a detailed geological and geochemical traverse across
the Sapo Alegre prospect beginning at a distance of 650 m from the deposit.
Figure 5 shows that gold correlates with copper. The lead-zinc zone (repre-
sented by Zn, Fig. 5 ) is distinguishable geochemically, but these elements are
only weakly anomalous. There is no evidence of peripheral gold enrichment.

Ok Tedi, Papua New Guinea

The Mt. Fubilan (Ok Tedi ) deposit (371 million metric tons of 0.81% Cu,
0.58 p p m Au, and 0.011% Mo) (not illustrated here) consists of a central
orthoclase-rich intrusion containing most of the disseminated mineraliza-
tion, a number of closely associated peripheral mineralized skarn bodies with
high copper in massive magnetite zones, and a massive sulfide body with
moderate copper grades associated with pyrite and pyrrhotite (Bamford,
1972).
132 B.K. JONES

Lead Zinc

/
/
I. / /
~ ~ .~.~. .

0 o

~ COPPERDEPOSIT(~.O.4%) 0 300
6OOm
I
~ GOLDZONE(>O3ppm)

Fig. 4. Metal zoning at Bell Copper, British Columbia. Modified from Carson et al. ( 1976 ).

Metal zoning is developed in proximal copper skarn that changes to a distal

P b - Z n skarn (Bamford, 1972 ). This transition generally occurs at a distance
of greater than 900 meters from the center of the Mt. Fubilan stock. The Gold
Cap deposit overlies the copper ore body, within the leached cap ( 51 million
metric tons grading 2.4 p p m Au) and has a doughnut shape surrounding a
central barren breccia pipe (Lowell, 1988 ).
APPLICATION OF METAL ZONING TO GOLD EXPLORATION IN PORPHYRY COPPER SYSTEMS 133

1OOOO
5OOO
2OOO
IOO0
Cu 500 500
(ppm/ 20o 2OO
100 100
50 50 AU
20 20 (ppb)
500
30O
2O0
10(1
f
Zn
(ppm)
10

5
S 3
%
1
0.5

0.7
0.5

Te 0.3
(ppml
0.15

2000

1000

5OO
Mn 30O
/
(ppm)
/
100
J

ALTERATION ,~ L o.Q ~
~,
-- Biotite Chlorite

ROCK T Y P E ~uartz diorite p o r p h y ~ meCavo4canic rocks

,t 730m ¢

Fig. 5. G o l d d i s t r i b u t i o n at S a p o Alegre, P u e r t o R i c o ( C o x et al., 1975). A b b r e v i a t i o n s :

q z = q u a r t z , ser = sericite, py = pyrite, ab = albite, chl = chlorite, b i o = biotite.
134 B.K.JONES

THE INTERMEDIATE GOLD ZONE

Gold mineralization in an intermediate position between the central cop-

per zone and the lead-zinc zone of porphyry copper districts has been docu-
mented by many workers, (Sillitoe, 1983, 1988; Sillitoe and Bonham, 1990;
Orris et al., 1987; Neuerburg, 1978; Lowell, 1988). Some camps with eco-
nomically important intermediate zone gold mineralization are Copper Can-
yon, Nevada; Mr. Milligan, B.C.; Andacollo, Chile; Ely, Nevada; and Bingham,
Utah. The distribution of gold in two systems-- San Manuel-Kalamazoo, Ar-
izona, and Copper Canyon, Nevada-- suggests that both high-gold and low-
gold porphyries may have intermediate gold zones.

San Manuel-Kalamazoo, Arizona

Chaffee ( 1976, 1982 ) documents the metal zoning at the San Manuel-Ka-
lamazoo porphyry copper deposit in Arizona (Fig. 6). Although this system
produces no byproduct gold (Gilmour, 1982 ), Chaffee has shown that there
is weak gold enrichment (60-80 ppb) within the copper ore deposit, and a
zone of weak gold-tellurium enrichment in the outer part of the pyrite halo.
Zinc concentrations peripheral to Kalamazoo are low (40-65 ppm), but sig-
nificantly higher than those closer to the deposit.

Copper Canyon, Nevada

Studies by Blake et al. (1984) and Wotruba et al. ( 1986 ), of the gold-rich
Copper Canyon district define a concentric zoning pattern and a distinct halo

O- - 0
rn ;iii!iI

iii !iiiI
500
m
200(3
0

"100(
m

4000

'
%
.;; '
PPM
~o; ' '~oo
PPB
I I 1!2
PPM %
4 10
PPM 6 0 %
5

Cu Mo Au Te K Zn S

Fig. 6. The distribution of gold and other elements, San Manuel-Kalamazoo, Arizona (Chaffee,
1976, 1982) showing peripheral gold zone in a gold-poor porphyry system.
APPLICATION OF METAL ZONING TO GOLD EXPLORATION IN PORPHYRY COPPER SYSTEMS 135

