NL NaInformation contained in this work has been obtained by Tata McGraw-Hill, from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that Tata McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. 7 INA fata McGraw-Hill Copyright © 2005, by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited. Fifth reprint 2008 RLXBCRYXDDRRA No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, ot otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of the publishers. The program listings (if any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication, This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited. ISBN-13: 978-0-07-058829-5 ISBN-10: 0-07-058829-5 Published by the Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008, typeset in Times New Roman at Tej Composers, WZ 391, Madipur, New Delhi 110 063 and printed at Adarsh Printers, C50-S1, Mohan Park, Naveen Shahdara, Delhi 110095Contents Preface on ae 15 Classification on the Basis of Plasticity 17 16 Classifying aSoil 27 17 Symbols and Graphic Representation 22 18 Classified Soil and its Engineering Properties 23 Solved Examples 24 Exercises 26 2. The Three Phase System 21 Jargon 27 \ 22 Weight Relationships 28 23 Volume Relationships 28 24 Density and Unit Weight Relationships 29 | 25 Inter-relationships 30 Solved Examples 31 Exercises 32 3. The Effective Stress Principle 31 ThePrinciple 34 32 Measurable Stresses 35 27 34GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING ii -BOSNAbout the Authors Professor Gulhati retired recently from IIT Delhi after a distinguished career in teaching, researching, consulting and managing spanning four decades. He is internationally known for his work on Unsaturated Soils and Offshore Soils. He served on the Editorial Board of the International Journal: “Marine Geotechnology”. He was President of Indian Geotechnical Society (1986-87); in 1996, the Society elected him an Honorary Fellow. He is a recipient of the Kuekelman Award for Outstanding Contribution to Geotechnical Engineering. He was the Organizing Secretary General of the 13 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering in 1994. Professor Gulhati is keenly interested in the process of teaching and learning. He developed courses on Technical Communication that he taught at ITT and abroad; he prepared video programmes on Soil Testing. He was instrumental in IIT establishing its Centre for Educational Technology. At IIT, he served as Head, Civil Engineering Department; Dean of Students; Coordinator, Curriculum Development and Quality Improvement Programmes; and as member of IIT’s Board of Governors. An alumnus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology where he obtained his Bachelors and Masters degrees, Professor Gulhati earned his doctorate at ITT Delhi. Professor Datta is Professor of Civil Engineering at ITT Delhi and currently the Dean of Alumni Affairs and International Programmes. He obtained his Bachelors and Doctorate Degrees from ITT Delhi. His areas of specialization include site investigations; soil testing; and design of tf r? onshore and offshore foundations, of embankments & dams, of landfills & solid FERMECIN! waste disposal facilities, of ash ponds & mine tailings ponds, of anchoring systems in soft marine clays, and of dewatering systems. He has prepared a number of audio-visual programmes on geotechnical construction proces An expert in Geoenvironmental Engineering, he has edited three books in the areas of landfills, ash ponds and solid waste management. He has been and is also currently a member of Technology Advisory Groups and Expert Groups on Municipal Solid Waste Management as well as Hazardous Waste Management set up by the Central Pollution Control Board, Ministry of Environment and Forests, and Ministry of Urban Affairs. He is the recipient of IIT Director's Silver medal for being the top-ranking graduating student as well as of five Best Paper Awards of the Indian Geotechnical Society.A 13. 14. 15. vili_ Contents 124 The Relevant Parameters 150 12.4.1 Effective Stress Analysis 152 12.4.2 Total Stress Analysis 153 125 In Perspective | 155 Solved Examples 156 Exercises 157 Engineering Properties of Natural On-land Deposits 13.1 Variability 160 132 Sensitivity 167 133 OfCoarse Grained Soils 162 134 OfNormally Consolidated Clays 163 135 Of Overconsolidated Clays 164 136 Of Residual Deposits 164 137 Of Organic Deposits 166 Exercises 167 Engineering Properties of Natural Offshore Deposits 14.1 Terrigenic and Pelagic Soils 169 142 Of Under Consolidated Clays 169 143 Of Dense Sands 170 144 OfCalcareous Clays _17/ 145_Of Calcareous Sands 171 146 Applications 174 Exercises 174 Engineering Properties of Man-made Deposits 15.1 Soil as a Building Material 176 152 Field Controllable Compaction Variables 177 153 Density and Structure—PFunctions of Compaction Conditions 179 154 Engineering Behaviour—A Function of Density and Structure _/83 15.4.1 Swelling 184 15.4.2 Shrinkage 184 15.4.3 Construction Pore Water Pressures 184 15.4.4 Permeability 184 15.4.5 Compressibility 184 13.4.6 Stress-strain 185 15.4.7. Effective Stress-Strength Parameters 186 155_Designing Soil—An Exercise in Optimization _187 156 Compacting Coarse Grained Soils _ 187 Exercises 188 On Partially Saturated Soils 16.1 The Three Phase System 190 168 176 190162 Effective Stress Concept__192 163 An Empirical Approach—The y-Factor_193 tee : 165 Observed Reality 195 166 Dealing with Problems Today _/95 Exercises 197 Part Il SITE: Location Characterization 17. Site Investigation 201 17.1_Why Investigate 207 172 Designing an Investigation 202 17.2.1 Design—a Function of the Civil Engineering Project and the Soil Conditions 203 42.2.2 Data Collection 204 17.2.3 Codal Provisions and Good Practices 205 173 Investigation Methodologies 205 173.1 Geophysical and Remote Sensing Methods 206 17.3.2 Drilling Bore Holes and Sampling 206 17.3.3 Pits, Trenches and Shafts 206 17.3.4 In Situ Testing 207 17.3.5 Laboratory Testing 207 174 Drilling Technologies 207 174.1 Auger Drilling 208 174.2 Percussion Drilling 212 174.3 Jet and Wash Drilling 213 1744 High Speed Rotary Drilling 213 174.5 Stabilizing the Bore Hole 213 175 Samplers and Sampling Techniques 2/5 175.1 Open Drive Samplers. 216 17.5.2 Driving the Sampler into Soil 219 176 Consequences of Sampling Disturbance 2/9 177 InSitu Field Testing 220 17.7.1 Penetration Tests 220 17.7.2. Ground Water Observations 223 17.7.3 Permeability Tests 224 17.7.4 Determining Undrained Strength of Clays with a Vane Shear Test 224 178 Presenting Results of Site Investigation 225 Solved Examples 227 Exercises 228A x Contents Pagt Ill ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES 18. Flow Analysis 233 181 One Dimensional Steady State Flow 233 18.1.1 Flow Through Homogeneous Deposit 233 18.1.2 Flow Through Layered Systems 234 182 Two Dimensional Steady State Flow—Laplace Equation 235 183 FlowNets 237 18.3.1 Confined Flow 243 18.3.2 Unconfined Flow 244 18.3.3 Determining Pore Water Pressures Under Two Dimensional Flow 247 184 Radial Flow 247 Solved Examples 253 Exercises 256 19. Settlement Analysis 260 19.1 Stress Distribution 262 192 Consolidation Settlement _267 193 Immediate Settlement 269 19.3.1 Elastic Mechanism 270 19.3.2 Undrained Case—Applicable to Clays 271 19.3.3 Drained Case—Applicable to Sands 271 194 Corrections to Computed Settlements 271 19.4.1 Rigidity of the Footing 272 19.4.2 Footing Location at Some Depth below Ground Surface 272 19.4.3 Width of Footing in Relation to Thickness of Compressible Layer 272 19.4.4 Variability in E and 274 195 ining Total Settlement in Different Soil 275 19.5.1 Saturated Clay 275 19.5.2 Partially Saturated Clay 275 19.5.3 Sands 276 196 Settlement from Field Tests 276 19.6.1 Using Penetration Resistance Tests 276 19.6.2 Using a Plate Load Test. 277 197 Settlement of Deep Foundations 278 Solved Examples 280 Exercises 286 20. Bearing Capacity Analysis 289 20.1 Failure by Shear 289 202 Failure Mechanisms in Shallow and Deep Foundations 290 203 Failure along an Over-simplified Failure Surface 291Contents xi 204 Failure along a Circular Failure Surface 294 205 The Bearing Capacity Equation 294 206 A More Realistic Failure Surface—Terzaghi’s Theory 296 207 Generalised Bearing Capacity Equation 297 20.7.1 Shape Factors 299 20.7.2 Depth Factors 300 20.23 Inclination Factors 300 20.7.4 Ground Slope Factors 301 20.25 Base Tilt Factors 30] 20.7.6 Footing Subjected to a Moment 302 208 Selecti: late St Parameters 302 20.8.1 Strength Parameters Relevant for Determining Bearing Capacity of Footings on Sand 303 20.8.2 Strength Parameters Relevant for Determining Bearing Capacity of Footings on Clay 303 209 Determining Bearing Capacity from Field Tests 304 20.9.1 Using N-values 305 20.9.2 Using q-values 306 20.10 Bearing Capacity of Deep Foundations 306 20.11 Estimating Axial Pile Capacity—Theoretical Approach 308 20.11.1 Determining Unit End Bearing 308 20.11.2 Determining Unit Skin Friction 310 20.11.3 Determining Axial Pile Load Capacity in Different Soil Profiles 312 20.1.4 Determining Axial Pile Load Capacity for Pipe Piles 312 20.12 Estimating Axial Pile Capacity—Pile Load Test 313 20.13 Estimating Axial Pile Capacity—Driving Resistance Approach 3/4 20.13.1 Engineering News Formu'a_314 20.3.2 Newer Formulae 315 20.13.3 Wave Equation Analysis 315 20.14 Negative Skin Friction 3/6 20.15 Pile and ity 316 Solved Examples 318 Exercises 323 21. Stal Analy 326 21.1 Stability of Infinite SI 327 212 Stability of Finite Slopes 331 213 Stability Numbers 333 214 Method of Slices _334 < The Sued Slices 2 216 ‘The Critical Failoee Surface 337 2L7_Non-circular Failure Surfaces 338 21.7.1 Single Straight Line Failure Surface _338 21.7.2 Two or Three Line Failure Surfaces 339A xii Contents 218 The Two-wedge Method 340 Solved Examples 342 Exercises 345 22. Earth Pressure Analysis 347 : Rankine’s Theory 353 Coulomb's Theory 355 Culmann’s Method 358 Factors Affecting Lateral Earth Pressure 359 22.6.1 Soil Displacement 359 22.6.2 Soil Strength and Strength Parameters 359 226.3 Water Table 360 22.6.4 Sloping Soil Surface 360 22.6.5 Wall Friction 360 22.6.6 Wall Inclination 360 22.6.7 Surcharge Load 361 treme tt etegisail atts 228 Tension Crack and Height of Unsuy Cut__ 361 Solved Examples 362 Exercises 367 BEES 23. _Sub-Structures: Foundations 220°|2|2 TD 23.1 Loads on Foundations _37/ 232 Foundation 372 23.21 Shallow Foundations 374 23.2.2 Deep Foundations 375 23.2.3 Choice of Foundations 376 233 Design Criteria 378 23.3.1 Acceptable Settlement 380 23.3.2 Acceptable Safety against Bearing Capacity Failure 381 234. The Design Process—Geotechnical and Structural Design 382 235 Design Water Table Level _ 382 236 Design Soil Parameters 383 23.7 Geotechnical Design of Shallow Foundations 386 23.7.1 Foundation Location 386 23.7.2 Foundation Shape and Range of Widths 386 23.7.3 Settlement and Bearing Capacity Analyses 387 23.7.4 Results and Recommendations 387 23.7.5. Benefits of Basements 387Contents xiti A 238 Geotechnical Foundations 388 23.8.1 Identifying a Strong Bearin; xr for Locating the Pile Tip _388 23.8.2 Selection of Pile Type 388 23.8.3 Range of Pile Lengths and Diameters 389 23.8.4 Axial C Analysis 389 23.8.5 Settlement Analysis 389 Solved Examples 390 Exercises 392 24. Earth Structures: Dams and Embankments 2A1 ‘Types of Earth Structures 395 242 ‘Types of Earth Dams 396 243 Components of Earth Dams 398 24.3,2 The Shell 400 24.3.3 The Cut-off Barrier 400 24.34 Transition Filters 400 24.3.5 Internal Drains 401 (24.3.6 Protective Layers for Erosion Control 401 24,3,7 Toe Drainage 402 244 DesignCriteria 402 Process 405 246 Choice of Parameters 406 247 Construction and Quality Control 407 248 Performance Monitoring Using Instruments 408 249 Stage Construction 409 24.10 Road, Rail and Other Embankments 4/0 Solved Examples 411 Exercises 415 25, Earth Retaining Structures 25.1 Types of Earth Retaining Structures 4/6 252 Design of Retaining Walls 418 25.2.1 The Design Criteria 418 25.2.2 The Design Process 420 25.2.3 Backfill Material 420 25.2.4 Drainage 420 25.2.5 Tenmative Dimensions 420 25.2.6 Earth Pressures 421 25.2.7 Sliding Resistance 421 25.2.8 Overturning 421 25,29 Pressure Distribution Along Base 422 253. Earth Pressures Behind Different Retaining Structures —Influence of Soil Displacement 422 25.3.4 Retaining Walls, Cantilever Sheet Piles and Anchored Bulkheads 422 395 416A xiv Contents 25.3.2 Braced Walls 423 25.3.3 Boxed Sections 424 25.3.4 Driven Piles 425 253.5 Tunnels 425 25.3.6 Laterally Loaded Piles 425 Solved Examples 426 Exercises 430 Part V GEOTECHNICAL CONSTRUCTION 26. Earthwork and Earthmoving Equipment 435 26.1 Man Versus Machine 435 262. Excavatability, Bulk-up and Shrinkage 436 263 Productivity 437 264 Planning of Earthwork 438 265 Earthmoving Equipment 439 26.5.1 Multi-task Equipment 440 26.5.2 Excavators 441 26.5.3 Loaders 443 26.54 Haulers 444 26.5.5 Graders 445 26.5.6 Roto-tillers, Milling Machines and Soil Mixers 445 26.5.7 Sprinkler 445 266 Compaction Equipment 446 26.6.1 Static Steel Drum Rollers 446 26.6.2 Vibratory Rollers 447 26.6.3 Sheepsfoot Rollers 448 26.64 Pneumatic Tyre Rollers 448 26.6.5 Small Compactors 449 267 Selection of Equipment 449 Solved Examples 450 Exercises 452 27. Foundation Construction 454 271 Shallow Foundations 454 272 Deep Foundations 454 273 Piling Equipment 457 27.3.1 Driving Equipment 457 27.3.2 Drilling Equipment 459 274 Driven Steel Piles 459 275 Driven Precast Concrete Piles 460 276 Driven Cast-In-Situ Concrete Piles 461Contents xv ee: ” r 278 Under-Reamed or Belled Piles 465 279 Auger Cast-In-Situ Concrete Piles 465 27.10 Choosing the Most Appropriate Pile 466 27.11 MiniorMicropiles 469 27.12 Barrettes 469 27.13 Caissons and Wells 469 Solved Examples 469 Exercises 470 28, Excavation, Underground Construction and Tunnels 472 28.1 Underground Construction Methodology 472 283 Management of Ground Water 474 284 Excavate-Support Sequence 475 28.4.1 Excavation without Side Support 475 28.4.2 Excavation with Side Support 475 285 Temporary and Permanent Soil Support 477 286 Excavation 477 287 SpoilRemoval 479 288 Drainage of Seeping Water 479 289 Stabilisation of Nearby Foundations 480 28.10 Soil Support Methods 480 28.10.1 Sheet Piles 481 28.10.2 Soldiers with Lagging 481 28.10.3. Ribs with Lagging 481 28.10.4 Struts, Rakers and Tiebacks 482 28.10.5 Diaphragm Walls 483 28.10.6 Bored Piles 484 28.10.7 Segmental Linings 484 28.108 Nails and Anchors 485 28.11 Dewatering Methods 486 28.12 Cofferdams 490 28.13. Caissons and Wells 491 28.14 Basements 496 2815 Shafts 498 28.16 Tunnels 499 28.17 _Cut-and-Cover Tunnels _500 28.18 Bored Tunnels: Shield Tunnels 50] 28.18.1 Types of Shield Tunneling Machines 502 28.18.2 Tunnel Lining and St in Bored Tunneling 503 28.18.3 Surface Settlement 504 28.19 Immersed Tube Tunnels 504 28.20 Jacked Tunnels: Box Jacking 505A wi Comens 28.21 Small Diameter Tunnels: Microtunnels 505 2822 Horizontal Directional Drilling 507 2823 Impact Moling 508 Solved Examples 508 Exercises. 512 Part VI GROUND ENGINEERING 29. Ground Improvement and Modification 517 29.1 New Technologies 517 292. What is to be Improved S18 293 Improving by Excavating and Replacing 518 29.3.1 Mixing Additives 520 29.3.2 Applications 521 294 In-SituGround Improvement 522 29.4.1 Compaction Piles 522 29.4.2 Compaction with Dynamic Loads 523 29.4.3 Pre-loading Using Sand Drains 523 29.4.4 Grouting 523 29.4.5. Replacing Existing Soil with Stronger Soil in Bore Holes 524 29.4.6 Deep Mixing 524 29.4.7 Inserting Reinforcing Elements 525 29.4.8 Freezing Soil 525 29.4.9 Applications 525 295 Design Methodology 526 Solved Examples 527 Exercises. 528 30. In-situ Densification of Soils 530 30.1 Response of Sands and Clays to Externally Applied Stress 530 302 Compaction Piles in Sands 531 303 Impact Compaction of Sands 531 304 Vibratory Compaction in Sands 532 30.4.1 Vibroflotation 532 30.4.2 Vibropiles or Vibro Compaction Piles $33 305 Explosions in Sands 533 306 Comparison of in Situ Densification Methods in Sands 535 307 Vibroflotation in Clays—Not an In-Situ Densification Process 535 308 Accelerated Pre-consolidation of Clays 536 30.8.1 Types of Drains 536 40.8.2 Vertical and Radial Consolidation 538 30.8.3 Methodology 54031. 32. 33. Contents xvii Solved Examples 541 Exercises 543 Grouting in Soils 546 31.1 Types of Grouts 546 312 Desireable Characteristics of Grouts 546 313 Grouting Methods 547 314 PermeationGrouting 548 314.1 Grouting Pressure 550 31.4.2 Grouting Technology 551 31.4.3 Grouting Arrangements 554 315 Displacement—Compaction Grouting 554 31.6 Displacement—Soil Fracture Grouting 556 31.7 JetorReplacement—Displacement Grouting 557 31.7.1 Grouting Technology 558 31.7.2 Grouted Columns 560 Solved Examples 560 Exercises 563 Reinforced Soil 565 322 323 Reinforcement—Soil Interaction 568 324 Applications $70 325 Reinforced Soil Structures with Vertical Faces 570 326 Reinforced Soil Embankments 573 327 Open Excavation using Soil Nails 574 328 Stabilisation of Slopes Using Soil Nails 575 329 Reinforcement of Soil Beneath Unpaved Roads 576 32:10. Reinforcement of Soil Beneath Foundations 576 Solved Examples 578 Exercises 582 Geosynthetics 585 33.1 A Man Made Product 585 332 Why Geosynthetics? 585 383 Types of Geosynthetics 587 334 Functions of Geosynthetics 588 335 Properties of Geosynthetics 591 33.6 Functional Requirements 593 337 Designing with Geosynthetics 595 Solved Examples 598 Exercises 600A will Contenss Part_ VII GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 34, Geoenvironmental Engineering—Genesis 605 34.1 Industrialization and Urbanization 605 342 Pollution 607 343 Control and Remediation 608 Solved Examples 610 Exercises 611 35. Contamination 612 35.1 Subsurface Contamination 612 352 Contaminant Transport 613 353 Soil—AGeochemical Trap 615 354 Effects of Subsurface Contamination 6/5 355 Detection of Polluted Zones 615 356 Monitoring Effectiveness of Designed Facilities 6/6 Solved Examples 618 Exercises 620 36. Containment of Solid Waste in Landfills 623 361 Waste Containment 624 362 Landfills 625 363. Shapes and Sizes of Landfills 626 364 Types of Landfills 627 365 Impervious Barriers for Liners and Covers 628 366 TheLiner System 630 367 The Cover System 630 368 Stability of Landfills 631 36.8.1 Stability Analysis for Sliding of Geomembrane cover Clay in Liner System 632 36.8.2 Stability Analysis for Sliding of Soil over Geomembrane 635 369 Landfill Construction & Operation 635 36.10 Closure & Post-closure Care 636 36.11 Sustainable Waste Management 637 Solved Examples 637 Exercises 640 37. Containment of Slurry Wastes 643 37.1 Slurry Transported Wastes 643 372 Ponds or Impoundments 643 373 Operation 644 374 Embankment Construction: Full Height Versus Raising in Stages 646 375. Methods of Raising in Stages 646376 Design Aspects 648 37.6.1. Conditions for Analysis of Stability of Slopes 648 37.6.2. Use of Waste as Construction Material 648 37.6.3 Control of Phreatic Line through Internal Drains 648 37.7 Environmental Impact and Control 649 Solved Examples 651 Exercises 653 38. Vertical Barriers for Containment 38.1 Contaminated Sites 656 38.2. Expectations from Vertical Barriers 657 383 Suitable Types of Walls 657 384 Soil-Bentonite Slurry Trench Walls 659 38.4.1 Construction 659 384.2 Material Aspects 659 38.4.3 Design Aspects 661 385 Cement-Bentonite Slurry Trench Walls 667 Solved Examples 662 Exercises 664 39. Geotechnical Reuse of Waste Material 39.1 Waste Reduction 665 392. Use of Waste in Geotechnical Construction 665 393 Waste Characteristics for Soil Replacement 666 394 Transportation Considerations 667 395. Engineering Properties of Waste 667 395.1 Grain Size Distribution 667 39.5.2 Plasticity 667 39.5.3 Specific Gravity of Solids 667 39.5.4 Compaction Characteristics 667 39.5.5 Shear Strength Parameters 668 39.5.6 Permeability 668 39.5.7 Compressibility 668 396 Waste Material in Embankments and Fills 668 Solved Examples 670 Exercises 671 Part VIII SOIL DYNAMICS 40, Soll Behaviour Under Dynamic Laads and Applications 40.1 Differences vis-a-vis Behaviour Under Static Loads 675 40.1.1 Dynamic Loads Differ from Static Loads 675 Contents xix 656 665 675423 Seismic Slope Stability 718 42.3.1 Pseudo-static Analysis 720 42.3.2 Sliding Block Methods Solved Examples 722 Exercises 724 Further Reading 721 Contents xi 726To Rashmi for being the perfect life-companion who makes my life not just exciting but ecstatic ShashiIntroduction Ina few years you will be a graduate in Civil Engineering. After acquiring some experience, you may wish to start out on your own, Get a small office, put up @ name plate on the door to announce that you are now a Consulting Engineer. We hope that this Book will encourage you to become a Consulting Geotechnical Engineer. This Book is designed for you. So is it fair for you to assume that after reading, studying, understanding this Book you will be competent to be a practicing Consulting Geotechnical Engineer? The answer is both yes and no. Yes, because one has to begin some time and yes, you should be able to begin. No, because to continue after beginning, one has to keep growing and that means keep learning. Learning is a life-long process. Geotechnical Engineering, as a discipline, took birth about 60 years ago. Prof. Karl Terzaghi, who is no longer alive, is credited to be the father of this discipline that began with the name of Soil Mechanics. Soil Mechanics has grown enormously in the last six decades. Today, if you go to the Google search engine on the Internet and seek out pages relating to Geotechnical Engineering, you will find about 812,000 of them. If you log onto www. geotechnicaldirectory.com you will be bowled over to see the books, journals, conference proceedings that are published annually and the stock that has accumulated over the last few decades. This Book is not a very thick one. Clearly it does not have in it all the information and knowledge we now possess about Geotechnical Engineering. If it were double the thickness, it would still not have all the information. For us it would have been marginally easier to write a book with double this thickness because we would have had to spend somewhat less time deciding what to include in the Book and what to leave out. This Book is the size it is because we have attempted to include in it just enough information for you to get started as a Consulting Geotechnical Engineer and also for you to get to know what you don’t know. What you don’t know, you will be able to seek out when you need to know. So let us visualize your career as a Consulting Geotechnical Engineer. The name plate is fixed outside your office door and the clients will start knocking at your door. What advice do they seck? What is a Consulting Geotechnical Engineer an expert in?M2 Introduction A. Areas of Work of the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer ‘The Consulting Geotechnical Engineer works with soil. He/she is not concerned with the capacity of soil that enables plants to grow in it. His/her concerns originate from the interests of the Civil Engineer. ‘There are four primary areas of work for the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer: (i) to predict the behaviour of soil when it is subjected to load in order to be able to determine how much load it can safely carry and when necessary to improve the capacity of soil to withstand load, Gi) to be able to retain soil in defined zones and prevent it from intruding into spaces beyond those zones, Gi) to estimate how much water will flow through soil and to ensure that it is an acceptable amount, that the flowing water does not carry soil particles with it and thus does not undermine structures that the soil may be supporting, and, that the flowing water does not carry contaminants with it and pollute the surrounding soil and ground water, and (iv) to use soil as a construction material to build embankments with it for highways and rail tracks and build earth dams with it to impound water and waste products. Each of these four is considered in tum. 1. Load Carrying Capacity of Soil The earth’s surface consists of either soil, or rock or water, Where there is soil or rock, we have learnt to construct roads, bridges, buildings, dams and a variety of other Civil Engineering structures. These structures rest on soil or rock. Even structures constructed in the ocean, rest on or are anchored to the soil or rock that exists at the bottom of the ocean. These structures apply load on soil or rock. ‘They are held in position by being embedded in soil or rock. The Consulting Geotechnical Engineer is concerned with how the soil behaves when it is loaded by these structures, It is the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer's job to make sure that the load that reaches the soil is such that the soil is able to withstand the load in a manner that is safe for the structure, To ensure this, the superstructure, that is, the visible part of the structure and the soil are linked with the sub-structure that is usually not visible since it is below the ground. The sub-structure is also called the foundation. Design of such sub- structures is discussed in Chapter 23. This area of work of the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer does not get much publicity because no one sees it, unless of course the foundation fails or malfunctions. Every one has heard of the Leaning ‘Tower of Pisa. It is famous because it leans. It leans because the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer designing the foundation for the Tower goofed; the foundation is faulty. Due to the load of any structure, the soil compresses and on account of this, the structure settles. It takes time for the soil to compress and so in some soils the settlement continues to take place for many years. The Leaning Tower of Pisa settled more on one side and less on the opposite subjecting it toa tilt. The Tower has a problem arising out of differential settlement. In this area of work, the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer has to estimate settlement, differential settlement as well as the time it will take for the settlement to occur. The property of soil that controls the settlement is known as Compressibility; it is discussed in Chapters 8 and 10. The settlement is estimated using Settlement Analysis that is discussed in Chapter 19. The Consulting Geotechnical Engineer also has to ensure that the load reaching the soil will not cause the soil to give way, that is, yield so much that the superstructure is left with no support and itIntroduction 3 collapses. When soil is loaded it always yields, only when it is loaded excessively beyond the capacity of the soil to sustain the load does it yield so much as to cause failure. The property of soil that determines the yield is its Shear Strength; it is discussed in Chapters 11 and 12. Whether a structure will collapse or not is assessed using Bearing Capacity Analysis and that is discussed in Chapter 20. 2. Retaining Soil You must have come across construction workers digging trenches to lay pipes or excavating soil to make room for construction of a basement to be located below the ground floor of a building. The construction worker would feel very frustrated if he/she digs a trench and before he/she has laid the pipe, the trench gets filled up on account of the soil on the sides of the trench slipping into the trench. Similarly, the basement excavation must remain open until the basement is constructed. The un- excavated soil must remain in its place outside of the excavated zone. Another situation, that often makes newspaper headlines, is when the soil on the mountainside slides and blocks highways or destroys whatever it encounters in the valley. The soil moves from its place to a place where it is not wanted. The soil thus has to be retained, supported and stabilized. Sometimes one can achieve this by giving the soil a gentler slope. There are situations when there is no space to make a gentle slope, say, for example, an excavation for a subway along a road that has buildings on either side. One then needs to make vertical or near vertical cuts into soil and support them with retaining structures. The design of such Earth Retaining Structures is considered in Chapter 25. Shear Strength of soil is the property that is relevant in analyzing such problems and the analytical techniques that the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer uses are known as Slope Stability Analysis and Earth Pressure Analysis, which are discussed in Chapters 21 and 22. 3. Flow through Soil We know that when it rains, the rain water either flows on the earth’s surface and finds its way into drains, into rivers, into lakes, into oceans, etc.; or, it seeps into the ground and flowing through soil joins up with a reservoir of underground water. Some rain water, of course, also evaporates. Water impounded in ponds, in natural lakes or in man-made lakes created behind dams also evaporates and seeps through soils abutting the pond or lake. Some of the water flowing through unlined canals seeps out of the bottom and sides of the canal, When dams are constructed with soil, ic. earth dams, water also seeps through the dam and emerges on the downstream end of the dam. In many such situations, Civil Engineers need to know how much water will seep through soil, what will be the velocity with which water will flow, will it carry soil particles with it and so on, Another problem related to flow of water is that of pollution of ground water from flow of water that has contaminants in it. The Consulting Geotechnical Engineer has to devise ways and means of controlling such pollution. The property of soil that controls the flow of water through it is called the Permeability: it is discussed in Chapters 5 and 6, Problems of flow are solved through an understanding of Flow Analysis which is discussed in Chapter 18, Solution to pollution-related problems are discussed in Chapters 35 to 38. 4. Soil as a Construction Material ‘Most of the time Civil Engineers view soil as a part of nature at the site where they have to construct, structures, It is a given condition, a constraint that they have to reckon with. Soil plays a passive role. It is constructed upon. It has to be retained. It is through which water flows.A 4 Introduction Soil takes on an active role only when the Civil Engineer has to use it as a construction material. In the construction of highways and railways, the ground along which the road has to be constructed or the track has to be laid is not always at the correct elevation. It then becomes necessary to cuf soil at places and build up or fill other places with soil. The filling of soil, the Civil Engineer realized is not achieved by just dumping soil. The fill must be engineered so that it has properties that are suited to withstand the loads that will be imposed on it by the road or the railway track. These engineered fills are known as earth embankments. Soil is also used to construct earth dams ~ that is an engineered fill, which is designed to hold back water. Earth embankments and earth dams are exciting projects for the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer, because at each site he/she must construct them using the soils that exist at or very near the site ~ it is too costly to transport large quantities of soil from far away distances. Since soils that are available at or near any site are unique, the design of each earth structure is unique. The design of earth structures involves using Flow Analysis, Settlement Analysis, Bearing Capacity Analysis, Slope Stability Analysis; it, thus, offers great challenge to the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer. Creating the engineered fill also requires that soil be processed and compacted at the site. The Engineering Properties of Man-made Deposits are discussed in Chapter 15, the design of Earth Structures in Chapter 24 and how soil is excavated, moved, placed and compacted in Chapter 26 on Earthwork. B. Learning to be a Geotechnical Engineer You now know the kinds of problems which you as a Consulting Geotechnical Engineer are expected to find solutions for. As you sit in your office, clients will come to you expecting you to design foundations for structures, retaining structures as well as earth structures, etc. Let us say, an industrialist walks into your office to seek your advice in constructing the industrial complex he/she wishes to establish which includes factories, systems to dispose off industrial wastes, office and residential buildings, roads and so on. The industrialist might be coming to you when the site for establishing the complex has already been selected, or if he/she is really bright, might even be seeking your advice to select the right kind of site from alternative possibilities. You have to help. What do you need to know to be able to help? Let us draw up a list: @) what are the various structures to be constructed’ (ii) what are the soil/s at the site/s? (ii) what are the properties of these soils? (iv) what are alternative solutions? (vy) what are the analytical tools you will need to analyze the viability of alternative solutions? (vi) what are the costs involved? (vii) what are the design procedures? and (viii) what are the means of construction? Only with knowledge about all of the above would you be able to go through an engineering design process and come up with appropriate recommendations for your client, So, where and how are you going to acquire this knowledge? Let us consider each of the above listed eight items in tun: (i Various structures ~The client wil identify for you the requirements for the various structures. The client may not do this personally but through Systems Engineers, Architects, Structural Engineers, etc. ‘They will provide you information about the layout, the dimensions, the loads, special functional requirements, etc. You must, of course, be able to understand the engineering implications of theIntroduction 5 Mm requirements and you will be able to do so because in the process of your study to become a Civil Engineer, you will be learning about various kinds of structures. Gi) Soils at the site ~ Nature abounds in the types of soils that exist. You must know what are the different soils, be able to recognize them, be able to understand their genesis at the site where they exist, be abile to classify them, be able to obtain samples of the different soils for testing to find their properties, etc. This you will learn from this Book in Chapters 1 and 17. (ili) Soil Properties — It is useful to think of soil properties in two classes. The first class is that of physical properties which describe the physical state of soil: how wet is the soil, how dense is it, etc. The second class of properties is its engineering properties; these are indicative of how soil will behave from an engineering viewpoint. We have already seen that these are the Permeability, the Compressibility and the Shear Strength; there are some others as well. The physical properties are discussed in Chapter 2 on The Three Phase System and the engineering properties in Chapters 5, 6, 8, 10 through 16. Chapter 3 describes the Effective Stress Principle that has been discovered to be a unifying principle that enables us to get a good handle on understanding engineering properties. How we can determine this Effective Stress under various conditions is described in Chapters 4, 7 and 9. (iv) Alternative Solutions — Engineering is not just a science but an art as well. The first engineer had no list of solutions to choose from. The first engineer innovated. Engineers continue to innovate. You too will innovate. You of course also have the advantage of history, There are many solutions that have already worked and you can take advantage of the experience of past engineers, Their experience is documented and some of this experience has been described in various chapters of this Book, especially in Chapters 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 30 to 33 and 36 to 38. (v) Analytical Techniques ~ Physical problems are really much too complicated. Engineers have learnt to idealize reality so that it lends itself to mathematical analysis. The techniques are described in Chapters 18 through 22. (vi) Costs ~ An inherent characteristic of a good engineering solution is that it must perform the task in an economical fashion. Costs do not remain constant. They vary both with time and at any given time vary from place to place. The Consulting Geotechnical Engineer invariably has to keep abreast of market conditions. You will get information about costs from local dealers and contractors, (vii) Design Procedure ~ The process of design has definite components and a particular sequence that needs to be followed. The philosophy of design and the relevant procedures are described in Chapters 23 to 25, 31, 32, and 36 to 38. Each nation codifies design procedures to assist the design engineer. The Consulting Geotechnical Engineer must be familiar with codes and use them to the extent they are applicable. (viii) Construction Methods ~ Technology keeps on evolving. In days gone by excavated soil was moved by donkeys, today it is moved by huge motorized vehicles. Construction techniques impact design and increase options. You will need to keep abreast of technology and techniques. Some current practices are summarized in Chapters 26 to 31 and 39. C. This Book This Book is designed for you. It assumes that you are shortly going to set up your office as a Consulting Geotechnical Engineer. It hopes that it can help you get started and be your constant referral document. It attempts to anticipateA 6 Introduction the questions that will arise as you learn and practice Geotechnical Engineering and it is there to help you to cither find the answers or guide you to suitable sources where you will find the answers. The Book is in eight parts. The first is on Soil: Material Characterization. It emphasizes the diversity in soils. Properties of a particular grade of steel are constant regardless of where the steel has been manufactured, The properties can be and are listed in a manual. Similarly, the properties of a particular grade of concrete are constant and are tabulated. Soil is a material found in nature. It varies from place to place and at a particular place it varies with depth below the ground surface. Every soil has a unique set of properties that are different from every other soil. We, therefore, cannot begin to function as Consulting Geotechnical Engineers until we first understand and determine the properties of the soil that we are to deal with. Site: Location Characterization constitutes the second part. Each site is different. We need to determine the soil profile. Get soil samples for laboratory testing or test soils in the field. A great deal of technology is involved that we must familiarize ourselves with. The third part on Analytical Techniques describes the mathematical tools we possess to assess the viability of proposed solutions by enabling us to estimate the magnitudes of parameters that indicate performance and safety. Over the years, an abundance of techniques have been developed that attempt to increase the degree of sophistication of the analysis. An impetus to this development was the advent of the computer that allows us to use methods that involve making thousands of calculations because we no longer have to make them ourselves. Many techniques are now packaged in black boxes that we need not look into. We just provide the stipulated input data and the black box cranks out the answer, Those that use these packages must do so carefully remembering the famous adage of the computer world that if we put “garbage in’ we only get “garbage out”. The Book does not focus on these boxes but on methods that will give you a ‘feel’ for solving problems. Once you have the feel, you can always take advantage of the boxes. ‘The fourth part focuses on Engineering Design, i.e. the development of the final output that is expected out of the office of the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer. It highlights that designing is an iterative process and that engineering judgement continues to play a very significant role in designing. ‘The fifth part is on Geotechnical Construction. In the profession, engineers have to play many roles, for example, design, construct, maintain, etc. Depending on the role played, we designate them as Design Engineers, Construction Engineers, Maintenance Engineers, etc. Civil Engineering has many specializations and depending on the expertise, we also designate them as Structural Engineers, Water Resources Engineers, Geotechnical Engineers. We can combine these and come up with, say, Structural Design Engineer, Water Resources Construction Engineer and so on. This Book is for you, a potential Consulting Geotechnical Engineer. Clearly, the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer is a specialist in Geotechnical Engineering and understands soils, He/she must be able to advise on any aspect related to soils be it delineating soil profiles, determining soil properties, analyzing, designing, constructing, ete. There are aspects of construction which are unique to soils, How to drive or install piles in soil, how to excavate and compact soil, how to drill tunnels through soil, ete. You as the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer will have to make the choices and shoulder ultimate responsibility and so you need to be aware and knowledgeable. No longer do we have to accept every site as we find it, Often, we can do something about changing the pioperties of soil and the sixth part of the Book on Ground Engineering is devoted to describing how.Introduction 7 Me With urbanization, industrialization and the development of our modern life style we have created an enormous problem of generation of large quantities of waste as highlighted in Chapter 34, Some are inert, some biodegradable and some are toxic and hazardous. The need for sensible disposal of the waste has created new demands on the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer and the seventh part of the Book on Geoenvironmental Engineering caters to this new field. The entire Book deals with soil behaviour and engineering when soil is subjected to static loads. Soil is, however, subjected to dynamic loads also both by nature and man. The last, the eighth part of the Book on Soil Dynamics is a mere introduction to this subject and is included to sensitize you to the factors that assume importance when soil has to withstand dynamic loads arising from just two important sources: machines and earthquakes. This Book is for you, so do get started.PART | SOIL: Material Characterization Se ake WN. 12. 