CENTURY PULP &PAPER

MILL

PROJECT REPORT

PAPER MACHINE -4 (DEINKING PLANT)

DEPARTMENT – MECHANICAL(MAINTANANCE)

FROM 15 JUNE 2019 TO 3 1 JULY 2019

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY :

MR. SATISH VERMA SHUBH PRAKASH TIWARI
Sr. Manager (HR) B.TECH( ME):- 6TH SEM
C ENTURY PULP &PAPER, ROLL NO.-1647640075 (AKTU)
Lalkuan (NAINITAL) FUTURE GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS,

UTTARAKHAND BAREILLY

1
ACKNOWLEDGEM
ENT: -
I take this opportunity to express my deep gratitude to the management of CPP
L ALKUAN ,disst NAINITAL for providing me opportunity to get an exposure in
th eir esteemed organization .

I am sincerely thankfull to the HRD department of the century pulp and paper
mill , Lalkuan AND ESPECCIALLY TO Mr. Satish Verma ,Sr. Manager (HRD) & Mr.
Amit Singh Raghuvanshi ,Sr. executive (HRD) for their continued help and
graviance during my stay here .

I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Mr. Rahul Mohan sir for his inspiring
guidance and motivation , I received during my training period in PM 4 under
th e guidance of Mr. S.K. Dubey sir, Mr. Shashi Bhushan sir , Mr. Sandeep sir .

Th anks for all your guidance sir to learning me the technical terms properly and
un derstanding them to all.

2
 TABLE OF CONTENT

S.NO. TITTLE

1 INTRODUCTION OF
ORGANISATION
2 DEINKING PLANT
3 PAPER MACHINE NO. 4
4 COMPRESSOR’S
5 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
6 LIQUID RING VACCUM PUMP
7 PUMPS
8 VALVES
9 BEARINGS
10 MACHINE TOOLS
11 GEARS
12 COUPLINS
13 BOARD PLANT
14 RAYON GRADE PULP PLANT
15 POWER HOUSE
16 BOILER
17 WTP
18 ETP
19 CONCLUSION
3
DEINKING PLANT:-

Deinking is the industrial process of removing printing

ink from paperfibers of recycled paper to make deinked
pulp.
The key in the deinking process is the ability to detach ink
from the fibers. This is achieved by a combination of
mechanical action and chemical means. In Europe the most
common process is froth flotation deinking.

4
Paper is one of the main targets for recycling. A concern
about recycling wood pulp paper is that the fibers are
degraded with each cycle and after being recycled 4 –6 times
the fibers become too short and weak to be useful in making
paper. [1]

Contents
• 1History
• 2Deinking process
o 2.1Sorting
o 2.2Debaling
o 2.3Pulping
o 2.4Cleaning and screening
o 2.5Deinking stage
▪ 2.5.1Flotation deinking
▪ 2.5.2Wash deinking
▪ 2.5.3Combined washing and flotation
▪ 2.5.4Enzymatic deinking
▪ 2.5.5Other deinking processes
o 2.6Washing / dewatering
o 2.7Bleaching
o 2.8Papermaking
o 2.9Byproducts
o 2.10Problems
• 3See also
• 4References

5
 • 5Further reading
History[edit]
See also: history of paper
Before the invention of the paper machine in 1799 the most
common fibre source was recycled fibres from used textiles,
hence the name rag paper. The rags were
from hemp, linenand cotton. It was not until the introduction
of wood pulp in 1843 that paper production was independent
of recycled materials.[2]
Recycling of used paper before the industrialisation of paper
production, rag paper was recycled to make low-grade board.
A process for removing printing inks from recycled paper
was invented by German jurist Justus Claproth in 1774. [2] He
practiced together with German paper producer Johann
Engelhard Schmid. Today this method is called deinking.
First in the 1950s and 1960s the use of recycled fibres from
paper made of wood pulp begun to increase, and was mainly
used in packaging paper and paperboard. In the 1950s
the froth flotation technique was adapted for
deinking recycled paper.[3] Use of recovered paper increased
in the 1970s mainly in graphic and hygienic papers, and
accelerated in the 1980s. The annual growth in use of
recovered paper increased by 6% be tween 1980 and 1996.
The use of virgin fibres only increased 2% in the same period.
In 1997 recovered paper production was 42% of the total
paper production.[2]
Deinking process[edit]

6
Schematic layout of a deinking plant.
Sorting[edit]
Waste paper may contain a mixture of different paper
types made of mixtures of different paperfibers. These must
be sorted before processed. Broke (paper waste from paper
production) is normally used directly in the papermachine.
• Office waste (OW)
• Old magazine papers (OMP)
• Old newsprint (ONP)
• Paperboard
• Corrugated fiberboard
Recycled paper can be used to make paper of the same or
lower quality than it was originally. The sorted paper is baled
and shipped to a papermill. The pulpmill uses waste paper
grade according to the paper quality they want to make.
Debaling[edit]
The bales are opened and large foreign objects are sorted out
on the conveyor belt to the pulper. Many extraneous
materials are readily removed. Twine, strapping, etc. are
removed from the hydropulper by a "ragger". Metal straps
and staples can be screened out or removed by a magnet.
Film-backed pressure-sensitive tape stays intact: the PSA
adhesive and the backing are both removed together. [4]
Pulping[edit]