of gold-silver mineralization. A central copper-gold-silver zone changes out-

ward to a gold-silver zone, which in turn is succeeded by a lead-zinc-silver
zone (Fig. 7). The precious-metal zone is related to an especially high con-
centration of iron sulfides, mostly pyrrhotite and pyrite, which are dissemi-
nated in and replace calcareous sedimentary rocks (Blake et al., 1984).
Zoning in the Copper Canyon system is well displayed in a transect cutting
the granodiorite intrusion and the West and Fortitude ore bodies (Fig. 8).
The main Fortitude ore zone is a stratabound, gold-silver-sulfide skarn (Wo-
truba et al., 1986 ). Sulfide minerals are pyrrhotite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, mar-
casite, arsenopyrite, sphalerite, and galena. The average sulfide content of the
ore is around 10% by volume, but locally sulfides exceed 50%. Sphalerite and
galena veinlets, veins, and pods occur immediately beyond the deposit. The
grade of the deposit is 5.1 ppm Au, and 29.8 ppm Ag with little copper (less
than 0.1% ). Meinert ( 1989 ) has summarized the distribution of Cu-Au-Ag
in relation to skarn zonation at Fortitude. Garnet, along with subordinate
pyroxene and actinolite, are the dominant alteration minerals proximal to the
intrusive. Pyroxene is the dominant skarn mineral in the distal zone, with
only minor garnet and actinolite. According to Myers and Meinert ( 1988 ),
this zoning reflects the change from a ferric dominant garnet zone to a ferrous

Pb - Z n - Ag

/ \
Fortitude~ ~ \

I / / Minnie ]
~. ~,'~OL ~

I 3bOrn
Fig. 7. Metal zoning in the Copper Canyon, Nevada, porphyry system. After Wotruba et al.
(1986).
 136 B.K. JONES

- WEST-- I I'-'- FORTITUDE I

I GAR: PYX: ACT

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii
:

!!i!iii
ii !ii!iii!!!iiii

Ag: Au

Cu: Au x 1000

iiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiii
:;:i:i~:~:ii~ i \ I 0 soo ft

Fig. 8. Generalized cross-section through the Copper Canyon, Nevada, district, showing metal
zoning in the vicinity of the West copper ore body and the Fortitude gold deposit (Meinert,
1989 ). Abbreviations: gar = g a r n e t , p y x = p y r o x e n e , act = actinolite.

dominant pyroxene zone, suggesting that the oxidation state of the hydro-
thermal fluids was changing as they migrated away from the intrusion.
The copper to gold ratio decreases dramatically from about 4:1 near the
intrusive to 1:3 in the Fortitude ore body (Fig. 8). Silver/gold ratios vary
from 12" l near the intrusive to 2: l within the Fortitude deposit, to 12:1 in the
lead-zinc zone. Similar variations in copper-gold and gold-silver ratios are
characteristic of intermediate gold zones in other porphyry copper systems.
Tanama and Helecho, Puerto Rico

The Tanama and Helecho porphyry copper systems (Cox, 1985) are ex-
amples of gold-enriched porphyry copper deposits with weakly developed in-
APPLICATION OF METAL ZONING TO GOLD EXPLORATION IN PORPHYRY COPPER SYSTEMS 137

0.6

0.5

0.4"
0 0
E
Q. 0
0
0
c~ O.3- o 0
0
..J
0 o
o o
0
0.2" 0
o
o
~ o° 0
o 0
o o
o 0
0.I o o o 0
co ~ °o o o
o o o o
o o
DCO 0 ° 0
,0 OQ o ooo 0 000

o o.I o'.2 ~.3 6.4 o'.5 d.s o7

COPPER (%)

Fig. 9. Bivariate scatterplot of copper versus gold grades from drill core and surface samples in
the Helecho, Puerto Rico porphyry system. Data from Cox ( 1 9 8 5 ).

termediate gold zones. The deposits are localized in Eocene tonalite porphyry
stocks that intrude Cretaceous basalt and Eocene felsic volcanic rocks.
A plot of gold versus copper concentrations in drill core and surface sam-
ples from the Helecho system shows no significant correlation (Fig. 9). A
map of the distribution of gold values from drill core and surface samples at
Helecho outlines a zone of gold enrichment that occurs both within and out-
side of the copper deposit (Fig. 10). This intermediate gold zone is better
defined by plotting copper-gold ratios (Fig. 11 ). Many of the higher gold
concentrations occur within the pyrite halo, which also contains the lead-
zinc-silver-manganese zone (Cox, 1985 ).
Metal zoning at the Tanama deposit is similar. Copper-gold ratios (Fig.
12 ) define a zone of gold enrichment peripheral to the copper deposit, and
roughly correlative with sulfur-selenium-chromium-cobalt anomalies in the
pyrite halo, as defined by Cox ( 1985 ). The lead-zinc-silver-manganese halo
is peripheral to the gold zone.