13. 14. 15. Origin and Classification of Soils The Three Phase System The Effective Stress Principle Effective Stress Under Hydrostatic Conditions Permeability Measuring Permeability Effective Stress Under Steady State One-dimensional Flow Compressibility Effective Stress Under Transient Hydrodynamic Conditions Measuring Compressibility Characteristics and Computing Amount of and Time for Consolidation Shear Strength and its Measurement Shear Strength Parameters Engineering Properties of Natural On-land Deposits Engineering Properties of Natural Offshore Deposits Engineering Properties of Man-made Deposits On Partially Saturated SoilsChapter 1 Origin and Classification of Soils 1.1 Soil Origin Since a Consulting Geotechnical Engineer’s focus is on soil, he/she must begin by understanding this material. What is it? Where does it come from? Although soil is a familiar term and an abundant constituent of our environment, we need to define it precisely if we wish to understand it from an engineering viewpoint. For our purposes soil may be defined as an assemblage of discrete solid particles of organic or inorganic composition with air and/or water occupying the void space amongst the particles. Soil can thus have all the three phases present in it—solid, water and air. If there is no air present then we have a saturated soil and if no water is present, we have a dry soil. The solid particles may be very small-—clay size, or somewhat larger—silt size, or considerably larger—sand size, or gravel size, or even cobble size and indeed in a soil, there may be a mix of any or all these sizes. Whether an aggregation of cobbles ought to be termed soil or something else is really quite arbitrary so long as we recognize that with increasing particle size eventually we would approach a material that would behave like a rock mass. The dividing line between rock mass and soil need not concern us at this point. Soils are formed by numerous processes of weathering, both physical and chemical. A boulder pried loose from the side of a mountain by the rapidly flowing water of a river and carried along with the water may, as a result of abrasive and impact forces it suffers, become in due course a heap of gravelly, sandy soil. This is but one of many forms that physical weathering assumes. Under appropriate environmental conditions, oxidation, a form of chemical weathering, can reduce a block of massive rock to a powdery material. Soils as they occur in nature belong either to a category known as transported soils or to the other known as residual soils. The latter are found at the location where they have been formed, whereas, the former are formed at one location and have then been transported to a new location where they are deposited. As indicated below, there are many factors that influence the nature of soil, as it occurs in each of these two categories. The characteristics of transported soil are determined by three factors: the conditions at formation, the transporting agent and the environment in which the soil is finally deposited as indicated in Fig. 1.1. To illustrate the influence of these factors, an example of each is given in turn,A 12 Soil: Material Characterization FORMATION TRANSPORTATION DEPOSITION (conditions) (agencies) (environment) t ' 4 1. Parent rock 1. Water 1. A body of fresh water, eg. lake 2. Weathering process 2. Wind 2. A body of salt water, eg. ocean 3. oe 3. Banks of a river 4. Gravity 4. Land regions Fig. 1.1 Determinants of characteristics of transported soils At formation, physical weathering normally only reduces the size of the parent material, whereas, chemical weathering would not only just break up the material into smaller particles but may alter the nature of the material itself. When water or wind transport soil, they sort it in the process of depositing it, that is, they deposit particles of only one size at a particular location; a glacier-moved soil on the other hand, is deposited without sorting. The structure, i.e. the geometrical arrangement of particles and the inter-particle forces, of soil that is deposited in fresh water is markedly different from the structure of soil which sediments in the ocean on account of the presence of salt in sea water, In India, river transported alluvial deposits are extensively encountered in the Indo-Gangetic Plain whereas wind transported aeolian deposits are found in Rajasthan. ‘The characteristics of a residual soil are dependent on its parent rock and on factors related to the environment at the location where it is formed. Among these factors are the climatic conditions (humidity, temperature, rainfall), the natural drainage pattern and the form and extent of vegetative cover. A warm and humid climate is particularly favourable to the formation of residual soils. Since weathering is a time-dependent process and is different at ground surface from that at some depth, the nature of residual soil at a particular location differs markedly at different depths below ground surface and constantly changes with time. Soil deposits in the Deccan Plateau are often those of residual soils. 1.2. Why Classify? There is so much diversity in nature that if each item were to be treated in isolation, little progress would be made in understanding the environment. Items are therefore grouped together. The Biologist groups together animals that are in some way alike. The Chemist groups together elements that have something in common. The Social Scientist groups together people of similar background, or outlook, or profession, or age, or intellectual development, and so on. The criteria used for grouping are many, ‘The attempt is always to choose those criteria that are relevant to the purpose in view. Classifying is, thus, a process of labeling. An item may have a number of labels depending upon the criteria selected for labeling. The labels of an item, thus, describe the nature of the item and how we may expect it to behave, 1.3 Criteria for Classifying Soil For you, a Civil Engineering student, it is not difficult to think of a number of criteria that could be used to classify soil. One such list of criteria suggested by students is presented in Table 1.1. BeforeOrigin and Classification of Soits 13 & Table 1.1 Possible Criteria for Classifying Soils tem No. Criteria tem No. Criteria Colour (vii) Permeability Gi) Shear strength (viii) Smell Gil) Size of particles (ix) Water content (iv) Porosity (x) Sulphate content (Origin (xi) Ability to sustain plant life (vi) Stickiness (xii) Compressibility deciding which of these criteria should be adopted, we must first decide why we wish to classify soil at all or what is the purpose of classifying soil, In the context of Geotechnical Engineering, any soil classification system that is evolved must provide us information about the expected engineering properties of a soil once we have classified the soil. The engineering properties of soil which are of greatest concern to the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer are: permeability, compressibility and shear strength. This may lead you to think that item (ii) shear strength, item (vii) permeability and item (xii) compressibility in Table 1.1 are the relevant criteria. In fact these are not relevant at all. Determination of these properties is time consuming and requires sophisticated equipment and expertise. Using these criteria would thus be an expensive proposition. But what is of even greater significance is that if we go through the trouble and the expense of determining the permeability, the compressibility and the shear strength of a soil, there no longer remains the need to classify the soil. What would be gained from the classification when we already have access to the engineering properties themselves? ‘The ultimate aim is not classification but to gain an insight into engineering behaviour. Classification is only a means to that end. Consequently, the criteria that must be chosen for classifying should be such that they enable soil to be classified without too much effort and expense and that upon classification we get an idea of the probable engineering behaviour of the soil. Consider, for example, item (xi) of Table 1.1 ~ ability to sustain plant life—knowledge about this ability is of little use to the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer, itis rather of significance to the Soil Scientist, the Agronomist, and the Irrigation Engineer. Similarly item (x) sulphate content is of interest not to the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer but to the Concrete Technologist and the Structural Engineer. Items (i) colour, Civ) porosity, (viii) smell, and (ix) water content of Table 1.1 relate to the physical properties of soil. Information about physical properties of soil is useful but is not sufficient for the purpose of acquiring insight into the engineering behaviour of soil. For example, knowledge of the colour of a soil is about as informative about the engineering behaviour of that soil as the colour of the eyes of an individual is about the intrinsic nature of that individual. The above discussion is summarized in Table 1.2 from which it is apparent that the criteria that are relevant for classifying soil for engineering purposes are: ‘one, item (iii) size of particles and two, item (vi) stickiness or, to put it in a more scientifically acceptable term, the plasticity of soil. They are considered in turn. 1.4 Classification on the Basis of Grain Size ‘That the engineering behaviour of an aggregation of predominantly small particles would differ from the behaviour of a collection of relatively larger particles is the intuitive notion that forms the basis of using size of particles as a criterion for classifying soil.A 14 Soil: Material Characterization Table 1.2 Utility of Criteria for Geotechnical Classification tem No. Criteria Utility (from Table \.1) ) Sulphate content Of little relevance to the Consulting Gi) Ability to sustain plant life Geotechnical Engineer. «ip Strength ‘Too complicated, time consuming and Permeability expensive to determine and once known, (xii) Compressibility there is no need to classify the soil. “0 Colour Physical properties; knowledge about them (ivy Porosity not sufficient to indicate probable iti) ‘Smell engineering behaviour. ww Water content o Origin Provides useful information but too complicated to readily assess as is evident from Section 1.1. it) Size of particles Useful criteria as discussed in (wi) Stickiness subsequent sections Before attempting such a classification we need to know how to define the size of a particle. If all particles were spheres, the diameter of the sphere could be used to specify size. The shape of soil particles is, however, usually irregular. Some particles may resemble spheres or cubes in that their dimensions in the three orthogonal directions are of a similar order of magnitude; there are other particles whose shape is better described as being flaky or plate-like and there are yet others, which are needle-like in shape. With such a variety of shapes, we have to resort to defining size in an arbitrary fashion. Size of particles that are visible to the naked eye, i.e. sand or larger size is designated by a diameter determined by passing the particles through a set of sieves having different sized square apertures. The diameter assigned to a particle is in fact the diameter of the largest sphere that can just go through the sieve through which the soil particle under consideration can also just pass. Such a Sieve Analysis is not possible for silt and clay size particles since they are too small to be sieved effectively. Their size is usually determined in a Hydrometer Test, which is based on the Stokes Law. It, in effect, assigns to a particle the diameter of a sphere that settles in a column of water with a terminal velocity which is the same as the terminal velocity of the particle under consideration as it settles in a column of water. Sieve Analysis and the Hydrometer Test are laboratory tests. The procedures of conducting these tests have been standardized so that the results are reproducible regardless of where the tests are conducted or who conducts them. Since each particle can thus be assigned a diameter to denote its size, it becomes possible to classify soil on the basis of size. Numerous classification systems have been suggested (see Fig. 1.2). The simplest of these is the MIT classification system since it uses only the numbers 2 and 6 for the purpose and is thus easy to remember. The Unified Classification System, is however, more generally used. The Bureau of Indian Standards has also adopted it after rounding off the numbers. A sample of naturally occurring soil would rarely have particles of just one size. The usual situation is that it contains a variety of sizes in different proportions. As stated earlier, the soil sample can be subjected to a Sieve Analysis and/or a Hydrometer Test in the laboratory to determine the distribution of grain sizes that constitute it. The results of such tests are depicted in the form of a Grain SizeClay-size Silt-size Sand-size | Gravel-size —_[Cobble-size L Fine | Medium [Coarse Fine | Coarse = % 4 oe = = Fa 8 ~ a 2 g S 3 * BIS IS 1498-1970 Diameter, D mm (reaffirmed 1987) Clay-size’ Silt-size [ Sand-size Gravel-size _ [Cobble-size [Fine | Medium [Coarse] Fine | Coarse a = e = = ey & g S “5 2 = - 2 Unified Soil Classification System Diameter, D mm adopted by U.S.B.R., USS. Army Corp. of Engrs., ASTM & ASCE Clay-size [| Siltsize Sand-size Gravel-size Yar [Fine [Med Coarse Fine s eg es =a U.S. Bureau of Soils © Diameter, D mm Clay-size | Silt-size [___Sand-size Gravel-size ine [Medium [Coarse | Fine _|Medium| Coarse Ss 3 = - @ § § FS =F & MALT. system = © Diameter, D mm Fig. 1.2. Classification of soil on the basis of grain size 2 > & é 3 z oboo1 0001 0.01 On 10 10 — Clay —*}-— Silt —+}-— Sand—+{ +—MLT. size size size classification Diameter, mm Fig. 1.3 An illustrative Grain Size Distribution CurveA 16 Soil: Material Characterization Distribution Curve as shown in Fig. 1.3. The diameter of the particles is plotted on a log-scale on the x-axis, and the percentage of the sample finer than a particular diameter is plotted on the y-axis. Point A on the curve in Fig. 1.3 thus indicates that 80% of the particles, by weight, are of a size smaller than a diameter of 0.1 mm. This diameter is designated as Dg. For the soil depicted by the curve in Fig. 1.3, Diy is 0.01 mm (point B). Forty per cent of the material is, therefore, in the size range between 0.1 and 0.01 mm, The shape and location of the curve in Fig. 1.3 is indicative of the fact that the sample contains 15% of clay-size particles, 55% of silt-size particles, and 30% of sand-size particles and that all sizes of sand and silt are present in the sample, Such a distribution indicates that we have a soil that is well-graded. Figure. 1.4 shows two curves. Curve A is for a uniformly-graded soil in which 80% of the particles are in the range of 0.2 and 0.1 mm, i.e. fine sand size particles. Curve B is for a gap- graded soil which has particles of sand-size and clay-size but not of silt-size. 100 4 = 80 & Zo B 3 = 40 E = 20 0 6.0001 0.001 0.01 on 10 10 — Clay —+}+-— Silt —+}-— Sand —+| +——MLT. size size size classification Diameter, mm. 1.4 Illustrative Grain Size Distribution Curves for a uniformly-graded soil (curve- A) and for a gap-graded soil (curve-B) To describe the shape of the curve with a single number, two coefficients are in use: of Uniformity, C., and the Coefficient of Curvature, C,.. These are defined as follo 1e Coefficient = Pio Ll Do op (Dy c= Gok 12 DaoDs a2) A soil that has a C, of less than 2.0 is considered uniform and a soil that has a C, greater than 1.0 but less than 3.0 is considered well-graded. In actual practice the utility of these coefficients is limited as is seen from Solved Example 1.1.In describing the classification of soil based on size of particles, care has been taken to refer to the smallest sized particles as clay-size particles and not as clay. Similarly, silt-size particles but not silt and so-forth for sand, gravel, and cobble. This has been done because clay-size particles, for instance, may or may not exhibit characteristics which one associates with a clay material as will be discussed in the next Section. 1.5. Classification on the Basis of Plasticity When you think of clay you think of a material which is sticky, which can be moulded into different shapes, and with which vases and statuettes can be made which on drying are solid-like and they can be preserved and displayed until they fall and break. Sand on the other hand, reminds us of the beach, of how difficuit itis to mould sand and how easily we can dust it off our hands, Clay is very different from sand. Clay has plasticity and sand does not. In due course we will define plasticity, for the time being let us focus on observed behaviour. Clay with a large quantity of water in it is like a slurry. With somewhat less water, it is like a viscous paste. With further reduction in the quantity of water, clay becomes like plastercine and can be moulded into various shapes. A lump of clay when dried, ie. with water removed, looks and feels like a solid. From these common observations we can make two deductions of relevance and significance towards our attempt to classify soils on the basis of plasticity: (i) that sand particles, even when wet, do not stick to each other, whereas, clay particles in a moist condition do, and (ii) that the amount of water present in some soils has a marked influence on their behaviour, Each of these is considered in turn, Why sand particles behave differently from clay particles becomes apparent if the nature of these particles is examined. In an assortment of sand particles under a magnifying glass, some would be recognized as particles of Mica, some of Quartz, some of Feldspar and so on. Sand particles are made up of rock minerals. They have the same composition as that of a big boulder from a rock mass; they are only smaller in size. The processes of weathering reduces boulders to cobbles, cobbles to gravel, gravel to sand, sand to silt and even silt to rock dust which have particles of clay-size. Particles of rock minerals are electrically neutral; they are acted upon only by the gravitational force. There is, as such, no mechanism to induce them to stick to each other or to anything else. Except for rock dust, particles of clay-size are different. Whereas sand, silt or rock dust particles are usually more or less equi-dimensional in the three orthogonal directions, clay particles are usually flaky or plate-like, or needle-like in shape as shown in Fig. 1.5. Angular Sub-rounded Rounded Plate-tike, flaky Needle-like Sand particles (magnified) Clay particles (highly magnified) Fig. 1.5 Different shapes of particles of sand and clay Clay particles have a net electrical charge on them, usually a negative charge on their faces and a positive charge on their ends as shown in Fig. 1.6(a); they are made up of clay minerals. The threea You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.A 24 Soil: Materiat Characterization SoWed Exampley Example 1.1 Data from grain size analysis for three soils A, B and C is as tabulated below: Diametermm Percent finer A B c 2.000 100 100 100 1.400 on 100 2 0.600 co 100 B 0425 4 10 45 0.250 ci} 100 Mu 0212 - - a 0.180 Bd 7 0 0.150 | 16 Uy wD 0.125 - % » 000 | 1 - 007s | 7 » 0050 | - 0 ooo | - 15 0.005 - - 10 0.002 | - - 5 (a) Plot the Grain Size Distribution Curve for each soil. (b) Classify each soil. (©) Calculate C, and C, for each soil. (@ Comment on the validity of C, and C, as parameters that describe the shape of the Grain Size Distribution Curve, Solution (a) Grain Size Distribution Curves for the three soils are plotted in Fig. 1.9. (b) A: SAND, well-graded B: SAND, fine, uniform G SAND, gap-graded, silty © Soil | Deo | Pw | Do | Cu é A [048 [025 (012) 39 | 107 B | oll | 0.09 | 008 14 10 com |e 0.005 | 148 ‘ *Cannot be determined—no unique value (d) Soil A is well-graded. Its C, is 1.07 and that also indicates that the soil is well-graded and so valid Soil B is uniform, ts C, is less than 2.0 and that also indicates that the soil is uniform and so valid. But its C, is 1.0 and that indicates it is well-graded and so not valid. Soil C is gap-graded. Neither C. nor C, indicate this and so not valid. The two coefficients are not as good as the curve itself for coming to the correct conclusion as regards the nature of the distribution of grain sizes.Origin and Classification of Soils 25 Ay bh Sit ——_—_++>___—— Sand 4 | Fine 1 Medium | Coarse 4 100 3 Zs ‘ E B 2 60 I 40 c 20 0 wenn . . 0.001 0.01 Ol 1 10 Diameter (mm) Fig. 1.9. Grain Size Distribution Curves for soils A, B and C Example 1.2 Classify soils A to E as completely as possible on the basis of information given below: Soil w, | PL | %Clay- | %Silt- | ‘%Sand- | | size size | size A 500 450 | 80 en) B 2 7} 0 » | 0 c 0 » > 0 » | 0 D - | 0 wo o oO E - | 0 0 10 | % Solution A: CLAY, highly plastic, silty B__ ; SILT, low plasticity C —: CLAY, medium plasticity, silty D_— : ROCK DUST, silty E : SAND, siltyA 26 Soil: Material Characteri Exercisey Objective-type Question 1.1 State whether the following statements are true or false and, if false, explain why. (a) Silt particles are visible to the naked eye. (b) Mica is a clay mineral. (©) Rock dust particles even of clay-size are non-plastic. (@) A gap-graded soil has particles of all sizes. (e) A particle of Kaolinite is electrically neutral. (® A well-graded sand has particles mainly of just one size (g) Plastic Limit is the water content of soil which represents the boundary between the plastic and the liquid states of soil. (bh) A soil with a uniform gradation has a Coefficient of Uniformity of less than 2.0. (@ One can determine the plasticity of a soil if its Liquidity Index is known. (@ Symbols Cl, CL and CW are valid symbols for clays. (&) “5 percent fines” in a soil means that the soil has 5% of clay size particles. Descriptive Questions 1.2 If the material of the base of the Liquid Limit apparatus on which the bowl containing soil drops is made of sponge, will the measured value of Liquid Limit of the soil be lower or higher than that measured using standard apparatus which has a base made of hard rubber? 1.3 Would soils transported by wind be deposited in a sorted state or would the deposit at a particular location contain particles of many sizes? 1.4 Classify the soils of Table 1.3 as best as you can from the data given. Numerical Problems 1.5 Samples were obtained of Soils A, B, and C of Solved Example 1.2. All of them had a water content of 35%, Determine the Liquidity Index and the Consistency Index of the three soils and indicate the state ‘of each of the three soils. 1.6 Determine the Activity of Soils A, B and C of Solved Example 1.2. What can you deduce about the mineralogy of the three soils from the magnitude of their Activity.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.The Three Phase System 31 A number of other such useful relationships are presented in Table 2.1. It is important to emphasize that it is not at all necessary to memorize these relationships. They can be readily developed from the picture of soil as given in Fig. 2.1 and from basic definitions of each parameter. It would be worth your while to do so and satisfy yourself of the validity of the interrelationships listed in Table 2.1. Table 2.1 Useful Interrelationships among Parameters that Describe the Three Phase System 7 SEB d+w) Ute) GY, en's N= Gre Ot "> Tew = (G-D+S-De Tre % The engineering behaviour of soil as a three phase system is very complex. Extensive research in the last four decades has provided some insight into the behaviour of such systems referred to as partially saturated soils. An introduction to the properties of partially saturated soils is presented in Chapter 16. The rest of this Book deals only with the two phase system of saturated soil unless specifically stated otherwise. You as the Consulting Geotechnical Engineering are now equipped to (i) identify the soil you encounter and call it by its correct name, (i) quantitatively describe its physical state in terms of its various unit weights, void ratio, and ii) indicate its wetness through its water content and Degree of Saturation. SoWed Exampley 21 A soil sample has a diameter of 38 mm and a height of 76 mm. Its wet weight is 1.15 N. Upon drying its weight reduced to 0.5 N. G, is 2.7. In the wet state what was the Degree of Saturation and the water content of the soil sample. Comment on the values of w and S. Solution W, =1.15-05=0.65N w = O65 = 130% V = 86.2 x 10° mm? = 05, = 18.5 x 10° mmé 27x10" Vv,32. Soil: Material Characterization V, = 67.7 x 10° mm* V,, = 65 x 10° mm? 5 = x10 67.710 Comment: ‘The Degree of Saturation is less than 100% even though the water content is very high at 130%, Example 2.2 For the soil sample of Solved Example 2.1, determine the void ratio and the porosity and comment on their magnitudes. Solution = O77x10° = 3.66 18510" Xe ey =_f = She ate 7 466 °°? Comment: Void ratio is more than 1.0 at 3.66 but porosity can never be more than 1.0 and is only 0.79. Exaimple 2.3 For the soil sample of Solved Example 2.1, determine the total unit weight and the dry unit weight and comment on their magnitudes. n Solution Ww, _ 05x10% 3 ab = SOME = 5.8 NA meV * $6210 ™ or from Table 2.1 en eee %* Tem)” U+13) ~ 23 Comment: The dry unit weight is less than the total unit weight. The dry unit weight is even less than the unit weight of water because in this soil sample the void space is much more than the space occupied by the solids—its void ratio is 3.66. Exercises Objective-type Question 2.1 From among the ranges of numerical values given, select the range valid for the following soil parameters: (a) Water content, w, in % @wso Gi) 00; 2=0; u=0 c Q) z u ‘ompressible >0; 2= 2H; w= > oH ohuyer G)r>0; 2= 2H; w=0 eA H = Drainage path, i.e. maximum distance | water has to travel to reach a drainage Drainage layer surface, Fig. 9.4 Boundary conditions for Terzaghi’s solution of the differential equation for one dimensional consolidation graphical form in Fig. 9.5. The mathematics of the solution are not of interest; as a Consulting Geotechnical Engineer what you need is the solution and an understanding of how to use it. 0.00, +f 0.25 T=0-4 0.50) 0.75 1.00 2H 1.25 1.50 175 2.00, Fig. 9.5 Terzaghi’s solution for One-dimensional Consolidationa You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Chapter Measuring Compressibility Characteristics and Computing Amount of and Time for Consolidation When Civil Engineers construct structures, soil underneath these structures is subjected to increase in stresses, These stresses have to be borne by soil. This is achieved by a rearrangement of soil particles to a configuration suitable to withstand the imposed load. This rearrangement is accompanied by volume change. The vertical component of this volume change results in the settlement of structures, In a saturated soil, rearrangement of particles takes time as discussed in the last Chapter. ‘The problem of volume change in soil thus has two aspects: how much volume change will occur and how Jong will it take for the volume change to occur. How much volume change will occur is readily visualized to be a function of: (i) how much stress is applied, i.e. loading conditions, Gi) how much soil is affected, i.e. boundary conditions, and ii) how compressible is the soil, ie, an engineering property of soil Similarly, how long it will take for the volume change to occur can be visualized by reference to Table 9.1 and is a function of: (i) amount of volume change that has to occur, i.e. a function of loading conditions, boundary conditions and an engineering property of soil, Gi) location and number of free draining surfaces, i.e. boundary conditions, and (ii) permeability, ie. another engineering property of soil To determine the amount of volume change and the time it will take for the volume change to occur, requires knowledge of some compressibility related characteristics of soil. We need to be able toA 98 Soil: Material Characterization determine them for the soil that is being stressed. We also need a methodology to make quantitative estimates of amount and time. These are discussed in this Chapter. Before we do so, it is important to take note of the fact that our estimates of amount and time relate only to consolidation which is only ‘one component that contributes to the settlement of a structure as discussed in the next Section. 10.1 Consolidation and Settlement Civil Engineering structures founded on soil are known to settle; often quite significantly and noticeably, for example, the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Structures settle on account of numerous mechanisms. Some of these are listed and described in Table 10.1. From a study of this Table it is immediately apparent that consolidation, which results from the flowing away of water from the soil voids when soil is subjected to stress, is but one component of settlement observed in structures. Often, but not always, it is a major component and one that Consulting Geotechnical Engineers can, often, but not always, reasonably predict. In this Book, consolidation and settlement are often used synonymously but the difference must be borne in mind. Table 10.1 Mechanisms of Settlement of Structures S.No. Mechanism Nature Time for settlement 1. Elastic On account of a change in the shape Immediate of the stressed soil zone at constant volume, i. vertical compression and lateral expansion, 2 Compression In a partially saturated soil only, on Immediate of air account of a reduction in the volume of air voids. 3 Consolidation On account of a flow of water from A function of the permeability and (primary) out of the soil voids resulting in a the compressibility of soil. Rapid in rearrangement of soil particles in & coarse grained soils; slower in fine packing suitable to carry the grained soils, load imposed by the structure, 4 Secondary ‘On account of a creep like behaviour Very slow Consolidation _of soil. 10.2 Determining Coefficients of Compressibility and Consolidation For determining the amount of consolidation, the relevant soil property that one needs to know is the Coefficient of Compressibility, a,, and for determining the time for consolidation to occur, the relevant soil property is the Coefficient of Consolidation, c,. Both these coefficients are obtained from a Consolidation Test on a representative undisturbed sample of the soil in question, Ignoring details, the Consolidation Test consists of (i) placing a representative undisturbed sample of the soil in a consolidometer ring, Gi) arranging the ring in a consolidometer apparatus, as shown schematically in Fig. 10.1, (ii) subjecting the soil sample to normal stress in predetermined stress increments each for a specified amount of time, anda You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Measuring Compressibility Characteristics and .. ion 103 ‘Void ratio, ¢ 0 $50 100 200 400 800 2 Effective stress, o” N/m? fa) 125} 75150 300 600 375 Effective stress, 0” KN/ e (b) ee! z i i : PR i 1254 73150 300 600 ais Effective stress, o” KN/m? () Fig. 10.5. Void ratio and soil properties—functions of effective stress as determined from a Consolidation Test Conditions (i), (ii) and (v) are self explanatory; only (iii) and (iv) require elaboration. Consider the profile and loading conditions shown in Fig. 10.6. In Fig. 10.6(a) the soil is subjected to load on account of construction of a small house. Intuitively, a Consulting Geotechnical Engineer can visualize that the load from such a house is unlikely to be felt by the entire clay stratum; only a zone such as that shown shaded in Fig. 10.6(a) would be influenced. This will be demonstrated in more detail in ‘Chapter 19. In such a case conditions (iii) and (iv) listed above would not be satisfied. These conditionsa You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Measuring Compressibility Characteristics and ...Consolidation 105 & D Soil profile of compressible layer of soil with void ratio, e, and thickness D. For change in void ratio of ‘Ae, change in thickness isp __Ae Ite, Soil with void ratio= e, Change in void ratio= Ae Fig. 10.7. Schematic illustration showing relation between change in void ratio and change in stratum thickness sh Eq. 10.5 is often written in the form p=m,.D. do’ (10.6) where, (10.7) and m, is designated the Coefficient of Volume Compressibi as in Eq, 10.8 . By rearranging the terms of Eq. 10.6 (10.8) the relation transforms to the characteristic form in which strain, €,, is proportional to stress. In its original form in Eq. 10.6, the relation depicts what had been intuitively stated at the outset in this Chapter that the amount of volume change is a function of loading condition, 40’, of the boundary condition, D, and of the engineering property of soil, m,. Since changes in void ratio of a normally consolidated clay can be expressed in terms of its Compression Index as indicated in Eq. 10.3, for such soils, the change in thickness of the compressible stratum can also be expressed by substituting from Eq. 10.3 in Eq. 10.4 as p=-C.. log. {< strain, € Induced pore water pressure, Aw Dense sand Fig. 11.5 Pore water pressure developed under undrained shear () @ Fig. 11.6 Idealized models for dense and loose sands in the pore water whereas the tendency to move close, subjects the pore water to compressive stress (see Fig. 11.5). 11.7 Stress-Strain Behaviour of Clays ‘The mechanisms which explain why stress-strain behaviour of clay is as it is cannot be as easily visualized as they can be for sands. But because at any effective stress the void ratio of ‘overconsolidated clay is less than that of normally consolidated clay, that is, overconsolidated clay is denser than normally consolidated clay it can intuitively be expected that the former will behave like dense sand and the latter similar to loose sand. This in fact is the experimentally observed behaviour. Overconsolidated clay with a high over consolidation ratio behaves similar to dense sand; overconsolidated clay with low over consolidation ratio is like medium-dense sand; and normally consolidated clay and loose sand exhibit similar stress-strain behaviour.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Shear Strength and its Measurement 127 dw effective stress, o’= 100 kN/m?. On sampling the total stress reduced to 0 but since sampling was perfect, the void ratio of the soil did not change and the effective stress also remained unaltered at 100 kN/m?; this is possible since the « on account of undrained conditions during sampling decreased by 100 KN/m? to -100 KN/m? when o reduced by 100 kN/m’. This is indicated in Row 2. The nine samples were then placed in nine triaxial cells and all of them were subjected to a cell pressure, ©, = 100 kN/m? under undrained condition which brought the u back up to 0. The samples thus, as indicated in Row 3, were brought back to the stress system that existed in nature, i.e. & = 100 KN/ KN/m? and o”= 100 KN/m’, At this stage they were ail at the same void ratio corresponding 100 KN/m?, All nine samples were then subjected (o Triaxial Compression Test. In the first stage of the triaxial test, cell pressures applied to the samples are shown in Row 4, Samples numbered 1 of all the three series were kept at 6, = 100 kN/m*. Those numbered 2 were subjected to a cell pressure of 200 KN/m?, that is, an increase of 100kN/m? above their natural state. And, samples numbered 3 were subjected to a cell pressure of 400 kN/m’, that is, an increase of 300 kN/m? above their natural state. Row 5 indicates that pore water pressure developed in samples numbered 2 and 3 by amounts equal to the increase in cell pressure, i.e. by 100 and 300 KN/m? respectively. Row 6 shows the conditions of drainage in the first stage of the triaxial test. They were: Series I was undrained but samples of Series II and III were allowed to drain. Row 7 indicates that the pore pressure reduced to zero in all samples of Series II and II but that it continued to exist in samples 2 and 3 of Series I since samples of Series I were not allowed to drain. The effective cell pressure 0” is shown in Row 8 and, as would be expected, the effective stress acting on all samples of Series I remained equal to the initial effective stress since volume of these samples was not allowed to change. All samples numbered 1 also have an effective stress equal to 100 kN/m? since they were not subjected to any cell pressure additional to that necessary to bring samples to their state in nature. Row 9 indicates the conditions of drainage during the second stage of the triaxial test: no drainage was allowed in Series and IT but drainage was allowed in Series II]. These combinations of drainage conditions for the two ‘stages of the triaxial test make tests of Series | Unconsolidated Undrained, UU , tests; of Series I Consolidated Undrained, CU , tests; and of Series If Consolidated Drained, CD or D tests, as indicated in Row 16, During the second stage of the triaxial test additional axial stress was applied until the soil samples failed. The conditions at failure are shown in Rows 10 through 15. Row 10 indicates the pore water pressure that existed in the samples at failure, up For Series I, the pore water pressure at failure is the sum of the pore water pressures that developed during the two stages of the test. For Series II, the pore water pressure at failure is that which developed in the second stage only since the pore water pressure which developed in the first stage was allowed to dissipate. For Series III, no pore water pressure was allowed to remain since conditions were drained in both stages. The additional axial stress, Ady= (0) — B), = (0 | — 0s) necessary to cause failure is shown in Row 11. Row 12 indicates the minor principal total stress at failure oy that is of course equal to the applied cell pressure, i.e, same as Row 4, Row 14 indicates the minor principal effective stress at failure o’y which is obtained by subtracting the pore water pressure at failure (value of uw, from Row 10) from the minor principal total stress at failure (value of dy, from Row 12). Row 13 shows values of the major principal total stress at failure oy which is obtained by adding on to the minor principal total stress at failure (value of oy from Row 12) the additional axial stress at failure (value of 40,7 from Row 11). And finally, Row 15 indicates the major principal effective stress at failure, 0”, which is obtained by subtracting u/from 0,,(value in Row 10 from value in Row 13). This could also be obtained by adding the additional axial stress at failure, Ag.y, to the minor principal effective stress at failure, 0’, (value from Row 11 plus value from Row 14).‘Characterization Nine initially identical samples of a soil were sheared. Row 11 indicates that the additional axial stress required to cause failure varied from 66 to 800 kN/m* or that the maximum shear stress at failure varied from 33 to 400 kN/m”, Obviously then shear strength of a soil is not a constant to be tabulated in a code but can vary a great deal depending on how the soil is tested or indeed how the soil is stressed in nature by Civil Engineering projects. To comprehend what determines the shear strength of soils, the stresses at failure of these nine samples need to be studied. 