7
Pulpers are either batch, which uses a tub with a high shear
rotor, or continuous, using a long, perforated drum. Drum
pulpers are very expensive but have th e advantage of not
breaking up contaminants, thus giving cleaner end product.
The pulper chops the paper to smaller pieces; water and
chemicals are added. Normally the pH is adjusted to 8.5 -
10.0. Normal deinking chemicals are:
• pH control: sodium silicate or sodium hydroxide
• Bleaching: hydrogen peroxide
• Calcium ion source: hard water, lime or calcium
chloride
• Collector: fatty acid, fatty acid emulsion, fatty
acid soap or organo-modified siloxane[5]
After pulping, the mixture is a slurry. The slurry goes
to screening.
Cleaning and screening[edit]
Centrifugal cleaning is spinning the pulp slurry in a cleaner,
causing materials that are denser than pulp fibers to move
outward and be rejected. Screens, with either slots or holes,
are used to remove contaminants that are larger than pulp
fibers.
Materials which are more difficult to remove include wax
coatings on corrugated cartons and stickies, soft rubbery
particles which can make deposits and contaminate the
recycled paper. Stickies can originate from book
bindings, hot melt adhesives, PSA adhesives from paper
labels, laminating adhesives of reinforced gummed tapes,
etc. [6][7][8]
Deinking stage[edit]

8
In the deinking stage the goal is to release and remove
the hydrophobic contaminants from the recycled paper. The
contaminants are mostly printing ink and stickies. Several
processes are used, most commonly flotation or wa shing.
Flotation deinking[edit]

Diagram of a froth flotation cell.

Froth flotation was adapted from the flotation process used
in the mining industry in the 1960s. It is the most common
deinking process in Europe used to recover recycled paper.
Often most of the collector is added to the inlet of the
flotation. The process temperatures are normally in the range
45 - 55 °C. Air is blown into the pulp suspension. The
collector has affinity both to the ink particles and air bubbles,
causing them to attach. The air bubbles lift the ink to the
surface and form a thick froth that can be removed. Normally
the setup is a two-stage system with 3, 4 or 5 flotation cells
in series. [9] Flotation deinking is very effective in removing
ink particles larger than about 10 µm.
Wash deinking[edit]
Wash deinking consists of a washing stage
where dispersants are added to wash out the printing inks.
When the pulp slurry is dewatered(thickened), the medium
to fine particles are washed out. This process is most useful
for removing particles smaller than about 30 µm, like water-
based inks, fillers, coating particles, fines and micro

9
stickies. This process is more common when
making deinked pulp for tissue. The processing equipment
are belt filters, pressure belt filters, disk filters and
static filters. This stage is much more efficient than normal
washing / dewatering stages.
Combined washing and flotation[edit]
High quality deinking of office wastes and other printing
papers often commonly uses a combination of washing and
flotation.
Enzymatic deinking[edit]
This method of deinking uses industrial or food grade
enzymes in conjunction with flotation deinking to aid in the
removal of inks in recycling mills. More efficient removal of
ink increases fiber yield, decreases dirt count, and increases
paper brightness. Often the use of enzymatic deinking helps
mills reduce their bleach usage or use cheaper furnish.
Other deinking processes[edit]
Dissolved air flotation (DAF) is used by some mills in the
deinking stage and will remove some ink and filler (ash);
however, it is mainly used to clarify the process water.
Washing / dewatering[edit]
Washing / dewatering (thickening) is a filtration process.
Small particles (< 5 µm) are removed by passing water
through the pulp.
Bleaching[edit]
Main article: Bleaching of wood pulp
If white paper is
desired, bleaching uses peroxides or hydrosulfites to
increase the brightness of the pulp. The bleaching methods

10
are similar for mechanical pulp, but the goal is to make the
fiber brighter.
Papermaking[edit]
The deinked fiber is made into a new paper product in the
same way that virgin wood fiber, see papermaking.
Byproducts[edit]
The unusable material left over, mainly ink, plastics, filler
and short fibers, is called sludge. The sludge is buried in a
landfill, burned to create energy at the paper mill or used as
a fertilizer by local farmers.
Problems[edit]
Water based flexographic printing inks with particle
sizes below 5 µm and poor solubility in alkaline conditions
may cause problems in deinking, especially in the flotation
stage. The solution is to use an extra acidic washing stage.
Temperature control is important as this affects the
stickiness of stickies.
Additional issues arise when taking into account the number
of chemicals potentially present in paper for recycling.
Studies have indicated that paper might contain as many as
10,000 different chemicals,[10] fate of which in the deinking
process still remains unknown

11
 PAPER MACHINE NO. -4

A paper machine (or paper-making machine) is an industrial

machine which is used in the pulp and paper industry to
create paper in large quantities at high speed. Modern paper-
making machines are based on the principles of the
Fourdrinier Machine, which uses a moving woven mesh to
create a continuous paper web by filtering out the fibres held
in a paper stock and producing a continuously moving wet
mat of fibre. This is dried in the machine to produce a strong
paper web.
The basic process is an industrialised version of the
historical process of hand paper-making, which could not
satisfy the demands of developing modern society for large
quantities of a printing and writing substrate. The first
modern paper machine was invented in Britain by Henry and
Sealy Fourdrinier, and patented in 1806.
The same process is used to produce paperboard on a
paperboard machine.