Robinson District, Nevada

The Robinson district has produced about 87 metric tons (2.8 million
ounces) of gold from porphyry copper related ores, with current reserves
standing at 19,284 kg (620,000 ounces) (Durgin, 1989). At Robinson a Cre-
138 B.K. JONES

OSurface sample 0 Oq~

°Drill Hole •

NO D~r,~ "% ,"

\ %,,,
0 0 \ •
0 0 \

° I

• ~i!ii!::i!i!~ i!~: :" go : ': : : : : : : : 5" • • ;li::"...~.,::! •

...: ................ ...~.7
...................... ........,..... ...........,...,..,./ .
0
Z : ~ I ~ . -~-:.:.:.-t'
: :~', '~:,iiiiii:iiLi~.".'~-~i!
•, ~ . . . . . . . . .
i~ii, :-: ~ .
::.~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... • •
,

a~ • \ "--.z" ~ ..:.:.:.:.~
--J,.,.. \ ::::::::::::::::::::: >3% Sulfur
"-%. ~ ~t... ..::ii~iii!i!iii!i!ii!i: . . . . . . /

====================================================
.. v
:.:.:.~.:.:.~:::.:.:::.:.. .-
" ======================================== ~ > O . ~ m Au
'7?" . . . . ~ -o.~ ~ m Ao

Fig. 10. D i s t r i b u t i o n o f g o l d v a l u e s f r o m drill core a n d s u r f a c e s a m p l e s at H e l e c h o , P u e r t o Rico.

D a t a f r o m C o x ( 1985 ). A b b r e v i a t i o n s : g a r = g a r n e t , p y x = p y r o x e n e , act = actinolite.

taceous ( 110 Ma) monzonitic stock was emplaced in a folded and thrust-
faulted sequence of Upper Paleozoic carbonate and clastic rocks (Fig. 13a).
Westra ( 1982 ) and James ( 1976 ) describe how later Basin and Range fault-
ing segmented the system into an east west-elongated string of smaller deposits.
Porphyry copper and skarn ore in the copper zone, especially the distal
edges, are gold enriched, as are structurally and stratigraphically controlled
silica-pyrite bodies that generally lie between the copper zone and the lead-
zinc zone (Fig. 13b). Gott and McCarthy (1966) and McCarthy and Gott
(1978) conducted a comprehensive geochemical sampling program in the
district, and their results, summarized in Fig. 14, show the position of gold
relative to other elements in the system. Gold concentrations correlate with
arsenic, silver, and antimony, and its distribution overlaps those of lead, zinc,
copper and molybdenum in some areas. Manganese/copper ratios of greater
than 20 indicate that one is well outside of the gold zone.
Mt. Milligan, British Columbia
The Mr. Milligan MBX porphyry gold-copper deposit (Fig. 15 ) contains
265.5 million metric tons grading of 0.19% Cu and 0.56 ppm Au (Faulkner
APPLICATION OF METAL ZONING TO GOLD EXPLORATION IN PORPHYRY COPPER SYSTEMS 139

o oo
o
GOLD ZONE .~ NO 0,47.,4 o o

~ . . . . . Oo
]7~' ~ o o \ o~ °° oa
\
. . . . . . . ~ %_~ o ~oo

f ! • :/ o
• \ .

~ . .~'~ . °./." I

. \ [~, . ,.. ~ . 70 ./ I
o \\.
• \-,-~r
,1 t.
~
/" o • o
I
"
Ii
'~-~ • ~ ~ >3% Sulfur
o " . i ~ ~ ; i ~ ; IZONEl

Fig. 11. D i s t r i b u t i o n o f copper to gold ratios for samples shown in Fig. 10, H e l e c h o , Puerto
Rico. Data from C o x ( 1985 ).

"T-~-V-'r.~

t o

/
,~'*. ='04%COPPER

~o / •
.0. •
• .2'
• • t Cu:Au Ratio
~-'~--~'-'~.~">'~ • :0<0.5
# • • 0.5-1.0
• ~ • =.1.0
..~.s',oo o et~lo~ Thresh-

Fig. 12. D i s t r i b u t i o n o f copper to gold ratios from the Tanama deposit, Puerto Rico. Data from
Cox (1985).

et al., 1990). The deposit lies within the volcanic core of the Upper Triassic-
Lower Jurassic Takla Group, consisting of alkalic pyroxene andesite, basalt,
and pyroclastics. Intruding the volcanic rocks are a comagmatic suite of al-
kaline syenite and monzonite-diorite. Mineralization is hosted by andesitic
and latitic flows, pyroclastics, trachytic tufts, and a porphyritic monzonite.
Disseminated sulfide mineralization occurs in two deposits, the Mount
Milligan, and the Southern Star. The Mr. Milligan deposit consists of three
 140 B.K. JONES

(a) //
~j,~ Km
(
/I \
\ \
/Km[' Ps j,/ \ \
Cx t\ \)
i I \ ~ k ~ p, t j - ~ / )

/ \

..--...~---~ -~ Pa .~'-- ~, "~- .--. ,~'~/~m-.