11.9.2. Stress Condi Plotted in Fig. 11.8 are the Mohr’s Circles at failure for Series 1 in terms of total stresses, that is oy and oj, Regardless of the magnitude of the total stresses to which the soil is subjected, it is observed that it requires the same additional axial stress to cause failure. The obvious conclusion, then, is that the shear strength of soil is not a function of the total stress; that shear strength is a constant, ns at Failure in Terms of Total Stresses N/m? a 3 7 Sample No. 1 ete. 100 Failure envelope Shear stress, T 100 6, 166 200 a, 266 300 400 0,7 466500 Normal total stress, kNim? Fig. 11.8 Stress conditions at failure in terms of total stresses for samples of Series 1 Before proceeding to look at the results of Series II and III, itis advisable to develop a methodology for studying these results. This methodology is described using data from Series I. We can draw a “best fit” line tangent to all the Mohr’s Circles at failure; such a line is called the failure envelope. Since the failure envelope is drawn tangent to all the Mohr’s Circles af failure, it follows that so long as the state of stress in soil is such that the Mohr’s Circle describing that state does not touch the failure envelope, failure does not take place (see dashed circles in Fig. 11.8 and also in Fig. 11.9). When the state of stress is such that the corresponding Mohr’s Circle just touches the failure envelope then failure does take place. The point of tangency of the failure envelope on the Mohr’s Circle represents the state of stresses on the plane of tangency. The condition of failure can then be written as the equation for the line that represents the failure envelope. The line may generally have an intercept on the y-axis and may be inclined at an angle to the horizontal (see Fig.11.9), The general equation of such a line then is: Ty= e+ oytan o aia) where, ¢ is the intercept on the y-axis and is called the cohesion intercept, @ is the angle which the line makes with the horizontal and is called the angle of shearing resistance,Shear Strength and its Measurement 129 Shear stress, 7 ‘Note: Plane of tangency is inclined at an angle of @ to the horizontal Fig. 11.9 Concept of the failure envelope ty. is the shear stress on the plane of tangency at failure, and Gy is the normal total stress on the plane of tangency at failure For Series I (Fig. 11.8) since the failure envelope is horizontal, ¢ = 0. The equation for the failure envelope of Fig. 11.8 may be written as follows: Ty= Cou + Gy tan dy (11.2) ‘The subscript UU indicates that the c and ¢ were determined from the UU test and since gy = 0 Ty = ey = 33 N/m? (11.2@)) Plotted in Fig. 11.10 are the Mohr’s Circles at failure for Series II in terms of total stress, that is, Gy, and dy, From Fig. 11,10 it is evident that as the magnitudes of total stresses to which the soil is subjected increase, a larger additional axial stress is required to cause failure. The conclusion, then, would be that the shear strength of soil is a function of total stress acting on the soil, The function is a linear one, if it is conceived in terms of the failure envelope. The failure envelope for these tests has no intercept on the y-axis, i.e. ccy is zero but Qcy is greater than zero and is equal to 14.5°. The equation of the failure envelope thus becomes Ty= Coy + Gy tan Gey (1.3) or Ty = Gy tan 14.5° (1.3@) ‘The deduction from Series I would be that shear strength of soil is not a constant but depends on total stress. A similar plot for Series III can be made (see Fig. 11.11) which yields an equation for the failure envelope as follows: T= Cp + Fy tan Oey qa) or y= dy tan 30° (14a) From Fig. 11.11, the deduction would be that shear strength of soil is a linear function of the total stress but a function different from the one deduced from Series I. Such deductions, however, do not leave us very wise. From Series I, it was deduced that shear strength is not a function of total stress, from Series IJ, that it is a linear function of total stress andA130 Soil: Material Characterization 8 T ) Sample No. 1 ete. kNim? Shear stress, ¢ @ 100g, 4200 ao, 3004 400 500-600 664 700 166 332 ‘Normal total stress, KN? Fig. 11.10 Stress conditions at failure in terms of total stresses for samples of Series Il 600} ; ® Sample No. | ete. a Failure envelope 400 i 7 § 200 aw ‘y °o — a,200 6, 400 600 800 1000 1200 ¢co=0 Normal total stress, o N/m? Fig. 11.11. Stress conditions at failure in terms of total stresses for samples of Series Ill from Series III that it is yet another linear function of total stress. And also, that for Series I the plane of tangency is the same as the plane of maximum shear, i.e. inclined at 45° to the horizontal, whereas, for Series II the angle of inclination of the plane of tangency is different and for Series III yet different again. The final conclusion would, therefore, be that shear strength is not a unique function of total stress, 11.9.3 Stress Conditions at Failure in Terms of Effective Stresses In studying consolidation behaviour of soil it was observed that the behaviour was not a function of total stress; it was a function of effective stress. Taking a cue from this experience if the test results of Series 1, II and III are plotted in terms of effective stress (see Fig. 11.12) it is observed that theShear Strength and its Measurement 131 & 800} Series Sample Mohr No. No. circle I 423008 0 1 A 1, 600 y= 30° g 0 2 B Failure envelope = 30 3 D * m1 1 é i a 2 EB E a i 3 F i E D CS B 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 =0 Normal effective stress, 0” kin? Fig. 11.12 Stress conditions at failure in terms of effective stresses for samples of Series 1, I and IIt Mohr Circles at failure for all samples of all series are all tangent to the same failure envelope. The equation of such a failure envelope may be written as T= Cyt Cytan Fyy (11.S(@)) or ty = C'cy + Fy tan Fey (11.5(b)) or y= cpt Fytan Op (1L.5(@)) where, now the cohesion intercept and the angle of shearing resistance have a prime, (’), on them to indicate that these are for failure envelopes in terms of effective stresses. And since, the same failure envelope is obtained experimentally regardless of whether the test is a UU ora CU ora CD test, that is, “yy = ¢'ey = “cp and Fyy = Foy = Mcp, the subscripts of UU, CU, etc. may just as well be dropped and the equation of the failure envelope may be written as just tyad + oytan of (11.5) where c’ is the cohesion intercept in terms of effective stress and ¢' is the angle of shearing resistance in terms of effective stress. For Series I, II and Ill, c’ = 0 and the equation of the failure envelope is Ty = Oy tan 30° (1L5(@)) Since all the three Series have a common failure envelope it would be reasonable to conclude that shear strength is a unique function of the effective stress. The plane of tangency also turns out to be at the same inclination to the horizontal regardless of whether soil is tested under conditions corresponding to Series I, II or Ill. The observation that in terms of effective stress, soil exhibits a unique failure envelope and that the plane of tangency is always inclined at the same angle to the horizontal are of tremendous significance and have led us to designate this plane of tangency as the failure plane as mentioned earlier in Section 11.8. The equation of the failure envelope, Eq. 11.5, can thus be written as:a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Shear Strength and its Measurement 135 in the first stage of the triaxial test by an amount equal to the applied normal stress. The ratio of pore water pressure developed to applied normal stress is called the B-factor: Au B= 118 Ao, (11.8) B-factor for saturated soil is equal to 1.0. B-factor is 0 for dry soil and is a function of the Degree of Saturation, Pore water pressures also develop when soil is subjected to deviator stress but, as discussed before, they are not equal to the applied deviator stress; they can be positive or negative. Pore pressures developed in a sample sheared under triaxial compression are related to the deviator stress by the A-factor: = Au (0-93) A-factor is not a constant. It varies with the soil as well as with the magnitude of applied additional axial stress, One can identify A-factor at various stages of the shear process. At failure, the A-factor is A (1.9) Au, Gop, (11.9(a)) A-factor also varies with the stress-history of the soil. In the discussion on stress-strain characteristics it was noted that on shearing loose sand or normally consolidated clays, positive pore water pressures develop. The pressures developed are, however, lower and become negative as the initial density of sand being tested or the over consolidation ratio, OCR, of the clay being tested is increased. As pore water pressure reduces so of course does A-factor. An empirical relation of A-and OCR was presented by A.W. Bishop and DJ. Henkel in 1962 and is reproduced here in Fig. 11.14. The general expression relating pore water pressure developed and changes in applied stress is Au = B (Ag, + A (Ag, ~ AG,)) (11.10) For triaxial tests on saturated soils which have been discussed in this Chapter, B is equal to one, 4o, during shear is equal to zero, and Ag, during shear is the deviator stress 6 — 63, Eg. 11.10 thus reduces for UU tests to Au = Ao, + A (6, ~ 03) a.) ie. sum of du as given in Eqs, 11.8 and 11.9 and for CU tests to Au = A (0, - oy) (11.12) ie. Aw as given in Eq. 11.9. SoWed Examples Example 1.1 Given o, = 600 kN/m? and @, = 200 kN/m’. Determine the planes of maximum shear and maximum obliquity and the stresses acting on thema You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Shear Strength and its Measurement 137 Line KL has been drawn from the origin and is tangent to the Mohr's Circle at point C, that is where the obliquity is the maximum and the planes of maximum obliquity are parallel to PCD. The line KL is inclined at 30° to the horizontal. The planes of maximum obliquity are inclined at 45 + 30/2 = 60° to the horizontal. On the plane of maximum obliquity = 300KN/m? r= 300 tan 30° = 173 kN/m? Example 11.2 Three samples of a soil were tested under Consolidated Undrained conditions with measurement of pore water pressure, The confining pressures and the conditions at failure observed were as follows: Sample No. o, kNim* (o) =) KNim? | tu KN/tn? 1 100 48 ~” 2 200 105 102 3 400 198 20 Determine the and gf for the soil, Solution Calculate the effective stresses at failure Sample Oy= O.- uy (G,- Oy | Oy= Fy + (G,- Hy No. N/m? kN/m? Nm? 1 st 48 ” 2 98 10s 208 3 200 198 398 Plot the Mohr's Circles in terms of effective stresses. The three circles plot as shown in Fig. 11.16. Draw the best fit line tangent to the three Mohr’s Circles as shown in Fig. 11.16; the measured ¢ =O and the @ is 19.5°. Example 11.3 From the results of a seties of CU Tests, it was found that Qe, = 15° and @° = 30°; ecy = sample was tested in CU test with g, = 150 kN/m*, Determine the following: {a) (0, ~ Oy (b) Oy ©) Oy 0. A soil (d) wy 30 100 200 300 Oo” kN/m? Fig. 11.16 Mobhr’s Circles at failure and the failure envelope 400A 138. Soil: Material Characterization Solution Draw the two failure envelopes as shown in Fig. 11.17. Draw the Mohr’s Circle at failure in terms of (otal stresses starting with @, = 150 kN/m? and you will find that the G\, = 250 kN/m*. The Mohr’s Circle at failure in terms of effective stresses has the same diameter as the Mohr's Circle at failure in terms of total stresses—only it is tangent to the failure envelope in terms of effective stresses, So shift the circle to the left until it is tangent to the line inclined at 30°, Read off the values of 0’, and o’y uj is the amount by which the circle was shified to the left. (6) = 03) = LOOKNIm*; oy = SOKNim?; oy =SOKN/m*; uy = 100 kN/m? 150 100 & Zz a 50 ig. 11.17 Failure envelopes and Mohr’s Circles in terms of total and effective stresses Exerciser Objective-type Questions 11.1 State whether the following statements are true or false and, if false, explain why. (a) B-factor is a function of the Over Consolidation Ratio. (b) Saturated sand can exhibit an angle of shearing resistance of zero. (c) The shear strength of a sandy silt deposit increases in the monsoons because of a rise in the water table, (d) Pore pressure parameter A is a constant for a soil. (e) Highly overconsolidated clays normally exhibit a negative value of the pore water pressure parameter A at failure. (f) A saturated loose sand sample reduces in volume when sheared under undrained conditions. (g) The pore water pressure parameter B is the ratio of the pore water pressure that develops under an all round increase in the normal effective stress to this increase in the normal effective stress.Shear Strength and its Measurement 139 a (h) The shear strength of soil is a function of the effective stress in the soil and not the total stress in the soil. (In the first stage of the triaxial test, the attempt is merely to simulate the fact that in nature soil exists at different depths below ground surface. 11.2 Select the correct answer. (a) Ina CU test on loose saturated sand, the sample volume during shear ( reduces, Gi) remains unchanged, ii) increases. (>) Ina CU test on dense saturated sand, the pore water pressure during shear ( reduces, i) remains unchanged, (iii) increases. (©) Ina CD test on saturated overconsolidated clay, the pore water pressure during shear ( reduces, (i) remains unchanged, (iii) increases. (4) Ina CD test on saturated normally consolidated clay, the sample volume during shear (i) reduces, (ii) remains unchanged, (iii) increases. 11.3 Will the A-factor at failure be positive, zero or negative for the following: (a) loose sand ina CU test. (b) clay with an OCR of greater than 4 in a CD test. (©) clay with an OCR of 1.0 ina UU test. (d) clay with an OCR of about 4 in a CU test. Descriptive Questions 11.4 Why was sand thought to be a “friction-type’ material? Can saturated sand exhibit a ¢ = 0? If so, under what circumstances? 11.5 The angle of shearing resistance in terms of total stresses for a saturated clay as obtained from a UU test is zero. Does this mean that the strength of clay cannot be attributed to friction? 11.6 What constitutes ‘failure’ for a soil sample being sheared? 11.7 Draw the relationship of induced pore water pressure versus axial strain for loose and dense sand tested under CU conditions. Explain the shapes of the curves in terms of the respective structures of the two soils. 11.8 Discuss why the ultimate strength of a loose sand sample and a dense sand sample consolidated to the same effective stress are the same, whereas, the peak strengths are different. 11.9 Describe the state of samples At D when the Mobr's Circles describing their state of stresses are as follows: (For A, the Mohr’s Circle is a dot on the normal stress axis. Gi) For B, the Mohr’s Circle is too small to touch the failure envelope. ii) For C, the Mohr's Circle is just tangent to the failure envelope. (iv) For D, the Mohr’s Circle is so large that part of the Circle is above the failure envelope. Numerical Problems 11.10 Data from CD tests: ‘Sample No. 1 2 3 (6, ~ ), N/m? 447 167 @ oy kN/m* 6 9 %a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Shear Strength Parameters 143 i 5 os 3 Of be {i Oy Cay Fas Cory oy — Effective stress, a” Plane of maximum shear Plane of maximum obliquity Plane of tangency inclined at 8, = 45° inclined at @,= (45+ @/2)° inclined at 8, Tay= (0, -0)/2 > 6, 0,>0,> 6, Say 25 asi) es Fig. 12.1 Possible planes of failure shear strength = ty = c’ +o’, tan gf (ste) or shear strength = ty= c’ + (g— uw) tan ¢” (12.1) If after conducting experiments the magnitudes of c’ and 9” for a soil are known, we only need to determine the effective stress on the failure plane at failure acting in the soil at the location of interest, to be able to evaluate the shear strength that the soil would be able to mobilize at that location when subjected to shear stresses. Instead of sticking to this defini of shear strength, that is, shear stress on the failure plane at failure, Consulting Geotechnical Engineers, sometimes find it more convenient to think of shear strength as being the shear stress on the plane of maximum shear, that is (9,-03), 2 We do so, for example, in a situation like the one described hereafter. Consider that we have obtained an undisturbed soil sample from a particular location in the field. We wish to test it to determine its shear strength when it is subjected to shearing stress under drained conditions since this is how we believe the soil is likely to experience shearing stresses in the field. So we place the sample in a triaxial cell and subject it to deviator stress at a rate such that there is sufficient time for any pore water pressure that develops to dissipate. Say, the sample fails when the deviator stress is 200 kN/m?, What is the shear strength of the sample? If we were to stick to the definition of shear strength as being the shearing stress on the failure plane at failure, we would not be able to quantify the shear strength of the sample we have tested because we have no knowledge of the c” and @" of the soil and, therefore, cannot determine the inclination of the failure plane and so cannot evaluate the shear strength. To shear strength = (12.2)a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.A 146 Soil: Material Characterization When positive pore water pressures develop during shear, the S, is less than the S, for soil consolidated to the same effective confining stress prior to shear as shown in Fig. 12.4 and as illustrated in Solved Example 12.2. When negative pore water pressures develop then the opposite is true as shown in Fig. 12.5 and illustrated in Solved Example 12. For a soil with finite c’ and ¢’, the relation for S, can be shown to be: ’ a sing” S,= (0, +c cot #) festa} (12.6) For undrained shear = 6.- Gy 40% For same o,, 5; <5, when wis negative Shear stress, ¢ ‘Normal stress, total and effective, 0, 0” Fig. 12.5 Undrained strength for a soil with a c’ = 0 in which uy is negative 12.2 Effective Stress-Strength Parameters—A Function of Soil Type Not only is the shear strength of a soil different from one location at a particular depth to that at a different depth because at the two depths the soil has been consolidated to different effective confining stresses but the shear strength can be different even at the same depth depending on the drainage conditions during shear as has been demonstrated in Section 12.1. No wonder, then, that shear strength of soil cannot be tabulated in a code. The effective stress-strength parameters, c’ and ¢”, are constant for a soil with a given stress history and in a particular stress range. And even though they are not tabulated as discussed in Section 12.1, it is possible to get a qualitative idea of the range of values of Cand ¢ for different types of soils by examining the values for some specific soils which have been tested. For most coarse grained soils and normally consolidated fine grained soils, in the stress range usually of interest to the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer, the cohesion intercept in terms of effective stresses, c, is found to be zero or close to zero. Soils in which cementitious material has been deposited at particle contacts exhibit a finite constant value of c’. In overconsolidated soils, c’ assumes different positive values depending on the stress range of interest as will be discussed in Section 12.3. In Table 12.1 are tabulated the values of the angle of shearing resistance in terms of effective stresses, ¢”, for coarse grained soils and in Table 12.2, ¢” values for fine grained soils have been listed.Shear Strength Parameters 147 de Table 12.1 Values of 9’ for Coarse Grained Soils ‘Soil State of Values of ” in degrees Compaciness Rounded grains Angular grains uniform gradation __well graded Medium Sand Very loose 28-30 31-34 Medium dense 32-34 35-40 Very dense 35-39 44-46 60% Gravel and Loose 35 39 40% Sand. Medium dense a” 4 80% Gravel and Loose uM 40 20% Sand Dense - 45 Blasted Rock Cobble-size - - 40-55 Table 12.2 Values of ¢’ for Fine Grained Soils Soil Liquid Plasticity % Clay o Lint Index sie degrees Sodium Bentonite 370 530 7 12 Sodium Ilite 85 50 - 20 Kaolinite 6 8 B 2 Remoulded London Clay 4 49 50, 2 Remoulded Boston Clay 48 23 4 31 Bombay Marine Clay 1s 0 48 py Calcutta Clay 80 40 - 26 Delhi Silt 4 13, 1s 36 From Table 12.1 it is apparent that 9” increases as: (i) size of particles increases, (ii) state of compactness increases, (iii) soil gradation improves, and (iv) particle angularity increases. (i) ¢ is a complicated function of mineralogy and clay size content, and (ii) ¢’ is least for the clay mineral Montmorillonite which is the main constituent of Bentonite. From Tables 12.1 and 12.2 together it is apparent that: (i) for coarse grained soil the value of 9” is rarely below 30°, (ii) for fine grained soil the value of @' is rarely above 30°, and Gii) 9 can be greater than 45°, 12.3 Effective Stress-Strength Parameters—A Function of Stress History and Stress Range The failure envelope in terms of effective stresses is drawn as a “best-fit” line tangent to Mohr’s Circles at failure in terms of effective stresses for three or more samples sheared after consolidating them toA 148 Soil: Material Characterization different effective stresses in the effective stress range of interest to the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer. There are two situations when it is not possible to fit a line tangent to all the Mohr’s Circles at failure. These two situations are described and discussed hereafter. 12.3.1 Behaviour of Overconsolidated Clays ‘When we conduct shear tests on samples of a clay which in its past has been subjected to a higher effective stress than stresses to which its samples are consolidated prior to shear, it is found that the behaviour of such overconsolidated clay samples is as depicted for Samples 1, II and III in Fig. 12.6. Failure envelope for normally consolidated soil Failure envelope for ‘over consolidated soil Shear stress, t ‘Normal effective stress, ” Fig. 12.6 Failure envelope for an overconsolidated clay Let us consider two samples of a clay, one is overconsolidated (Sample I in Fig. 12,6) and the other is normally consolidated (Sample IA in Fig. 12.6). Both are consolidated to an effective confining pressure, say A. When they are sheared one observes that the deviator stress required to cause failure is more for the overconsolidated sample than for the normally consolidated one. The difference in deviator stress required to cause failure in the overconsolidated sample in relation to that necessary to fail a normally consolidated clay sample generally diminishes as the OCR decreases as can be inferred from behaviour of Samples II and III in Fig. 12.6. The consequence of this behaviour is that the failure envelope for an overconsolidated clay is not a straight line but a definite curve as shown in Fig. 12.6. ‘That an overconsolidated clay sample exhibits greater strength than a normally consolidated clay sample at the same pre-shear effective stress is readily understandable from Fig. 12.7 which shows that for a particular effective stress the overconsolidated sample is much denser than the normally consolidated sample. The curved failure envelope for overconsolidated clay cannot be expressed easily in mathematical form. We, therefore, resort to fitting a straight line for only part of the curve, the part that lies in the stress range that is of current interest to us. Thus the equation for the failure envelope for the stress range between oy at A and o’ at B (see Fig. 12.8) would be: Tyee. + Fptan 6, (12.7) and for the range between o’y at C and oy at D would be: ty= ca + Gyan Oy (12.8)Shear Strength Parameters 149 Normally consolidated Over consolidated oA log scale Effective confining stress, o” Fig. 12.7 Void ratio versus effective confining pressure for a clay when it is normally consolidated and when it is overconsolidated & gus 28 sa gs g g. Failure envelope for ge overconsolidated clay Bc} Tn Oe Om Effective stress on the failure plane at failure, oy Fig. 12.8 Failure envelope for overconsolidated clay—a curve that can be approximated by straight lines for small stress ranges The c’ and gf for overconsolidated clay would thus be different for different stress ranges. Even a negative c’ is possible if the best fit line for a certain segment of the curve happens to yield a negative intercept on the y-axis. This of course is perfectly acceptable since, c’ and ¢’ are nothing more than the mathematical parameters that define the equation of a line that best fits experimentally obtained data (see Section 11.10). 12.3.2. Behaviour of Sands at High Stresses In the stress range of usual interest to Consulting Geotechnical Engineers the failure envelope in terms of effective stress for sands is a straight line. This behaviour alters at high stresses when particles get crushed on account of the high stresses; the failure envelope, then becomes a gentle concave downward curve as shown in Fig. 12.9.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Shear Strength Parameters 157 & °y 3 50 100 200 300 o o’kNim™ Fig. 12.15 Mohr’s Circles at failure for two sample of normally consolidated clay sheared under CD and CU conditions Exercisey Objective-type Questions 12.1 State whether the following statements are true or false and, if false, explain why. (a) ¢* for soils is limited to a maximum value of 45°. (b) c’ of a soil can never be a negative value. (©) Sands and gravel rarely exhibit a 9’ less than 30°, (@) At high effective stresses, the failure envelope in terms of effective stresses can alter from a straight line to a concave downward curve. 12.2 Which sample A or B will exhibit the greater peak strength? Except for the difference indicated all other conditions are the same. (@) for a CD test on sand A-loose sand B-dense sand (b) for a CU test on clay A-normally consolidated clay B-over consolidated clay with an OCR of 10 {c) for a normally consolidated clay A-tested under CD conditions B-tested under CU conditions (@) for a CD test on normally A-Sodium Bentonite consolidated clay B-Bombay Marine Clay Descriptive Questions 12.3 If for any Geotechnical Engineering problem involving the use of the property of shear strength, one is able to estimate the magnitude of the pore water pressure at failure along the failure surface, one should analyze the problem using effective stress analysis—discuss why? 12.4 Under what circumstances can one readily estimate the magnitude of pore water pressure likely to develop at failure along the failure surface.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Engineering Properties of Natural Offshore Deposits 171 dw environment there makes these sands denser than what one achieves in the standard test in the laboratory by vibrating in the specified manner. This happens because waves at the sea surface generate cyclic stresses at the seabed. These cyclic stresses are akin to vibrations of low frequency and low amplitudes. Sand at the seabed is subjected to these vibrations for a very long time—for years, ‘These small continuous vibrations move the sand particles into a very close packing which ultimately makes the sand immune to their effect. From a Civil Engineering viewpoint such dense sand deposits are excellent for supporting shallow foundations. 14.4 Of Calcareous Clays Another example of how the sea environment gives new characteristics to terrigenic soils is found in deposits of calcareous clays that are extensively encountered in the seas between latitudes 30° North and 30° South. In the Indian offshore region they are encountered in abundance in the Bombay High region, When researchers first began to study calcareous clays, they attempted to correlate their engineering properties with the calcareous content. This, however, did not prove to be fruitful, see Fig. 14.2, that shows no discernable pattern between carbonate content and the ratio of undrained strength to effective overburden pressure. Electron Microscopic studies on calcareous clays revealed why such a pursuit did not prove fruitful. The calcareous content was found to exist in different forms. Let us consider the two extremes. In some calcareous clays it was found to exist in the form of needle like particles of silt and clay size, These particles are probably the result of precipitation of calcium carbonate on account of some reaction that occurred in the sea water. These particles are electrically inert. The presence of these particles has a marginal influence on the properties of the original clay—just to the extent of what the presence of some non-colloidal particles of silt and clay size would produce in an otherwise colloidal material. That is a marginal reduction in plasticity. In other calcareous clays, calcium carbonate was found to exist as a deposit at particle contacts in the form of a cementing material. The presence of cementing material, even in small quantities has a very significant effect on engineering properties of the original clay. For example, it was found that a content of as low as 3 to 4% imparts to the clay an apparent over consolidation ratio of double the actual value of OCR arising on account of stress history. Clearly the nature of carbonate material and the form of its presence in the clay is far more significant in determining the engineering behaviour of the calcareous clay than merely the amount of calcium carbonate. 14.5 Of Calcareous Sands Terrestrial sands originate from the weathering of rocks. They are made up of rock minerals and chemically consist of silica. In the ocean environment, sand size particles are found whose chemical composition is not silica but consists of carbonates, primarily of calcium. These calcareous sands originate either from precipitation from sea water or biogenetically as the skeletal remains of marine life (see Fig. 14.3). The former are solid rounded particles called ooltites. The latter are fragments of sea shells, of coralline debris etc. Particles of sea shells and coralline debris are characterized by the presence of intra-particle voids and some particles are also of very odd shapes, such as, plates, flakes, rolled up sheets etc. Whereas, the engineering behaviour of oolites is not dissimilar to that of silica sand, calcareous sands of biogenetic origin exhibit very different behaviour. The primary reason for thea You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Engineering Properties of Natural Offshore Deposits 175d (® In the offshore environment, clay with 10% Calcium Carbonate content will invariably be stronger than one with 5% Calcium Carbonate content. (g) All calcareous sands exhibit high crushing during shear. 14.2 Match the following: Soil Type Characteristic (a) Calcareous Clay (a) Underconsolidated (b) Soft Clay (b) Rounded (©) Oolitic Sand (©) Cemented (@) Biogenetic Sand (d) Crushing Descriptive Questions 14,3 What are intra-particle voids? In what kinds of soils are they found? 14.4 Why is the form of existence of carbonate material in calcareous clays an important determinant of engineering behaviour of such clays? Numerical Problem 14.5 Dj for a calcareous sand was 0.1 mm. Upon shearing, the sand crushed and the percentage of material finer than 0.1 mm was found to be 33%. What is the Crushing Coefficient?a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Engineering Properties of Man-made Deposits 183 & dissipated by mutual interference amongst adsorbed water layers surrounding the numerous clay particles. Under kneading compaction the extra energy does induce a more oriented structure. The structure at F in Fig. 15.3 is thus more dispersed than at B. There are no established and easy ways of quantitatively describing structure. It is now possible to look at particle arrangements in soil using the electron microscope. The structures of compacted soil, as postulated by T.W. Lambe in 1958, described in this Section, have been found to be essentially valid by studies of soil structure using the electron microscope. It is important to note that there may be soils in which the structure of soil compacted at water contents dry of the optimum by kneading compaction would be better described as dispersed rather than flocculated since description is qualitative anyway. All that can be safely said is that in such a soil the structure of soil compacted at a water content wet of the optimum would be more dispersed. The influence of compaction conditions on structure can thus be summarized as follows: soil structure becomes more dispersed as: (i) the placement water content is increased, Gi) the amount of compaction is increased, and Gii) as one uses a type of compaction which induces more shearing action in soil during the compaction process. 15.4 Engineering Behaviour—A Function of Density and Structure Visualizing the influence of density on engineering behaviour is no exertion for a Consulting Geotechnical Engineer. He/she intuitively recognizes that an increase in density of the soil will make it more strong, less compressible and less permeable. For soils that do not exhibit markedly different structures, such as coarse grained soils, this intuitive feeling is a sufficient guide for designing compacted soils for use as building materials. The logic to be followed is—the stronger the soil required, the greater should be its density and therefore the higher would be the compactive effort. This logic breaks down when structural changes become significant. Consider for example soil at E iin Fig. 15.3. If the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer found it weak for some engineering purpose and decided to improve its strength by compacting more, extra compaction would increase its unit weight marginally by moving it up to F but in the process the soil will become more dispersed. The strength gain by increase in density may well be more than offset by strength loss due to change in structure. The soil would become weaker after being subjected to more compaction. For such soils it is necessary to understand the influence of structure on engineering behaviour. This is described below considering samples of soil at B and at E in Fig. 15.4 that have the same dry unit weight but different structures. Soil at B is at a lower water content and a lower degree of saturation than that at E. Structure of soil at B is flocculated, that is, soil particles are randomly oriented and have strong particle contacts, whereas the soil at E is dispersed with particles aligned parallel to each other with weak particle contacts. The adsorbed water layers at E are well developed, each particle is surrounded by enough water to neutralize its electrical charge. The soil particles at B, on the other hand, have little water to share amongst themselves, the charges are not neutralized; they could do with much more water, they have a “thirst” for water. This thirst for water manifests itself in inducing a negative pressure, a suction, in the pote water of soil at B. The pore water pressure at E is not so negative. In partially saturated soils, water in the voids is invariably at a pressure lower than the pressure in the air in the voids. When ait pressure is zero, as is often the situation for a soil in equilibrium with the atmosphere,A 184 Soil: Material Characterization the water pressure is negative. This feature of partially saturated soil will be discussed in more detail in the next Chapter. Given the description of the state of flocculated soil at B and of dispersed soil at £, as above, their engineering behaviour may be predicted from a commonsense point of view. Predicted behaviour using commonsense and actual behaviour from empirical evidence are observed to corroborate each other well. Before considering permeability, compressibility and shear strength it is useful to consider less complicated engineering properties like swelling, shrinkage and development of construction pore water pressures, 15.4.1. Swelling ‘When samples of soil from B and E are given access to water which would swell more? The soil at B has a great “thirst” for water, it will soak in much more water than soil at £ and in the process swell more than the dispersed soil at E. 15.4.2. Shrinkage Upon drying, the randomly oriented particles of soil at B will begin bodily to interfere with each other and will not allow soil to shrink whereas the oriented particles of dispersed soil at E will approach each other without hindrance as the soil is dried and will exhibit high shrinkage. 15.4.3 Construction Pore Water Pressures Construction of man-made deposits by compacting soil during placement proceeds layer by layer. As each layer is placed, it subjects soil already placed to normal and shear stresses. These stresses induce pore water pressures. Higher magnitudes of pore water pressure are reached with soil at E than with soil at B since at B the soil is drier, has initially a more negative pore water pressure and has a more rigid structure as discussed hereafter. 15.4.4 Permeability Soil at B will exhibit the same permeability in all directions whereas soil at E will be more permeable along particle orientation than across particle orientation as shown mechanistically in Fig. 15.5. 15.4.5 Compressibility At low applied stresses the dispersed soil will undergo sizeable volume change whereas the flocculated soil would be less compressible on account of its truss-like arrangement of particles with strong Floceulated Dispersed = S- Easy flow wa L. —S=— (more permeable) x —s a A px Tortuous flow Same permeability in (lest permeahie) all directions 15.5. Flow through compacted soils with flocculated and dispersed structurescontacts. At some limiting stress the truss-like arrangement would collapse as contacts fail and then the soil would exhibit high compressibility in relation to dispersed soil. At high applied stresses the initially flocculated and the initially dispersed samples would have similar structures and would exhibit similar compressibility as depicted in Fig. 15.6. | Flocculated Void ratio, ¢ Effective stress, a’ (on log scale) Fig. 15.6 Volume change behaviour of compacted soils with flocculated and dispersed structures 15.4.6 Stress-strain ‘Upon application of deviator stress the soil at E will deform steadily whereas the soil at B with its truss- like arrangement will resist deformation and the stress-strain curve will rise steeply to a peak and then drop down when the flocculated structure suffers a collapse (Fig. 15.7). At high strains, soil samples from B and E will have essentially the same particle arrangement and will thus exhibit about the same strength. Deviator stress, (6; ~ 63) Axial strain, € Fig. 15.7. Stress-strain behaviour of compacted soils with flocculated and dispersed structuresfaterial Characterization 15.4.7. Effective Stress-Strength Parameters In the ‘as-compacted’ state, soil is in a partially saturated state, For soil in such a state the concept of effective stress is still undefined as will be discussed in the next Chapter. Effective stress-strength parameters are as such also undefined. These parameters can be determined for compacted soil in the saturated state by first saturating the compacted soil and then shearing it. The shear behaviour after saturation is of consequence, for example, in evaluating the strength of compacted soil below the phreatic line in an earth dam (see Chapter 18). There is some difference of opinion among researchers as regards the behaviour of compacted soil after saturation which arises on account of the yet not totally understood changes that a compacted soil experiences upon saturation, Some indication of the behaviour after saturation is given in Table 15.3 that also summarizes the discussion in this Section. Table 15.3 Difference in Behaviour of Fine grained Soil Compacted to the Same Dry Unit Weight at Two Water Contents one Dry and the Other Wet of the Optimum by Kneading Compaction Parameter/ Dry of Optimum Wet of Optimum Property/Behaviour Dry unit weight same same Water content tow high Structure on compaction flocculated (random) A > R* dispersed (oriented) R > A Shrinkage on drying low high Swelling on access to water high low Permeability isotropic ~ & anisotropic ~ k, > k > ky 4, along particle orientation , across particle orientation Compressibility at low stress low baigh at medium stress high low at high stress same same Construction pore pressure low high Shear Behaviour (immediate ost construction) stress-strain britde plastic peak strength high low ultimate strength same same Shear Behaviour (after saturation at constant effective stress) stress-strain similar similar cand similar similar A-factor at failure negative not as negative *A-Autractive forces; R-Repulsive forcesEngineering Properties of Man-made Deposits 187 A 15.5 Designing Soil—An Exercise in Optimization After the discovery that compaction at optimum water content produced maximum dry density but before the influence of compaction conditions on structure was known, Consulting Geotechnical Engineers working with the intuitive notion that the greater the density the better the soil, always chose to compact at optimum water content. Soon, however, some of them revised their practice when they observed that if soil is compacted at water contents dry of the optimum, then fewer failures during construction were experienced on account of low construction pore water pressures. Whereas others were pleased with the observation that when soil was compacted wet of the optimum, the embankment experienced less deformation, subsidence or swell, when soil came in contact with water that happens: upon filling the reservoir behind an earth dam. This led to two schools of thought, one favouring compaction at water contents dry of optimum and the other preferring to compact wet of optimum. Today it is recognized that it is not possible to produce the ‘ideal’ soil, having all the desirable properties to the desired degree (Table 15.3). When there is a gain on one property, there may be a loss on another. The process of choosing compaction conditions is very much a problem optimization, For a large enough project, it should indeed be so treated; for small projects, it is still necessary to define the desirable set of soil properties and in a qualitative fashion, choose compaction conditions to achieve these properties. 15.6 Compacting Coarse Grained Soils The inverted ‘V’ shaped curve obtained when we plot dry unit weight versus water content for a fine grained soil is not obtained for clean coarse grained soils that is sands having less than 10% particles of silt or clay size. Instead, what we get upon conducting Proctor compaction tests, is a very slightly concave upwards curve with maximum dry unit weight at Degrees of Saturation of 0% and close to 100%—see points A and C in Fig. 15.8. Zero air voids line 2 Clean coarse grained soil Bla 3 Fine grained soil 2 c g B z & ° Watercontent Fig. 15.8 Relationship between dry unit weight and compaction water content for clean coarse sand and a fine grained soilA 188 Soil: Material Characterization Upon compaction, the behaviour of clean sands is different from that of fine grained soils on account ‘of two reasons: (i) sand grains are more equi-dimensional and not plate-like, and they are electrically neutral. ‘When sand is dry, particles are rearranged into a dense packing under compaction, During rearrangement, particle movement is resisted by inter-particle friction, When water is added to sand, capillary tension is generated and that manifests as apparent cohesion. The inter-particle friction gets enhanced. Particles are unable to assume a packing that is as close as they did in the dry state and the compacted dry unit weight decreases. It continues to decrease with increasing water content so long as capillary tensions keep increasing. Beyond some water content, point B in Fig. 15.8, the capillary tensions reduce and the dry unit weight increases. At a water content close to saturation, the capillary tensions are totally eliminated and sand again assumes a dense packing and the dry unit weight is again high. From Fig. 15.8, we should also note that the total variation of dry unit weight of sand compacted at different water contents is small compared to the variation possible in fine grained soils. In Section 15.2, we had mentioned that vibratory rollers are more effective for compacting coarse grained soils than other types of rollers. In the laboratory also marginally higher density is obtained when sand is compacted using vibratory equipment rather than Proctor compaction. The method to determine the maximum unit weight, expressed aS 7% max OF Emin therefore uses a procedure in which sand is placed in standard mould, a surcharge weight is applied on the top and the mould is placed on a vibrating table and vibrated for a specified period. The minimum unit weight, 7, min OF €max is obtained by ensuring that no vibrations are applied and the sand is gently poured into the mould through a standard funnel, How dense is a particular sample of sand having a dry unit weight, 7%, or void ratio, ¢, ig specified in terms of its Relative Density (R.D. in %) defined as follows: . (nas — €). RD. {ea} x 100% (5.1) or RD. [ppsttcbent x 100% (15.2) Ya(Yanax ~ Yamin) A Relative Density of 0% indicates that sand exists in its loosest state and a Relative Density of 100% that itis in its densest state. The concept of Relative Density has meaning only for clean coarse grained soils. Exercisey Objective-type Questions 15.1 State whether the following statements are true or false, and if false, explain why? (a) By compacting at a high enough water content one can get a fine grained soil at 100% saturation. (b) A soil is compacted to produce a material of high density. (©) Increasing the density of soil always results in increasing its strength (d) Statically compacting a fine grained soil produces a relatively random arrangement of particles even when the water content at compaction is wet of optimum.15.2 Engineering Properties of Man-made Deposits 189 A (e) Soil with a flocculated structure is an isotropic material whereas with a dispersed structure it behaves. anisotropically. (f) The Relative Density of a fine grained soil cannot be determined. (g) Coarse grained soils do not show an inverted *V" type relation between dry unit weight and water content in a Standard Proctor test, Fill in the blanks: (a) When given access to water, soil with a flocculated structure swells — than soil with a dispersed structure. (b) For two samples of a soil at the same dry unit weight and for low stress levels, the compress- ibility of the sample with a flocculated structure is than the sample with a dispersed structure. (©) The three field controllable compaction variables are + ——— and (a) Coarse grained soils are best compacted by a roller. (©) Effective stress-strength parameters for soil in the ‘as compacted’ state cannot yet be determined because = _ Descriptive Questions 18.