Contents
• 1The process sections
• 2History
o 2.1Fourdrinier machine
o 2.2Similar designs
o 2.3Related inventions
• 3Pulp types and their preparations

12
 • 4Stock (pulp) preparation
• 5Operation
o 5.1Forming section or wet end
o 5.2Variations of the Fourdrinier forming section
o 5.3Press section
o 5.4Dryer section
o 5.5Sizer
o 5.6Calender section
o 5.7Reel section
o 5.8Winder section

The process sections:

Paper machines usually have at least five distinct

operational sections:
• Forming section, commonly called the wet end, is a
continuous rotating wire mesh which removes water
from the paper by sucking it out of suspension.
• Press section where the wet fibre web passes between
large rolls loaded under high pressure to squeeze out as
much water as possible.
• Drying section, where the pressed sheet passes partly
around, in a serpentine manner, a series o f steam
heated drying cylinders. Drying removes the water
content down to a level of about 6%, where it will remain
at typical indoor atmospheric conditions. Infra-red driers

13
 are also used to supplement cylinder drying where
required.
• Calender section where the dried paper is smoothened
under high loading and pressure. Only one nip (where
the sheet is pressed between two rolls) is necessary in
order to hold the sheet, which sh rinks through the
drying section and is held in tension between the press
section (or breaker stack if used) and the calender.
Extra nips give more smoothing but at some expense to
paper strength.
• Reel section where paper coming out of the machine is
wound onto individual spools for further processing.
There can also be a coating section to modify the surface
characteristics with coatings such as china clay.

History:

Before the invention of continuous paper making, paper was

made in individual sheets by stirring a container of pulp
slurry and either pouring it into a fabric sieve called a sheet
mould or dipping and lifting the sheet mould from the vat.
While still on the fabric in the sheet mould, the wet paper is
pressed to remove excess water and then the sheet is lifted
off to be hung over a rope or wooden rod to air dry.
Fourdrinier machine[edit]
In 1799, Louis-Nicolas Robert of Essonnes, France, was
granted a patent for a continuous paper making
machine.[1] At the time Robert was working for Saint-Léger

14
Didot, with whom he quarreled over the ownership of the
invention. Didot thought that England was a better place to
develop the machine. But during the troubled times of
the French Revolution, he could not go there himself, so he
sent his brother-in-law, John Gamble, an Englishman living
in Paris. Through a chain of acquaintances, Gamble was
introduced to the brothers Sealy and Henry
Fourdrinier, stationers of London, who agreed to finance the
project. Gamble was granted British patent 2487 on 20
October 1801. The Fourdrinier machine used a specially
woven fabric mesh conveyor belt (known as a wire, as it was
once woven from bronze) in the forming section, where a
slurry of fibre (usually wood or other vegetable fibres) is
drained to create a continuous paper web. The original
Fourdrinier forming section used a horizontal drainage area,
referred to as the drainage table .
With the help particularly of Bryan Donkin, a skilled and
ingenious mechanic, an improved version of the Robert
original was installed at Frogmore Paper Mill, Apsley,
Hertfordshire, in 1803, followed by another in 1804. A third
machine was installed at the Fourdriniers' own mill at Two
Waters. The Fourdriniers also bought a mill at St
Neots intending to install two machines there and the
process and machines continued to develop.
Thomas Gilpin is most often credited for creating the first U.S
cylinder type papermaking machine at Brandywine
Creek, Delaware in 1817. This machine was also developed
in England, but it was a cylinder mould machine. The
Fourdrinier machine wasn't introduced into the USA until
1827.[2]
Similar designs[edit]

15
Records show Charles Kinsey of Paterson, NJ had already
patented a continuous process papermaking machine in
1807. Kinsey's machine was built locally by Daniel Sawn and
by 1809 the Kinsey machine was successfully making paper
at the Essex Mill in Paterson. Financial stress and potential
opportunities created by the Embargo of 1807 eventually
persuaded Kinsey and his backers to change the mill's focus
from paper to cotton and Kinsey's early papermaking
successes were soon overlooked and forgotten.[3][4]
Gilpin's 1817 patent was similar to Kinsey's, as was the John
Ames patent of 1822. The Ames patent was challenged by
his competitors, asserting that Kinsey was the original
inventor and Ames had been pilfering other peoples' ideas,
their evidence being the employment of Daniel Sawn to work
on his machine.[3]
Related inventions[edit]
The method of continuous production demonstrated by the
paper machine influenced the development of continuous
rolling of iron and later steel and other continuous
productionprocesses. [5]
Pulp types and their preparations[edit]
Main article: Pulp (paper)
The plant fibres used for pulp are composed mostly of
cellulose and hemi-cellulose, which have a tendency to form
molecular linkages between fibres in the presence of water.
After the water evaporates the fibres remain bonded. It is not
necessary to add additional binders for most paper grades,
although both wet and dry strength additives may be added.
Rags of cotton and linen were the major source of pulp for
paper before wood pulp. Today almost all pulp is of wood

16
fibre. Cotton fibre is used in speciality grades, usually in
printing paper for such things as resumes and currency.
Sources of rags often appear as waste from other
manufacturing such as denim fragments or glove cuts. Fibres
from clothing come from the cotton boll. The fibres can range
from 3 to 7 cm in length as they exist in the cotton field.
Bleach and other chemicals remove the colour from the
fabric in a process of cooking, usually with steam. The cloth
fragments mechanically abrade into fibres, and the fibres get
shortened to a length appropriate for manufacturing paper
with a cutting process. Rags and water dump into a trough
forming a closed loop. A cylinder with cutting edges, or
knives, and a knife bed is part of the loop. The spinning
cylinder pushes the contents of the trough around repeatedly.
As it lowers slowly over a period of hours, it breaks the rags
up into fibres, and cuts the fibres to the desired length. The
cutting process terminates when the mix has passed the
cylinder enough times at the programmed final clearance of
the knives and bed.
Another source of cotton fibre comes from the cotton
ginning process. The seeds remain, surrounded by short
fibres known as linters for their short length and
resemblance to lint. Linters are too short for successful use
in fabric. Linters removed from the cotton seeds are available
as first and second cuts. The first cuts are longer.
The two major classifications of pulp
are chemical and mechanical. Chemical pulps formerly used
a sulphite process, but the kraft process is now predominant.
Kraft pulp has superior strength to sulphite and mechanical
pulps and kraft process spent pulping chemicals are easier