K".~ t

I /"
\

silica-pyrite Ps silicaipyrite t~.11

Km: m o n z o n i t e
miles
0 1 Pa: Paleozoic calcareous sedimentary rocks

0 1 2
km

(b)~~~p>, ~~~:i .. .

o , 2 I Au>O.3ppm
km
P
Fig. 13. Generalized geology (a) and metal distribution (b) in the Robinson district, Nevada.
Modified from Gott and McCarthy (1966) and McCarthy and Gott ( 1978 ).

gradational zones: the West Breccia zone, the Magnetic Breccia zone (MBX
Zone), and the 66 zone (Fig. 15) (Faulkner et al., 1990). The deposit is ir-
regularly zoned with respect to total sulfides, gold, and copper. Pyrite in-
A P P L I C A T I O N O F M E T A L Z O N I N G T O G O L D E X P L O R A T I O N IN P O R P H Y R Y C O P P E R SYSTEMS 141

V-------q
pm

)pro
pm
m

? I

Fig. 14. Schematic geochemical zoning scheme of the Robinson district, Nevada, showing the
position of gold relative to other elements in the system. Modified from Gott and McCarthy
(1966) and McCarthy and Gott (1978).

~ ~ PolarizationSurvey
SulfideContent

Fig. 15. Generalized sulfide distribution (based on induced polarization data) and metal zones
at the Mt. Milligan deposit, British Columbia. From Rebagliati (1989) and Faulkner et al.
(1990).

creases from 1 to 2% (by volume) in the MBX zone to 5 to 10% along the
south and east margins of the deposit (Faulkner et al., 1990). Pyrite to chal-
copyrite ratios are 1:1 north of the MBX zone and increase to the west and
south to 20:1. There is a relative enrichment of gold with increasing pyrite to
chalcopyrite ratio; consequently, the 66 zone is gold-rich, while the West
142 B.K.JONES

Breccia zone, and the northern part of the MBX zone are copper-rich. In-
duced polarization data define the higher sulfide zone wrapping around the
MBX zone (Fig. 15 ).
Gold-bearing polymetallic sulfide veins occur within the zone of propylitic
alteration north and west of the two deposits. At least seven veins have been
identified, including the Esker, Creek, and 79 veins (Fig. 15 ), which appear
to radiate outward from the MBX stock. Each vein system consists of three
to five subparallel veins of semi-massive to massive pyrite and chalcopyrite.
Individual veins assay from 3 to 100 ppm gold and 0.2 to 10% copper and
contain l to 3% sphalerite and traces of arsenopyrite and galena (Faulkner et
al., 1990 ). Zoning relations at Mt. Milligan are complicated by the incursion
of the Southern Star deposit from the south and the Goldmark stock from the
west.

THE DISTALGOLD ZONE

Recent work by Sillitoe and Bonham (1990), at the Bau district in Sara-
wak, Malaysia, and a description of the Barneys Canyon deposit (Gunter et
al., 1990) near Bingham Canyon, Utah; together with relationships at Yauri-
cocha, Peru (Sillitoe and Bonham, 1990); and La Plata, Colorado (Eckel et
al., 1949 ); suggest a genetic relationship between some epithermal precious-
metal systems and gold-bearing porphyry systems. Some examples of this as-
sociation are described below.

Bau, Sarawak

Sillitoe and Bonham ( 1990 ) document a close spatial relationship between

low-temperature, sediment-hosted gold mineralization and weak porphyry
copper-style mineralization in a potassically altered stock. Chalcopyrite, bor-
nite, molybdenite, and gold occur in the central potassic zone. Sediment-
hosted mineralization ranges from gold-bearing skarns to gold deposits with
Carlin-style characteristics. A recently discovered deposit at Bau occurs within
decalcified, argillized, and weakly silicified shale cut by minor porphyry dikes
some 2 km from the nearest outcropping stock. Other deposits are associated
with abundant jasperoid and high concentrations of arsenic and antimony.

Yauricocha District, Peru

Alvarez and Noble (1988 ) describe base- and precious-metal deposits re-
lated to a potassically altered, Tertiary granodiorite stock emplaced in tightly
folded cherts, limestones, and slates. The intrusion is weakly mineralized,
carrying 0.1 to 0.2% copper and veinlet-hosted gold-silver mineralization.
Pipe-like ore bodies of massive sulfides on the margins of the stock are zoned
APPLICATION OF METAL ZONING TO GOLD EXPLORATION IN PORPHYRY COPPER SYSTEMS 143

from inner enargite to enargite-chalcopyrite-bornite to outer sphalerite-gal-

ena. Disseminated gold-silver deposits lie outside of the lead-zinc zone, 300
m from the nearest enargite mineralization. These deposits are geochemically
and texturally similar to Carlin-type deposits of Nevada. Alteration consists
of decalcification and silicification of calcareous beds.

Barneys Canyon, Melco, and Mercur Deposits, Utah

In the Bingham district, Gunter et al. (1990) describe two recently discov-
ered epithermal-style gold deposits, Barneys Canyon and Melco, which are
located well outside the lead-zinc zone (5 to 8 km from the central stock)
and may be part of the outermost halo at Bingham.
Farther to the south, the Mercur deposit is another Carlin-type gold system.
This deposit is not related to the Bingham system but may be related to the
Ophir lead-zinc silver district five km north of Mercur. Both the Ophir dis-
trict and the Mercur deposit occur along the axis of the Mercur anticline and

,/ --~'~ //) AA • 0 I 2mi

l -'a:llV. 1~I:1:I:Tq74_ / l /

Ms MESOZOIC & PALEOZOIC SEDIMENTARY ~ / :~', Cu(PGE,Ag,Au)