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 Should soil be compacted at water contents dry of the optimum or wet of the optimum? Discuss. Is optimum water content a constant for a soil? Discuss, ‘An increase in compactive effort produces a marked increase in dry unit weight when soil is compacted at water contents dry of the optimum but not so when it is compacted at water contents ‘wet of the optimum. Explain. At a given dry unit weight, the engineering behaviour of a clay may vary depending upon the type ‘of compaction used but it will not vary for a sand. Explain.Chapter On Partially Saturated Soils 16.1 The Three Phase System ‘When the void space in soil is not completely filled with water, soil is a three phase system of solid, water and air. It is convenient to consider five states of partial saturation in soil as suggested in Table 16.1. Soil behaviour in States 1 and 5 can be expected to be similar to that of saturated and dry soils respectively. Transition States 2 and 4 would have very complex behaviour. Behaviour of soil in State 3 when continuity exists in both the air and the water phases will be considered in the next four Sections. The last Section will focus on soil in the dry and in States 2-5 to highlight how Consulting Geotechnical Engineers are currently coping with designs in such States. Table 16.1 States of Partial Saturation Serial No. Degree of Description of State Anticipated of State Saturation Behaviour the form of occluded bubbles in the Similar to saturated soil with a more pore water. No continuity in the air phase compressible pore fluid than water High ‘Transition - H Complex Medium Water exists in imter-connected lenses around To be discussed in this Chapter particle contacts. Air exists in interconnected channels. Both air and water phases continuous, 4, Low ‘Transition - L Complex 5. Very low No continuity in water phase Similar 10 dry soil ‘That the Physics of the equilibrium conditions between the liquid and the gaseous phases is complex is readily understood when we recognize that water would exist as a liquid and also in vapour form and that air would exist as gas as well as dissolved in water. These conditions were studied by IW. Hilf in 1956. Two of his conclusions are of relevance here:On Partially Saturated Soils 191 Ae (i) as a consequence of the Surface Tension of water and existence of air-water interfaces, the pressure in the pore water, u,, is lower than the pressure in the air in the pores, u,, and i) at equilibrium, the air and water pressures, though different, are constant throughout the void space in a soil sample. The second conclusion follows from the fact that there is continuity in both the air phase and the water phase. Any imbalance in the pressure in either phase would induce flow in that phase until the pressure becomes constant every where. The first conclusion can be understood if we recall the simple experiment that we have all seen in school and is depicted here in Fig. 16.1. Water pressure at Air at atmos- Glass tube with pheric pressure, LD.=2r ) (=~ Khe For equilibrium Surface Tension force = Weight of water above (3) in tube 2arT= "7h, 2T a h, ===; T = Surface Tension of water r Fig. 16.1 Surface Tension of water pulls water up into a glass tube and induces tensile stress in the water In nature, soil below the ground water table is saturated. Soil exists as a three phase system above the water table as shown in Fig. 16.2. At the ground surface the soil is usually dry and the zone of dry soil is thicker in the summer than in other seasons. As one proceeds downwards, one encounters Dey Ground level : Moist } (held water) {Partially saturated T ; Capillary - Y Saturated(almosty tO Saturared Water table Fig. 16.2 Moisture conditions in the soil zone between the ground surface and the water tableA 192 Soil: Material Characterization moist soil first in State 5 and then in State 4. Water is probably all “held” by the existing clay particles as adsorbed water in double layers. Below soil in these States is soil in the ‘capillary fringe’ when there is enough water to fill the small voids and the larger voids have air. There is continuity in both the water and the air phases and we have State 3. As we approach the water table we move into States 2 and 1, the latter being the almost fully saturated part of the capillary fringe. The capillary fringe can be many meters thick in fine grained soil and the gradation of Degree of Saturation with a value of 0 at ground surface and 100% at water table is gradual. In coarse grained soil, the gradation is more abrupt; not only is the capillary fringe of small thickness but sand particles do not have much affinity to hold on to water molecules. In a deposit of coarse grained soil, the zone of dry soil would be thick and then just as we approach the water table the Degree of Saturation would quickly increase to 100%. 16.2 Effective Stress Concept Unlike saturated soils for which there are only two measurable stresses: total stress, o, and pore water pressure, u, in partially saturated soils there are three measurable stresses: the total stress, o, the pore water pressure, u,, and the pore air pressure, u,. Equipment has been developed which enables measurement of all these three stresses. The procedure is somewhat sophisticated since for zero air pressure, pore water pressure is negative and measurement of negative pore water pressure requires some special devices and elaborate precautions, In view of the fact that the engineering properties of saturated soils were empirically found to be uniquely dependent on an effective stress that could be defined in terms of measurable stresses for soil in that state, when researchers started to explore the behaviour of partially saturated soil, they hoped that the situation might be similar. The initial attempt, as such, was to look for an effective stress, that is a stress which could be defined in terms of measurable stresses, 6, 1,, and u,, which would control the behaviour of partially saturated soil. By analogy with saturated soil (see Section 3.3), the forces acting across a “wavy plane” through partially saturated soil may be considered as depicted in Fig. 16.3 and an expression for (FIA), that is, the force transmitted at particle contacts per unit area of the “wavy plane” may be developed as follows: OA=Fe uA, + a, A, (16.1) - v= (5) (2) where, A,, = area of the “wavy plane” passing through water area of the “wavy plane” passing through air, and = area of the “wavy plane”. Ag+ Ag =A (16.2) by substituting in Eq. 16.1, we get “| J Cue, 1A) +(u, (1=(A,/A))) aly Sls or o ) + (uy a,) + (uy Cl ~ ay)On Partially Saturated Soils 193 dw lu-u, +49 ©) Fig. 16.3 An idealized partially saturated soil element under stress where, or (4) = O~ (uy d,) = (u, ( = ay) (16.3) Such an equation was proposed by T.W. Lambe in 1960 and in saturated soil, (Eq. 3.7), he suggested that effective stres: would also be equal to (F/A) and so o' = 6 - (wu, a,) — (uw, (1 = a,)) (16.4) ‘This suggestion has not been verified empirically because a,,, which is a ratio of the area of part of a “wavy plane” to the entire area of the “wavy plane”, is only an imaginary concept. ce (FIA) is equal to effective stress partially saturated soil, by analogy, 16.3. An Empirical Approach—The y-Factor In this search for an effective stress for partially saturated soil, A.W. Bishop in 1959 relying on his intuition, suggested the following expression: o =0-u,- x (wu, -u,) (16.5) where 7 was postulated to be proportional to the Degree of Saturation and equal tol.0 for $ = 100% and 0 for dry soil. A comparison of Eqs, 16.4 and 16.5 reveals the algebraic equivalency of a, and. In 1960 A.W. Bishop came up with a method of determining z. It was based on the assumption that if a partially saturated sample and a saturated sample of the same soil exhibit the same magnitude of an engineering property, then they must possess the same effective stress. x for the partially saturated soil sample ata particular void ratio, for example, could then be determined by equating the expression given on the right side of Eq. 16.5 with the effective stress of the saturated soil sample having the same void ratio and solving for y. Such a determination of 7 was, however, soon recognized to be invalid. The assumption that two samples of soil, one saturated and the other partially saturated, would have the same effective stress if they had the same void ratio or the same shear strength is not correct. The relations between engineering properties and effective stress, even for saturated soil, are unique only so long as samplesA 194 Soil: Material Characterization with the same stress history are considered. Fig. 16.4 shows how samples of a saturated soil at the same void ratio have markedly different effective stresses when Normally consolidated they have different stress histories. The stress history . of a saturated soil is decidedly very different from that of the same soil in a partially saturated state. 3 Determination of z-factor as suggested by Bishop 3 consolidated yielded negative values as well as values greater than 1.0 of z-factor for situations when the influence of factors like stress history were more important than the influence of the Degree of Saturation. z-factor, as ra oo such, is no longer considered as some fundamental Effective tress, (on log scale) parameter that is proportional only to the Degree of Fig. 16,4 Samples at same void ratio have Saturation but is now viewed to be merely an empirical different effective stresses when factor of hardly any utility. they have different stress histories 16.4 A Mechanistic Picture When the initia! attempts to identity an effective stress for partially saturated soils did not meet with success, the attention of investigators shifted towards trying to isolate the systems of stresses that may be operating in partially saturated soil and how they may be influencing behaviour. Eq. 16.3 can be written in the form: (4) =(o- u,) + a, (uy u,) (16.6) which indicates that there are two stress components (o- u,) and (u, generating forces transmitted at particle to particle contacts. If a partially saturated soil sample is considered, (a — u,) can be visualized as a stress that can be controlled by applying total stress to the sample at its boundaries. It is an externally applied stress; this is self-evident if u, is zero. On the other hand, (1, ~ u,,) is a stress that originates on account of the Surface Tension of water and existence of air-water menisci which induce a pressure in the pore water which is lower than the pressure in the pore air. The stress component (u,,~ u,) has its source in the interior of the sample and may be viewed as due to tension or suction in the pore water. It is an internally applied stress; this too is self-evident if u, is zero. The pressure in the pore air is of course zero for soil in nature since u, would be in equilibrium with atmospheric pressure. The system of stresses that operates in partially saturated soil thus consists of two components: an externally applied (o— u,) and an internally induced (1, ~ u,,). That the influence on soil behaviour of these two components cannot be of the same nature becomes evident if we consider the changes each component generates in soil when soil is subjected to it. When stress is applied externally at sample boundaries by increasing (@~ u,), it is transmitted to the sample interior by development of normal and shear stresses at particle contacts. The stresses induced at particle contacts cause failure at some contacts which produce slippage and particle rearrangement which, in turn, reduce the volume of soil. On the other hand, when the stress component (u,,~ i) is increased by increasing the tension in the pore water, the stress is not applied at sample boundaries but is induced internally. Ateach particle contact, since water pressure acts normally, the normal stress increases and the shear stress remains u,) that contribute toOn Partially Saturated Soils 195 & essentially unchanged, Instead of producing failure at particle contacts, particle rearrangement and volume reduction, an increase in (1, ~i,) actually makes the particle contacts stronger, thus imparting a rigidity to the soit skeleton, ie, the network of solid particles. Some volume reduction takes place as particles are pulled close to each other by the increased suction in the pore water, But, neither the mechanism nor the magnitude of volume reduction is comparable to those related to an increase in externally applied (o'- u,). In view of this mechanistic picture, it is not surprising that attempts (Eqs. 16.4 and 16.5) to identify an effective stress which considered these two stress components as additive, thereby implying that they were of the same nature, were unsuccessful. 16.5 Observed Reality Experimental investigation of partially saturated soils requires sophisticated equipment, skill and patience. There is, as yet, no where near enough data available to enable formulations of laws governing the behaviour of partially saturated soils. Limited experimental observations that have been reported do indicate the validity of the mechanistic picture presented in the previous Section; two of these observations are presented below. When a partially saturated soil is given access to water, it soaks in water on account of the tension in its pore water. As its Degree of Saturation increases the stress component (1, ~ u,) reduces. If (u,— 1%.) Were to be considered just a component of an effective stress for partially saturated soil, a reduction in (u,~ u,) would imply a reduction in effective stress which in turn implies that the soil volume should increase. For some partially saturated samples this is consistent with actual observation. For other partially saturated samples, a marked reduction in volume as soil soaks in water is observed. This observation cannot be explained without recognizing the influence of (u,~ ,) on the rigidity of the soil skeleton as discussed in the previous Section, A reduction in (u,~¥,,) upon soaking must have reduced the normal stresses at particle contacts thereby reducing their strength and reducing the rigidity of the soil skeleton. Volume reduction takes place when the soil with its less rigid soil skeleton is unable to support the externally applied pressure (o ~ u,) and particles need to rearrange themselves into a closer packing. The influence of (u,—u,) on the rigidity of the soil skeleton also manifests itself in controlling the stress-strain behaviour of partially saturated samples. Fig. 16.5 shows the strength mobilized at one percent axial strain for two samples having equal magnitudes of the sum of the internal and external components. The sample with the higher percentage of (1, ~ 1,) exhibits higher strength mobilization at this low strain thus indicating a more rigid soil skeleton Research is just beginning to unfold the nature of the behaviour of partially saturated soils. Indications are that it may be possible to express behaviour as a function of the two stress components considered separately. The strength equation, for example, may take a form such as: Shear Strength = a + (o — u,)y tanet, + (u,,— uy)y tan ary (16.7) Considerable research input is yet required before the behaviour of partially saturated soils can be expressed in definitive terms for use by the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer, 16.6 Dealing with Problems Today Absence of sufficient understanding of the intrinsic behaviour of partially saturated soils cannot hold back Civil Engineering activity on soils in this state. In fact most Civil Engineering structures areA 196 Soil: Material Characterization 150 * Bo & & in kN/m? o Sample A B = (o-u,) 6 14 = 100 Ao (,-4,) 9 127 g (o-u,) + (u,—u,) 142 41 Cy = 9 30 100 Mats) __ in 9g (=u) # (it = Hy) Fig. 16.5 Comparison of the influence of (u, ~ u,.) and (6 - u,) on strength mobilization constructed on soils that are not fully saturated. The Consulting Geotechnical Engineer has to deal with problems today. Let us see how we deal with them, Of the three engineering properties we use most often, that is, permeability, compressibility and shear strength, permeability has relevance only under conditions when water is flowing through soil. ‘When water flows through soil, it saturates the soil. For problems involving flow of water we normally have to deal with saturated soil and therefore our lack of understanding of partially saturated soil is not an issue, For the other two properties it is an issue and we will deal with them by looking at coarse grained soil and fine grained soil separately. Let us first consider coarse grained soil. These soils are free draining and the soil particles are electrically inert—they have no affinity for water. The pores in such soils are of relatively large size and zones of capillary fringe, as noted in Section 16.1, are not very thick. When such soils are subjected to stress, water plays a relatively insignificant role. If water is not present, applied stresses are borne by interaction and adjustment among solid soil particles. If water is present, applied stresses of course still have to be bome by interaction and adjustment among solid soil particles and they are able to do so without any hindrance or delay because the soil is free draining—the water is just pushed away or pulled in and water moves readily. The shear strength and the compressibility characteristics of coarse grained soils are not significantly different for soil in dry, moist, wet, or saturated states. Effective stresses are equal to total stresses because the pore water and pore air pressures quickly become zero. We do not need to know what constitutes ‘effective stress’ in coarse grained soil. Unfortunately, this is not so for fine grained soil Compressibility and shear strength of fine grained soils are strongly influenced by the Degree of Saturation as qualitatively indicated in Table 16.2. Soil in a saturated state has some strength. As its Degree of Saturation reduces, the pore water pressure becomes negative and imparts strength to it. When the soil becomes dry it is like a solid and very strong although brittle, In the same manner, the compressibility of the soil decreases with a reduction in the Degree of Saturation. Since we are not able to evaluate the effective stress, we have the choice only of using the total stress analysis and we do so following the process outlined in Sub-section 12.4.2. Also note that the worst situation, that is,On Partially Saturated Soils 197 Table 16.2 Influence of Degree of Saturation on Compressibility and Shear Strength of Fine Grained Soils Degree of Saturation Shear Strength Compressibility Dry Very high Low Moist Medium Medium Saturated Low High lowest strength and highest compressibility is when the soil becomes saturated and in the field, situations occur when partially saturated soil becomes fully saturated for short periods, for example, if the water table rises on account of heavy monsoon. For structures constructed on partially saturated soils, the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer will still evaluate the safety and stability under full saturation since that represents the lower bound solution or the most critical condition and for this, eventuality effective stress is defined and we can use effective stress analysis as well. Exercisey Objectivetype Quest 16.1 State whether the following statements are true or false and, if false, explain why. (a) Determination of z-factor as suggested by Bishop is invalid because it assumes that when two samples of a soil, one saturated and the other partially saturated have the same strength, they must also have the same effective stress. (b) An increase in suction in the pore water makes the soil skeleton more rigid. (©) In the expressions for effective stress in partially saturated soil proposed by Lambe and by Bishop, a, and y are algebraically equivalent. (@) For designing on partially saturated sands, the lower bound solution is obtained by determining and using the properties of saturated sand and using the effective stress analysis. Descriptive Questions 16.2 In a partially saturated soil why is the pressure in the water lower than the pressure in the air? 16.3 Is research likely to identify an effective stress that would control the behaviour of partially saturated soils? 16.4 Clay exists at a site to a depth of 10 m. ft is dry at ground surface and the Degree of Saturation increases with depth. To design a footing we need the average undrained strength in the zone between 1 m to 5 m below ground surface. We have estimates of S, at depths of 1.5 m and 3 m. The design engineer suggests we use these results to arrive at an average because this would be safe ‘since with depth the strength is going to only increase. Do you agree?PART II SITE: Location Characterization 47. Site InvestigationChapter Site Investigation 17.1 Why Investigate When a client goes to a good architect and wants the architect to design him/her a house, the architect does not just reach into his/her file and bring out a design for the client. For the architect to design a house, he/she needs to find out what kind of a house the client wants. What is the location of the plot on which the house has to be constructed. The architect goes to the location to find out about its environment. He/she finds out the side from which the sun rises, the direction of wind during different seasons, which side is the noisy one, which side has a good view etc, Only then does the architect begin the creative process of designing, taking maximum advantage of what the site has to offer and as far as possible guarding against the inherent drawbacks of the site. Similarly, the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer cannot begin to solve a problem referred to him/ her by a client without first investigating the site which has to be developed. Let us say, a client walks into your office and wants you to design a foundation for a hotel that the client is planning to construct. How will you proceed” Clearly you need more information. Here is a list of some questions that should come to your mind: (what kind of a hotel? a five-star luxury hotel o a utility hotel? Gi) how many stories would it have? (ii) will it have a basement? (iv) what kind of a structure is being proposed? (v) how big is the plot? and (vi) where is the plot located? Next, you will want the client to take you to the site, Not just to know how to get there, But you would be thinking ahead. Your next step would be to conduct a site investigation. What kind of site investigation would be required? But you do not know yet what is involved in conducting a site investigation. This Chapter will describe to you what is required and what is the technology available to you. You can readily appreciate that the purpose of a site investigation would be to find out what are the types of soils at the site, both at various locations and at various depths. What are the properties of these soils. The properties can be determined by conducting tests in the field or by bringing soila You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.A 204 Site: Location Characterization foundations, cannot cope with erratic profiles - they can only handle relatively uniform soil conditions that lend themselves to mathematical idealization. For example, remember that Terzaghi’s One- dimensional Consolidation Theory which enables us to estimate the amount of primary consolidation that occurs can only be used for one compressible layer sandwiched between two drainage layers or between one drainage layer and one impervious layer. Given the fact that the soil profile is erratic we will be unable to carry out any sophisticated analysis. We will just have to select a foundation type that is appropriate for such profiles and proceed to finalize a design that is safe maybe even over-safe, Later in this Book you will learn that a ‘raft’ foundation would be suitable for this project and site. If the same four storied hostel had to be constructed at a site where the soil conditions with depth were more uniform—let us say one type of soil or two/three soil types in a layered formation, our analytical techniques could be usefully employed. For such profiles it would be useful to conduct a detailed site investigation with careful sampling and testing. The detailed site investigation for this project will be very different than what it was for a dam. The influence of the building will only be felt to a limited depth and the investigation would thus be limited to that depth. We have no interest in determining the permeability of foundation soils because flow of water here is not relevant, Our concer will be more to determine the shear strength and compressibility characteristics of the soils and the investigation will thus be so focussed. 17.2.2 Data Collection Since the design of the investigation depends on the Civil Engineering Project and the soil conditions, we must collect all the relevant information that will enable us to proceed rationally. There are four sources for collecting this information: the client, through actual observations at the site, from municipal records, and investigations conducted earlier by fellow Consulting Geotechnical Engineers. Some of this has been alluded to in Section 17.1 but let us now put it down more precisely. Information about the Project can be collected from the Client/ArehitecUStructural Engineer and we will need to know: (i) type of structure proposed — its dimensions and layout, (ii) structural loads that need to be transferred to the soil, and (ii) permissible settlements. fe we need to collect the following information: (@ nature of exposed surface soils and/or rock outerops, (ii) surface drainage conditions and whether the site is prone to water logging or flooding, Gii) evidence of landslides, or problems related to slope stability, (iv) depths to ground water level and to bed rock as determined from water bodies, wells, local residents on the basis of any previous drilling operations, and (v) size and type of nearby structures, the foundation systems used, their performance and record of any problems encountered. From municipal records we need to collect: From observations at the s (i) topographic maps so as to understand terrain and drainage pattern, ii) ground water maps or record of observations of ground water level at different times of the year, and Gii)_ geologic maps so as to gain knowledge of depth to bed rock as well as any structural features such as folds and faults,a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.A. 208 Site: Location Characterization Gi) to be able to stop the drilling process and pull out the drilling equipment from the hole—the drilling equipment that goes into the hole is known as the drill string, (iii) to ensure that the hole remains open, i.e. the sides of the hole do not cave in—ensuring this is called stabilizing the hole, (iv) to be able to lower sampling equipment into the hole, collect a soil sample and withdraw the sample and the sampling equipment, (v) to be able to lower equipment for conducting in situ tests, to conduct the tests and withdraw the equipment, and (vi) to be able to insert the drill string back into the hole and continue drilling to a lower depth and repeat operational requirements (ii) to (v) as many times as necessary. A drilling system (see Fig. 17.1) consists of a soil cutting and collecting unit on one end of the drill string and a coupling unit on the other end which couples the drill string to the unit which supplies the energy for the drilling. The middle of the drill string consists either of drill rods or rope or chain, Source of energy Coupling unit Drill string Soil cutting and collecting unit Drilled bore hole Fig. 17.1 A drilling system Most drilling equipment is generically one of the following four types of which, usually, the first three are used in soils and the fourth in rocks: (i) auger drilling—employing one of a variety of augers (see Fig. 17.2), Gi) percussion drilling—employing a bailer (see Fig. 17.3), Gii) jet drilling and wash drilling—employing a variety of soil cutting methods (see Fig. 17.4), and (iv) high speed rotary drilling—using diamond drill bits (see Fig. 17.5). 17.4.1 Auger Drilling For post hole augers and short stem helical augers, auger drilling may be thought of as a screwing and then lifting process. As the auger is rotated into the ground, soil moves into the cavity of the post hole auger or into the space between the threads in the short stem helical auger and gets entrapped. After rotating for some time, the auger is lifted up and the entrapped soil comes out with it creating a hole in the ground. The auger is cleaned and then inserted into the bore hole to repeat the process and this advances the bore hole to a greater depth, Augers can be rotated and pushed into the ground manuallya You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have 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Coordinates of Point A where increase in vertical stress is to be computed by Boussinesq’s Theory Foundations apply load to soil not as point loads but as stress over finite areas. Influence of a uniform stress applied on a finite area is assessed by treating it as an area subjected to an infinite number of point loads of the same magnitude acting on differential areas and integrating to take account of the contribution of all the point loads, Results of such integration are presented in the form of graphical charts. A very useful chart for stressed areas that are rectangular in shape has been presented by RE. Fadum in 1948 and is reproduced here as Fig. 19.3. From the figure, we can directly calculate the increase in the vertical stress, o,, below the comer of a uniformly loaded rectangular area, We can also determine the increase in vertical stress at any other point below the rectangular area by dividing the rectangular area into four sub-rectangles with the point of interest P as the corner of all the 4 sub- rectangles as depicted in Fig. 19.4. Fadum’s Chart can then be used for all four sub-rectangles and the contribution to increase in vertical stress at the point of interest from all added up to get the value of increase in vertical stress at that point on account of the original rectangular loaded area, Figure 19.5 (a) and (b) that can be prepared by the method indicated above, present contours of equal increase in the vertical stress below a loaded square footing having a side “b” and for an infinitely long loaded rectangular footing of width “b”. You will note that these contours are similar in shape to the shaded zone of Fig. 10.6(a) and Fig. 19.1(a) to (c). They are called pressure bulbs. Note also from Fig. 19.5 (c) and (d) that at any given depth, the increase in vertical stress is maximum below the centre of the loaded width and diminishes as one moves away to either side. From Fig. 19.5 (c) it is evident that at a depth equal to “h”, the increase in vertical stress is about 40% of the stress applied by a square footing at the surface and that it diminishes to about 10% at depth equal to “2b”. Similarly, for an infinitely long rectangular loaded area (see Fig. 19.5 (d)) the increase in vertical stress at a depth of two times “b” is about 30% of the stress applied at the surface, From such observations, it is reasonable to conclude that the zone of soil influenced by loading a square or rectangular footing extends to a depth of about two times “b”. In estimating settlement, we therefore, ignore the soil at depths greater than two times “b”. For estimating settlement it is difficult, we may just as well say impossible, to cope with a complicated distribution of increase in vertical stress in the lateral direction at any depth. We would rather have a single value that represents the average increase in vertical stress at each depth. GF, Sowers in 1962 presents factors that when multiplied with the centre line increase in vertical stress at any depth give us a value that represents the average increase for that depth, These factors are presented in Table 19.1.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Settlement Analysis 267 Applied uniform stress g b+z Fig. 19.6 Distribution of stress—the 1:2 Method 19.2 Consolidation Settlement Once we have estimated the increase in stresses in the zone below the foundation, we need some theory to compute the settlement. We know the Theory of One Dimensional Consolidation and that becomes our starting point. The procedures that we follow for clay and for sand differ because of two reasons. One, the sand is free draining and settlements occur almost instantaneously and two, it is not easy to get undisturbed sample of sand and their properties cannot be determined in the laboratory. Let us begin with clays. For the one dimensional consolidation situation depicted in consolidation can be calculated from Eq. 10.5: p= (jt) 020 ite, 10.6(b), the settlement due to For Fig. 10.6(a) which depicts the situation for a raft foundation supporting the house, or for that matter for any foundation, for which the dimensions of the loaded area are much lower than the thickness of the compressible clay layer, Eq. 10.5 is also valid. That is so because conceptually the equation is merely a mathematical expression for the fact that settlement is equal to the compressibility of clay multiplied by the change in effective stress multiplied by the thickness of the clay undergoing consolidation. The equation, however, has to be recast for use for a foundation to take note of the differences in the two situations. What are these differences and how do we take them into account? (i) The change in total stress is not constant with depth but diminishes and at a depth of two times the width of the loaded area we can assume it to have reached a negligible value so we can ignore the clay below this depth. Gi) In the one dimensional situation, the increase in pore water pressure was shown to be equal to the increase in total stress and upon dissipation of the pore water pressure due to consolidation, the increase in effective stress became equal to the increase in total stress. We have so far not shown that the increase in effective stress for the foundation situation is equal to the increase in total stress. In fact it is not. We will, however, first assume that it is the same and estimate the settlement and then indicate how to make a correction on account of this incorrect assumption.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Settlement Analysis 275 Table 19.7 Influence Value for Center of Flexible Footing 0.05 0.23 053 0.96 132 1.79 2.10 2.10 for saturated clays to 0.1 for loose sands. Variations in each deposit are not really taken note of. It is, important to recognize that the value of immediate settlement computed from Eq. 19.6 is not very sensitive to the value of 41 and varies by only 25% when we use values of jf that range from 0.5 to 0. Solved Examples 19,6 and 19.7 illustrate the use of these correction factors. 19.5 Determining Total Settlement in Different Soil Types Sections 19.2 and 19.3 presented methods to determine different components of settlement and Section 19.4, a number of corrections to be applied. An overview of what the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer has to do when he/she encounters different soil types is presented herein. Before doing so it is important to recall that the total settlement is a sum of the settlements due to elastic distortion, compression of air, primary consolidation and secondary consolidation. The last component is relevant only for some particular types of clay and is not considered herein. 19.5.1 Saturated Clay In saturated clay, there is no settlement on account of compres of air. The major component is ‘on account of primary consolidation to be computed as per Section 19,2. To estimate the settlement due to elastic distortion, we can assume {1 to have a value of 0.5, E can be determined as the secant modulous from stress-strain curve obtained from an undrained test if one has good undisturbed samples otherwise it can be estimated from the magnitude of S, as per Table 19.5. For rigid foundations, the correction as per Sub-section 19.4.1 has to be made to the value determined by Eg, 19.6. To this corrected value, we add the settlement due to primary consolidation and make corrections as indicated in Sub-sections 19.4.2 and 19.4.3 to get the final estimate of settlement. In actual practice, since in saturated normally consolidated clays, compared to consolidation settlement the elastic settlement is small, it is often ignored. 19.5.2 Partially Saturated Clay When partially saturated clay is subjected to stress, the pore water pressures that develop are of low magnitude because the B factor is no longer 1.0. In fact the B-factor reduces very markedly with even a small reduction in the Degree of Saturation from 100%. The compressibility of a soil also reduces with reduction in the Degree of Saturation as indicated in Table 16.2. Primary consolidation as such no longer remains a significant component of total settlement. The immediate settlement on the other hand becomes important since it consists of two components: settlement due to compression of aira You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Settlement Analysis 279 dw The settlement, p, at the top of a deep foundation is the sum of the settlement of the tip, p, of the foundation and the elastic compression, AL, of the foundation element itself. Thus p=p,+ AL 9.) Usually AL is significantly less than the settlement of the tip unless the pile is resting on rock. If the pile is an end bearing pile, the entire length of the pile, L, is subjected to the load applied to it by the superstructure, P, and AL= = (19.12) where, A is the cross section area of the pile, and E is the modulous of elasticity of the pile material On the other hand, if the pile is a friction pile, the load P is transferred to the soil along the entire length of the pile and the average load on the pile along its entire length may be taken as P/2 and in such a situation (19.13) In Chapter 23, it will become evident that we never use just one pile but use a group of piles as a foundation system. For computing the settlement of the tip of an end bearing pile group, visualize that the load is transferred to the soil at the elevation of the tip of the group. We may think of this as a raft placed at that elevation. This so called equivalent raft, then influences the zone of soil below it to a depth equal to twice the width of the pile group as indicated in Fig. 19.13. How the stress is distributed below the point of application can be determined either by Fadum’s Chart or by the 1:2 Method. 1-7 Pile group | ir Equivalent O ix Fig. 19.13 The settlement of an end bearing pile group is on account of compression in the zone of depth twice the width of the pile group below the tip of the pile group (b)a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Settlement Analysis 283 A for dry dense sand from Sub-section 19.3.3 assume fl = 0.3, then using Eq. 19.6, a -wLt P= qBU~ Wye 12 = 100 x 5 (1 - 0.37 aut Pe ! 