17
to recover and regenerate. Both chemical pulps and
mechanical pulps may be bleached to a high brightness.
Chemical pulping dissolves the lignin that bonds fibres to
one another, and binds the outer fibrils that compose
individual fibres to the fibre core. Lignin, like most other
substances that can separate fibres from one another, acts
as a debonding agent, lowering strength. Strength also
depends on maintaining long cellulose molecule chains. The
kraft process, due to the alkali and sulphur compounds used,
tends to minimize attack on the cellulose and the non-
crystalline hemicellulose, which promotes bonding, while
dissolving the lignin. Acidic pulping processes shorten the
cellulose chains.
Kraft pulp makes superior linerboard and excellent printing
and writing papers.
Groundwood, the main ingredient used in newsprint and a
principal component of magazine papers (coated
publications), is literally ground wood produced by a grinder.
Therefore, it contains a lot of lignin, which lowers its
strength. The grinding produces very short fibres that drain
slowly.
Thermomechanical pulp (TMP) is a variation of groundwood
where fibres are separated mechanically while at high
enough temperatures to soften the lignin.
Between chemical and mechanical pulps there are semi-
chemical pulps that use a mild chemical treatment followed
by refining. Semi-chemical pulp is often used for corrugating
medium.
Bales of recycled paper (normally old corrugated containers)
for unbleached (brown) packaging grades may be simply

18
pulped, screened and cleaned. Recycling to make white
papers is usually done in a deinking plant, which employs
screening, cleaning, washing, bleaching and
flotation. Deinked pulp is used in printing and writing papers
and in tissue, napkins and paper towels. It is often blended
with virgin pulp.
At integrated pulp and paper mills, pulp is usually stored in
high density towers before being pumped to stock
preparation. Non integrated mills use either dry pulp or wet
lap (pressed) pulp, usually received in bales. The pulp bales
are slushed in a [re]pulper.
Stock (pulp) preparation[edit]
Stock preparation is the area where pulp is usually refined,
blended to the appropriate proportion
of hardwood, softwood or recycled fibre, and diluted to as
uniform and constant as possible consistency. The pH is
controlled and various fillers, such as whitening
agents, size and wet strength or dry strength are added if
necessary. Additional fillers such as clay, calcium
carbonate and titanium dioxide increase opacity so printing
on reverse side of a sheet will not distract from content on
the obverse side of the sheet. Fillers also improve printing
quality.[6]
Pulp is pumped through a sequence of tanks that are
commonly called chests, which may be either round or more
commonly rectangular. Historically these were made of
special ceramic tile faced reinforced concrete, but mild and
stainless steels are also used. Low consistency pulp slurries
are kept agitated in these chests by propeller like agitators
near the pump suction at the chest bottom.

19
In the following process, different types of pulp, if used, are
normally treated in separate but similar process lines until
combined at a blend chest:
From high density storage or from slusher/pulper the pulp is
pumped to a low density storage chest (tank). From there it
is typically diluted to about 4% consistency before being
pumped to an unrefined stock chest. From the unrefined
stock chest stock is again pumped, with consistency control,
through a refiner. Refining is an operation whereby the
pulp slurry passes between a pair of discs, one of which is
stationary and the other rotating at speeds of typically 1,000
or 1,200 RPM for 50 and 60 Hz AC, respectively. The discs
have raised bars on their faces and pass each other with
narrow clearance. This action unravels the outer layer of the
fibres, causing the fibrils of the fibres to partially detach and
bloom outward, increasing the surface area to promoting
bonding. Refining thus increases tensile strength. For
example, tissue paper is relatively unrefined whereas
packaging paper is more highly refined. Refined stock from
the refiner then goes to a refined stock chest, or blend chest,
if used as such.
Hardwood fibres are typically 1 mm long and smaller in
diameter than the 4 mm length typical of softwood fibres.
Refining can cause the softwood fibre tube t o collapse
resulting in undesirable properties in the sheet.
From the refined stock, or blend chest, stock is again
consistency controlled as it is being pumped to a machine
chest. It may be refined or additives may be added en route
to the machine chest.
The machine chest is basically a consistency levelling chest
having about 15 minutes retention. This is enough retention

20
time to allow any variations in consistency entering the chest
to be levelled out by the action of the basis weight valve
receiving feedback from the on line basis weight measuring
scanner. (Note: Many paper machines mistakenly control
consistency coming out of the machine chest, interfering
with basis weight control.)[notes 1]
Operation[edit]
There are four main sections on this paper machine. The
forming section makes the pulp into the basis of for sheets
along the wire. The press section, which removes much of
the remaining water via a system of nips formed by rolls
pressing against each other aided by press felts that support
the sheet and absorb the pressed water. The dryer section of
the paper machine, as its name suggests, dries the paper by
way of a series of internally steam-heated cylinders that
evaporate the moisture. Calenders are used to make the
paper surface extra smooth and glossy. In practice calender
rolls are normally placed vertically in a stack .