ROCKS
Kd D I O R I T E TO S Y E N I T E I N T R U S I O N S P Pb(Ag,Au)

notassic alteration • Au(Te)

silicic alteration A Ag

Fig. 16. Distribution of mines and prospects, classified by metals produced, in the La Plata,
Colorado, district. Data from Eckel et al. (1949) and Werle et al. (1984). Disseminated copper
mineralization with minor amounts of the platinum group elements (PGE) and gold and silver
occur in the center of the system, associated with potassic alteration. Lead mineralization (P)
forms a halo around the potassic altered core. Pyrite-gold and gold-telluride skarns, veins, re-
placements, and disseminated deposits form a broader halo surrounding lead.
144 B.K. JONES

within the same host lithologies. Both deposits are also associated with the
same enigmatic silver chert, a structurally controlled gold-silver-antimony-
bearing jasperoid breccia.

La Plata, Colorado

Late Cretaceous diorite sills at La Plata have invaded and domed a Meso-
zoic sandstone and shale package that includes a few carbonate beds. Potass-
ically altered syenite bodies are in the center of the copper-gold district (Fig.
16 ) near the center of the dome. Gold values are generally low ( < 100 ppb ),
in the central copper zone (Werle et al., 1984). Pyrite-gold and gold-tellur-
ide vein, replacement, and disseminated deposits form a broad halo around
the copper deposits. Gold-bearing lead-zinc mineralization occurs between
the copper and gold zones.

SYSTEMS W I T H M U L T I P L E G O L D ZONES

Several districts display central, intermediate, and distal gold zones. Char-
acteristically, these districts contain giant porphyry copper deposits with ex-
ceptional gold endowment. Gold commonly occurs throughout these systems.
In spite of this general distribution, gold generally shows a preference for de-
position and enrichment in the gold zones described above.

Bingham Canyon, Utah

Bingham Canyon is a gold-enriched system with an average past produc-

tion grade of approximately 0.2 ppm (James, 1978 ), and a total production
of gold exceeding 466,500 kg ( 15,000,000 ounces ). Metal zoning at Bingham,
as defined by James et al. ( 1961 ), John ( 1975, 1978) and Atkinson and Ei-
naudi ( 1978 ), includes: ( 1 ) a central barren core, (2) a molybdenite zone,
(3) a bornite zone, (4) a chalcopyrite zone, (5) a pyrite halo, (6) a lead-
zinc zone, and ( 7 ) gold-silver veins. A slightly modified version of these zon-
ing relationships is shown in Fig. 17.
Gold occurs in essentially every zone of the deposit. The gold grade in the
porphyry copper deposit is approximately 0.44 ppm (Tooker, 1990). Gold
occurs in the pyrite halo (copper-iron-gold ores of Boutwell ( 1905 ) ). Cop-
per skarns of the Highland Boy mine contained 2.38 grams/ton Au (Einaudi,
1982 ). Fissure and replacement lead-zinc-silver ores contained 1-1.7 grams/
ton Au (Einaudi, 1982). Carlin-type mineralization at the Barneys Canyon
and Melco gold deposits may be related to Bingham (Sillitoe and Bonham,
1990). The copper deposit contained a gold-enriched leached cap (Tooker,
1990).
High-grade gold mineralization occurs as a late-stage overprint to copper-
APPLICATION OF METAL ZONING TO GOLD EXPLORATION IN PORPHYRY COPPER SYSTEMS 145

Extending ~veral

I ..... ..+.$ ........... \\

~0~ ..~,~'-. "~. ~. ~ \

, , ~ I / \ \ \ .~ " ~ .

I I I, \ "" \ , \, \ ~ : =~'-
I I ,' 'te~="\ \\'\ \. \ ~" ~
\\ \\ \ \~ \ \
0 5000 It
I i ?
0 5()0 I000 1500 m

Fig. 17. East-west cross section of the Bingham district, Utah, showing generalized metal zones.
Modified from John (1978).

EpithermalGold 1
~\Oi v O -- / ~! ]
Enargite Vein & I - ~ k ~ t : e ~ t \ I
f .... ~ D~oosits \ }
// ,I~ " , Sl:¢i~lerito- ~ t i t e
" ,f~,~.\~. .,~ bio., chl., set

, ~ ; ..~.~- -.~.x,. 3 - Bornite . Cl~log.. Mag.- Py.- O-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.~ I

Intrusion.Bio., Mag., K-soar

Fig. 18. Schematic cross-section showing location of gold-enriched deposits in the Lepanto dis-
trict, Phillipines. After Lowell (1988).

gold skarn at the Carr Fork mine (Cameron and Garmoe, 1987). The gold
mineralization, grading 10 ppm, is associated with quartz, clay, and pyrite,
and anomalous arsenic, antimony, mercury, and thallium.