48x P. =10.6 mm Example 19.6 The footing in Solved Examples 19.1, 19.2 and 19.4 is a rigid footing and it is located 1m below the ground surface, Make corrections for rigidity and depth to the settlements computed in Solved Examples 19.2 and 194. Solution Rigidity correction is to be applied when the settlement is computed beneath the centre of the footing. In both Solved Examples 19.2 and 19.4 average settlements have been computed. Hence, correction for rigidity is not to be applied. For Solved Example 19.4, the settlement was computed below the center and below the corner and then averaged to yield a value of 45 mm. Alternatively, we can apply the rigidity correction to the settlement below the centre and if we do that we get the average settlement as 0.8 x 60 = 48mm which compares reasonably well with the value of 45 mm. Le L_3 3 rOSand = 5 saturated soil 1 = 0.5. Interpolating between the curves for £ = 1.0 and £ = 5 we get a Depth Factor = Consolidation Settlement corrected for depth therefore = 600 x 0.87 = 522 mm Elastic Settlement corrected for both rigidity and depth therefore = 48 x 0.87 = 42 mm Example 19.7 A rigid raft 20 m by 20 m transfers a stress of 150 kN/m? to the soil at its hase located 2 m below the ground surface. The subsoil consists of sand down to a depth of 12 m underlain by sandstone, The E for the sand is 60 x 10° KN/m’. (a) Make as best an estimate of settlement as is possible. (b) What would have been the error in the estimate if the presence of bedrock had been ignored. Solution (a) In sand, we can expect immediate settlement to occur and we will use Eq. 19.6 to estimate it. Table Depth Factor is determined from Fig. 19.10. In this case a = = 15. Since this is 87 19.7 willbe used to determine the Influence Factor, /, since a hard layer is present at 74 < 5, We have H_W_ oe L_ OX 7 Hm 30 = 05; 5 = 10and w= 03 - thus F= 0.38 - 2 p= qb -e) t 2, 0.38 = 15020 (1-0. " xan woxi0® p. = 173. mm This value is to be corrected for rigidity and depth effects. Rigidity Factor is 0.8. Depth Factor is not readable from Fig. 19.10 since the graph does not extend to 3 = x = 0.1. The curve is headed towards 1.0 and so we take it as 1.0 Corrected p, = 17.3 x 0.8 x 1.0 = 13.8 mma You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.A 294 Analytical Techniques 20.4 Failure along a ular Failure Surface In Fig. 12.10, we had depicted a failure surface that was part curve and part a straight line. If the stress applied by the footing equals q,,,, a bearing capacity failure occurs, For a Safety Factor of 1.0, the sum of shearing stresses induced along the failure surface would equal the total shearing strength developed. We can pursue this line of thought further with simplifying assumptions. Suppose we consider the failure surface to be circular and assume that the soil strength in the affected zone is a constant, i.e. ¢ = constant and @ = 0. This would be the situation for clay under undrained conditions and then c= S,, ie. the average undrained strength of the soil in the affected zone. The situation is shown in Fig. 20.5(a). Upon failure the soil mass would rotate about the center O of the circular failure surface. Let us say a bearing capacity failure is imminent (Safety Factor = 1.0). At this juncture, the moments trying to cause a rotation of the soil mass about O, that is, the driving moment will equal the moments trying to prevent the soil from rotating, that is, the resisting moment. The driving moment arises on account of qy, applied to the soil by the footing of width B with a lever arm of B/2. The resisting moment arises on account of two reasons. One, because of strength, S,, developed along the failure surface of length 7B with a lever arm of B and, two, because of surcharge 7D, acting along KL, ie. a distance B with a lever arm B/2. The weight of the soil mass, W, does not generate any moment because the moment arm is zero as is evident from Fig. 20.5(b). For Safety Factor = 1.0 Gut a(2) = S, RB (B)+ yD, a(2) (20.4) or Gun = (2%) + q() (20.5) By comparing Eq. 20.5 with Eq. 20.3, we would conclude that NV, = 2x, N, = 1 and N,= 0. These values for N,,.N, and N, are not unreasonable as will become evident in Section 20.6. What to note at the moment is that the form of Eq. 20.3, that is, the form of the Bearing Capacity Equation has been reaffirmed even though the failure surface assumed and the process followed in this Section is very different from the one pursued in Section 20.3. 20.5 The Bearing Capacity Equation As is evident from Eq. 20.3, the ultimate bearing capacity, gy. often referred to just as the bearing capacity, is a function of B, Dy, ¥, Ne. Ny Ny and c. The terms N,, Nj, N, are functions only of a, B a wEA 4 pa re ~ thetobhdd > Circular failure surface XN 4 a Shear strength = S,/ (@) Failure surface (b) Forces at failure Fig. 20.5 Circular failure surfacea You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.A 298 Analytical Techniques 1000 500 100 10 57@ OO Nj 5.7 for9=0 +—+ Ng for 9=0 x Ny; 0 for 6=0 os 0 is 2 2 3% 35 40 45 o degrees Fig. 20.7. Bearing Capacity Factors as a function of as per Terzaghi’s Theory where, Q,, = ultimate load on footing BIL’ = effective footing dimensions (see Sub-section 20.7.6) S_5q Sy = Shape factors that are a function of B/L depth factors that are a function of D/B i, iy iy = load inclination factors that are a function of WATBearing Capacity Analysis 299 Load a we Failure Displacement For dense soil—curve (a) For loose soil—curve (b) (No failure ?) Fig. 20.8 Load-Displacement curves for model footings on soils in dense and loose states V, H = vertical and horizontal components respectively of load on footing 8 8, 8y = factors that reflect effect of slope of ground b, b, by = factors that reflect effect of tilt of base of footing The Bearing Capacity Factors used with the generalized equation, Eq. 20.7, are not the ones proposed by Terzaghi but by the ones proposed by Vesic. For comparison, both are tabulated in Table 20.1. Many researchers have proposed methods to evaluate the five factors s.d.,g, and b; a few typical values as per Vesic are listed in Table 20.2. Table 20.1. Bearing Capacity Factors as per Terzaghi and Vesic in esi ere. M, NO 0 57 10 0 0 96 83 25 12 20 177 148 64 34 30 372 30.1 184 22.5 40 95.7 753 642 1094 It is important to note that Terzaghi’s theory is still in use and is observed to yield reasonably accurate estimates for usual footings with vertical loads. Only for large sized footings and complex site and loading conditions does the generalized equation score over Terzaghi’s theory. In Section 20.5 we have already discussed how B, Dy, 7, c and @ influence the bearing capacity. We now examine the influence on bearing capacity of each of the five new factors that have been introduced in Eg. 20.7. 20.7.1 Shape Factors All bearing capacity theories are developed assuming that the footing is very long. This assumption enables one to carry out the analysis for a two dimensional situation. For square, rectangular or circular footings, conditions are not two but three dimensional. The shape factors in Eq. 20.7 are correcting for this difference. As B/L varies from 0 to 1, the values of these factors as per relationships proposed by Vesic vary and take values on both sides of unity. Table 20.2 gives the values for B/L = 1 that is for a square footing in which s, and s, are more than 1.0 but 5, is less than 1.0.A 300 Analytical Techniques Table 20.2 Typical Values of the Five Factors in the Generalized Bearing Capacity Equation, Eq. 20.7 Factor Soit Type Condition Values ‘Shape c20 (BIL) =0 4, = 1.00 5, = 1.00 5, = 1.00 factors, s \ 9 = 30°, (BIL) = 1 5. = 1.61 5, = 158 5, = 0.60 Depth (22) (Dy1B) = 0. d. factors, d o= 30") Ss Inclination factors, i Ground 8. =n. g, = 1.00 g,= 1.00 slope g.=n.a g, 2068 g,= 0.68 factors, g = 040 g,= 040 Base tilt en0y 1a. by = 1.00 by = 1.00 factors, bg = 30° b, =na. by = 081 b, = 081 La. by = 0.64 by = 0.64 20.7.2 Depth Factors For a footing placed below the ground surface at a depth Dy Tercaghi viewed the contribution of the soil above the base of the footing merely as that of providing a surcharge and the influence was accounted for in the second term of the Bearing , Capacity Equation. For a failure surface to emerge Show dng fom neD, at the ground surface, it also has to pass through the soil above the base of the footing as shown in Fig. 20.9, The strength of the soil in this zone, therefore, also serves to increase the bearing capacity. Depth factors, as such, increase with the ratio D{B. Shown in Table 20.2 are the values for D4B = 0.5 and 1 from which itis evident that d. Fig. 20.9. Footing at some depth below the aad increase andar more than 1.0 whereas ground surface is 10. 20.7.3 Inclination Factors When the load reaching the foundation has, in addition to the vertical component, a horizontal component as well, the resultant is an inclined load. The horizontal component has the effect of giving the soil below the footing an extra push to fail along the failure surface generated in the direction in which it is acting, see Fig. 20.10. This extra push therefore reduces the bearing capacity and inclination factors are all less than 1.0. The greater the inclination, the lower are the values of the inclination factors as is evident from the values given in Table 20.2 for footings on coarse grained soil in which the cohesion intercept is zero.Bearing Capacity Analysis 301 A HS Resultant inclined load gives an extra push for soil to fail in direction of inclination ath Fig. 20.10 Footing subjected to inclined load 20.7.4 Ground Slope Factors When a footing is placed on sloping ground, the slope enhances the tendency to fail in the direction that is down the slope as shown in Fig. 20.11. Ground slope factors are therefore less than and 1.0 and reduce as the slope increases as indicated in Table 20.2. Slope enhances the tendency to fail in the direction down the slope. Fig. 20.11 Footing on sloping ground 20.7.5 Base Tilt Factors Figure 20.12 shows a footing with its base P tilted at an angle 1. The tilt direction \ promotes failure to take place in a particular direction as shown in Fig. 20.12 and has the effect of reducing the bearing capacity. The base tilt factors therefore have values less than 1.0 and reduce as the tilt increases as is _7 evident from Table 20.2. Solved Example fl 20.2 shows how the Base Tilt Factors and ‘some of the other factors presented in Table 20.2 are used. Tilt enhances the tendency to fail along failure surface shown. Fig. 20.12 A tilted footingA 32 Analytical Techniques 20.7.6 Footing Subjected to a Moment Figure 20.13(a) depicts a footing of width B being subjected to a vertical load P acting at the center line of the foundation and a moment M. Such a loading can also be represented by its equivalent consisting of the vertical load, V, acting not at the center line of the footing, but off-center by an amount, e, such that Ve equals M — see Fig. 20.13(b). The distance, e, is called the eccentricity, that is, the load V is acting eccentrically by an amount e. In Fig. 20.13(b), the load V would be acting centrally if we were to ignore part of the foundation to the far left having the dimension 2e. The effective width, B’, over which the load V is acting centrally is then B — 2e as shown in Fig. 20.13(c). For determining the g,;, when the foundation is subjected to a moment in addition to the vertical load, we use B’ in Eq. 20.7 instead of B. If there were a moment acting in the direction orthogonal to the one shown in Fig. 20.13, that is, in the direction of the length of the foundation, L, then, we would use the effective length L’ = L~ 2e,, where ¢,, is the eccentricity in the L direction arising on account of the moment in that direction. The stress applied to the soil is V/B’L’. In other words we just ignore a part of the foundation (B ~ B”) and (L~ L") and assume that it does not exist. We use @ gy, that is less than the g,,, that corresponds (o the actual size of the foundation of width B and length L. And, because of this use of a reduced q,i, the foundation can safely carry the moment as well. This is illustrated in Solved Example 20.3. t ' veP ' I: i ev=M a —— 12 Bl (a) (b) © Fig. 20.13 Effective width for a footing acted upon by a moment and a vertical load 20.8 Selecting Appropriate Strength Parameters Inall the discussion on the various bearing capacity theories in the previous Sections, we have assumed that the soil strength is characterized by the shear strength parameters, c and @. There has been no mention of which ¢ and 9, Are the c and ¢ to be obtained from UU tests, CU tests or CD tests? Are they to be in terms of total stresses or effective stresses? The mathematics of the theories does not care. It is for you, the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer, to decide which c and ¢ are relevant and therefore should be used. This decision is solely the prerogative of the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer—no one else can make it. No one else has the knowledge base to do so, This decision is very important. We know that a soil will have a finite ¢ and a ¢ equal to zero under UU conditions if expressed in terms of total stresses. We know that the same soil will have a much lower c, sometimes even zero, and a finite ¢ if we express soil strength in terms of effective stresses regardless of which type of test was conducted. The 4,,, we calculate from Eq. 20.3 or Eq. 20.7 will be very different depending on the c and @ used in the equations. So let us discuss how to make this decision.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Bearing Capacity Analysis 313 20.12 Estimating Axial Pile Capacity—Pile Load Test Approach Depending on the magnitude of the project, the nature of the soil profile and the total number of piles likely to be installed at the site, Consulting Geotechnical Engineers conduct one or more Pile Load Tests. A Pile Load Test is a prototype test, that is, it is conducted on full scale under conditions that are identical to those that will exist in the actual foundation. So, on the basis of design arrived at using the theoretical approach, the pile that has been selected is installed at the site in exactly the same manner as has been proposed in the design. It is then subjected to load increments and the settlement that occurs under each increment is observed and recorded. A standardized test procedure is followed. The testing arrangements are depicted in Fig. 20.22 and typical test results are presented in Fig. 20.23. The test is completed in a short time—a few days. Dead load sand bags steel girder etc. eb ee yoo Eo =F | Jack Test Test pile pile Anchor piles Reaction from dead load Reaction from Anchor piles Fig. 20.22 Arrangements for conducting a Pile Load Test Load —+ un (b) — Settlement (a) Fig. 20.23 Results from Pile Load TestsA 314 Analytical Techniques The load-settlement curve (a) depicted in Fig. 20,23 is observed when the soil is dense sand or stiff clay. The magnitude of the ultimate load carrying capacity at which the pile failed is obvious from the shape of the curve and is shown in Fig. 20.23. The safe design load is the ultimate load divided by the Safety Factor prescribed by the code and is usually of the order of 1.5 to 2.5. For other soil profiles when the soils are not dense or stiff, the pile settlement increases gradually as the load is applied and there is no clearly defined failure load as indicated in curve (b) in Fig. 20.23. Under such conditions, limiting settlement is used as the design criterion to determine the design load, A typical criteria states that the safe design load shall be taken as the lower of: {i) half the load at which pile settlement is 10% of the pile diameter Gi) two-thirds of the load at which pile settlement is 12. mm Use of this criteria is illustrated in Solved Example 20.7. It should be apparent to you that the Pile Load Test conducted in cohesive soils gives an indication only of the short term pile capacity since the time taken to conduct the test is insufficient for induced pore water pressures to dissipate and for consolidation to occur. The long term capacity is usually more than the short term one but not always so as discussed in Sub-section 20.11.1. 20.13 Estimating Axial Pile Capacity—Driving Resistance Approach When the pile is installed by driving the pile into the ground, the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer makes use of information that he/she obtains during the process of pile driving to assess the load carrying capacity of the pile after it has reached its final penetration, The pile is driven by a heavy hammer falling through a specific height and striking the top of the vertically held pile. Each time the hammer falls, the pile penetrates some amount into the soil. Many hammer blows are required to drive the pile to the desired penetration. As the pile is driven it encounters resistance. The stronger the soil, the greater is the resistance to the impact of the hammer ~ a dynamic load. The stronger the soil, the greater is the load carrying capacity of the pile to support static load. Consulting Geotechnical Engineers hypothesized that there must be some correlation between driving resistance with the load carrying capacity in the short term. Delving into this hypothesis led to the basic thought that the energy applied to drive pile is primarily used to overcome soil’s resistance to pile penetration and some energy is lost during the driving process. This was given mathematical form and led to the development of a number of so called pile driving formulae. 20.13.1 Engineering News Formula The Engineering News Formula, Eq. 20.21, was developed in the end of the nineteenth century in the United States. The Formula is simple and is useful for understanding the concept involved. It uses feet, inches and tons as units QWH) (ste) where, Q, is the safe load carrying capacity of the pile in tons, W is the weight of hammer in tons, His the height of fall of the hammer in feet, s is the penetration on the last blow of the hammer in inches, and c is a coefficient that reflects energy lost and has the value of 1.0, for an ordinary drop hammer. ‘The Formula is developed from the basic thought that Q, (20.21)Bearing Capacity Analysis 318 A Energy applied = Energy used in pile penetration + Energy lost WH= Qin + Quy € (20.22) Since energy is force multiplied by distance, the energy applied by the hammer is its weight multiplied by the distance it falls. The energy consumed in pile penetration during each blow is the resistance (force) offered by soil multiplied by the penetration of pile during that blow. On the last blow, the resistance offered is Q,,,. The energy lost in each blow is also expressed in terms of the resistance offered by the soil multiplied by a coefficient, c. Rearranging Eq. 20.22 and expressing it in the units used in the Engineering News Formula, we get _ (2WH) Qun = +o) (20.23) ‘The 12 in the Eq, 20.23 is to convert H in feet into inches since s is in inches. Comparing Eq. 20.21 with Eq. 20.23, it is apparent that the Engineering News Formula has built in it a Safety Factor of 6.0. In actual fact, studies have indicated that this Safety Factor of 6 in the Engineering News Formula is deceptive and in reality the Safety Factor is much less and often of the order of only 2. 20.13.2 Newer Formulae Formulae that are used more often now were proposed by A. Hiley in 1925 and N. Janbu 1953. Formula proposed by Janbu is given in Eq. 20.24 and it indicates the large number of variables that are now taken into account, _ [away (a Qu = [ IG ) (20,24) s 4 where 1 = is an efficiency factor that depends on pile driving equipment, driving procedure, type of pile and ground conditions and equals 0.70, 0.55 and 0.40 for good, average and bad driving conditions respectively, and aw k= cft+(1+24) (20.24(a)) 4 W, Cy= 0.75 + 0.15 ¥ (20.24(b)) Ae er (20.24(c)) where L = length of pile, A = cross sectional area of pile, W, = weight of pile and E = Modulous of Elasticity of the pile material The recommended Safety Factor to be used with Janbu’s formula is 3.0. 20.13.3 Wave Equation Analysis An even more recent development in estimating axial capacity of pile from the record of blow counts during pile driving is known as the Wave Equation Analysis. It is based on the theory of propagationA 316 Analytical Techniques of a compressive stress wave in a long slender elastic rod. The soil surrounding the pile is simulated as a series of elastic springs and Newtonian dash-pots. The equation is solved by finite difference techniques to yield Q,,,. Its discussion is beyond the scope of this Book. tion 20.14 Negative Skin Fri From the discussion in the last few sections itis clear that when load from the superstructure is applied to the soil through a pile, it is borne by the soil through end bearing and skin friction, For end bearing and skin friction to develop the pile must move downwards in relation to the soil. There are, however, occasions when after a pile has been installed, the soil surrounding the pile begins to move downwards in relation to the pile. When this occurs, the soil exerts a downward drag on the pile. This downward drag is called negative skin friction. The Consulting Geotechnical Engineer needs to be aware of the circumstances when negative skin friction can develop and how it affects Q,,, Consider a soil profile consisting of soft clay underlain by a firm stratum. For such a profile, we would use a pile resting on the firm stratum so that the pile derives its resistance from end bearing and also some from skin friction and as per Eq. 20.16 Qu = Q + Q (20.16) Consider what happens on account of the following two events: (@) a fill is placed at the ground surface above the soft clay—the fill will induce the development of excess pore water pressures in the soft clay and with time they will dissipate, the effective stress will increase and the soft clay will consolidate. As it consolidates it will move downwards in relation to the pile since the pile is resting on firm stratum. (ii) at this site for some reason the ground water table is lowered—the lowering of the ground water table has the effect of increasing the effective stress in the soft clay and it will consolidate and move downwards in relation to the pile. In both these situations, the effect of the downward movement of the soft clay in relation to the pile will be two fol (i) the skin friction in soft clay helping to resist the load from the superstructure will be wiped out ii) the downward movement of the soil will impose a drag equal to the skin friction in the downward direction which will have to be borne by end bearing. In other words, the Q,,, will no longer be as given by Eq. 20.16 but will change to Que = Qy - Q, (20.16(a)) End bearing will have to support not just the load of the superstructure but also the load on account of negative skin friction acting on the pile surface. 20.15 Pile Group and Group Capacity In the last five Sections we have been focussing primarily on a pile—just a single pile. A single pile, as also noted in Section 19.7, is, however, never used as a deep foundation system. The load coming from the superstructure through a column is usually transmitted to a group of three or more piles. The group of piles are arranged in a geometrical pattern and heid rigidly together at the top in a pile cap ‘on which the column rests as shown in Fig, 20.24.Bearing Capacity Anatysis 37 A Column D _$olumn S—s Pile cap ae ° ° Ground q surface Piles Piles Pile > fo oF Pile cap —+) }-— cap o 0 Oo fa) (b) Fig. 20.24 A pile group as a deep foundation system and arrangement of piles in typical pile ‘groups In designing pile foundations, our concer actually is that the pile group must not settle more than the acceptable amount and that the load carrying capacity of the group must be such that a bearing capacity failure does not occur. We must of course also ensure that each pile is not overloaded and indeed also not under-loaded so that the foundation we design is not unnecessarily expensive. The ultimate capacity of the group, Qyi,./ a8 such, must not exceed the capacity of individual piles, Gun Multiplied by the number of piles, n, in the group, i.e. Quirgr S" Gute (20.25) When Q,y. «is less than n q,y, not all individual piles are being used to capacity. The efficiency ratio, n, of such a group is defined as Quis-gr = (20.26 7 71Quy ) To determine the load carrying capacity of the group, we rewrite Eq. 20.26 as Quer = 1% Quic (20.27) Model experiments have indicated that for pile groups in clay, the efficiency ratio is less than unity when piles are placed close together and is unity only when the center to center spacing of piles is about eight times the diameter of individual piles. In sands, the action of driving piles in a group tends to compact the soil around the piles and 7) becomes more than unity. 1) becomes unity as spacing is increased. The magnitude of 1) is a subject of intensive investigation and many recommendations are available. A discussion about them is beyond the scope of this Book. For design purposes, as will be disccussed in Chapter 23, we take 7 as 1.0 and place the piles as per recommended spacing. In clays, for a spacing of about two times the diameter, the pile group tends to fail as a block, that is, the pile group and the soil contained in between the piles all behave like a monolith—see Fig. 20.1(c). The dimensions of this monolith are used to determine its surface area, A,,,., and cross sectional area, Absmons 0 Qutomon = fr Asmon + % Abmon (20.28)Analytical Techniques where, f, = a Sy, qp = S,N, and N, varies between 5.7 (shallow footings see Eq. 20.9) and 9.0 (piles see Eq. 20.17) as D,/B varies between 1 and 5 ‘The controlling uitimate pile capacity, then, is the lower Of Qy.yon and n Qy, as illustrated in Solved Example 20.8. SoWed Exampley Example 20.1 Calculate the ultimate bearing capacity for a footing in sand for the following cases and comment on the influence on q,y of Dj, B, water table location and soil properties. Table 20.4 Case BOD, Location of Soil Properties Bearing Capacity mom water table ee _ _ 6 _ degrees @ 2 4 ‘Very deep 18 35 a a ) 2 2 Very deep 18 35 a a oO 4 4 Very deep 18 35 4 a @ 2 1 Arground surface 18 35 4 a ® 2 1 ‘Very deep 0 375 61 86 Solution Using Eq. 20.3 with the ¢ N, term equal to zero, we have Gur = 4 Ny + 0.5YB Ny (8) uy = (1X 18 x 41) + (0.5 x 18 x 2 x 42) = 738 + 756 = 1494 KN/m? (b) gy = (2X 18 x 41) + (OS x 18 x2 x 42) = 1476 + 756 = 2232 kN/m? 1 x 18 x 41) + (0.5 x 18 x4 x 42) = 738-+ 1512 = 2250 KN/m? (G) uy = (1X8 X41) + OS XB X 2X 42) = 328 + 336 = 664 kN/m? (©) Quip = (1 X 20 x 61) + (0.5 x 20 x 2 x 86) = 1220 + 1720 = 2940 kN/m? Influence of depth of foundation, D, : comparing (b) with (a), first term of Eq. 20.3 doubles and yy, increases by about 50%. Influence of width of foundation, B —: comparing (c) with (a), second term of Eq. 20.3 doubles and gy, increases by about 50%. Influence of location of water table: comparing (d) with (a), both terms of Eq. 20.3 about halved and Gur decreases to about 50%. Influence of soil properties + comparing (e) and (a), with very small increases in , and both terms of Eq. 20.3 increase significantly and q,, increases by about 100%. Example 20.2 For conditions (a) to (f) specified in Table 20.5, use the Generalized Bearing Capacity Equation to determine the qui, of a footing with B equal to 2.4m located in sand that has a 7, = 16kN/m’, c = 0 and @ = 30°. The water table is at a great depth,Bearing Capacity Analysis 319 Table 20.5 Condition Shape Dyin Horizontal Ground Base a m Force, H Slope, B° ‘Tilt’ N/m? (a) strip 0 0 0 0 432 (b) square o o o oO 260 © square 12 0 0 0 896 @ square 12 O1Vv o 0 703 (e) square 12 ov » 0 281 © square 1.2 o1v 20 10 28 Solution We will use Eq. 20.7 without the cN, term since ¢ = 0. For ¢ = 30° N, ‘Vesic from Table 20.1: 8.4 and N, = 22.5 as per ar = GN g (54 dy ig 8 Bg) + OSYBIN, (8,dyiy By by) (a) All factors 5, d, i, g and b are unity and q = 0, therefore Gan = 9.5 YBN, = 0.5 x 16 x 2.4 x 22.5 = 432 kN/m? and this is recorded in the last column in Table 20.5. (b) Factors d, i, g and b are unity; q = 0, and shape factor for BIL = 1.0 from Table 20.2 is s, = 0.60 Gu = OS YBN, 5, = 432 x 0.6 = 260 kN/m* and this is recorded in the last column in Table 20.5. (©) Factors i, g and b are unity; q # 0; shape factors for B/L = 1.0 from Table 20.2 are s, = 1.58 s, and depth factors for D/B = 1.2/2.4 = 0.5 from Table 20.2 are d, = 1.14 d, = 1.00 ats = ON (fly) + OSYBIN, (5, d,) = (16 X 1.2 % 18.4 X 1.58 x 1.14) + 260 = 636 + 260 = 896 N/m? and this is recorded in the last column in Table 20.5. (4) Effect of factor i has now to be included as well; For H/V = 0.1 inclination factors from Table 20.2 are i, = 081 i, = 0.73 Gatc= 9Ny(S ig) + 0.5 YBN, (5, dyi,) = (636 x 0.81) + (260 x 0.73) = 515 + 188 = 703 kN/m? and this is recorded in the last column in Table 20.5. (e) Effect of factor g has now to be included as well; For 6 = 20° ground slope factors from Table 20.2 are y= 040 g, = 0.40 Gate = AN (54 ly ig &q) + 0.SYBN, (5 dyiy8,) is recorded in the last column in Table 20.5. (®) Effect of factor b has now to be included as well; For 1) = 10° base tilt factors from Table 20.2 are b, = 0.81 b,=0.81 Gute = AN g (Sty iy 8g bq) + O-SYBN, (5 yi,2yb,) = (206 x 0.81) + (75 x 0.81) = 167 + 61 = 228 kN/m? and this is recorded in'the last column in Table 20.5. Note: The q,y decreased from 432 to 260 when the two dimensional behaviour of a strip footing changed to three dimensional behaviour of a square footing. Locating the square footing below ground surface helped very significantly to increase the q,, and it increased from 260 to 896. With application of horizontal stress, or with increased ground slope or base tilt the g,,, diminishes; with all three there, the q,;, reduced from 896 to 288 kN/m?, Example 20.3 The qu of a footing 2 m by 2 m is 150kN/m?, The ultimate vertical load it can carry is thus 600 KN. How should the dimensions of the footing be altered so that it can also carry an ultimate moment of 90 kNm in ‘one direction and 60 kNm in the other direction? 0.60 [515 x 0.40) + (188 x 0.40) = 206 +75 = 281 kN/m? and thisA. 320 Analytical Techniques Solution The footing dimensions B’ is thus 2 m and L’ is thus 2 m ‘The direction in which the ultimate moment of 90 kNm acts has an eccentricity e= 2° = 0.15 m. In this direction the dimension of the footing should be increased to L = 2 + (2 « 0.15) = oe The direction in which the ultimate moment of 60 kNm acts has an eccentricity ¢ = g = 0.1 m. In this direction the dimension of the footing should be increased to L = 2 + (2 x 0.1) =2.2 m Example 20.4 Determine 4,,, for the square footing of Solved Example 19.8 located as indicated therein in that soil profile. Solution B = 2m; D,= 1.5m; N” as worked out in Solved Example 19.8 is 14. With water located at great depth Rw and R’w are 1.0; we use Eg. 20.11 to determine 1 m2 per dun = (ZA? BR’, + 6(100 + (WY) D, Rel 1 2 2) Gute = (ae x (14)? x 2 x 1 + 6(100 + (14)") x 15 x 1] dur = (&)rs + 2664) = 56 kN/m?, Example 20.5 A 600 mm diameter pile is to be installed at a site that is characterized by two sand layers. The top layer is 12 m thick, has @ 7% = 20 kN/m’ and a ¢ = 30°, The bottom layer is 20 m thick, has ay, = 22 kN/m’ and a @ = 35°, The ground water table is at the ground surface. Compute the Unit End Bearing and the Unit Skin Friction at depths of 10, 15, 20 and 25 m below the ground surface. Use N, = 20 for 9 = 30° and N, = 50 for 9 = 35°, Take 5= 9 and K = 1.0. Solution Using Eq. 20.18, Unit End Bearing, q, = qN, = 0°, Ny Using Eq. 20.19, Unit Skin Friction, f, = Ko’, tan 5 For depth 10 m: 0, = (20 ~ 10) x 10 = 100 kN/m? ; 9 = 30° and so N, = 20; tan 5 = tan 30° = 0.58 4 = 100 20 = 2000 KN/m? f, = 1 x 100 x 0.58 = 58 kN/m? For depth 15 m: = 10) x 3] = 156 kNim? ; @ = 35° and so N, = 50; % f,= 1 156 x 0.70 = 109 kN/m? but this is more than the limiting value which as per Table 20.3 is 100 kN/m? and so f, = 100 kN/m?, For depth 20 m: 0, = (20 ~ 10) x 12} + [(22 - 10) x 8) = 216 kNim’; 9 = 35° and so N, = 50; tan 6 = tan 35° = 0.70 4p = 216 x 50 = 10,800 kN/m? but this is more than the limiting value which as per Table 20.3 is 10,000 kN/m? and so q, = 10,000 kN/m?. 00 kN/m? already at limiting value. fi For depth 25 m: qs = 10,000 kN/m? 7, = 100 kN/m?, Both at limiting values.Bearing Capacity Anatysis 321 & | Example 20.6 Determine the ultimate axial capacity of a 600 mm diameter pile installed to a depth of 18 m at the site with 1 profile as shown in Fig. 20.25. Note that the pile tip is in the clay layer. How much will the ultimate axial capacity increase if the pile length is increased by 3 m to 21 m so that the tip is in the sand layer? Take | @= 1.0 for S, up to 50 kN/m?; a = 0.8 for S, = 80 kN/m? and a = 0.6 for S, = 110 kN/m*; N, = 50 for @ = 35°, K=1.0 and Ground S, KN/m? surface A 20 40 60 80 100 120 EL.-20m c= 0; 9=35° 47 22kNim* Fig. 20.25 Soil profile and S, with depth Solution Using Eq. 20.20 for estimating ultimate axial capacity Qu = = fa Aut Ad Undrained strength is gradually increasing with depth. We divide up the 20 m thick clay layer into four segments and in each segment use a constant value of S, that is an average of the S, in that segment. Table 20.6 Segment m f= aS, KN/im? LAAN os 20 20 188 5-10 50 $0 470 10-15 30 64 602 15418 10 66 £06 x3=5.7 376 15-20 10 66 94 620 20-21 Limiting value of f, = 100 £06 x 1=19 190 ‘When the pile is 18 m long, the four segments are 0-5, 5-10, 10-15 and 15-18. Estimate of f, A, is worked out in the first four rows of the Table 20.6. 2 2 ALIS m, Ay = SNe oe = 10x 9x ex OSE 280 KN Qyy = 188 + 470 + 602 + 376 + 280 = 1916 kN Note: The contribution of end bearing is = = 15% When the pile is 21 m long there are four 5 m-thick segments in clay and one Im-thick segment in sand, ie. first three and last two rows of Table 20.6.A 322 Analytical Techniques 2 (00 2827 tN imiting value of 10,000 KN/m?; q,, A, = 10,000 x mx Qui, = 188 + 470 + 602 + 620 + 190 + 2827 = 4897 KN i a5 ig 2827 Note: The contribution of end bearing is 75> By carrying the pile to the sand layer, the end bearing component increased ten times and the ultimate pile capacity increased two and a half times. Example 20.7 Data from a pile load test on a 300 mm diameter pile is given below. Determine the design load on the pile. Load kN {100 | 120 | 140 | 160 | 180 | 200 Settlement mm 3 5. | Ww 3 7 | 2 27 css = 62 58% Solution The criteria for determining the design load is that it shall be taken as the lower of: (@ half the load at which pile settlement is 10% of the pile diameter ii) two-thirds of the load at which pile settlement is 12 mm Using criterion (i): 10% of the pile diameter is 30 mm; Load at 30 mm pile settlement is 150 KN; half this load is 75 KN. Using criterion (ii): Load at pile settlement of 12mm is 75 kN; two-thirds of this load is 50 KN ‘The design load is lower of 50 KN and 75 KN that is it is 50 kN Example 20.8 Compute the controlling group capacity of a 16 pile group in square arrangement made up of 15 m long piles of 600 mm diameter in soft clay having an average undrained strength of 50 kN/m? if the centre to centre pile spacing is (a) 2 times the pile diameter and (b) 3 times the pile diameter, Solution We use Eq, 20.20 for estimating ultimate axial capacity of an individual pile Quir = © fa As + dy Ay Ff, = 1* 50 = SO kNim? (a= 1); Ay= # DL = 0.6 x 15 = 28.27 mt? dy = €N.=S,N,250%9 = 4804Nin A= 2D ger 0.28 m? Qury = (50 x 28.27) + (450 x 0.28) = 1413.5 + 126 = 1540 KN Ultimate load capacity of 16 piles = n Qu, = 16 x 1540 = 24640 KN (a) 4x 4 pile group with a centre to centre spacing of 2 times the pile diameter D 7 = 1D=42m side of monolith square = 2 + 2D +20 + 20+ perimeter of monolith = 4.2 x4 = 16.8 m; surface area of monolith, Ay oq = 16.8 x 15 = 252 m?; base area of monolith, Ay ux = 4.2 * 4.2 = 17.64 m? 2. is Dy Dy _ As J, = SOKNIm’; qy = ¢ No= S, N (N, i less than 9.0 because “fis tess than 5.0; = 1S = take N, = 8) q, = 50 x 8 = 400 kN/m’?,a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.A 324 Analytical Techniques (a) Negative skin friction occurs in dense sands. (0) For a group of 1 piles, Q,,, of the group estimated on the basis of monolith behaviour cannot exceed n times the Q,,, of a single pile. Descriptive Questions 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 20.8 20.9 20.10 A footing is constructed on sand. Will its bearing capacity remain the same forever or can it change during the life of the footing? A square footing is to be constructed quickly on clay and immediately subjected to load. Will increasing the width of such a footing, increase its bearing capacity? A footing of $ x S dimensions is subjected to vertical load P, a moment in one direction of M1 and ‘a moment in the other direction of M2. What would be the effective dimensions of the footing on which the vertical load P may be considered to be acting What is the bearing capacity of Delhi silt? A pile, not resting on rock, derives 60% of its ultimate axial capacity from skin friction and the balance 40% from end bearing. If a safe load of 33% of the ultimate capacity is applied to the pile, will it be resisted by skin friction or end bearing? Discuss why? Why is the theoretical approach of estimating axial pile capacity more popular than the other approaches? Will a pile group show monolith behaviour when the piles are closely spaced or spaced afar? Why is the Pile Load Test a useful test but the Plate Load Test almost always a useless test? In soft clay the skin friction that develops between the soil and the pile is almost equal to the undrained strength of the clay but in stiff clay it is much less than the undrained strength of the stiff clay. Explain Numerical Problems 20.11 20.12 20.13 20.14 ‘The ultimate bearing capacity of 1.5 m wide and a very long strip footing located at a depth of 1 m below ground surface is 300 kN/m*, For safety’s sake we have been advised to apply a load of only 33% of the ultimate load. The load per metre run of the wall applied on such a footing is 150 kN. There is also a moment per metre run of the wall acting in the direction of the width of 37.5 kNm, What width of the footing will assure safety against a bearing capacity failure? Ans. 2m Determine the ultimate bearing capacity of a strip footing 2.4 m wide located at a depth of 1.2 m below ground surface in sand that has total unit weight of 20kN/m*, and a @ = 30 degrees. The water table is at ground surface and the ratio of horizontal force to vertical force that will be applied will be 20%. What would be the Unit Skin Friction at a depth of 10 m in a sand when the angle of friction between the pile and the sand 6 is 30 degrees, the angle of shearing resistance of the sand @ is 35 degrees, the total unit weight of the sand is 20 kN/m’, the water table is at a depth of 15 m below ground surface, and the K can be assumed to have a value of 0.7 A pile of 300 mm diameter and 20.5 m length is installed at a site where the soil profile consists of 20 m of soft clay underlain by dense sand. For this sand-pile system the ultimate bearing capacity in sand is 27,000 kN/m*, The undrained strength of the soft clay is 10 kN/m?. Estimate the ultimate capacity of the pile immediately after installation and the ultimate capacity after a very long time. Ans. immediately: 2096 kN; after long time: 1720 KN.20.15 20.16 20.17 Bearing Capacity Analysis 325 & Determine the ultimate axial capacity of a 600 mm diameter pile, 12 m long to be installed as per soil conditions and factors given in Solved Example 20.5. Determine the ultimate axial capacity of a group of 16 piles arranged in a square arrangement at a centre to centre spacing of two times the pile diameter for conditions specified in Numerical Problem 20.15. Determine the capacity both for piles in the group functioning individually and the group functioning as a monolith and indicate which will be the controlling capacity. You have to design a pile to carry 20 tons. From theory you have estimated that a pile length of 10 m would have a design load of 20 tons. The contractor used pile driving equipment and process for which c= 0.1 and installed a test pile using a 1 ton hammer falling 4 ft and gave you the data given below. For piles of what length, will you place order? Length of pile in m 7) 8] 9], N] 2] BY] Penetration/low in inches | 050 | 045 | 040 | 035 | 030 | 025 | 025Chapter Slope Stability Analysis From our observation of how things are in nature, we know that all bodies of water are always found with their exposed surface as a horizontal level plane. Be it the ocean, a lake, a pond or the man-made Water reservoirs, swimming pools, or for that matter even water in a jug or a pan or a tray, the exposed surface of water is never found sloping in any direction, If we were to force a slope on it, the water just flows from the high zone to the low zone until the surface becomes a horizontal level plane. This is not so for ground, that is, it is not so for a mass of soil. We do encounter flat horizontal ground, but also sloping ground at all kinds of slopes: gentle and steep. Sometimes we even find ground standing vertically in cliffs or when we make a cut by excavating soil. We have also heard, maybe even seen, sloping ground to slide and collect in a heap at the bottom of the slope. This is especially true in hilly regions during the rainy season. Many highways, we read in the newspapers, get closed for traffic because of a slide of the slopes next to the roadway—the soil slips and collects on the road making the road non-functional For a Geotechnical Engineering student like you, all these observations collected together should raise some questions in your mind, such as: (@ why is water not stable when we force a slope on it? (ii) why are some soils stable at gentle slopes and others at steeper slopes? (iii) when does a stable soil cease to be stable and then slides? (iv) what causes instability? and (v) what ensures stability? Not only are we going to find answers to these questions in this Chapter but we are going to develop analytical techniques to assess the stability of a soil standing at any slope and express it quantitatively. We begin by postulating that the difference between water bodies that are stable only when their exposed surface is in a horizontal level plane and ground that can be stable even when it is sloping arises ‘on account of the fact that water does not possess any shear strength whereas soil does. It is the presence of shear strength in soil that provides stability to sloping ground. This postulate we will investigate first for infinite slopes in the next Section before we look at finite slopes.Slope Stabitity Analysis 327 21.1 Stability of Infinite Slopes Infinite is only a concept in our mind. There cannot be an infinite slope in our world, the world itself is finite. What we mean by an infinite slope is that it is a slope that extends over a long distance and if we were to focus on a zone near the middle, it seems that on either side of it for quite some distance the conditions are identical. Such an infinite slope is depicted in Fig. 21.1. If this slope were to become unstable, then soil would move from the high zone to the low zone along some surface or surfaces. Which surface or surfaces? The slope is ‘infinite’. The conditions everywhere are the same. The characteristics of the surface must also be the same everywhere. This suggests the failure surface would be parallel to the slope. At what depth would it be located? Conditions every where are the same. So may be the failure surface can be at any and all depths. Let us look at any surface such as the one shown in Fig. 21.1 at a depth z below the ground surface. W= body weight of element kimn Possible failure surface Weosi i W= y,zb cosi Wsini « ) Fig. 21.1 A typical element below an infinite slope Let us consider the stresses acting on a typical element, klmn, bounded by vertical sides and on the top by the sloping ground surface and the bottom by a possible failure surface, Stresses acting on the two vertical sides will be equal and opposite and will thus cancel out. The only stress acting on the base mn will be on account of the body