Diagram showing the sections of the Fourdrinier machine

21
Forming section or wet end[edit]

A worker inspecting wet, bleached wood pulp on an old-

fashioned Hollander pulper or "beater".
From the machine chest stock is p umped to a head tank,
commonly called a "head tank" or stuff box , whose purpose
is to maintain a constant head (pressure) on the fiber slurry
or stock as it feeds the basis weight valve. The stuff box also
provides a means allowing air bubbles to escape. The
consistency of the pulp slurry at the stuff box is in the 3%
range. Flow from the stuff box is by gravity and is controlled
by the basis weight valve on its way to the fan pump suction
where it injected into main flow of water to the fan pump. The
main flow of water pumped by the fan pump is from a
whitewater chest or tank that collects all the water drained
from the forming section of the paper machine. Before the
fiber stream from the stuff box is introduced, the whitewater
is very low in fiber content. The whitewater is constantly
recirculated by the fan pump through the headbox and
recollected from the wire pit and various other tanks and
chests that receive drainage from the forming wire and
vacuum assisted drainage from suction boxes and wet fiber
web handling rolls. On the way to the head box the pulp slurry
may pass through centrifugal cleaners, which remove heavy

22
contaminants like sand, and screens, which break up fibre
clumps and remove oversized debris. The fan pump
ultimately feeds the headbox, whether or not any centrifugal
cleaners or screens are present. [7][8][9]
The purpose of the headbox is create turbulence to keep the
fibers from clumping together and to uniformly distribute the
slurry across the width of the wire. Wood fibers have a
tendency to attract one another, forming clumps, the effect
being called flocculation. Flocculation is lessened by
lowering consistency and or by agitating the slurry; however,
de-flocculation becomes very difficult at much above 0.5%
consistency. Minimizing the degree of flocculation when
forming is important to physical properties of paper.[8][9]
The consistency in the headbox is typically under 0.4% for
most paper grades, with longer fibres requiring lower
consistency than short fibres. Higher consistency causes
more fibres to be oriented in the z direction, while lower
consistency promotes fibre orientation in the x-y direction.
Higher consistency promotes higher calliper (thickness) and
stiffness, lower consistency promotes higher tensile and
some other strength properties and also improves formation
(uniformity).[8][9] Many sheet properties continue to improve
down to below 0.1% consistency; however, this is an
impractical amount of water to handle. (Most paper machine
run a higher headbox consistency than optimum because
they have been sped up over time without replacing the fan
pump and headbox. There is also an economic trade off with
high pumping costs for lower consistency).
The stock slurry, often called white water at this point, exits
the head box through a rectangular opening of adjustable
height called the slice, the white water stream being called

23
the jet and it is pressurized on high speed machines so as to
land gently on the moving fabric loop or wire at a speed
typically between plus or minus 3% of the wire speed,
called rushand drag respectively.
Excessive rush or drag causes more orientation of fibres in
the machine direction and gives differing physical properties
in machine and cross directions; however, this phenomenon
is not completely avoidable on Fourdrinier machines. [8][9]
On lower speed machines at 700 feet per minute, gravity and
the height of the stock in the headbox creates sufficient
pressure to form the jet through the opening of the slice. The
height of the stock is the head, which gives the headbox its
name. The speed of the jet compared to the speed of the wire
is known as the jet-to-wire ratio. When the jet-to-wire ratio is
less than unity, the fibres in the stock become drawn out in
the machine direction. On slower machines where sufficient
liquid remains in the stock before draining out, the wire can
be driven back and forth with a process known as shake.
This provides some measure of randomizing the direction of
the fibres and gives the sheet more uniform strength in both
the machine and cross-machine directions. On fast
machines, the stock does not remain on the wire in liquid
form long enough and the long fibres line up with the
machine. When the jet-to-wire ratio exceeds unity, the fibers
tend to pile up in lumps.[8][9] The resulting variation in paper
density provides the antique or parchment paper look.
Two large rolls typically form the ends of the drainage
section, which is called the drainage table. The breast roll is
located under the flow box, the jet being aimed to land on it
at about the top centre. At the other end of the drainage table
is the suction ( couch) roll. The couch roll is a hollow shell,

24
drilled with many thousands of precisely spaced holes of
about 4 to 5 mm diameter. The hollow shell roll rotates over
a stationary suction box, normally placed at the top centre or
rotated just down machine. Vacuum is pulled on the suction
box, which draws water from the web into the suction box.
From the suction roll the sheet feeds into the press
section. [8][9]
Down machine from the suction roll, and at a lower elevation,
is the wire turning roll . This roll is driven and pulls the wire
around the loop. The wire turning roll has a considerable
angle of wrap in order to grip the wire.[8]
Supporting the wire in the drainage table area are a number
of drainage elements. In addition to supporting the wire and
promoting drainage, the elements de-flocculate the sheet. On
low speed machines these table elements are primarily table
rolls. As speed increases the suction developed in the nip of
a table roll increases and at high enough speed the wire
snaps back after leaving the vacuum area and causes stock
to jump off the wire, disrupting the formation. To prevent this
drainage foils are used. The foils are typically sloped
between zero and two or three degrees and give a more
gentle action. Where rolls and foils are used, rolls are used
near the headbox and foils further down machine. [8][9]
Approaching the dry line on the table are located low vacuum
boxes that are drained by a barometric leg under gravity
pressure. After the dry line are the suction boxes with applied
vacuum. Suction boxes extend up to the couch roll. At the
couch the sheet consistency should be about 25%. [8][9]
Variations of the Fourdrinier forming section[edit]
The forming section type is usually based on the grade of
paper or paperboard being produced; however, many older
25
machines use a less than optimum design. Older machines
can be upgraded to include more appropriate forming
sections.
A second headbox may be added to a conventional
fourdrinier to put a different fibre blend on top of a base layer.
A secondary headbox is normally located at a point where the
base sheet is completely drained. This is not considered a
separate ply because the water action does a good job of
intermixing the fibers of the top and bottom layer. Secondary
headboxes are common on linerboard.
A modification to the basic fourdrinier table by adding a
second wire on top of the drainage table is known as a top
wire former. The bottom and top wires converge and some
drainage is up through the top wire. A top wire improves
formation and also gives more drainage, which is useful for
machines that have been sped up.
The Twin Wire Machine or Gap former uses two vertical
wires in the forming section, thereby increasing the de-
watering rate of the fibre slurry while also giving uniform two
sidedness.[10]
There are also machines with entire Fourdrinier sections
mounted above a traditional Fourdrinier. This allows making
multi-layer paper with special characteristics. These are
called top Fourdriniers and they make multi-ply paper
or paperboard. Commonly this is used for making a top layer
of bleached fibre to go over an unbleached layer.
Another type forming section is the cylinder mould
machine[11] using a mesh-covered rotating cylinder partially
immersed in a tank of fibre slurry in the wet end to form a
paper web, giving a more random distribution of
the cellulose fibres. Cylinder machines can form a sheet at
26
higher consistency, which gives a more three dimensional
fibre orientation than lower consistencies, resulting in higher
calliper (thickness) and more stiffness in the machine
direction (MD). High MD stiffness is useful in food packaging
like cereal boxes and other boxes like dry laundry detergent.
Tissue machines typically form the paper web between a
wire and a special fabric (felt) as they wrap around a forming
roll. The web is pressed from the felt directly onto a large
diameter dryer called a yankee. The paper sticks to the
yankee dryer and is peeled off with a scraping blade called
a doctor. Tissue machines operate at speeds of up to
2000 m/min.
Press section[edit]