Lepanto, Philippines

Lowell (1988 ) describes the zoning relationships between the buried Le-
panto copper-gold porphyry deposit, and the Lepanto enargite ore body. In
this system bornite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, magnetite, specular hematite, and
gold occur within the central potassic zone (Fig. 18 ). Gold is closely associ-
ated with bornite in a low total sulfide assemblage reminiscent of Dos Pobres,
Arizona (Lowell, 1988 ).
The potassic zone grades outward into a zone of biotite, chlorite, sericite,
quartz with pyrite, sphalerite, and magnetite. This zone grades outward into
the propylitic zone that hosts the enargite deposit.
146 B.K.JONES

Lowell notes that gold in the Lepanto district may be deposited in three
different zones: (1) in the disseminated porphyry deposit associated with
bornite; (2) in the propylitic zone associated with enargite; and perhaps ( 3 )
in epithermal quartz stockworks.

GEOCHEMISTRY

Geochemical data on the solubility of gold in chloride and bisulfide com-

plexes may define a mechanism for the formation of intermediate and distal
gold zones observed in the porphyry systems described above. Figure 19,
modified from Meinert ( 1982 ), Large et al. ( 1988 ), and Huston and Large
( 1989 ), summarizes the evolution of fluid chemistry and alteration in a hy-
pothetical porphyry copper deposit in carbonate wall rocks. Potassic altera-
tion of the intrusive rock, calc-silication of carbonate wall rocks, and initial
deposition of disseminated copper-molybdenum take place at temperatures
of 400-650°C (Point 1, Fig. 19). Maximum copper-iron deposition (Point
2, Fig. 19 ) occurs at lower temperatures (250-450 °C), as the result of cool-

7Oo
-20 %

-25 ,,::. .::....:

~'0/-- ~ P(fluid)=0.5 kb
~iiiiii!!iii~:" .-.
~;.;'7 ~'k "II Xc°2:0"1
-30
r./.'.:.:.:..,t.,, i = 10 O0
:~!'.:':':':~"
~]-i:i~ I acI -2.5
.~<~" at S = 10
-35

69 .~),/," POTASSIC ALT

-40 ~ GA-PX-QZ
ACT
,..:.~, ACT-QZ-GA
-45
SO 2 ...'"
. . " H2S
I I I I I
200 300 400 500 600
T (*C)

Fig. 19. Evolution of fluid chemistry and alteration in a porphyry copper deposit in carbonate
wall rocks. Modified from Meinert (1982), Large et al. (1988), and Huston and Large (1989).
Abbreviations: ga=garnet, p x = p y r o x e n e , q z = q u a r t z , act=actinolite, c a = c a l c i t e ,
ad=andradite, h m = h e m a t i t e , fr=forsterite, H M = h e m a t i t e - m a g n e t i t e buffer, and
QFM = quartz-fayalite-magnetite buffer.
APPLICATION OF METAL Z O N I N G TO GOLD EXPLORATION IN PORPHYRY COPPER SYSTEMS 147

ing of the magmatic fluid phase and hydrolysis of SO2 to H 2 S and H2SO4
(Burnham and Ohmoto, 1980). Lead and zinc are deposited at lower tem-
peratures (200-350 °C) with alteration effects varying from skarn formation
to weak recrystallization of limestone (Point 3, Fig. 19 ).
Gold is probably transported as a chloride complex in initial porphyry fluids;
however, gold reacts differently to some of the chemical changes outlined
above than do iron and the base metals. Gold will not be deposited by sulfi-
dation as are copper and iron (Point 2, Fig. 19). It will instead precipitate,
along with them as a result of cooling and possibly pH increase in the copper
zone. If the gold budget of the system allows, gold may continue to deposit
beyond the copper zone into the pyrite zone.
There is a solubility minimum of chloride complexed gold at about 300 °C
T(°C) T(°C)

150 200 250 300 350 150 200 250 300 350
-20 J = i -~. 17/. ~ i -20 I i i

,oo ,,
-._6 / 'j6
-30 --.~ec-/ /
hrn -30

-40
log fO 2 log fO 2

/:/ ! -40

-50
:// !
i _i
e

i
Au(H$)~
I
AuCI; J/[V
-7 / -~i/ ~
,uc.-~ II
-60 -50
a aCI = 10 °'° b
ar_S = 1 0-2.5
pH = 4.5

Fig. 20. Solubility of gold as chloride and bisulfide complexes in the porphyry copper environ-
ment. (a) and (b) are enlargements of part of temperature/oxidation state field shown in Fig.
19. (a) shows details of gold solubility as bisulfide and chloride complexes, and (b) shows
details of base metal solubilities. Note the solubility minimum of chloride complexed gold at
about 300 ° C, which may define the outer edge of the intermediate gold zone. Below this tem-
perature, bisulfide becomes a more effective complcxing ligand for gold than chloride, and gold
solubility increases again. Gold may be deposited from these cooler fluids by boiling, pH, and
redox changes, resulting in the formation of the distal epithermal gold deposits. Modified from
Huston and Large (1989).
148 B.K. JONES