weight of the element. Fig. 21.1(b) shows the body force isi resolved in directions parallel and normal to the base. The normal component of stress “£°S! causes b no instability to the slope because the soil below the element will provide the necessary support. The = will tend to induce displacement of soil in a direction down the slope. This is a stress that can cause the slope to slide downwards and is thus known as the driving stress. Whether the soil slides downwards or not depends on how much resistance can be mobilized other component of stress”A 328 Analytical Techniques along the base mn to resist the driving stress. The resisting stress depends on the shear strength of the soil. Further analysis of the stability of the slope shown in Fig. 21.1(a) requires that we specify the soil type and its strength parameters. Let us first assume that the soil is a sand that has a c= 0 and a @ = ¢. For this situation the resisting Wcosi stress will be b tan 6. We can express how stable the slope is by defining a Safety Factor, S.F as follows: messing Stress Quay driving stress A S.F. of more than 1.0, means that there is more stress to resist sliding than there is to cause the slide and therefore implies stability. The larger the magnitude of S.F, the greater the extent of stability. AS. 1.0 means that sliding or failure of slope is iMminent and a S.F. of less than 1.0, of course indicates an unstable situation in which the slope will fail or slide. By substituting the resisting and driving stresses as calculated for the slope shown in Fig. 21.1 and assuming the material to be sand with strength parameters as indicated above we get the S.F. to be ‘osi tan @ % sini tang = (21.2) As noted above, at a S.F. of 1.0, slope failure is imminent or in other words we can determine the condition of failure by substituting 1.0 as the value for the S.F. in Eq. 21.2. If we do so we get the condition of failure as tan i= tan @ (21.3) When the inclination of the slope, é, is less than ¢, then we have a safe slope. When i becomes equal to the angle of shearing resistance ¢, then failure is imminent and of course i can never be greater than 6 because before that can happen the slope would have failed. It is important to note that in the condition of failure, there is no presence of either the depth parameter, z, or the unit weight of soil, y. In Fig. 21.1, we had considered the failure surface to be at any depth z. It follows, therefore, that at failure, soil will slide at any value of z, which means all values of z, which means that the whole soil mass will be unstable and will be flowing downwards at all values of z, From the absence of yin Eq. 21.3 we can infer, for example, that if the entire slope was under water, the operating unit weight would be the buoyant unit weight, 7%, the condition of failure would still be as per Eq. 21.3. Let us now see how the form of the condition of failure changes when we have soil that is characterized by some other strength parameters, In the last Chapter, we had noted that for small depth zones, in the short term, a clay could be characterized as having a constant strength equal to the average undrained strength in that zone, that is, a finite c = average S, and a @ = 0. Substituting these parameters for resisting stress in Eq. 21.1, we get © cosi sini S.F (21.4)Slope Stability Analysis 329 To get the condition of failure, we again set the S.F. equal to 1.0 in Eq. 21.4, rearrange the terms and get = (21.5) % cosi sini Equation 21.5 states that for an infinite slope inclined at an angle i and consisting of soil having a unit weight, 7, there is a depth z at which the slope will fail. The depth to the failure plane, z, can be calculated from Eq. 21.5. Does this mean that in the short term there can be no stable infinite slope of clay. And if that is so, then, of course it means, that there cannot be any stable infinite slope of clay because the long term becomes irrelevant. Obviously that is not so, because in nature there are land forms consisting of slopes of clayey soils that extend to considerable distance. So is our analysis faulty? No, it is not. We only need to look more closely at our assumptions, We had assumed that ¢ = constant = the average S,, of a small depth zone. Below that small depth zone would be clay that would have a higher S,. Refer to Fig, 20.14 and note that in natural deposits, the S,, normally increases with depth. If the depth to the failure plane, z, we calculate from Eq. 21.5 is less than the thickness of the zone for which we are taking the average S, as c, then the failure will occur at the calculated z. If, however, the value of z that we have calculated is more than the thickness of the zone, then, whether failure takes place or not, depends on the value of ¢ that exists at that z, This is illustrated in Solved Example 21.1. All situations similar to the one of Solved Example 21.1 will thus be stable infinite slopes in clayey soils. Finally, if the strength parameters of a soil are best described as having a finite ¢ = c and a finite = @, then the resisting stress will consist of two terms and the condition of failure will be Yrcosisini=c+ %,zcos*i tan 9 (21.6) and after rearranging the terms, we get c 7, cos" i(tani ~ tang) from which we can deduce that if the slope, i, is less than the angle of shearing resistance, @, then failure cannot take place because Eq. 21.7 yields a negative z and physically a negative z has no meaning. If, however, i is more than @, then a z exists on which failure will take place so long as that z is in the zone in which the soil strength is characterized by the values of c and used in Eq. 21.7. In Eqs. 21.3, 21.5 and 21.7, we have developed the three conditions of failure for the three possible ways in which we can express the strength parameters of soil. Let us consider one more situation as aan illustration of this approach to assess the stability of infinite slopes. Let us say we have again a slope inclined at an angle, i, in a soil that is characterized by c = 0 and @= ¢, like the first case we considered, but this time let us say that water is flowing down the slope. Our common sense tells us that if water is flowing down the slope, the flowing water will generate a force acting on soil particles in the direction of flow and this will thus be another driving force. If a slope was just stable at some value of i when there was no water flowing, then with water flowing the just stable slope has to be gentler, that is, have a lower i, Let us see if our analysis validates our common sense conclusion. Figure 21.2 shows a slope with water flowing down the slope. The flow lines are thus parallel to the slope and the equipotential lines are normal to the slope. Since water is present, we will have to take note of the pore water pressures that exist on the failure surface when we calculate the resisting (21.7)330. Analytical Techniques Consider element ABCD its W = ydb Driving force = 7db sin i ‘Normal force = y,db cos i Force due to p.w.p = by,,d cos i Fig. 21.2 Slope with flow occurring downwards stress which will equal the effective stress on the failure surface multiplied by the angle of shearing resistance, The Safety Factor can then be written as: (7, db cosi~7, db cosi) tan ¢ Shas 7, db sini SR = (fom) (22) 218) ‘an i For the condition of failure we get: tan i= (25%) tan ¢ (219) since the unit weight of water is approximately half that of the total unit weight of soil Eq. 21.9 states that tan / is about half that of tan ¢. Comparing this with the condition of failure when there was no flow down the slope, i.c., tan i equal to tan 9, we see that the inclination of the slope just stable with downward flow is considerably less than that of the slope without flow. This is illustrated in Solved Example 21.2. Apart from determining the condition of failure for various situations, what we have learnt from the study of the stability of infinite slopes discussed in this Section, is that a stability analysis consists of four steps: (i) identifying the critical failure surface, Gi) estimating the driving stress, ii) estimating the resisting stress, and (iv) comparing the two stresses to determine the Safety Factor. For assessing the stability of infinite slopes, we were able to follow these four steps in the chronology in which they are listed above. This is not always possible because often, at the outset, we are notSlope Stability Analysis 331 A able to identify the critical failure surface. The process we then follow is much more tedious: in a systematic manner we assume many possible failure surfaces and determine the Safety Factor for each. Our attempt is to seek out the lowest Safety Factor because that must belong to the failure surface that is critical. We will be using this approach in the next Section. 21.2 Stability of Finite Slopes Far more common than slopes that we can consider to be infinite, are slopes that are finite. These connect land at one elevation to land that is not far away but is at another elevation. Such finite slopes exist in nature and are also man made. Examples of latter include: slopes on either side of a highway or railway embankment, slopes cut into the sides of surrounding soil when the roadway or the railway track have to be laid at an elevation lower than that of the land around, the slopes of a canal, the slopes of an earth dam etc, A typical finite slope is depicted in Fig. 21.3. The figure also shows some possible surfaces along which, perhaps, soil could slide and cause the slope to fail, only to highlight, that we cannot identify a critical failure surface merely by looking at the slope. We need some other sound basis to make reasonable assumptions about a probable failure surface. For Engineers, sound basis is always empirical observation. Ground at bigh (“elevation Slope Possible failure surfaces Ground at lower elevation Fig. 21.3 A finite slope with possible failure surfaces Geotechnical Engineers, therefore, made careful field studies at sites where slope failures took place to delineate the shape of the failure surface. In nature everything does not take place with nice neat lines and/or curves. Natural haphazardness, however, does not lend itself to mathematical treatment. And so, Engineers take recourse to idealizing the real. Having gone through such a proces Geotechneial Engineers came to the conclusion that often, but not always, it is reasonable to depict the failure surface as an arc of a circle. Other possible failure surfaces that are sometimes relevant can be depicted as a straight line or a combination of two or three straight lines. We will consider these straight line failure surfaces in the latter part of the Chapter and focus first on circular failure surfaces. This conclusion that failure surfaces are often circular was of great help because it eliminated a wide variety of other geometrical representations of the failure surface. The task of identifying the most probable arc is still mammoth because we can draw an infinite number of ares with different centres and/or radii. The process we follow is thus the tedious one indicated at the end of the last Section, i.e. in a systematic manner, we assume many arcs with different centers and different radii as possible failure surfaces and determine the Safety Factor for each. The are for which the analysis yields theA 332 Analytical Techniques iowest Safety Factor is the critical failure surface. Before we discuss this systematic manner, let us study the analytical procedure of determining the Safety Factor for any assumed circular failure surface, Figure 21.4 shows a finite slope with an assumption for a possible failure surface consisting of an arc PQ with a centre at O and a radius of R. To determine the Safety Factor for this surface, let us consider a differential length of the arc, ds. The stress acting on ds on account of the weight of soil above it is 7, h ds. The force trying to cause a failure, that is, the driving force is y, h ds sin a. The total driving force for the whole arc, can be determined by integrating the driving force acting at ds for the entire arc. The driving moment, M,, trying to induce failure along the failure surface about the centre of the arc is obtained by multiplying the force by the radius R and takes the following form: 0 M,= Rf. y, h sina. ds (21.10) Along the differential distance, ds, there is also a force resisting failure generated on account of the shear strength of the soil, To determine this let us assume that the relevant strength parameters of the soil are c’ and g. The effective normal stress acting on ds can be expressed as (7 h cos ar— u) ds, where w is the pore water pressure acting at ds. The resisting force is thus (c’ + (7, h cos or u) tan ) ds. The total resisting force for the entire are can, again, be obtained by integrating over the are and the moment about the center trying to resist failure, M,, can be expressed as: O M,=R J (cl + (yh cos a= u) tan fds iy ‘The Safety Factor, S.F. equals the resisting moment divided by the driving moment that is M, divided “by M,. Conceptually, determining the S.F. as indicated above is easy to comprehend; it is, however, impossible to use for most situations because we are not able to mathematically express the functional. relations-between the Variables involved irrtemnts of the variable s, i.e. the distance along the arc. The question of integrating does not even arise. To estimate the S.R, we have to make a number of simplifying assumptions. Many different methods of stability analysis have been developed as different o 21.4 A finite slope with a circular arc as a failure surfaceSlope Stability Analysis 333 researchers made different assumptions. We will discuss two of the most used methods in the next two Sections. 21.3 Stability Numbers You will recall the circumstances under which we can express the shear strength of soil as c = c and ¢=0. To remind you: this is possible, when we are interested in the short term behaviour of a structure on clay. The time taken during which stresses are applied is small and the conditions can be assumed to be undrained, The cohesion intercept, c, can then be taken to be constant and equal to the average S, of the clay zone that interests us. For such a situation, D.W. Taylor in 1948 was able to develop a very usable method starting with Eq. 21.10 and 21.11. He did not attempt an analytical solution by integration but pursued a graphical approach to generate a table of Stability Numbers as discussed below: Figure 21.5 shows a finite slope with a failure surface that is an arc of a circle of radius, R, with centre located at O. During a slide, the soil that would be displaced along the failure surface has a weight equal to W. W with a lever arm, d, away from the center O, generates a driving moment, My, about O equal to Wa. The resisting moment. M,, equals cL R where, L is the length of the arc. The Safety Factor can thus be expressed as cLR Wa (21.12) The weight, W, is a function of the unit weight of the soil, 7,, the height H of the slope and the geometry of the failure surface that can be characterized by the three angles, a, 8, and @. In Eq. 21.12, the variables L, R and d can also be expressed in terms of the three angles, a, B, and 8. Eq. 21.12 can be rewritten in the form: SF = ¢ SE %H fla, B, 8) (21.13) where, c, can be thought of as the amount of ¢ required to just maintain a stable slope and, f (a, B, 8) is a pure number, designated as the Stability Number, N,. Fig. 21.5 Nomenclature used for developing Stability NumbersA 334 Analytical Techniques and, (21,14) On the basis of repeated trials for each angle of the slope, 8, Taylor determined the most critical failure surface and for that surface evaluated the N,. The results of this enormous work have been presented in a very usable form in Table 21.1 and Fig. 21.5 defines the terms used in the Table. Solved Example 21.3 shows how one can use Stability Numbers to assess the stability of a slope. Table 21.1 Values of Stability Number, N, Bin degrees 1.0 1s 90 0.260 0.260 0.260 0.260 15 0.219 0.219 0.219 0.219 60 0.191 0.191 0.191 0.191 3 0.181 0.181 0.181.181 45 0.166 0.174 0177—0.178 30 0.133 0.164 = 0.172 0.17 23 O13 0.153 0.166 0.175 15 0.087 0.128 0.130 0.167 75 0.054 0.080 0.107 __—0.140 A study of Table 21.1 indicates that for slope angles greater than $3 degrees the Stability Numbers are unaffected by D, where, D is the ratio of the distance from the top of the slope to the location of the much stronger layer of soil below the toe to the height of the slope, H. This is so because for such steep slopes, the critical failure surface passes through the toe of the slope and does not go to the region below the toe and so what exists in that region is irrelevant. For gentler slopes, the critical failure surface goes into the region below the toe but will always be restricted to the zone above the location of the stronger layer. The location of the stronger layer therefore is relevant and influences the magnitude of the Stability Number, As per Table 21.1, the Stability Number for a vertical slope is 0.26. Plugging this value into Bq. 21.14, one can deduce that a vertical slope will be stable so long as its height, H, is less than 285¢ , ‘This height is called the critical height of a vertical cut in clay. That is, a vertical cut made in clay of a height Jess than the critical height will be stable for the short term situation, that is, when the conditions are undrained. 21.4 Method of Slices Stability Numbers help us assess the stability of a slope in clay in the short term condition, How are ‘we to assess the stability of slopes in other soils and both for short and long term conditions? There are even situations when the failure surface passes through more than one soil. For evolving a method. - that is more generally applicable, we have to go back to the basic concept developed in Section 21.2. In attempting to develop that concept to a working method, we got stuck because we discovered that assessing the M, and the M, in Eqs. 21.10 and 21.11 by a process of integration was not feasible.Slope Stability Analysis 335 & Whenever analytical techniques are found to be unfeasible, Engineers resort to utilizing numerical techniques. If one cannot handle integration of differential elements, then we try to solve the problem by summation of small but finite elements. So, instead of considering a differential distance ds along an assumed failure surface in Eqs. 21.10 and 21.11, we consider a small finite distance, As. In doing so we divide up the mass of soil in the zone that is affected by failure into a number of slices, usually of equal width, as shown in Fig. 21.6(a). Fig. 21.6(b) shows the forces acting on one typical internal slice. The two slices on either end do not have two sides and a base but only one side and the base. ‘Table 21.2 lists all these forces and for each force indicates whether we can determine its magnitude and direction or not. From Table 21.2 it is apparent that we know the directions of all the forces acting but are unable to determine the magnitude of six forces. To determine the force equilibrium of a slice we have the two equations of statics, that is, the sum of the forces in the horizontal direction equals zero and the @ © Fig. 21.6 Defining the geometry and forces for developing the Method of Slices Table 21.2 Forces Acting on an Interior Slice S.No. Force Magnitude Direction 1 Weight, W Can be determined from Vertical geometry and unit weight of soil 2 Force due to pore water Can be determined from Perpendicular to base pressure acting on As, U, knowledge of hydraulic condition 3. Forces on sides of slice due to -to- Horizontal pore water pressure, U; & U, 4, Forces due to adjacent soil on unknown Horizontal & the left of the slice, Ey, E, Vertical S. Forces due to adjacent soit on do- o- the right of the slice, Ey. E,, 6 Forces due to soil adjacent to -do- Normal and tangential the base of the slice, P& T to the base 1. Force generated due to the ‘A function of P, U, and the ‘Tangential to the Shear Strength of the soil, $ strength parameters of the soil baseA 336 Analytical Techniques sum of forces in the vertical direction equals zero. We thus have 6 unknowns and 2 equations. Such a situation, you will recall, indicates that we have an indeterminate case, To solve such a problem, we will have to make assumptions regarding 4 unknowns. We will then be left with a determinate situation having two unknowns and two equations and then we will be able to solve for the unknowns. The two forces we are finally looking for are T and S. The sum of all the 7 forces will be the driving force and the sum of all the S forces will be the resisting force. We can determine the S forces once we know the P forces. So in effect the two unknown forces whose magnitudes we need are the forces at the base of the slice: the normal force P and the tangential force T. The remaining four unknown forces are the forces on the sides of the slice or the inter-slice forces. If we had some way of determining the: magriitude of these four forces we would reduce the indeterminate problem to a determinate one and we could then assess the stability of the slope along the assumed failure surface. A.number.of researchers have ‘grappled. with-this problem of determining the inter-slice forces. Many have come up with procedures that they believe and show to be reasonable. Each different procedure results in a different method of stability analysis. Among these methods are those proposed by D.W. Taylor in 1948, by A.W. Bishop in 1955 and by J.L. Sherard and his co-workers in 1963. A discussion of these and other methods is beyond the scope of this Book. The simplest assumption regarding inter-slice forces was made by W, Fellenius in 1927 which resulted in a method that has come to be known,as the Swedish Method of Slices. We will consider only this method in this Book in the next Section. 21.5 The Swedish Method of Slices A little reflection enables us to recognize that the sum of all the inter-slice forces must add up to zero for the failure zone taken as a whole, That does not of course mean that for each slice the inter-slice forces add up to zero. They may add up to zero for some but not for all the slices. This is clearly evident for the two slices at either end, These slices have inter-slice forces acting only on one side because there is no second side, Fellenius made the simplest assumption about inter-slice forces: he assumed that the value of each inter-slice force was equal to zero, that is the value of all forces in rows 4 and 5S and also 3 of Table 21.2 was zero. In effect, he just ignored their existence. With such an assumption, we have only two unknowns, T and P that are left and applying the two equations of statics we readily determine that the value of Tis W sin @, and that of P is W cos a. Determination of the Safety Factor is then best accomplished using a tabular format as given in Table 21.3: Table 21.3 Format for Determining the Safety Factor as per the Swedish Method of Slices Slice a 4 WwW T= Pa U, (P-Uyung cds S$ No. Wain — Weos @ Deg om kN EN kn kN aN kN AN t med Toul ET = Toul 5 =Slope Stability Analysis 337 de Table 21.3 enables us to see at a glance the T and S forces contributed by each slice. Note that there are some slices, at the toe of the slope, in which the T force is not contributing to the driving stress but acting in the opposite direction (these have to be taken with a negative sign) and thereby assisting in generating stability. We sum up all the T forces giving due regard to the direction in which they are acting and we also sum up all the S forces, the Safety Factor is then 5. F = Sumofall S forces _ 55 “* Sumof all T forces ~ ET Solved Example 21.4 illustrates the procedure. (21.15) 21.6 The Critical Failure Surface For any assumed failure surface, we can determine the Safety Factor as per Eq. 21.15 after making the necessary calculations in the format given in Table 21.3. The Safety Factor so determined, however, merely indicates the stability of the slope for the assumed failure surface. ‘The assumed failure surface may not necessarily be the critical failure surface for the slope being analyzed. You may wish to refresh your memory about the need to determine the critical failure surface that was discussed in the end of Section 21.1 and the beginning of Section 21.2. It has been indicated there that for finite slopes, we have to go through a systematic process of assuming a number of possible failure surfaces and determine the Safety Factor for each. Our attempt is to locate the surface for which the Safety Factor is the minimum. This minimum must be greater than 1.0 before we can state that the slope will be stable. ‘The systematic process we follow begins by locating the centre of the arc, say, at O, (see Fig. 21.7). With O, as center, we try a number of radii for possible failure surfaces and calculate the corresponding Safety Factors. We begin with radius Ro, then try R, incrementally greater than Ry. If R, gives a Safety Factor lower than that obtained for Ry, we proceed to R, incre- mentally greater than R, and so on seeking the lowest Safety Factor. When we get to a value of R that gives a higher Safety Factor, we stop and back track to trying an R incrementally less. In the process we locate the R for which we get the lowest Safety Factor for center at O). We then shift the center to O, left of O, and repeat the process. Then move to O3, Os, Os ete. Depending on the pattern that emerges we pursue investigating further centers left of O, or right of O, or further up of O, or further down of Os looking for a center and a radius which gives us the lowest Safety Factor. Clearly the process is slow and laborious but unavoidable Today of course the process is immensely speeded up because we are able to programme the whole process on the computer. In using software packages, we have to specify a grid of centres and increments of radii for each centre, It is common to specify 100 possible centres, ie. a grid of 10 x 10, with about 6 increments for each centre. The computer as such will conduct stability analyses Fig. 21.7. Locations of centres of arcs in a grid patternA 338 Analytical Techniques for the resulting 600 possible failure surfaces. It would then look for the minimum Safety Factor and identify the associated critical failure surface. ‘There are now many software packages available in the market’. Some that use the Swedish Method of Slices and others that use more sophisticated methods. In addition to the grid of centres and increments of radii, other data required as input for these packages includes: (i) Geometry: slope inclination and height (i) Zoning: identification of zones of different soils within the slope and beneath it including depth to hard stratum: Gii) Properties: soil parameters for soils in each zone (iv) Pore Water Pressure: Location of phreatic line or pattern in each zone (v) Water Levels: Levels of water adjacent to the slopes, e.g. for an earth dam the reservoir and tail water levels In using software packages, we must always remember that we will get garbage output if we put garbage input. If we are interested in long term stability and we input undrained strength parameters, we have only ourselves to blame. There is nothing intrinsically superior about a computer output. The computer only takes care of the drudgery of manual calculations. We still have to ensure that we take intelligent engineering decisions. 21.7 Non-circular Failure Surfaces Let us now look at situations where non-circular failure surfaces can be the critical ones. In this Book we will confine ourselves to considering failure surfaces comprising of straight lines. Methods for more complicated geometry have also been developed by N.R. Morgenstern and V.B. Price in 1965 and N. Janbu in 1973. 21.7.1. Single Straight Line Failure Surface For infinite slopes, we had reasoned that the critical failure surface is a straight line parallel to the slope. For finite slopes of homogeneous coarse grained soils, we also find this to be the case. If such slopes are analyzed using the Swedish Method of Slices, the lowest Safety Factors are for very large diameter arcs that look almost like a straight line parallel to the slope, see Fig. 21.8, We get the same Safety Fig. 21.8 Critical failure surfaces for finite slopes in homogeneous coarse grained soils * Development of sofiware packages as design aids for the Consulting Geotechnical Engineers is an ongoing activity. At the present time, the Consultants have begun to use packages primarily for conducting stability analyses and have a number of commercially available options to choose from.Slope Stability Analysis 339 Factor regardless of how far the arc is set back from the face of the slope suggesting that failure 4 coc Cc” can take place on any and all failure surfaces so long as they are parallel to the slope. The magnitude of the Safety Factor that we get from the Swedish Method of Slices is also equal to what we get from Eq. 21.2 developed for the infinite slope. For finite slopes of coarse grained soil, Consulting Geotechnical Engineers therefore just use Eq. 21.2 if the slope is of dry soil or the slope is in a submerged state and use Eq. 21.8 if water is flowing down the slope. Another situation when the critical failure Fig. 21.9 Possible single straight line failure surface has been observed to be a single straight surfaces for a steep slope line is when the slope is very steep, typically for slope angles of more than 75°, see Fig. 21.9. The analysis is then conducted considering the forces acting on wedges such as ABCA, ABC’A or ABC’A etc. to identify the most critical wedge. 21.7.2 Two or Three Line Failure Surfaces When finite slopes do not consist of a homogeneous soil but of soils having different strengths, the critical failure surface can take a shape which is made up of two or three lines depending upon the geometry of the situation. Figure 21.10(a) depicts one situation when a two-line failure surface may be the critical one. Such a situation occurs, for example, in a homogeneous earth dam with an impervious core (see Section 24.2). The impervious core has low strength and most of the failure surface goes through it. The analysis considers the forces acting on the two wedges ABCDA and CBEC. The driving stresses come primarily from the former wedge and it is referred to as the driving or the active wedge. The resisting Impervious core Fine grained soil (Low strength) Failure surface (a) Two-line failure surface (b) Circular failure surface Fig. 21.10 Possible critical failure surfaces for a situation that is encountered in homogeneous earth dams with an impervious core.A 340 Analytical Techniques stresses originate mostly in the wedge CBEC and it is known as the resisting or the passive wedge. This method of analysis is discussed in Section 21.8. For such a situation it is not necessary that the critical failure surface has to be a two-lined one. It could be a circular failure surface as indicated in Fig. 21.10(b) and such surfaces must also be analyzed. Let us now consider a soil profile in which below the finite slope there exists a soft horizontal stratum, as shown in Fig. 21.11. In addition to investigating circular failure surfaces that go primarily through the soft stratum, see Fig. 21.11(b) we will have to also investigate a failure surface comprising of three straight lines as shown in Fig. 21.11(a). This is known as the three-wedge analysis. Wedge ABCDA is the active wedge, BEFCB is called the neutral wedge and EGHFE is the passive wedge. ‘The actual analysis is similar to the two-wedge method discussed hereafter. (a) Three-line failure surface Failure surface (b) Circular failure surface Fig. 21.11 Possible critical failure surfaces for a situation when a horizontal stratum of soft soil exists below the slope 21.8 The Two-wedge Method Figure 21.12 depicts the method for analyzing the stability for the two-wedge situation. The forces acting on the wedges are shown in Fig.21.12(b). The weight forces are designated W and we know their direction and magnitudes. The inter-slice force E is shared by the two wedges. Angle 5is often taken to be parallel to the outer slope. We do not know the magnitude of . A Safety Factor is assumed, to determine the mobilized c’,,, and ¢,, of the core for the active wedge and ¢,,, of the shell for the passive wedge. For the active wedge, the strength component due to c’,., can now be determined andSlope Stability Analysis 341 A Resisting or passive wedge Driving or active wedge Force polygon for passive wedge Force polygon for active wedge © U, y= Habel Om='SF." om = EEE gy = EE Cy, = ag X BC SF. S.F. Fig, 21.12 Method of stability analysis for two wedges we know the direction of C,,,, a8 being parallel to BC. The resultant of the normal force N and strength due to it (N tan ¢’,,,) that is Ry», acts at an angle ¢,, to the normal to BC. Similarly R,,,, acts at an angle mm to the normal to AB. The polygons for both wedges can then be closed as shown in Fig. 21.12(c). ‘The E force from one polygon must equal the E force from the other. If they do not, then we makeA 342 Analytical Techniques a fresh assumption for the Safety Factor and by iteration arrive at the same magnitude of the E force for both polygons and thereby also determine the correct Safety Factor. See Solved Example 21.5. SoWed Exampley Example 21.1 Is the infinite slope in Fig. 21.13 stable? If not, how much above the rock surface will the slip occur? Fig. 21.13 An infinite slope Solution Consider Layer A: Use Eq. 21.5 to determine z, at which failure will take place. a «= 9 cosi sini ~ 19X09397X 0342 since layer A is only 4m thick and z, = 4.91m, failure cannot take place in layer A Consider Layer B: Use denominator of Eq. 21.4 to determine the driving stress produced by layer A t= 7 ¢ coi sini = 19 x4 x 0.9397 x 0.342 = 24.4 Strength left in soil of layer B, cep to resist the driving stress generated by layer B Ciyp = 50 - 24.4. = 25.6 Use Eq. 21.5 to determine zy at which failure will take place. =491m —4t_ s —_ 6 __ yeosisin’ ~ 20x09397x0342 Layer B is 6 m thick and so failure will occur in this layer on a plane located 2 m above the rock surface, Example 21.2 An infinite mass of sand has a 7, of 20 kN/m® and is just stable at a slope of 30°. (a) If the entire mass is inundated and ends up below the water table will the slope remain stable? If not at what inclination it be stable? =3.98m=4mSlope Stability Analysis 343 & (b) If water flows through the sand down the slope will the slope remain stable? If not at what inclination will it be stable? Solution Since the slope is just stable at a slope, i = 30°; it means that the soil has a ¢ = 30°. (a) Since the condition of failure for a submerged slope is the same as that of a dry slope, the slope will remain just stable at an inclination of 30°. (b) Using Eq. 21.9 as the condition of failure tan j = tan ¢ (%52=)) = tan 30° ((20 ~ 10320) 1 i = tan! (0.5 tan 30°) = tan (0.289) = 16.1° the slope will be stable at an inclination of 16.1° which you should note is much less than 30°, Example 21.3 Determine the Safety Factor of a finite slope in clay that has a S, = 40 KN/m’, a y, of 20 kN/m’ and is inclined at an angle of 30° to the horizontal. It connects two horizontal ground surfaces with an elevation difference of 10 m. 20 m below the upper ground surface is rock stratum. Solution With reference to Fig. 21.5: H = 10m; D = 2; B= 30° 30°, N,, from Table 21.1 is 0.172. From Bq. 21.14, strength required for stability , = HN, = 20 x 10 x 0.172 = 34.4 kN/m? Since Example 21.4 Determine the Safety Factor for the slope depicted in Fig. 21.14 for the failure surface shown. Magnitude of W sin @ for Slice Nos. 1-7 are 2, 1, 0, 2, 3, 4, 3 respectively and that of W cos @ for Slice Nos. 1-7 are 2, 3, 5,4, 5, 2, 1 load units respectively. The soil has a c = 0 anda 9 = 30°. Solution Using the format of Table 21.3 with only those columns that are required SliceNo. T=Wsina P= Woosa 1 -2 2 2 -1 3 3 o 5 4 2 4 5 3 5 6 4 2 7 3 1 NY z 9 2 Using Eq, 21.15 Fig. 21.14 Seven slices for a possible gre DB, (EP)ung | 2230 |, failure surface for a finite slope ST aT 9 - Example 21.5 Determine the Safety Factor for the slope of an embankment shown in Fig. 21.15(a) for the failure surface ABC shown. For simplification assume that the inter-wedge force E acts horizontally, there are no pore water pressures within the shell or at the shell-core interface; the weight of wedge ABD, Wagp = 3000 kNim; the weight of wedge BCD, Wacp = 1820 kNim; BC = 28 m.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Slope Stability Analysis 345 A Clearly we need to try S.F. between 1.4 and 1.6 and by doing so for S.F, of 1.46 we get E, = 765 kN/m and E, = 763 kN/m and so S.F for the failure surface shown in Fig. 21.15(a) is 1.46, Exerciser Objective-type Question 21.1 State whether the following statements are true or false and, if false, explain why. (a) The Swedish Method of Slices assumes that forces due to earth pressure on the two sides of a slice cancel each other. (b) The soil at the toe of a slope usually assists in providing stability to the slope. (©) For steep slopes in clay, the critical failure surface goes through the toe of the slope. (@) In the Swedish Method of Slices, for each and every slice, W sin a, is the force trying to cause failure. (@) For a Safety Factor of 1.0, in the Swedish Method of Slices, the static equilibrium of each slice is not ensured. (® Water is always found with its surface horizontal because water does not have any tensile strength. (g) The critical failure surface of the slope of a homogeneous carth dam with an impervious core always consists of two lines. Descriptive Questions 21.2 What is meant by the condition of failure? 21.3 What is the difference between Stability Number and Safety Factor? 21.4 Why was it necessary to develop a numerical method for analyzing stability of slopes? 21.5 For steep slopes why is the Stability Number not affected by the location of a very hard stratum below the toe of the slope, Numerical Problems 21.6 A vertical cut of 6 m height is to be cut in a clay having a total unit weight of 20 kN/m?. The clay has ac’ of 10 kN/m? and a @’ of 30°. The average S, in a zone between ground surface and a depth of 8 m is 20 KN/m’. Will the cut be safe immediately after construction? 21,7 Using the Swedish Method of Slices, determine the Safety Factor of the slope given in the Fig. 21.16 for the failure surface that has a radius R and its centre is located at O as shown in the figure. Fig. 21.16 Slope with a failure surface that has its centre at O and a radius of RA 346 Analytical Techniques 21.8 21.9 An infinite slope of different clay layers exists at a site inclined at angle of 20 degrees to the horizontal. All the clay layers also dip at 20 degrees. Assume that the total unit weight for all clay layers is 19 kN/m’, The vertical distance between layers is 4 m. the first layer has an undrained strength of 30 kN/m?. The layer below that has S, of 60 kN/m’, the one below that has S, of 90, the one below that of 120, the one below that of 150, the one below that of 180 kN/m? ete. Is this slope stable in the short term? ‘Ans. Yes An over-consolidated clay deposit has a c’ = 30 kN/m* and a 9’ of 24 degrees. It has an average tundrained strength of 80 kN/m* in the region from ground surface to 8m below it. In this region its 1% is 16 kN/m’. A trench Sm deep is dug in it to lay a sewer line. Will the trench safely (assume an appropriate Safety Factor) stay open on its own or do we need to support the sides of the trench? Ans. It will stay open on its own with a S.F. of more than 3.0.Chapter 22 Earth Pressure Analysis 22.1 Lateral Earth Pressure ‘We observed, in the last Chapter, that water has no shear strength. At a point A, a distance z, below water surface, the vertical stress due to the water column above A is z multiplied by the unit weight of water. At point A, any plane passing through A will have this stress acting on it in a direction perpendicular to the plane. We can depict this in a Mohr’s Diagram, see Fig. 22.1. Fig 22.1 also shows the failure envelope for water and it is the horizontal line through the origin since water possesses no shear strength. The vertical stress at A, ¢,, is thus also the horizontal stress at A, Gj, and as noted above ‘water transmits this same stress in all directions—since A is also the origin of planes and the Moht's Circle is just the point A. Mohr’s Circle is just a point Origin of planes Failure envelope A Ys ° ‘Stress on all planes Fig. 22.1 Failure envelope for water and the state of stress in different directions in water %, Ata point A, a distance, z, below ground surface, the vertical stress, 6,4, due to the soil column above A is z multiplied by the unit weight of soil, In this Book, so far, we have made no mention of ‘what would be, say, the horizontal stress in soil at point A, j,. Tacitly, we have been implying that the stress at A is the same in all directions—we have been calling z multiplied by the unit weight of soil as the confining stress. In the triaxial apparatus we have been applying the confining stress bya You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Earth Pressure Analysis 349 To be able to talk about the lateral earth pressure vis-a-vis the vertical stress, we have to examine the inter-relationship between the two stresses. The two are related by a Coefficient of Earth Pressure, K, such that o,=Ko, 22.1) So we now come back to addressing the question posed at the outset—what precisely is the magnitude of the horizontal stress acting on soil at some point A below ground surface? There is, in fact, no unique answer. Whether the horizontal stress is more or less than the vertical stress depends upon the deformations the soil has experienced in the past in the lateral direction. We can visualize a situation in which there have been no lateral displacements; this is called the at rest condition. Under these circumstances K is said to be equal to Ko, the Coefficient of Earth Pressure at Rest. Attemapts have been made to assess the magnitude of Kz. Some experimental evidence, for sands and for normally consolidated clays, indicates that the value of Kg can be expressed as being equal to (I — sin ¢’). So if ¢ is 30°, then Ko is 0.5, ice. the lateral stress is half that of the vertical stress. The magnitude of Ko has also been assessed from the Theory of Elasticity. For the condition of no lateral strain, the horizontal and vertical stresses in an elastic space are related by the Poisson’s Ratio, 11, as follows: o,= (4) 9, (22.2) and so by comparing Eq. 22.2 with Eq. 22.1, we get that Ko= #4 (22.3) -u For a value of 1 = 0.5, Kg becomes 1.0 and for a 41 = 0.33, Ko becomes 0.5. You will recall from Section 19.3, that the former value is applicable for the undrained conditions for a saturated clay and the latter value is more appropriate for a sand. From actual measurements, Kg has been’ observed to be a function of the angle of shearing resistance, plasticity index and the stress history of the soil deposit. For normally consolidated clays and sands Kg varies between 0.4 and 0.6 or can be estimated from (1 - sin ¢’). In over consolidated clays Kg is often observed to be more than 1.0. It is perfectly possible, therefore, to find soils having, in their naturally existing states, values of K that range from less than 1 to more than 1. 