Paper machine

Granite press roll at a granite quarry site

The second section of the paper machine is the press
section, which removes much of the remaining water via a
system of nips formed by rolls pressing against each other
aided by press felts that support the sheet and absorb the
27
pressed water. The paper web consistency leaving the press
section can be above 40%. [12]
Pressing is the most efficient method of de -watering the
sheet as only mechanical action is required. Press felts
historically were made from wool. However, today they are
nearly 100% synthetic. They are made up of
a polyamide woven fabric with thick batt applied in a specific
design to maximise water absorption.
Presses can be single or double felted. A single felted press
has a felt on one side and a smooth roll on the other. A double
felted press has both sides of the sheet in contact with a
press felt. Single felted nips are useful when mated against
a smooth roll (usually in the top position), which adds a two-
sidedness—making the top side appear smoother than the
bottom. Double felted nips impart roughness on both sides of
the sheet. Double felted presses are desirable for the first
press section of heavy paperboard.
Simple press rolls can be rolls with grooved or blind
drilled surface. More advanced press rolls are suction rolls.
These are rolls with perforated shell and cover. The shell
made of metal material such as bronze stainless steel is
covered with rubber or a synthetic material. Both shell and
cover are drilled throughout the surface. A stationary suction
box is fitted in the core of the suction roll to support the shell
being pressed. End face mechanical seals are used for the
interface between the inside surface of the shell and the
suction box. For the smooth rolls, they are typically made of
granite rolls.[13] The granite rolls can be up to 30-foot (9.1 m)
long and 6 feet (1.8 m) in diameter. [14]
Conventional roll presses are configured with one of the
press rolls is in a fixed position, with a mating roll being

28
loaded against this fixed roll. The felts run through the nips
of the press rolls and continues around a felt run, normally
consisting of several felt rolls. During the dwell time in the
nip, the moisture from the sheet is transferred to the press
felt. When the press felt exits the nip and continues around,
a vacuum box known as an Uhle Box applies vacuum
(normally -60 kPa) to the press felt to remove the moisture
so that when the felt returns to the nip on the next cycle, it
does not add moisture to the sheet.
Some grades of paper use suction pick up rolls that use
vacuum to transfer the sheet from the couch to a lead in felt
on the first press or between press sections. Pickup roll
presses normally have a vacuum box that has two vacuum
zones (low vacuum and high vacuum). These rolls have a
large number of drilled holes in the cover to allow the vacuum
to pass from the stationary vacuum box through the rotating
roll covering. The low vacuum zone picks up the sheet and
transfers, while the high vacuum zone attempts to remove
moisture. Unfortunately, at high enough speed centrifugal
force flings out vacuumed water, making this less effective
for dewatering. Pickup presses also have standard felt runs
with Uhle boxes. However, pickup press design is quite
different, as air movement is important for the pickup and
dewatering facets of its role.
Crown Controlled Rolls (also known as CC Rolls) are usually
the mating roll in a press arrangement. They
have hydraulic cylinders in the press rolls that ensure that
the roll does not bow. The cylinders connect to a shoe or
multiple shoes to keep the crown on the roll flat, to
counteract the natural "bend" in the roll shape due to
applying load to the edges.

29
Extended Nip Presses (or ENP) are a relatively modern
alternative to conventional roll presses. The top roll is
usually a standard roll, while the bottom roll is actually a
large CC roll with an extended shoe curved to the shape of
the top roll, surrounded by a rotating rubber belt rather than
a standard roll cover. The goal of the ENP is to extend the
dwell time of the sheet between the two rolls thereby
maximising the de-watering. Compared to a standard roll
press that achieves up to 35% solids after pressing, an ENP
brings this up to 45% and higher—delivering significant
steam savings or speed increases. ENPs densify the sheet,
thus increasing tensile strength and some other physical
properties.
Dryer section[edit]