(between Points 2 and 3, Fig. 19). This area of the figure is shown in more
detail in Figs. 20a and 20b. The solubility minimum may define the outer
edge of the intermediate gold zone that lies between the copper and lead-zinc
zones. At about this point bisulfide becomes a more efficient complexing li-
gand for gold than does chloride. Gold now becomes more soluble in the fluid
as it cools further and deposits lead and zinc. This relationship would explain
why the lead-zinc zones of many porphyry systems are relatively low in gold.
Gold may be deposited from these cooler (150-250°C), base metal-de-
pleted fluids by any mechanism that destabilizes the bisulfide complex, in-
cluding boiling and pH and redox changes. Tlais process would result in the
formation of the distal epithermal deposits found in some gold-enriched por-
phyry systems. Figure 20b outlines some of the gold-bearing assemblages pre-
dicted by this model.
The general pattern of gold zoning in porphyry copper deposits, as well as
many of the variations seen in the examples given above, may be explained
using this sort of geochemical model; however, it has obvious weaknesses.
These models do not include reliable experimental solubility data for gold
chloride complexes. Bisulfide complexing of base metals is not accounted for,
nor is the evolving chemistry of the fluid with time (especially changes in
salinity and total-sulfur content) accurately reflected.

THE INFLUENCE OF HOST ROCKS, STRUCTURE, AND OTHER FACTORS

Although the generalized zoning relationships described above may apply

to many porphyry deposits, each district will display unique variations. Pe-
ripheral zoning seems to be best developed and most obvious in districts with
carbonate wall rocks, where skarn and limestone replacement ore bodies of
copper, lead-zinc-silver, and gold are often of great economic significance
(e.g., Bingham, Copper Canyon). Districts with non-reactive clastic, vol-
canic, plutonic, and metamorphic host rocks often have more subtle zoning
relationships in and around the source pluton and rarely have economically
significant peripheral lead-zinc-silver zones or distal gold zones. Exceptions
exist where the non-reactive host rocks develop secondary permeability and
porosity due to fracturing and alteration.
Major structures can also act as conduits and traps for mineralizing fluids
and thus distort any idealized zoning pattern. However, zoning along and out-
ward from major fluid channelways is usually predictable using the zoning
model, as Meinert ( 1987 ) demonstrated at the Groundhog zinc mine, adja-
cent to the Santa Rita porphyry copper deposit in New Mexico.
Gold-enriched porphyry copper deposits are susceptible to the remobiliza-
tion and redeposition of gold late in their cooling history. Examples of this
relationship are found at the Star Pointer mine (Robinson district, Nevada)
and the Carr Fork gold ore shoot (Bingham district, Utah) where structurally
APPLICATION OF METAL ZONING TO GOLD EXPLORATIONIN PORPHYRY COPPER SYSTEMS 149

controlled silica and silica-pyrite bodies, respectively, overprint earlier mi-

neralization. The Carr Fork gold ore shoot contains a typical "epithermal"
trace-element association (Cameron and Garmoe, 1987 ), and has low copper
to gold ratios. Star Pointer is associated with elevated arsenic, fluorine, lead,
and zinc (Smith et al., 1988).
Late-stage overprint deposits are most likely to occur in areas that have
been enriched in gold during earlier stages of metal deposition. As a result of
this initial enrichment, gold grades can average > 0.3 ppm over large areas.
Formation of low-grade gold ore ( I. 5 ppm ) within these zones would require
an enrichment factor of only 5 to l, and, as discussed earlier, geochemical
conditions during the cooling phase of a large porphyry system are amenable
to the transport and redeposition of gold.
Surface expressions of metal zones may be significantly changed by surface
oxidation. The primary effect of this is the removal of major elements (cal-
cium, magnesium, sodium, and sulfur) and some metals (copper, zinc, and
silver) relative to gold, thus enhancing gold anomalies. This mechanism was
partly responsible for the development of the siliceous gold cap at Bingham,
Utah, and the Gold Cap deposit at Ok Tedi. In the wet tropical environment
these effects are particularly strong. In many cases (i.e., the southwestern
United States) wet tropical or sub-tropical environments affected deposits
that now are found in arid or semi-arid climates. Some geochemical aspects
of weathering on metal distribution in porphyry copper deposits are de-
scribed by Anderson (1982).

APPLICATION OF ZONING TO EXPLORATION IN GOLD-RICH PORPHYRIES

Within an idealized gold-enriched porphyry system, a composite zoning

pattern from the center of the system outward may include the following zones:
( 1 ) barren (or subeconomic) core; (2) molybdenum; ( 3 ) bornite-gold; (4)
chalcopyrite; (5) pyrite halo (gold in shear zones, quartz-sericite-pyrite
stockworks, and distal skarns); (6) lead-zinc-silver; and ( 7 ) distal epither-
mal gold. Within this framework the examples given above define some basic
zoning patterns applicable to exploration in gold-rich porphyry systems. The
metal zoning picture as defined by Emmons ( 1927 ) remains largely correct,
with gold occurring: ( 1 ) most commonly in the center of the system associ-
ated with highest copper grades; (2) within an intermediate zone which lies
outside of the copper zone, frequently inside the lead-zinc-silver zone, and
largely coincident with the pyrite halo, and; (3) sometimes in a distal "epith-
ermal" gold zone outside of the lead-zinc zone and extending up to several
kilometers from the deposit (Fig. 21 ). Considerable variability exists in the
exact number, location, and extent of gold zones from one deposit to another.
All gold-rich porphyry copper districts should be considered candidates for
peripheral gold deposits. Furthermore, the examples from La Plata, Bau, and
 150 B.K.JONES