22.2 States of Failure Soil can thus have a range of values of K. Is this range unbounded or does it have a lower and an upper Figure 22.3 shows what happens to the Mohr’s Circle when the soil is pushed more and more into itself, With one end of the Circle fixed at point A corresponding to 6,,, (Fig. 22.2) the Circle grows bigger and bigger as Oj, increases. The Circle can continue to expand until it becomes tangent to the failure envelope, Circle Byassive in Fig. 22.3. The soil is then no longer stable—it has reached a state of failure. This state of failure is called the passive state of failure. At this state Onn = Op = Kp Op (22.4) where, gp is called the passive earth pressure, and Kpis called the Coefficient of Passive Earth Pressure, and is the maximum value that K can assume.A 350 Analytical Techniques Failure envelope Circle Bragsive e=0 faa! o 3, o op Fig. 22.3 Mohr circles expand to the active and passive failure states ‘When soil is not being pushed into itself but is being laterally relieved, the lateral stress decreases until soil reaches the active state of failure, see circle C,,.,;,. in Fig. 22.3 which is tangent to the failure envelope. At this state Oe = 0, = Ky Oye (22.5) where, oj, is called the active earth pressure, and K, is called the Coefficient of Active Earth Pressure, and is the minimum value that K can assume. In Figs. 22.2 and 22.3, the failure envelope that has been depicted is for a soil that has ¢ = 0 and a = ¢. For this situation, from trigonometry, it is possible to express Kj, and Kp in terms of @, (see Fig 22.4) as follows: _ (=sing) 1 = (sing) sd 1 K,=(+KQ sing ono Be Seto) ing 1-sin 9=K,+K, sing i 1-sin 6=K, (1 + sin 6) meee 1-sing - = Kp~1=(Kp+1. 4" Tsing , Kp Iheing Kp-Kpsin 9= 1+ sino a Kl —sin 9)=1+sing +sing c=0 sing G, 6,+6, 0, G0, oo z 2 Fig. 22.4 Ky and Kp in terms of @Earth Pressure Analysis 351 (1+ sing) 5 = 22.7) = (sing) en For a value of @ = 30°, K, works out to be 1/3 and Kp has the reciprocal value of 3.0. The range of K is thus large—nine folds in this case. For a soil with a failure envelope of c= c and a ¢ = 0, the relationships of the active lateral earth pressure, ¢4, and the passive lateral earth pressure, op with the vertical stress (see Fig. 22.5) work out to be: 0, =0,-2c (22.8) and Op =, +2 (22.9) 6,=0,-2¢ * Op=0,+2¢ g=0 exe o, 3, op 3 b#-—— 2¢ ——++— 2c. ———+} ~ Fig. 22.5 Lateral earth pressures for active and passive states for a soil with c = cand @ = 0 And, for the most general case of a failure envelope having a c= c and a ¢ = ¢ (see Fig. 22.6) the following expressions relate the lateral stress to the vertical stress for the active and passive states: 4 = 0, Ky — 2c (K,)!” (22.10) Fe=Fr (SLAP: + coor i +o 2, op +o, a ecot 2 Fig. 22.6 Lateral earth pressures for active and passive states for a soil with c = cand ¢ = @a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.A 358 Analytical Techniques Solution from Coulomb's theory can be obtained for situations when the back of the wall is not vertical but is inclined at an angle a to the horizontal and the soil behind the wall is not horizontal but inclined at an angle f to the horizontal as shown in Fig. 22.16. Equations 22.14 and 22.15 presented below are developed by trigonometrically expressing the force system acting on the failure wedge, differentiating R, and Rp with respect to 1, setting the expressions to 0 to obtain the maximum and minimum values of R, and Rp that equal P, and P, respectively. K,= (22.14) P,=05 Ky, yH° (22.14(a)) , , 2 Kp sin (ct + @)/sin 22.15) sin (9 + 6) sin (@ + B) [sina + in@_B) Pp =05 Kp YH? (22.15(a)) Both P, and Pp act on the wall at # from the base at an angle 6, that is the angle of soil to wall friction, to the normal drawn on the back of the wall — see Fig. 22.16. ‘When a = 90°, that is, wall is vertical; B = 0°, that is, surface of soil behind wall is horizontal; and 5 is 0°, that is, wall is frictionless, then expressions of Eqs. 22.14 and 22.15 reduce to those from Rankine’s Theory. 22.5 Culmann’s Method In 1866, C. Culmann presented a graphical method for finding the critical wedge, that is the wedge for which P, is maximum and Pp is minimum, and the magnitudes of P, and Pp, It makes the process of drawing force polygons, as required by Coulomb's Theory, simple and easy. With reference to Fig. 22.17, the steps involved for evaluating P, are as follows: (i) Draw the retaining wall and the soil profile on a graph paper. (ii) From the heel of the wall, point O, draw two lines: OC at an angle of @ to the horizontal and OD at an angle of @= a - 6 t0 OC. Gii) Draw failure planes of a few trial wedges OB), ...OB3. (iv) Compute the weight, W;,...W;, of these trial wedges. W, on OC using an appropriate scal .-+-Ws draw lines parallel to OD to intersect OB), ...OB; respectively at E,,...Ey (vii) Draw a smooth curve through £),...£3. This is Culmann’s Line. (viii) Draw a line parallel to OC which is tangent to the Culmann’s Line. Identify tangent point E,. Fig. 22.16 Geometry of the retaining wallA 360 Analytical Techniques in Table 22.3. Thus a sand will exert higher active Table 22.3 Values of K, and Kp pressure and lower passive pressure if it is in a loose state than in a dense state—sce Solved Example 22.1. “87° Ks ___* ‘When soil strength is characterized by ¢ = c and @ 30 033 3.00 = 0, as c increases, Eqs, 22.8 and 22.9 indicate that 3 a 36 P, decreases and Pp increases. Thus stronger clays exert lower active earth pressure and higher passive earth pressure. 22.6.3 Water Table When water table is present behind a retaining structure, the following effects have to be accounted for: (i) The earth pressure coefficients and the earth pressures are evaluated in terms of effective stresses, ii) Since the effective stress at any depth is lower than the situation when there is no water table, so also is the lateral stress. Gii) The pore water pressure below the water table exerts hydrostatic pressure on the retaining structure, ‘The total lateral force on the retaining structure is thus a sum of the force exerted due to earth pressure and that exerted by the water. Solved Example 22.2 brings out these effects. 22.6.4 Sloping Soil Surface ‘When the surface of the soil behind the retaining structure is not horizontal but sloping upwards, the lateral earth pressure increases, The larger the angle of the slope, the higher is the pressure, This is illustrated in Solved Example 22.3. 22.6.5 Wall Friction ‘The back of a retaining structure is not smooth but rough. The soil-wall angle of friction, 5, has a value in the range of 0.679 to @ for concrete walls. The friction causes the active earth pressure to decrease and its direction to become inclined with a vertically downward component added to the horizontal one as is evident from Solved Example 22.4. The downward vertical component helps to make the wall more stable as we will discuss in Chapter 25. 22.6.6 Wall Inclination If the back of the wall is not vertical but inclined at an angle a, greater than 90°, the lateral earth pressure changes because of the presence of soil above the heel of the wall. The total lateral force can be computed by two approaches as depicted in Fig. 22.18. (i) Use Coulomb's Theory and determine P, that will act at an angle 5 to the normal to the wall and can be resolved into its horizontal and vertical components Py, and P,,, see Fig. 22.18(a). The inclination of the walll alters the value of K, and gives rise to a vertically downward component of P, as shown in Solved Example 22.5. ii) Draw a line vertically above the heel of the wall and assume that the soil enclosed between this line and the back of the wall acts as a part of the wall. Compute P, along the vertical line and resolve it into its horizontal and vertical components, Note that since this line is going throughEarth Pressure Analysis 361 M& i Paw 4 r (a) Determine P,, from Coulomb's (b) Assume soil in wedge ABC is part of wall; ‘Theory with a> 90° determine P, on AB, Load acting on wall isP,&W Fig. 22.18 Wall with inclined back soil, 6= @ of the soil. In addition to the vertical component of P,, also acting downwards will be the weight of the soil enclosed as shown in Fig. 22.18(b). 22.6.7. Surcharge Load Sometimes the soil behind a retaining structure is acted upon by a surcharge load which may be uniformly distributed or have a more complicated distribution. Uniformly distributed loads, g, are easily accounted for by recognizing that they increase the earth pressure by K',q for the active case and Kp for the passive case for the entire height, H, of the wall, The force on the wall thus increases by K,.qH or KpgH and this additional component acts at mid height of the wall as explained in Solved Example 22.6. 22.7 Earth Pressure Under Drained and Undraind Conditions Earth pressures are evaluated in sands using drained strength parameters, thus ¢ = 0 and @= @’. In clays, undrained conditions are only relevant when the structure has a short or temporary life, e.g. a retaining structure to support a temporary excavation, In such cases we take c= c and ¢ = 0. For permanent structures in clay we need to check for the long term condition as well using appropriate values of ¢ and ¢—see Solved Example 22.7. 22.8 Tension Crack and Height of Unsupported Cut As observed in Section 22.3 and depicted in Fig. 22.11, when soil is characterized by ¢ = ¢ and =, the pressure distribution for the active state indicates a zone near the ground surface where the soil does not exert an outward thrust but in fact is pulled back into itself. This zone extends to a value of 2 = 2c/y, When the soil pulls back into itself, it does not pull the wall towards itself because it cannot since soil does not have tensile strength. In this zone, we assume that the soil is not in contact with the wall because of the formation of a tension crack in the soil itself. If we consider the net force exerted by the soil, refer to Fig. 22.11, it is apparent that for a z= 4cly, the force is equal to 0. This suggests that if we were to make a vertical cut into this soil of a height equal to 4c/y, we would not need to support it. In actual fact this height is somewhat less. Refer to the last paragraph of Section 21.3, where using Taylor's Stability Numbers we had discoveredEarth Pressure Analysis 363 A At 2 m below top of wall: 0”, = 2.0 x 18 = 36 kN/m? and 0, % 12 kN/m*, 6 + (4.0 x 21) ~ (4 x 10) = 36 + 84 ~ 40 = 80 kN/m? and oj, = 80/3 26.7 kNim?, The pressure distributions are shown in Fig. 22.19. Py, = 0.5% 2% 12= 12kN/m. P, =0.5%4%40 = 80kNim. Py, 24x 12.5 48 kNim. Prrowai = 169.4 KN/m. Pay = 0.5% 4% 14.7 = 29.4 kNim. The point of application of P,,., can be found out by taking moments about the heel of the wall At 6 m below top of wall: o, 2 Prat (4+(3)) x 12+2x48+(4) x294+(4) x80 3 3 3 76 m 0 P rg) 169.4 KN/e, 2 2st 12m Pao 6.7 Nim? * i 48kNim * P, JO" TAL 9.4 enim th go enim .76 a 8 J 43] 12 147 40 kN/m™ t t Wall Earth pressure ‘Water pressure Force due Force due Total to soil to water force Fig. 22.19 Pressure distributions and resultant forces Example 22.3 Use Coulomb's Theory to determine how the total active force acting on the wall of Solved Example 22.1(a) will change if the sand behind the wall is inclined at an angle of 15° to the horizontal. Solution Using Eq. 22.14 to determine Ky with @ @=90°, 6=0°, f =O" that is the case of Solved Example 22.1(a) Gi) @= 90", 8= 0%, B= 15° that is the present case sin (90 ~ 30)/sin 90 | - (sss) sin (30 + 0) sin (30-0) is sin 0040) + ee oO 0) 0.33 that is the same as in Solved Example 22.1(a) 08 KN/m @ s| Gi) Ky= sin (90—30)/sin 90 } - (suey = sin (30 + 0) sin (30-15) 1366, {sin (90+0) +, | ao K,= 040 P,=0.5 x04 x 18 x 6 = 129.6 KN/m The total active force thus increases from 108 to 129.6 kN/m, that is, by about 20% when increases from Oto 15°,A. 364 Analytical Techniques Example 22.4 Use Coulomb's Theory to determine how the total active force acting on the wall of Solved Example 22.1(a) will change, if the wall is not smooth, but it is rough and the value of 5 = 0.676. Solution Using Eq. 22.14 to determine K, with () @= 90°, 5=0°, f=0° that is the case of Solved Example 22.1(a) Gi) @= 90°, 5 = 20°, B= 0° that is the present case ne sin (90 - 30)/sin 90 yo (ases a= : = = (9866 Sin (30 + 20) sin (30-0) 1589 {in (90+ 30) + aa K,=03 P,=0.5 x03 x 18 x 6 = 97.2 kNim. This force is acting at an inclination of 20° to the horizontal ~ see Fig. 22.20, Pyy = 97.2 cos 20° = 91.3 kN/m P,,= 97.2 sin 20° = 33.2 KNim P,=97.2kNim 108 kN/m 4 P= 33.2 kNin - oe a 2m Py 2 93kNim t ‘Smooth wall Rough wall Fig. 22.20 P, for smooth and rough wall Note that the presence of wall friction has the following effects on P,: ( The magnitude of force is reduced )) The direction of the force is inclined (ii) The vertical component of the force acts downwards thereby increasing the stability of the wall—see Chapter 25. Example 22.5 Use Coulomb's Theory to determine how the total active force acting on the wall of Solved Example 22.1(a) will change if the wall is not vertical but inclined at 110° to the horizontal. Solution Using Eq. 22.14 to determine Ky with 0°, B= 0° that is the case of Solved Example 22.1(a) , B= 0° that is the present case x sin (110~ 30)/sin 110 ° (198 A= = (1.048 ‘sin (30 + 0) sin (30-0) 148 fein TOO + | SCCM CO-O) K,=05 Py = 05 x05 x 18 x 6 = 162 kN/ma You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Earth Pressure Analysis 367 dv 7 KN/m? 0.8 — P= Ignore due to development of tension crack 6m 2 | 1 119.3 kN/m 45.9 KN/m” _ Wall Pressure distribution Py Fig. 22.23(b) Pressure distribution and P, in the long term Exercises Objective-type Question 22.1 State whether the following statements are true or false and, if false, explain why. (a) Deformations of similar magnitudes can change the soil from a Ko condition to either an active ‘or a passive state depending on whether the deformation is away from or towards the soil mass. (b) The Coefficient of Earth Pressure X relates the lateral stress to the vertical stress at a point in the soil mass for a soil which has c= 0 and ¢ > 0. {©) Coulomb's Theory is superior to Rankine’s since it assumes that the failure surface behind a retaining structure is a curve. (d) Effective stress parameters of an overconsolidated saturated clay are c’ = 20kN/m* and ¢ = 34 degrees. The total stress parameters from UU tests are ¢ = SOkN/m” and 9 = 0 degrees. The total unit weight is 18kN/m> and the water table is at a depth of 10m below ground surface. A vertical cut in this clay at this site down to half a meter above the water table would not be stable. (©) Fur a vertical cut in clay the active earth pressure is zero at a depth of 2@ (A soil that has ac = 0 and a 9 = 40° can have a range of earth pressures such that the maximum is nine times the minimum. (g) On placement of a uniform surcharge, g, on the soil behind a retaining structure of height H, the P, on the structure increases by q x H. Descriptive Questions 22.2 Why is the displacement necessary to produce the passive state much more than that necessary to produce the active state? Explain. 22.3 According to Coulomb's Theory the force due to earth pressure behind a retaining structure does not act horizontally but acts at an inclination—explain why. 22.4 Physically explain why sand with a higher 9 exerts a lower P, on a retaining structure than sand with a lower 6. Numerical Problems 22.5 Ata site the soil profile is as follows:AL 368 Analytical Techniques 22.6 22.7 From ground surface to a depth of 5 m is sand with a ¢ of 33° and a yof 20 kN/m*, From $m to 10m is a stiff clay with a c of 40 KN/m? and a yof 19 kN/m*, From 10 m tol2 m is sand with a @ of 40° and a y of 21 kN/m’, Water table is at a depth of Sm. Using Rankine’s Theory, draw that pressure distribution diagramme for the active earth pressure acting on the wall Ans. Depth below o, ground surface m kN/m? ° ° Sin sand 29 Sin clay 20 10 in clay 65 10 in sand 32 12 in sand 37 Do we require a retaining wall to support a 6 m temporary vertical cut in a clay with S, of 40 kN/m? and a yof 16 kN/m*? Using Rankine’s theory, draw two pressure distribution diagrams, one for the short term condition and the other for the long term condition, for a 15 m high retaining wall constructed to hold back soil with the following profile: Omto-Sm + Sand with a 9° of 30° -5mto-8m : Clay with an unconfined compression strength of 20 kN/m? c’ = O.and ¢ of 24° 8m to-1Sm : Sand with a 9’ of 35° ground water table is located at -S m. the total unit weight for sands is 20 kN/m’ and for clay 18 kN/m’.PART IV ENGINEERING DESIGN 23. Sub-Structures: Foundations 24. — Earth Structures: Dams and Embankments 25. Earth Retaining StructuresChapter Sub-Structures: Foundations 23.1 Loads on Foundations Civil Engineers construct many types of structures to serve our various requirements and these include buildings, dams, bridges, roads, railways, ports etc. All of these are above ground and are therefore visible. They are often called superstructures. Civil Engineers also construct structures that are located below the ground, such as, pipelines, tunnels, shelters, basements etc, They are called underground structures, All structures apply load on the soil (or rock) on which they rest. Underground structures are briefly considered in Chapter 28. If superstructures were to be placed directly on the soil, the soil would usually be overstressed and would not be able to safely support them. To enable the stress to be transferred safely to the soil, these superstructures and the soil are linked by sub-structures as shown in Fig. 23.1(a). Sub-structures are almost invariably below the ground and are thus not visible. The sub-structure is usually called the foundation. The size and shape of these sub-structures determines the stresses that finally reach the soil. Since Consulting Geotechnical Engineers have an appreciation of how soils behave under stress, it is their task to assist in determining the size and shape of the sub- | Load (high stress) Superstructure FL Wall or column eee ae Soil reaction (low stress) ( co) 5 phe H M 1 = lant [ 1 [ ] [ } i ] (©) Vertical (d) Vertical {e) Horizontal (f) Moment compressive load uplift-load load Fig. 23.1 Load transmission through the foundationA 372 Engineering Design structure. Once the size and the shape is determined, the sub-structure or the foundation itself has to be structurally designed to withstand the load of the superstructure on one side and the reaction from the soil on the other side, see Fig. 23.1(b)—this is usually the task of the Structural Engineer. Loads are transmitted from the superstructure to the sub-structure by columns or walls. The sub- structure distributes the load to the soil in a manner that the soil is able to withstand them as shown in Fig. 23.1(b). The toads that reach the foundation can be of vertical compressive, vertical uplift and horizontal nature as depicted in Fig. 23.1(c), (d) and (e). The foundation can also be subjected to moment as shown in Fig. 23.1(f). In most cases, the dead weight and vertical live loads predominate and govern the size and shape of the foundation. Uplift loads, horizontal loads, and moments become significant when the superstructure is tall and slender and is subjected to lateral loads due to wind, earthquakes or other reasons. The shape and size of the foundation of a transmission line tower, for example, is governed by the uplift load induced on account of the large lateral pull applied by power cables at the top of the tower as shown in Fig. 23.2 Large pull by power +— cables t Uplift load 4, \ afi —_—————_——_——_—- 4] |, Soil reaction (a) Tower subjected to lateral pull Wt (b) Foundation Fig. 23.2 Uplift load on foundation of a transmission line tower 23.2 Foundation Types Over the years, Consulting Geotechnical Engineers have evolved quite a large variety of sub-structures to suit various requirements of superstructures and the natural soil conditions. They fall under two broad categories: shallow foundations and deep foundations. The former are used when soil at shallow depths is sufficiently strong to withstand the stresses that are likely to be imposed on it by the sub- structure. For such foundations, the width of the foundation, B, is of the same order of magnitude or larger than the depth below ground surface, D,, at which the foundation is based, see Fig. 23.3(a). When the soil at shallow depths is unable to safely support the sub-structure, the stresses originating from the superstructure are carried deeper to soil strata that are stronger and can safely withstand the imposed stresses. D, for deep foundations, then, becomes much larger than B as shown in Fig. 23.3(b) that depicts a pile group. The manner in which soil resists stresses from shallow and deep foundations is very different. Figure 23.4 depicts the mechanisms that resist loads applied on shallow foundations: (i) vertical compressive loads by the bearing capacity, (ii) vertical uplift loads by the dead weight of the foundation and the soil above it,Sub-Structures: Foundations 373 \ \ Pile cap Pre L be Piles & >> B —— ro ° a o oO ° (a) Shallow foundation (b) Deep foundation— ‘pile group Fig. 23.3 B and D, in shallow and deep foundations P, P, M. * om Pe SS SS OS (a) Bearing (b) Dead weight (c) Sliding friction (d) Redistribution of ‘or adhesion bearing pressure Fig. 23.4 Mechanisms that resist applied loads in shallow foundations Gi) horizontal loads by friction or adhesion developed along the foundation-soil interface, and (iv) moments by redistribution of the bearing pressure. In contrast, very different mechanisms resist applied loads in deep foundations and as depicted in Fig. 23.5 consist of: i) vertical compressive loads by a combination of skin friction and end bearing, \* x, one qr qr Jy vay = qe yr air aft Skin iit qe aft mm Wt 4 it friction ! Ll ; , sit ait dar alt Lab yale bearing 4 # * (a) Skin friction and (b) Skin friction and (c) Lateral earth (4) Compression and uplift end bearing dead weight pressure in opposite piles Fig. 23.5 Mechanisms that resist applied loads in deep foundations(i) vertical uplift loads by a combination of dead weight and skin friction, Gili) horizontal loads by lateral earth pressures, and (iv) moments by converting them to axial compression and uplift. As indicated in Section 23.1, the shape and size of most foundations are usually governed by vertical compressive loads. The focus in this Book is on design of shallow and deep foundations with respect to vertical compressive loads only. 23.2.1 Shallow Foundations Figure 23.6 depicts a variety of shallow foundations, Columns Columns Wall recowm = 4S n RCC 1 Masonry Sey C j [ £ a a a ao o & - a o (a) Strip footing (b) Individual column (c) Combined (d) Raft footing footing Fig. 23.6 Varieties of shallow foundations Figure 23.6(a) shows a strip footing. Such a sub-structure is used to carry the load from a load- bearing wall to the soil. Walls are usually constructed with bricks and so is the strip footing, The length of the strip footing, L, is usually much larger than the width B and for analytical purposes we consider this to be a two-dimensional situation. An individual column footing is shown in Fig. 23,6(b). Columns are usually made of reinforced conerete and so is such a footing. The footing can be square or circular or rectangular—it is often of the same shape as the column, only larger. When two or three columns are located very near to each other, we provide a single sub-structure for them and the footing is known as a combined footing as shown in Fig. 23.6(c). Combined footings are also usually made of reinforced concrete. If more than 50% of the plan area of a building gets covered by the combined plan areas of all the individual and/or combined footings that need to be provided, it is usually more economical to make a single sub-structure for the entire building. Such a sub-structure is called a mat or a raft and is shown in Fig. 23.6(4). A raft is structurally rigid and when it settles, it settles uniformly as a monolithic entity. A raft is, therefore, also the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer's choice under two more situations: (i) when functionally it is specified that the superstructure’ be subjected to very small differential settlement, andSub-Structures: Foundations 375 dw Gi) when soit conditions are very erratic and analytically we are unable to estimate differential settlements to assess whether they are likely to be acceptable or not. 23.2.2 Deep Foundations We are already aware that there are three types of deep foundations. We identified them in Section 19.7. One type transfers the load of the structure to some firm stratum of soil at a considerable depth below ground surface—see Fig 19.12(a). The second type distributes the load of the structure along the entire depth of soil in which it is located as shown in Fig. 19.12(b). The third type is a combination of the first two. In Section 20.10, we noted that the former type derives its bearing capacity from the resistance offered by the firm stratum in which the bottom of the deep foundation is located. This mechanism is called end bearing. In the second type, the bearing capacity is generated by the frictional resistance offered by the soils through which the deep foundation traverses. This mechanism is called skin friction, In reality both mechanisms operate and the bearing capacity of a deep foundation originates on account of end bearing and skin friction. On this basis, we have three kinds of deep foundations. When the contribution of skin friction is negligible, we have a foundation that is an end bearing one. When, end bearing is negligible, we have a friction type deep foundation. And, when we have significant inputs from end bearing as well as skin friction we have the third type of deep foundation. Depending on the mechanism from which the deep foundation derives its bearing capacity, its shape and its material, we have a variety of deep foundations. When the deep foundation is a long and slender structural element it is called a pile and is shown in Fig. 23.7(a). There are piles that can be driven into the soil and others that are cast in situ. As the pile diameter increases they cannot be driven but are only cast in situ after drilling a hole. Such large diameter piles are called drilled piers—see Fig. 23.7(b). With further increase in plan dimensions, the installation process changes and such deep foundations are called wells or caissons. Typical examples are depicted in Fig. 23.7(c) and (d). i ul he ok 03 100.75 m 1.01025 m (@) Pile (b) Drilled pier or 10 to 20m 20 m or more large diameter pile _(c) Well (plugged) (4) Well or caisson (open ended) Fig. 23.7 Types of deep foundationsA 376 Engineering Design A well or a caisson, Fig, 23.7(c) and (d), is usually made of reinforced concrete, and derives its bearing capacity from both end bearing and skin friction, The load carrying capacity of such foundations is very large. Bridges are often founded on such foundations. Drilled pier, depicted in Fig. 23.7(b), is also made of reinforced concrete and derives its relatively large load carrying capacity from both end bearing and skin friction, Piles, depicted in Fig. 23.7(a), can be end bearing piles, friction piles or both and are the most often used type of deep foundations. Piles are made of a variety of materials: wood, concrete, reinforced concrete, steel, composite of concrete and steel. They can be members that are commercially available in particular shapes, or they can be pre-cast. These are then driven into the soil. Piles can also be cast iu in holes that are first drilled in the soil. Many companies have patents on the special types of piles they have developed and these piles have names that bear the company’s name. Figure 23.8 shows a variety of piles. As noted before piles are not used individually but in groups. Pile groups used for two superstructures are shown in Fig. 23.9 to help you appreciate the variety in such groupings. 23.2.3 Choice of Foundations Shallow foundations are more economical than deep foundations because they are constructed by the same methods that are used for constructing the superstructure. Shallow foundations are constructed after carrying out open excavation to small depths below the ground surface. In contrast, deep foundations require special equipment for installation (driving, drilling and casting, and other techniques) and are thus more expensive. Consulting Geotechnical Engineers, therefore, prefer to use Normal Bulbed or Pipe or Tapered Cased or under-reamed tubular composite (a) Longitudinal shapes H © Hou EBcomee Solid circular or H, pipe or box ‘Composite Solid circular or square concrete steel square wooden (b) Cross-sectional shapes and materials ig. 23.8 Variety of PilesA 378 Engineering Design Figure 23.10 depicts how the choice of foundation type is influenced by the load imposed by the superstructure and graphically portrays the foundation option that becomes relevant as the height of the superstructure rises for a given plan area. The options are: (i) when the superstructure is a few storied one and the load reaching the soil is relatively low, we adopt isolated or combined footings—Fig. 23.10(a) and (b), Gi) a raft foundation is used when the loads reaching are so high that isolated/combined footing option would cover more than 50% of building plan area—Fig. 23.10(c), (iii) for higher loads, the raft can be located at greater depth with one, two or more basement levels below the ground surface—Fig. 23.10(q), . (iv) with increasing height of super structure, one can explore placing the raft on ground after increasing its density and strength using ground improvement techniques discussed in Chapter 29—Fig. 23.10(e), (¥) even higher superstructures can be founded on piles with a group of piles under each column— Fig. 23.10(f), and (vi) for the tallest superstructures with many basement levels, a feasible foundation system might be a rafi-pile system as shown in Fig. 23.10(g). Superstructures located on rivers, lakes, coastal areas are founded on deep foundations. Ease of construction is the major criterion. This is briefly discussed in Chapters 27 and 28. 23.3 Design Criteria The whole purpose of a sub-structure is to transfer the loads of the superstructure to the soil in a manner that enables the soil to support the superstructure and enables the superstructure to satisfactorily perform and serve the function for which the superstructure is being built. For example, let us say, you wish to build a two-storied house for yourself and you intend to live in it. The house will serve its function so long as you can live in it and feel safe about it. If the house collapses because the sub-structure that has been designed imposes loads on soil that cause a bearing capacity failure to occur, then obviously, the sub-structure has not served its purpose. But this is an extreme situation. Let us look at another scenario. Your house settles. All structures constructed on soil will settle. As your house settles, you see cracks in your bedroom wall. You wonder if the house is safe. You find it difficult to sleep at night. The house is not satisfactorily performing its function because you no longer feel safe about living in it. So, you consult an expert—a competent Civil Engineer. He/she comes and investigates and pats your back and reassures you that you have nothing to worry. Yes, the cracks have occurred because of differential settlement but the cracks are only superficial, the structural integrity of the building is intact. You are much relieved. You sleep soundly at night. The house is again satisfactorily performing its function. A few days later you find that the cracks are bothering you again. You find them unsightly. How can any one expect you to live with them staring at you all the time. The house is again not performing satisfactorily. Professional engineers recognize that not only must a superstructure be safe but it must also appear to be safe and be aesthetically appealing. Yes, structures will settle; but the settlement must be within acceptable limits. Yes, the structure must not fail by a bearing capacity failure (Safety Factor of 1.0); but the Safety Factor cannot be just marginally greater than 1.0—it must have a minimum acceptable value to give the user a “feel good’ feeling.‘Sub-Structures: Foundations 379 fee FEE EER GS ' Basement (a) Isolated (b) Combined (Raft (4) Basement (individual) footing + raft footing 10to 1Sm UW WM 251030m (€) Raft on improved soil (Piles (g) Multiple basements and, raft-pile system Fig. 23.10 Relevant foundation options for rising height of superstructure From experience gained through actual performance of structures, the profession codifies good practices and their compilation takes the form of Building Codes. All developed societies have their ‘own codes and municipal authorities legally enforce their use. Listed in the codes are Design Criteria.A 380 Engineering Design How much settlement is acceptable. What Safety Factor against bearing capacity failure is acceptable. ‘What must be the minimum depth below ground surface for the base of the footing. And, other such stipulations. Engineers arrive at these criteria by pooling their experiences and recognizing that at each step of the engineering process there are uncertainties, ambiguities, idealizations. For example, let us look at the engineering process relevant for our situation. The process is depicted in Fig. 23.11. It begins by site investigation, field testing, sampling and laboratory testing to characterize the site and determine soil properties. We are already aware of the limitations in these processes. We then idealize the profile and the problem so that it lends itself to mathematical analysis. The analytical techniques themselves have in built assumptions to simplify the mathematics involved. Construction processes contribute their own set of imponderables. In each stage of investigation, analysis, design and construction, we add to the uncertainties and we are ignorant of the cumulative effect all of them will produce. The design criteria, that is finally adopted in some way, as per combined judgement, reflects our overall ignorance. As we advance technologically, we reduce the total ignorance and therefore there is need to alter the criteria and this is in fact what happens. Committees of engineers periodically review and revise design criteria. Each revision reflects the current state of our understanding or rather the lack of it Site investigation Tdealise field testing Tateneny profile and sampling 8 problem “Analysis -| Design Construction Fig. 23.11 The engineering process Whatever be the design criteria, the designer must adhere to it. In this Book we will focus only on what constitutes acceptable settlement and what is the acceptable Factor of Safety against bearing capacity failure—the two major issues in the design of sub-structures. 23.3.1 Acceptable Settlement Uniform settlement causes much less problem than differential settlement. The National Museum in Mexico City in Mexico settled uniformly for many years. When it finally stopped settling, the ground floor had become the basement and the first floor had reached the level of the ground floor. The building is stil! functional, it has not suffered any structural distress and is aesthetically acceptable — the museum continues to be housed in it. As it settled, it became necessary to relocate the utility lines entering and leaving the building and the engineers continued to ensure this maintenance, But this is a unique example. Normally it is necessary to impose limits on what is acceptable uniform settlement. Itis much more important to impose limits on differential settlement because that is the root cause for structural distress. Differential settlement, 6, of adjacent columns leads to distortion. Distortion increases as the differential settlement increases and as the distance between columns, /, reduces. See Solved Example 23.1. Acceptable limits in this regard have thus been evolved in terms of angular distortion, 61, that is the ratio of differential settlement to the distance between adjacent columns and is tabulated in Table 23.1382 Engineering Design 23.4 The Design Process—Geotechnical and Structural Design The design process consists of two distinct steps. In the first, the Geotechnical Design Process, the attempt is to determine the allowable soil pressures that can be imposed on the soil by foundations of different sizes and configurations. The second, the Structural Design Process, involves matching of column loads with appropriate foundation sizes and configurations and also structurally designing the selected foundation elements. Geotechnical Design Process can be broken down into five sequential element (i) understanding the functional requirements of the superstructure and determining the loads that are to be transferred by the foundation, i) undertaking site investigation to required depth and determining soil profile and properties, Gii) choosing design parameters from field and laboratory test results, iv) postulating alternative foundation systems by stipulating their type, Iccation, shape, size and configuration and then analyzing their acceptability from the view points of safety from a bearing capacity failure and excessive settlement, and (¥) recommending the allowable soil pressure for shallow foundations and/or allowable axial capacity of deep foundations for different locations, shapes, sizes and configurations. Armed with the recommendations, item (v) above, obtained from the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer, the Structural Engineer then proceeds to (match loads reaching the foundation from the superstructure through columns and/or walls to the type, location, shape, size and configuration of the foundation that is capable of safely transferring the loads to the soil, and (ii) structurally design the chosen foundation elements: piles are designed in a manner similar to columns and shallow foundations in a manner similar to inverted slabs. 23.5 Design Water Table Level The water table level beneath the ground surface fluctuates. It rises during the monsoon and falls in the summer, This fluctuation is only of marginal consequence as far as the axial capacity of piles is concemed. In contrast, its influence on the bearing capacity of shallow foundations can be very significant and has been highlighted in Section 20.5, Prior to designing a shallow foundation, one must consciously decide the level that is to be used for design purposes. If the water table is at considerable depth and its fluctuations do not bring it to a level that is in the range of 2B below the base of the footing, then it can be ignored. If the water table fluctuates in the zone from ground surface to a depth of 2B below the base of the footing, then the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer fixes the design water table level as the highest level itis likely to reach during the life of the structure—and often this is taken to be at the ground surface itself. From Section 20.5, we will recall that the NV, term of ultimate bearing capacity is about halved if the water table rises from a depth of 28 below the footing to the base of the footing. The N, term is about halved if the water table rises further from the base of the footing to the ground surface. For intermediate positions the reduction is linearly interpolated as indicated by the R,, and R’,, values that are used in relations proposed by Teng (Eqs. 19.8, 20.10 and 20.11) and shown in Fig. 23.12, which assumes that water table has no influence if it is located at a depth of more than B below base of footing.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.A 388 Engineering Design Table 23.2 Typical Recommendation for the Geotechnical Design fora Shallow Foundation Recommended shape of the foundation: Square or Rectangular Recommended Allowable Soil Pressures in KN/m Shape Square (BIL = 1.0) Rectangular (BIL = 0.5) Binm> 200 300 «4.0 1S) 200 28 3.0 0s 10 1s temoved. As a consequence, foundation size can be reduced. In some cases, provision of a basement or multiple basements enables tall buildings to be founded on a raft instead of piles because of the extra allowable pressure arising on account of the overburden of soil removed for basement construction. 23.8 Geotechnical Design of Deep Foundations ‘The process of Geotechnical Design of deep foundations also begins with a careful study of the loads to be transmitted from the columns of the superstructure and the soil profile. The objective of the design is to identify the type of pile that should be used, its length and cross-section and determine the load carrying capacity of the individual pile. For shallow foundations, D, is usually kept constant and foundations of different B are used below different columns depending on the column load. For deep foundations, only one type of pile of one length and cross section is used except for very large projects where two or three sizes maybe adopted. The number of piles used below each column are varied to cater to differences in column loads. A few alternative acceptable pile types and/or sizes are identified so that the Structural Engineer can exercise some choice. 