Dryer section of an older Fourdrinier-style paper-making

machine. These narrow, small diameter dryers are not
enclosed by a hood, dating the photo to before the 1970s.
The dryer section of the paper machine, as its name
suggests, dries the paper by way of a series of
internally steam-heated cylinders that evaporate the
moisture. Steam pressures may range up to 160 psig. Steam
enters the end of the dryer head (cylinder cap) through a
steam joint and condensate exits through a siphon that goes
30
from the internal shell to a centre pipe. From the centre pipe
the condensate exits through a joint on the dryer head. Wide
machines require multiple siphons. In faster machines,
centrifugal force holds the condensate layer still against the
shell and turbulence generating bars are typically used to
agitate the condensate layer and improve heat transfer. [12]
The sheet is usually held against the dryers by long felt loops
on the top and bottom of each dryer section. The felts greatly
improve heat transfer. Dryer felts are made of coarse thread
and have a very open weave that is almost see through, It is
common to have the first bottom dryer section unfelted to
dump broke on the basement floor during sheet breaks or
when threading the sheet.
Paper dryers are typically arranged in groups
called sections so that they can be run at a progressively
slightly slower speed to compensate for sheet shrinkage as
the paper dries. Some grades of paper may also stretch as
they run through the machine, requiring increasing speed
between sections. The gaps between sections are
called draws.
The drying sections are usually enclosed to conserve heat.
Heated air is usually supplied to the pockets where the sheet
breaks contact with the driers. This increases the rate of
drying. The pocket ventilating tubes have slots along their
entire length that face into the pocket. The dryer hoods are
usually exhausted with a series of roof mounted hood
exhausts fans down the dryer section.
Sizer[edit]
Additional sizing agents, including resins, glue, or starch,
can be added to the web to alter its
characteristics. Sizing improves the paper's water
31
resistance, decreases its ability to fuzz, reduces
abrasiveness, and improves its printing properties and
surface bond strength. These may be applied at the wet
(internal sizing) or on the dry end (surface sizing), or both.
At the dry end sizing is usually applied with a size press. The
size press may be a roll applicator (flooded nip) or Nozzle
applicator . It is usually placed before the last dryer section.
Some paper machines also make use of a 'coater' to apply
a coating of fillers such as calcium carbonate or china
clay usually suspended in a binder of cooked starch
and styrene-butadiene latex. Coating produces a very
smooth, bright surface with the highest printing qualities.

Paper leaving the machine is rolled onto a reel for further

processing.
Calender section[edit]
Main article: Calender
A calender consists of two or more rolls, where pressure is
applied to the passing paper. Calenders are used to make the
paper surface extra smooth and glossy. It also gives it a more
uniform thickness. The pressure applied to the web by the
rollers determines the finish of the paper.
Reel section[edit]

32
After calendering, the web has a moisture content of about
6% (depending on the furnish). The paper is wound onto
metal spools using a large cylinder called a reel drum.
Constant nip pressure is maintained between the reel drum
and the spool, allowing the resulting friction to spin the
spool. Paper runs over the top of the reel drum and is wound
onto the spool to create a master roll.
To be able to keep the paper machine running continuously,
the reel must be able to quickly switch from winding a
finished roll to an empty spool without stopping the flow of
paper. To accomplish this, each reel section will have two or
more spools rotating through the process. Using an overhead
crane, empty spools will be loaded onto two primary
arms above the reel drum. When the master roll reaches its
maximum diameter, the arms will lower the new spool into
contact with the reel drum and a machine behind the drum
will run a tape along the moving sheet of paper, swiftly
tearing it and attaching incoming paper onto the new spool.
The spool is then lowered onto the secondary arms, which
steadily guide the spool away from the reel drum as the
diameter of paper on the spool increases.
The roll hardness should be checked, obtained and adjusted
accordingly to insure that the roll hardness is within the
acceptable range for the product.
Winder section[edit]
Reels of paper wound up at the end of the drying process are
the full trimmed width, minus shrinkage from drying, of the
web leaving the wire. In the winder section reels of paper are
slit into smaller rolls of a width and roll diameter range
specified by a customer order. To accomplish this the reel is
placed on an unwind stand and the distances between the

33
slitters (sharp cutting wheels), are adjusted to the specified
widths for the orders. The winder is run until the d esired roll
diameter is reached and the rolls are labeled according to
size and order before being sent to shipping or the
warehouse. A reel usually has sufficient diameter to make
two or more sets of rolls.
Glossary[edit]

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broke: waste paper, either made during a sheet break or

trimmings. It is gathered up and put in a repulper for
recycling back into the process.
consistency: the percent dry fibre in a pulp slurry.
couch: French meaning to lie down. Following the couch roll
the sheet is lifted off the wire and transferred into the press
section.
dandy roll: a mesh covered hollow roll that rides on top of the
Fourdrinier. It breaks up fibre clumps to improve the sheet
formation and can also be used to make an im print, as
with laid paper. See also watermark.
fan pump: the large pump that circulates white water from
the white water chest to the headbox. The pump is a special
low pulse design that minimizes the effect of vane pulses
which would cause uneven basis weight of paper in the
34
machine direction known as barring. The flow from the fan
pump may go through screens and cleaners, if used. On large
paper machines fan pumps may be rated in tens of thousands
of gallons per minute.
felt: a loop of fabric or synthetic material that goes between
press rolls and serves as a place to receive the pressed out
water. Felts also support the wet paper web and guide it
through the press section. Felts are also used in the dryer
section to keep the sheet in close contact with the dryers and
increase heat transfer.
filler: a finely divided substance added to paper in the
forming process. Fillers improve print quality, brightness and
opacity. The most common fillers are clay and calcium
carbonate. Titanium dioxide is a filler but also improves
brightness and opacity. Use of calcium carbonate filler is the
process called alkaline sizing and uses different chemistry
than acid sizing. Alkaline sized paper has superior ageing
properties.
formation: the degree of uniformity of fiber distribution in
finished paper, which is easily seen by holding paper up to
the light.
headbox: the pressure chamber where turbulence is applied
to break up fibre clumps in the slurry. The main job of the
headbox is to distribute the fiber slurry uniformly across the
wire.
nip: the contact area where two opposing rolls meet, such as
in a press or calender.
pH: the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution. Alkaline
paper has a very long life. Acid paper deteriorates over time,