~ I I Copper I Iron i Lead Zinc S~Iver

Central Au Intermediate Au J Oisla[ Au

: (or pyrrhotite I

1%

0~

1% i-

Pb*l%[Zn
0/

I~ml 0

Ippml
0

CuPb 0

81nghom. Lork, U S Mine; Borneys C(]nyon~

Dizon, Dos Pobres, Fortitude1 Sub-Economic 8ou~ M e r c u r t
Pan(June, 8ell~ Star Pointer Halos- YauriCocho
L~ Gronisle Bell, Granisle
c~

v ..~ ~- ~ ' . ' : ' . - ' . ' : ' :

q3 o .%x.. ~-
. . , N o ." . ' . . . . , . ' . . . ' . . ' ~ ' . . . ' . . . . . . ' . " ... ",.

Fig. 21. Generalized zoning model for gold-enriched porphyry copper systems showing changes
in metal concentrations and metal ratios with distance from the source intrusion. All element
concentrations are in ppm, unless "%" shown. Ag:Au is ppm Ag/ppm Au; Cu:Au is %Cu/ppmAu;
and Cu:Pb is %Cu/%Pb.
APPLICATION OF METAL ZONING TO GOLD EXPLORATION IN PORPHYRY COPPER SYSTEMS 151

Yauricocha indicate that gold mineralization can occur peripheral to systems

that contain a central, subeconomic copper core. Sillitoe ( 1988 ) has recom-
mended exploration around such "failed" porphyry systems.
Districts with reactive host rocks (including mafic volcanics rocks, lime-
stones, dolomites, calcareous sandstones, and siltstones) are probably the most
attractive from the explorationist's perspective. Copper-gold porphyry dis-
tricts with non-reactive wall rocks should also be carefully investigated, es-
pecially for large volumes of intensely fractured rock peripheral to the copper
zone. These districts have weakly developed lead-zinc mineralization ( 100-
1000 ppm level) and may require more extensive use of metal ratioing and
low-level gold and trace-element geochemistry to establish the position of the
prospective gold zone.
Structure can be of critical importance in the localization of peripheral gold
mineralization. The most favorable circumstance in any district may include
the intersection of a predicted gold zone with major pre-mineral faults (fluid
conduits ), areas of high fracture density, such as folded strata (permeability-
porosity), and favorable host- and cap-rocks (e.g., limestone beneath diorite
sills ).
Targets include:
( 1 ) gold-rich copper skarns (Carr Fork, Bingham district; and West Ore
Body, Copper Canyon District) within and toward the outer margins of the
copper zone,
(2) gold skarns (Fortitude, Copper Canyon district ) in the high iron zone
between the copper and lead-zinc zones.
(3) auriferous replacement deposits between the copper and lead-zinc
zones hosted in calcareous sandstones and calcareous siltstones (Star Pointer,
Robinson district) or mafic volcanic rocks (island-arc systems).
(4) structurally controlled veins and stockworks (79, Esker, and Creek de-
posits at Mt. Milligan; Andacollo, Chile; La Plata, Colorado ),
(5) epithermal-style disseminated/replacement deposits in impure car-
bonates outside of the lead-zinc zone (Yauricocha, Peru; Barneys Canyon,
Bingham district ), and
( 6 ) late-stage overprint deposits (Carr Fork gold, Bingham district).
In order to define zoning relations in a porphyry system both production
and broad-scale geochemical sampling are used. Geochemical samples are
analyzed for base and precious metals, as well as applicable pathfinder ele-
ments (i.e., arsenic, tellurium, bismuth and others ). Metal ratioing is a useful
data-smoothing technique for defining metal zones or portions of zones that
are not detected by plotting raw geochemical data (compare Figs. 10 and 11,
Helecho system).
Several ratios are particularly useful for determining zoning relations in
porphyry systems. Goodell and Petersen (1974) note that the large and sys-
tematic changes in the Pb/Cu ratio make it the single most useful zoning in-
152 B.K.JONES

dex. Pb/Mo, P b + Z n / C u , and P b / C u ratios are useful for defining the outer
limit of the copper and molybdenum zones and the inner limits of the Pb-
Zn-Ag zone. Copper-gold and silver-gold ratios are particularly useful in de-
fining zones of relative gold enrichment.
In studying deposits where no peripheral gold zone has been defined, it is
noteworthy that authors of some articles mention a scarcity of applicable gold
data. Thus within some systems, further sampling may well define such zones,
and lead to new discoveries. In some producing copper-gold deposits, drill
core was not analyzed for any elements if a visual inspection of the core in-
dicated less than 0.2% copper. Several of the largest gold producers in por-
phyry systems contain copper grades lower than this. Perhaps undetected ore-
grade gold intercepts are lying around in the dusty core sheds of some produc-
ing copper mines.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is grateful to the reviewers for their detailed and constructive
changes to this manuscript. The author also appreciates the thoughtful re-
views and comments by John Thompson, John Schloderer, Marshall Himes,
and Larry Ott. This paper greatly benefited from contributions by Richard A.
Leveille.

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