23.8.1 Identifying a Strong Bearing Layer for Locating the Pile Tip The first step is to study the soil profile and look for a strong bearing layer: dense sand, stiff clay or rock. If one exists at reasonable depth then the pile tip can be located on it, rather a few metres in it. Such a pile then becomes an ‘end-bearing’ pile and one need not worry about conducting settlement analysis because the bearing layer would have low compressibility. The pile length also gets defined. If there is no strong bearing layer then the pile has to be a friction pile or one that derives its capacity from both end bearing and friction, For carrying the design process further, one would select one or two pile lengths as deep as possible consistent with convenience of construction 23.8.2 Selection of Pile Type The load carrying capacity of a pile in a particular soil profile is governed not just by its length and width/diameter but also by (@ the pile material—conerete, steel, wood ii) its cross section—square, circular, tubular and ii) its installation procedure—driven, bored. Apart from the load carrying capacity, the choice of a pile also depends on feasibility of construction, noise and/or vibrations generated during construction and so on. These issues are discussed in Chapter 217. After its study the process of selection of a pile type will become facilitated.‘Sub-Structures: Foundations 389 A 23.8.3 Range of Pile Lengths and Diameters piles are often as long as Pile widths/diameters are typically in the range of 0.3-0.75 m. Large diameter piles, also called drilled piers, have diameters in the range of 1-2.5 m. Micropiles, (Section 27.11), used in special rehabilitation applications can have diameters as small as 0.15 m. 23.8.4 Axial Capacity Analysis For the selected pile type and the range of dimensions chosen, axial capacities are estimated as per procedures detailed in Section 20.11, Pile Load Tests are conducted and the results analyzed to determine axial capacities. From the two evaluations, the best estimates are arrived at by exercising one’s judgement. Determination of the axial capacities of pile groups for a variety of configurations are undertaken and suitable pile spacings are worked out. 23.8.5 Settlement Analysis When piles are not resting on strong bearing layers, settlement analysis is conducted as indicated in Section 19.7. Suitable configurations for which the settlement is within acceptable limits are identified. 23.8.6 Results and Recommendations The results of the Geotechnical Design are presented in a tabular form as shown in Table 23.3. The Structural Engineer matches the column loads with group capacities and proceeds with his/her design. In selecting from the options available, the Structural Engineer is guided by two factors (see Solved Example 23.5): (i) itis desirable to choose the option in which there are larger sized piles but fewer number of piles so that time taken for installation of piles is less, and i) since the minimum number of piles in a pile group is usually 3 (and in rare situations 2), the option chosen should be such that three piles suffice for the lightly loaded columns and for columns. carrying heavier loads the number of piles in the pile group can be suitably increased. Table 23.3 Typical Recommendation for the Geotechnical Design for a Deep Foundation Recommended Pile Types: (a) Bored Cast in Situ RCC Pile (b) Precast Driven RCC pile Length of Pile: (a) 18 m: 1m penetration into the Dense Sand stratum starting at El -18 m (b) 21 m; 4m penetration into the Dense Sand stratum starting at El ~18 m Location of Pile Cap: At El. ~1 m Recommended Safe Axial Capacities for an Individual Pile in kN Type Length Bored (circular) Diameter m Driven (square) Side m m os 06 03 04s ” - Note 1: Seitlement analysis not conducted since pile tip is im strong bearing layer Note 2: Pile groups recommended are 3-pile group, 2 x 2 group, 3 x 3 group: take group capacity as number of piles individual pile capacity; centre to centre pile spacing: 3 x diameter/sideA 390 Engineering Design SoWwed Examples Example 23.1 ‘Two structures, A and B, are constructed at two different sites. The foundations of structure A rest on sand and those of structure B on clay. The estimated total settlement of structure A is 20 mm and of B is 36 mm. Differential settlement is estimated to be 80% of total settlement in sand but only 50% in clay. The column spacing in structure A is 6 m and in structure B is 9 m. Which structure will experience higher angular distortion? Solution For structure A For structure B Differential settlement 6 =0.8 x 20= 16 mm Differential settlement 5 ion & = 16 1 6 Angular distortion = = 35 Angular distortion ‘Structure A experiences the higher angular distortion Example 23.2 ‘The data on undrained strength of a normally consolidated clay with respect to depth as obtained from site investigation is shown in Fig. 23.17. What value of S, would you use for design for (a) a shallow foundation of width 2 m located at a depth of Im and for (b) a pile 15 m long and 0.6 m in diameter? 10 30. 50. 70 90. Depth em Fig. 23.17 Data of S, versus depth Solution By visually studying the data of S, versus depth, we develop an average line shown as AB in Fig. 23.17. (a) For the shallow foundation, the zone of interest is from depth Im to depth 2B = 4 m below it. That is from depth 1 m to 5m. Su design = 0-5 (Sy aperage MLM + Sy, gverage 5m) = 0.5 (15 + 35) = 25 kNim? One could also use a weighted average giving more weightage to the S, at shallow depth since the stress transferred to shallow depth is greater than the stress that reaches a depth of 5 m—see Solved Example 23.3,a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.A 392 Engineering Design Let us say we use a different weighting pattern, 5 for depth 4 m, 4 for 6 m, 3 for 8 m, 2 for 10 m 1.5 for 12m and 1 for 14 m, then N” representing the affected zone (4X54+4%4+5X3+6X2+ 13K15+13) 165 You may wish to try out another pattern and the result will not be very different Example 23.4 A shallow foundation is to be placed at a depth of 1.5m in a deposit of uniform sand for which the corrected N value remains constant down to a depth of 10 m. Foundations with widths of 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0m are being considered. Will the value of allowable soil pressure increase or decrease with increasing width? Solution Allowable soil pressure is the lower value of (@ qu/S-F. ie. safe from a bearing capacity failure, and ii) q for which the settlement is acceptable. If allowable pressure is governed by bearing capacity consideration, then as B increases so does gy, and therefore so will allowable soil pressure. On the other hand, if allowable soil pressure is governed by the settlement criterion, then as B increases, so does the settlement and q for which settlement is acceptable will reduce and so will allowable soil pressure. Example 23.5 Pile foundation has been selected for a multistoried building. Two piles A and B are being considered. Both are of the same length but have different diameters and therefore have different safe capacities. The safe capacity of pile A is 250 kN and that of B is 400 kN. Column loads vary from a low of 1200 kN for the commer columns to a high of 4000 KN for the interior columns, Which pile would you prefer to use for this building? Solution If pile A is chosen, Mu 5.82 that is 6 1200 umber of piles required for corner columns = 12M = 4.8 = 5 piles number of piles required for interior columns = = 16 piles If pile B is chosen, 00 ttumber of piles required for comer columns =“, = 3 piles number of piles required for interior columns = - = 10 piles Pile B allows a 3-pile group to be formed for the least loaded columns. Total number of piles to be installed if pile B is chosen would be much smaller than if pile A was chosen. From the point of view of faster installation pile B would be better. Pile B seems a good choice for this building Exercisey Objective-type Question 23.1 State whether the following statements are true ot false and, if false, explain why. (a) For design of shallow foundations on sand, a weighted averaging has to be taken after correcting the measured N-values from SPT from the zone between the base of the foundationSub-Structures: Foundations 393 and a depth of twice the width of the foundation with greater weightage being given to values closer to the base of foundation. (b) The Factors of Safety used for shallow foundations are lower than those used for deep foundations because we have less construction control for deep foundations. (©) In cold climates, shallow foundations are placed below the zone that undergoes freezing and thawing because the reinforcement in concrete footings rusts upon freezing and thawing. (a) A foundation is considered deep if the ratio of D, to B is more than 5. {e) Shallow and deep foundations resist lateral loads by similar mechanism. (®) Foundation location in river beds is governed by the depth to the dense layer below the river bed. (g) In clays, differential settlement can exceed total settlement. (h) An error is made in recording the water table level by 2m. This can have a very significant effect on estimation of the axial capacity of a pile but only marginal influence on the bearing capacity of a shallow footing. Descriptive Questions 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 Why is the criterion for acceptable settlement expressed in terms of the ratio of difference in settlement between two adjacent columns divided by the distance between the columns and not in terms of the total settlement of columns? Explain the difference between Ultimate Bearing Capacity, Safe Bearing Capacity, Soil Pressure that causes an acceptable amount of settlement, What value would you use as the Allowable Soil Pressure for designing a footing A commercial complex has to be constructed at a site. Two consultants were engaged to indepen- dently investigate the site and prepare a Geotechnical Design. Consultant A’s report recommended: Shallow foundations may be used; the bearing capacity at 1.0 m depth is 150 kN/m’, Consultant B’s report was as follows: Shallow foundations should be used. Values for allowable soil pressure can be taken from Table below. Recommended Allowable Soil Pressures in kN/m? Shape Square Strip footings Binm> | 20. 40 -«| 20 3.0 Depth in m 4 10 140 164 124 152 Which consultant's report will you follow? Explain. Why do we not vary the diameter of piles for different column loads in the same manner as we vary the width of shallow foundations? Numerical Problems 23.6 An individual column shallow footing is to be designed for placement in sand to carry a vertical load ‘of 400 KN. and a moment in one direction only of 40 kNm. We are given the following information: Binm | Safe Pressure from settlement | Ultimate Bearing consideration in kN/m? Capacity in kN/m? 1 mo 150 180 300 3 160 450 Determine the size of the footing.A 394 Engineering Design 23.7 23.8 A Consulting Geotechnical Engineer was designing a strip footing for a wall carrying a load of 22 x 10° kN/running metre. She had (o provide a Safety Factor of at least 3.0 against a bearing capacity failure and the settlement was to be limited 25 mm. She analyzed a footing 2 m wide located at a depth of 1 m only to discover that it was unsafe from bearing capacity considerations. She next tried two alternatives: Da2m Dim w Which alternative(s), if any, would be OK? ‘The soil on which the footing has to rest has a 4” of 25° and a c’ of zero, That is Ny= 9, N, = 5 and y= 20kN/m’, m, = 1.06 x 10 m°/KN. For calculating settlement use the approximate 1:2 Method to find stress at any elevation. Consider a zone equal to 28 as relevant and use sub-layers of 2m thickness. The water table is far below the ground surface. A 3m by 3m square footing at a depth of 2.5m was found suitable by the designer as the foundation for Column A1 carrying a load of 800 KN. Before the designer could finalize the footings for other columns, he was told that the building will now also have a basement down to a depth of 2m below the ground surface. Will he have to redesign the footing for Column A1? If so find the new footing dimensions. Unit weight of the soil may be taken as 15 kN/m’, Water table is at great depth. Ans. 2.6m by 2.6m A building has 36 columns: (4 columns will transmit a load of 1500 to 1600 KN to the soil, Gi) 16 columns will transmit a load of 2800 to 3200 KN to the soil, and Gii) 16 columns will transmit a toad of $500 to 6000 KN to the soil. ‘The columns are to rest on end bearing piles that are 8 m long and are founded on a layer of dense sand. The ultimate unit end bearing is 6000 kN/m*, The code specifies a Safety Factor of 2.0. It is necessary that there be at least two piles below a column Piles of diameters 0.45 m, 0.6 m and 0.75 m are available to choose from. Which pile diameter will you choose?a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Earth Structures: Dams and Embankments 399 A —{ Crest = Transition filters (iv) i Vegetation (vi) Horizontal drain (v) Riprap (vi) Base of dam Core Heel i) Rock toe Toe drain (vii) Cuvoft Foundation trench, i) Toe om Grout curtain Fig. 24.4 Components used in earth dams 24.3.1. The Core—its Thickness and Inclinati or a thick core depending on the availability of the material and place the upstream direction as depicted in Fig. 24.5. The designer can choose a the core vertically or incline i A Zi {a) Vertical thin core (b) Vertical thick core (6) Inclined thin core Fig. 24.5. Core thickness and inclination Core thickness at any location equal to 15 to 20% of the height of dam above that location is adequate for the purpose of serving as an effective water barrier. Core thicknesses used are 15% and often as high as 100% or more. A thin core is good for stability and a thick core is more resistant to cracking and piping (see Sub-section 24.3.4) and provides better sealing at contact with foundation. When a thin core is selected, it is particularly important to ensure high quality of construction. In comparison to vertical cores, upstream inclined cores have the advantage that: (i) they increase the stability of the downstream slope, ii) they protect a large part of the foundation from experiencing high seepage pressures, and ii) they allow the downstream shell to be constructed ahead of the core; this is advantageous in predominantly wet climates when during rains, the shell in the downstream part of the dam can be constructed and during dry windows in the climate the core can be raised. And, in comparison to vertical cores, upstream inclined cores also have associated disadvantages: (@ they reduce the stability of the upstream slope during rapid draw-down of the reservoir (see Section 24.4), Gi) they require larger quantity of core material, and (iii) they do not provide as good a seal at contact with the foundation. The designer has to balance the advantages vis-A-vis the disadvantages and make a suitable choice for any given specific situation—see Solved Example 24.1.Earth Structures: Dams and Embankments 401 (Ds per) (Dy provecied sou) ii) the gradation curves of the filter and the protected soil should be similar—see Solved Example 24.2, It follows that the transition filter being placed between the core and the shell, also conforms to these same criteria when we consider the filter material and the shell material otherwise the fine particles of, the filter material will move and migrate through the shell. Sometimes the grain sizes of the two adjacent dissimilar soils (core vis-)-vis the shell) are so different that one transition filter is unable to bridge the gap: we then have to use more than one transition filter. The filter criteria has to be satisfied between the protected soil in the core and filter-1, then between filter-1 and filter-2 and finally between filter- 2 and the shell material. Horizontal filters are usually 150 to 600 mm thick and the vertical or inclined filters are usually wide enough so that they can be placed and compacted by earth moving machinery and are thus of the order of 2.5 to 4m wide. Gi) to ensure that fine particles do not migrate <5 24.3.5 Internal Drains Internal drains are made of sand or gravel sized material. They may have to be suitably enveloped by transition filters. They are designed to carry a seepage of 5 to 10 times the seepage estimated from seepage analysis. They take the form of horizontal blanket or vertical/inclined chimneys as depicted in Fig. 24.7. Usually drains of thickness of 300 mm to a few meters are sufficient to meet the flow requirements, Actual thickness used is governed more by ease of construction considerations, Rock Phreatic Horizontal blanket Chimney drain cl s drain toe. line Rouktos Phreatic Ss —< vd . line Fig. 24.7 Internal drains 24.3.6 Protective Layers for Erosion Control The upstream slope is liable to erosion on account of the action of waves that form in the water in the reservoir. The slope is protected by placement of large sized rocks called riprap underlain by suitable transition filters as depicted in Fig. 24.8. Many other protective arrangements using, concrete blocks, soil-cement layers, etc. have also been tried. Top soil Transition filter Fig. 24.8 Arrangements for erosion controlA 404 Engineering Design by the construction process to that determined by flow. Construction pore water pressures are substituted by pore water pressures arising out of seepage and can be determined by drawing a flow net. The final, most critical, situation is the one, when the reservoir is full and steady state seepage has been established. Under this condition the downstream slope is the slope to investigate. Seepage forces are acting to cause instability to it as depicted in Fig. 24.11, see Solved Example 24.3. Upstream slope is getting added stability from the seepage forces. Seepage forces Failure surface Phreatic line dis slope Maximum reservoir level w - Fig. 24.11 Seepage forces cause instability to the downstream slope during steady state seepage During operation of the earth dam, the most critical situation for the upstream slope arises under rapid draw down of the reservoir, that is, when the water level in the reservoir is lowered quickly. The water in the body of the dam begins to flow in the upstream direction as well and the resulting seepage forces cause instability to the upstream slope as depicted in Fig. 24.12. The magnitude of pore water pressures relevant for assessing the stability of the upstream slope are then determined from a flow net that depicts the transient flow situation arising out of the rapid draw down condition. Minimum Paihine macfioe ‘Seepage force in both reservoir ws and dis direction level Phreatic line when wis slope reservoir is full Fig. 24.12 Seepage forces cause instability to the upstream slope during rapid draw down of the reservoir For any of the situations described above, the actual stability analysis is conducted using the method/s discussed in Chapter 21. The Safety Factors so determined must meet the design criteria specified in codes through minimum acceptable values of Safety Factors, see Table 24.1. Table 24.1 Typical Range of Prescribed Safety Factors for Stability of Slopes of Earth Dams Critical Condition Relevant Slope Safety Factor During and at End of Construction ws and d/s 1213 During Steady State Seepage dls 141.6 During Rapid Draw Down of Reservoir us 12413 You will note that the acceptable Safety Factor for the steady state seepage condition is higher than for the other two conditions. If you think for a moment, you will realize that this is so because a failure for this condition can lead to catastrophe, whereas, a failure in the other wo conditions will cause an economic loss and delay but no serious loss of life and property. In these two conditions there is little or no water in the reservoir. Whereas, a slope stability failure of the downstream slope when the reservoir is full, can lead to a situation where the crest level of the dam gets lowered and the waterrushes over the top of the dam—overtopping of the dam. If this occurs, then the entire dam can get washed out and the water in the reservoir will rush downstream as a sheet of water and destroy both life and property that it encounters. 24.5 Design Process As observed at the beginning of this Chapter, the Structural Engineer has practically no role to play in the design of an earth structure. This will be evident hereafter when we look at the various steps of the design process. There is thus no separation necessary into Geotechnical Design and Structural Design. In a hydroelectric project as a whole, the Structural Engineer does have a role in designing the appurtenant structures such as the spillway or river diversion works etc. and of course also the power house and structures associated with it. ‘The Consulting Geotechnical Engineer takes the following steps in designing an earth dam: (i) identify suitable borrow areas from where soils to be used in the dam can be obtained in sufficient quantity, Gi) obtain disturbed representative samples from borrow areas, perform laboratory tests on them, determine compaction characteristics and engineering properties of compacted soils, (iii) conduct detailed site investigation at the dam site to delineate the soil profile and determine soil properties using in situ tests and laboratory tests on undisturbed representative soil samples, (iv) select the height of the dam on the basis of project requirements as well as hydrological studies relating to reservoir capacity, anticipated floods, spillway capacity and adequate freeboard, i.e. the vertical distance from the maximum reservoir level to the crest level, (¥) develop a preliminary cross section of the dam Table 24.2 Crest Width selecting all components on the basis of availability of soils and sub-surface conditions—see Tables 24.2 ype of Dam Crest Width in m and 24.3 and Solved Example 24.4 that illustrates how ‘Small 36 we can develop the preliminary section for a dam, Large 6-15 (vi) perform stability analyses, seepage analyses and fine tune the slope inclinations (see Section 24.6 on appropriate soil parameters that need to be used), (vii) finalize sizes and locations of all components: cores, shells, other zones, transition filters, drains, etc. (viii) stipulate compaction methodology and quality control specifications (see Section 24.7), and (ix) for large dams, recommend a scheme of instrumentation for construction control and performance monitoring (see Section 24.8). Table 24.3 Tentative Slopes for Preliminary Section Type of Dam Soil Type Upstream Slope Downstream Slope horizontal : vertical horizontal : vertical Zoned Gravel, sandy gravel 20:1 with thin clay core Zoned Sand with clay core 251030: 1 2010 2.551 Homogeneous Silts and low 301035:1 2510301 plasticity claysa You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.loaders. The front-end loader shown in Fig. 26.10 is most widely used. It can be considered to be a dozer with three modifications: Gi) the blade is replaced by a bucket, (ii) the push arms connecting the control unit to the bucket are extended for lifting and dumping soil, and Gii) the crawler tacks are replaced by wheels. Fig. 26.10 A front-end loader A loader lifts stockpiled soil and dumps it into trucks/haulers. It can also operate as a fast and light dozer for spreading or stripping loose soil. Table 26.7 lists some operating characteristics of loaders. Table 26.7 Characteristics of Loaders Parameter Bucket Dumping Dumping Maximum Output m’/hr (haul 8 m; Capacity m’ Reach Height m — Speed km/hr bucket 1.5 m’) Range 03-70 05-20 25-40 «40-45 70-105 26.5.4 Haulers 1, Trucks and Tippers When soil has to be transported over public roads, it is usually hauled in trucks and tippers. These vehicles are relatively small sized haulage units and have to be loaded by other equipment. Trucks are unloaded manually, whereas, tippers unload themselves by rear tipping. To prevent dust emissions and soil spillage on public roads, the filled level of soil is kept below the side walls of the truck body and suitably covered. 2. Dumpers A dumper is a large sized heavy duty truck, used in medium to large earthwork projects, that is suitable for hauling soil on unpaved roads. Dumpers have to be loaded by other machines. Rear dumpers with a capacity of 4-30 m? have a strongly built body which is hinged at the rear and fitted with @ hydraulic pump on the underside to lift the front of the body and tilt it backwards as shown in Fig. 26.11. Bottom dumpers are larger in size with a capacity of 40-80 m’; in these haulers, the body remains horizontal while discharging the material through the bottom by opening of two bottom gates. Dumpers are also available in the form of articulated trucks. Fig.26.11 A rear dumper 3. Conveyors Conveyors are sometimes used for transporting soil in difficult terrain where access is a problem. A conveyor consists of a series of endless flat belts that are placed between the soil loading area and the soil discharge area, with suitable intermediate transfer points where direction change is possible. Conveyor is loaded via a hopper and it ends in a stacker that allows the material to be spread over a wide area. Conveyors have larger capital costs and lower operating costs in comparison to dumpers.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.A 458 Geotechnical Construction Leader Hammer Leader Hammer Pile Pile Winches: so |—— Framed base (a) Mounted on rigid base (b) Mounted on crane Fig. 27.5 Pile driving rigs (frame) pe th} |r | ed (@) Drop (b) Pneumatic (©) Vibratory Fig. 27.6 Pile driving hammers (iii) Appurtenances: These are components that are placed in between the pile head and the hammer = to transmit maximum energy to the pile without damage to the pile head—see Fig. 27.7. The pile Strike plate hammer hits a strike plate that is placed over a -— cushion or dolly made usually of hard wood, The aus aap cushion transmits the energy to a drive head ot der helmet made of cast iron or steel that is placed on the (drive head) pile head. The cushion softens the impact of the Plywood (in hammer by spreading it over a longer time without concrete piles only) significant loss of energy. The helmet prevents — Pile head crushing of the pile head. In conerete piles, a Pile i - Fig. 27.7 Components placed between plywood packing is often inserted between the pile See head and the helmet to further protect the pile head.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.A 462. Geotechnical Construction Hammer —_P™~ | (a) Shell + Mandrel (b) Mandrel (©) Reinforcement (d) Concreting driven withdrawn inserted Fig. 27.11 Driven cast-in-situ pile encased in a mandrel driven thin stee! shell iG | casing “Ke, Shoe (detachable) (a) Casing + shoe (b) Reinforcement driven inserted Fig. 27.12 An uncased driven castin-situ pileFoundation Construction 463 Cables hold t Casing Pulled casing in out slowly position Casing Hammer inside casing Concrete Hammer 21 Concrete Ga plus distodges compacted plug using {hammer Concrete bulb (a) Concrete plug _(b) Pile driven (©) Bulb formed (a) Concreting underway formed after reinforcement insertion 27.13 An uncased driven cast-in-situ pile of compacted concrete 27.7 Bored Cast-In-Situ Concrete Piles The process of construction of a bored cast-in-situ pile consists of four steps: (® drilling of hole, i) stabilization of hole, (ii) placement of reinforcement, and (iv) concreting Steps (iii) and (iv) are sometimes interchanged. Figure 27.14 depicts multiple ways of drilling. In soil that is dry or moist and does not require stabilization, drilling with an auger is effective—see Fig. 27.14(a). Fig. 27.14(b) shows a casing installed in soils requiring side support—drilling by the auger is carried out at a depth ahead of the casing. In very soft soils where the drill tool cannot operate ahead of the casing, the casing may be pushed into the soil and a grab used to remove the soil from inside the casing as shown in Fig. 27.14(c). Figure 27.14(d) depicts the construction process for a soil in which an auger is not effective—the soil falls back into the hole when the auger is lifted. The hole is stabilized with continuous Bentonitea You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.A 470 Geotechnical Construction recommend pre-drilling a hole of diameter 300 mm from the ground surface to 15 m depth and then driving precast pile into the hole. Pre-drilling would also provide precise information about the depth to bedrock to which the pile has to be driven, Example 27.2 High displacement concrete piles, 15m long, are to be installed in loose sand. The choice is between 450 mm square precast driven piles and $00 m diameter driven cast in situ piles. Which type of pile should be used for (a) building that imposes a very small lateral Joad on the piles and (b) building that imposes high lateral load on the piles? The two buildings apply the same axial load on the piles. Solution The wo piles under consideration have about the same cross sectional and surface area and thus have the same axial capacity. (a) Lateral load is small. Piles have to be designed only for axial load. For cast in situ piles the reinforcement required is minimum as specified in codes. For precast piles, reinforcement is much more than this minimum since the pile must be able to withstand bending moments during handling. The precast pile is thus more expensive, Hence, select cast in situ pile. (b) Lateral load is high. Piles are subjected to high bending moments at top of the pile. Reinforcement has to be provided for resisting these bending moments. This reinforcement is much more than the minimum specified by codes and also more than that required for resisting stresses due to handling. Driven cast in situ and precast piles will both require the same amount of reinforcement and will thus cost the same. Concrete quality of precast piles is much better than that of cast in situ piles. Hence, select precast piles. Example 27.3 For a multistoried building one has the option of placing one large diameter pile directly beneath each column or of constructing a pile cap with three smaller diameter piles underneath each column. Which is to be preferred? Solution One large diameter pile offers two advantages: @) the pile cap is not required hence tess cost, and Gi) the number of piles is less, hence work can be completed faster. ‘One large diameter pile has the following disadvantage (@ the center line of the pile may not get aligned directly below that of the column since positioning of piles is not always very accurate - a 100 mm displacement is not unlikely and this would generate unwanted moment in the pile; moments can be generated in a three pile arrangement as well but this arrangement with a pile cap can better withstand moments than a single pile arrangement, and Gi) multiple piles provide some degree of back-up redundancy and can make-up for any deficiency in one pile of a pile group. ‘The disadvantages of the single pile out weigh the advantages of lower cost and less time and the 3-pile arrangement is invariably preferred by practicing Consulting Geotechnical Engineers, Exercisey Objective-type Question 27.1 Match the following: @_(@) Non-displacement pile A. Driven tubular steel pile (b) Low-displacement pile B. Driven steel sheet pile (©) High-displacement pile C. Driven precast concrete pile (@) Low or high displacement pile D. Bored cast-in-situ concrete pileFoundation Construction 471 Aw Gi) (@) Helmet Percussion drilling (b) Detachable shoe Hammering (c) Bailer Driven cast-in-situ pile Gi) (@) Mandret Enlarged base (b) Tremie pipe Removal of cobbles and boulders (©) Grab Conereting (@) Under-reamer Hammering (iv) (@) Micropiles (b) Auger cast piles (©) Bored piles (@) Precast driven piles 300 to 1500 mm diameter Up to 450 mm diameter 300 to 750 mm diameter 150 to 300 mm diameter Yoe> Soph ower Descriptive Questions 27.2 27.3 2.4 27.5 27.6 207 27.8 List the conditions under which auger cast-in-situ piles are adopted in preference to bored cast-in- situ piles. What type of piles would be appropriate for supporting a heavy structure on an undulating bedrock surface located at 20 to 30m depth below the ground surface? What type of pile foundations would be appropriate for a £0 storied building resting on loose to medium clean sand with water table at 5m and hard stratum below 60 m depth? What type of pile foundation is suitable for foundations of bridge piers of a river in northern India where the soil is silty sand and the scour depth during monsoons is 30 m below the river bed level. At Bombay high, off the coast of Mumbai, the offshore oil production platforms in water depth of 70m are made of steel and they rest on pile foundations made of open ended steel pipes having diameters in excess of 1.0 m driven to depths of 90m or more below the seabed. Give 3 reasons why such piles have been chosen in preference to concrete piles. In what types of soils do driven precast piles generate: (a) significant improvement in skin friction, (b) heave. Select one soil type for each of the above from the following and state your reasons for so selecting: (i) silty sand, Gi) moist silty clay, Gi) loose sand, (vi) saturated clay. In which type of soil does one encounter the following problems during drilling for bored cast-in- situ piles: (a) closure of hole due to squeezing, (b) overcutting of hole due to caving of sides. Select one soil type for each of the above from the following and state your reasons for so selecting: (i) soft saturated clay, (ii) sity sand, (i) stiff clay, (iv) loose saturated sand without fines.Chapter Excavation, Underground Construction and Tunnels We have been focussing on the design and construction of sub-structures that are used to transfer the loads of superstructures to the soil. Consulting Geotechnincal Engineers also have a vital role to play in the design and construction of underground structures. Consideration of detailed aspects of underground structures is beyond the scope of this Book. Since construction of sub-structures involves soil excavation and underground construction we consider them in this Chapter and at the same time provide you with an introduction to underground structures, specifically tunnels. Soils are excavated to create vertical, horizontal or inclined cavities in the ground. These cavities may be open to the sky, i.e. open excavations such as for trenches or wells or pits for construction of basements or they may be totally confined such as tunnels and caverns. The techniques of construction under the ground differ from those used above the ground because the former are interlinked with the manner in which the soil is excavated and supported at the sides and on the top. Basements, shafts, tunnels, wells are all constructed by special methods. These may involve excavating the soil and casting the structural element insitu or assembling segments of precast structural elements in the excavated space. In some cases, the entire structure may be cast above the ground and then slowly pushed into the ground by excavating the soil incrementally. 28.1 Underground Construction Methodology The following steps are usually involved in underground construction: (i) stabilizing foundations of nearby structures, if any, (ii) managing ground water, if present, Gil) excavating soil, (iv) providing support to sides, if necessary, (v) removing spoils, i.e. excavated soil cuttings, (vi) collecting and draining water seeping into the excavated area,a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Excavation, Underground Construction and Tunnels 491 dw Proposed dam ‘Water level Dumped fine Cofferdam Dumped rockfill Well point Xx Diversion tunnel (c) Plan view Fig. 28.25 Use of embankment type cofferdams for excavation in river bed for construction of cut-off trench 28.13 Caissons and Wells As observed in Section 27.13, caissons and wells are large diameter foundations adopted in underwater situations such as bridge foundations in rivers. We are discussing them in this Chapter rather than in Chapter 27 on Foundation Construction only because we now have a better appreciation of dewatering and what is involved in construction below water table. Caissons are large width foundations which carry the load of the superstructure through layers of weak soil to firm stratum at considerable depth. Unlike pile foundations, which rarely have diameters greater than 2.0 m, caissons can have widths ranging from 10-30 m and can be founded at depths of 40 m or more. Caissons are used extensively in river and marine under-water construction. In particular they are used as foundations for bridges. Caisson are usually prefabricated above the ground level and above the water level and sunk to the bearing level as one single unit. When the process of fabrication and sinking proceed simultaneously they are referred (0 as well foundations,Excavation, Underground Construction and Tunnels 493 Pic ao [7] kn Whe uw Box caisson LWLy = Strong soil (a) Box caisson HWL | LwL @ During (i) After completion 1— Airlock sinking t— Air shaft {(b) Open caisson (wells) |— Pneumatic ‘chamber (©) Pneumatic caisson Circular DoubleD — Multi-hole (4) Shapes of wells in plan Fig. 28.28 Types of caissons ‘The use of caissons is best illustrated by the following two examples. ‘The foundations of a bridge at a river crossing as depicted in Fig. 28.29(a) have to be placed on bedrock at a depth of 5 m below the river bed level as shown in Fig. 28.29(b). The foundation will ‘essentially be a rectangular footing which has to be placed on a horizontally leveled foundation base layer on the irregular bedrock. Two options are available to the Consulting Geotechnical Engineer: @) construct a cofferdam at the site, excavate the soil to bedrock level and cast the foundation in situ, or Gi) excavate the soil underwater by dredging, float a prefabricated box caisson and lower it to the foundation base layer on bedrock. Option (i) above is likely to be adopted when the water level in the river is low and this has already been discussed in Section 28.12. Option (ii) is likely to be adopted when the depth of water is large and it is feasible to construct a box caisson on shore, near the river, and float it to the position of installation. ‘The steps of construction in such a case are shown in Figs. 28.29(c) to (f) and consist of: (i) construction of the box caisson on shore near the river, Gi) excavation of river bed down to bedrock using grab dredger or suction dredger, Gii) placement of gravel/rockfill on irregular bedrock and leveling this foundation base layer, (iv) floating the box caisson to the location, (v) lowering it to rest on the foundation base layer by appropriate ballasting, and (vi) grouting below caisson to connect it firmly to rock.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.A 500 Geotechnical Construction is observed in soils above water table when clay content is high and overburden stress is low. Below the water table, all soils tend to be unstable. Also when fines are not present, clean coarse grained soils are unstable even above the water table. 28.17 Cut-and-Cover Tunnels (Cut-and-cover tunnels are shaliow depth tunnels, usually located within 20 m depth below the ground surface. As the name implies they are constructed by making a cut (or trench) in the soil, erecting the structural element (usually box-shaped) and finally placing the soil cover (backfill) over the structural element. These are cheaper than bored tunnels for depths down to 20m and are frequently used as large sewage tunnels and vehicular tunnels in urban areas. The ‘cut’ is usually a braced excavation within which a box shaped frame is cast as shown in Fig. 28.33. Where adequate space is available, as in open areas beyond urban centers, open cuts with lined side slopes are used as they are more economical than braced excavation, Ground Shoat piles {surface seven inst Sint 7 4 - ——= L- strut 2 Proposed. +— Strut 3 (a) Proposed rail (b) Installation of (c) Excavation (¢) Excavation tunnel side support stage I stage 3 Sheet piles pulled out _ _ if feasible {— Backfill ‘Concrete Final aa! Base box fF ae es RY (©) Base level (f) Slab cast-in-sity_(g) Box section _(h) Struts and sheet piles completed removed, backfilling completed 28.33 Cut-and-cover sequence for construction of an underground rail tunnel Fi When the tunnel alignment is beneath a city road, the cut-and-cover method interferes and disrupts traffic movement. The use of temporary decks over the excavation area reduces disruption of traffic as shown in Fig. 28.34. If the alignment of a cut-and-cover tunnel is very clase to buildings, special measures have to be taken to avoid movement of foundations of buildings as discussed in Section 28.9. When the tunnel alignment is beneath buildings, the cut-and-cover method cannot be adopted and bored tunnels are used.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Excavati lerground Construction and Tunneis 503 A water and fines of the soil being excavated are used. A screw conveyor with a special valve controls muck removal without loss of pressure at the face—see Fig. 28.36(e). EPB machines find greater usage when percentage of silt and clay is significant and water content is high. Spoil handling in such machines is easier then in slurry machines. (vi) EPB High-Density Slurry (or Slime) Machines When a coarse grained soil with little fine material is encountered, the EPB machine does not perform satisfactorily. When the percentage of gravel in soil encountered is high the Slurry Face Machine is unable to remove the soil cuttings in the form of slurry. In these situations, a high density slurry (paste or slime) is pumped into the bulkhead for assistances in cutting and removing the soil as depicted in Fig. 28.36(f). Muck is removed from the cutter face through a screw conveyor—see Solved Example 28.8, (vil) Blind Shields These are used in very soft clays where spoil discharge is controlled by an opening in the advancing face; no cutting tool is needed as shown in Fig. 28.36(g). 28.18.2 Tunnel Lining and Support in Bored Tunneling Support is provided behind an excavated tunnel by using a one-pass lining system or a two-pass lining system. If the ground is wet and sofi/loose it requires immediate support behind the shield. The one- pass lining system comprising of segmented rings with watertight gasket joints is used as shown in (a) Open-face, (b) Semi-mechanised (c) Mechanised (TBM) hand-dug Slurry under Slurry under pressure pressure perk — Son (viscous paste) ° = ; — Spoils Stary + spoils (viscous paste) (@) Slurry face (e) Earth pressure balance (0) EPB High-density sturry (g) Blind Fig. 28.36 Types of shieldsa You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a 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Comprehensive. Lucid. An rae OME CR Cum Un) and understanding. A unique book. (see USE ce te a)