35
which caused libraries to either take conservation measures
or replace many older books.
size: a chemical (formerly rosin derived but now a different
chemical) or starch, applied to paper to retard the rate of
water penetration. Sizing prevents bleeding of ink during
printing, improving the sharpness of printing.
slice: the adjustable rectangular orifice, usually at the bottom
of the headbox, through which the whitewater jet discharges
onto the wire. The slice opening and water pressure together
determine the amount and velocity of whitewater flow
through the slice. The slice usually has some form of
adjustment mechanism to even out the paper weight profile
across the machine (CD profile), although a newer methods
is to inject water into the whitewater across the headbox
slice area, thereby using localized consistency to control CD
weight profile.
stock: a pulp slurry that has been processed in the stock
preparation area with necessary additives, refining and pH
adjustment and ready for making paper
web: the continuous flow of un-dried fibre from the couch roll
down the paper machine
white water: filtrate from the drainage table. The white water
from the table is usually stored in a white water chest from
which it is pumped by the fan pump to the headbox.
wire: the woven mesh fabric loop that is used for draining the
pulp slurry from the headbox. Until the 1970s bronze wires
were used but now they are woven from coarse mono-
filament synthetics similar to fishing line but very stiff.

36
 COMPRESSORS :

1. Centrifugal compressor

Centrifugal compressor works like impeller centrifugal pump

Centrifugal compressor impeller

37
Jet engine cutaway showing the centrifugal compressor and other parts

Centrifugal compressors, sometimes called radial compressors, are a sub-

class of dynamic axisymmetric work-absorbing turbomachinery.[1]

They achieve a pressure rise by adding kinetic energy/velocity to a

continuous flow of fluid through the rotor or impeller. This kinetic energy is
then converted to an increase in potential energy/static pressure by slowing
the flow through a diffuser. The pressure rise in the impeller is in most cases
almost equal to the rise in the diffuser.

Components of a simple centrifugal compressor[edit]

A simple centrifugal compressor has four components: inlet, impeller/rotor,

diffuser, and collector.[1] Figure 3.1 shows each of the components of the flow
path, with the flow (working gas) entering the centrifugal impeller axially
from right to left. As a result of the impeller rotating clockwise when looking
downstream into the compressor, the flow will pass through the volute's
discharge cone moving away from the figure's viewer.

Figure 3.1 – Cut-away view of a turbochargershowing the centrifugal

compressor (blue) on the right end of the rotor

Inlet[edit]

38
The inlet to a centrifugal compressor is typically a simple pipe. It may include
features such as a valve, stationary vanes/airfoils (used to help swirl the
flow) and both pressure and temperature instrumentation. All of these
additional devices have important uses in the control of the centrifugal
compressor.

Centrifugal impeller[edit]

The key component that makes a compressor centrifugal is the centrifugal

impeller, Figure 0.1, which contains a rotating set of vanes (or blades) that
gradually raises the energy of the working gas. This is identical to an axial
compressor with the exception that the gases can reach higher velocities and
energy levels through the impeller's increasing radius. In many modern high-
efficiency centrifugal compressors the gas exiting the impeller is traveling
near the speed of sound.

Impellers are designed in many configurations including "o pen" (visible

blades), "covered or shrouded", "with splitters" (every other inducer removed)
and "w/o splitters" (all full blades). Both Figures 0.1 and 3.1 show open
impellers with splitters. Most modern high efficiency impellers use
"backsweep" in the blade shape.[6][18][19]

Euler's pump and turbine equation, plays an important role in understanding

impeller performance.
Diffuser[edit]

The next key component to the simple centrifugal compressor is the

diffuser.[7][8][19] Downstream of the impeller in the flow path, it is the
diffuser's responsibility to convert the kinetic energy (high velocity) of the
gas into pressure by gradually slowing (diffusing) the gas velocity. Diffusers
can be vaneless, vaned or an alternating combination. High efficiency vaned
diffusers are also designed over a wide range of solidities from less than 1 to
over 4. Hybrid versions of vaned diffusers include: wedge, channel, and pipe
diffusers. Some turbochargers have no diffuser.

Bernoulli's fluid dynamic principle plays an important role in understanding

diffuser performance.

Collector[edit]

The collector of a centrifugal compressor can take many shapes and

forms.[7][19] When the diffuser discharges into a large empty chamber, the
collector may be termed a Plenum. When the diffuser discharges into a device
that looks somewhat like a snail shell, bull's horn or a French horn, the
collector is likely to be termed a volute or scroll. As the name implies, a
collector’s purpose is to gather the flow from the diffuser discharge annulus

39
and deliver this flow to a downstream pipe. Either the collector or the pipe
may also contain valves and instrumentation to control the compressor.

Applications[edit]

Below, is a partial list of centrifugal compressor applications each with a brief

description of some of the general characteristics possessed by those
compressors. To start this list two of the most well-known centrifugal
compressor applications are listed; gas turbines and turbochargers. [5]

Figure 4.1 – Jet engine cutaway showing the centrifugal compressor and other
parts.

Figure 4.2 – Jet engine cross section showing the centrifugal compressor and
other parts.

• In gas turbines and auxiliary power units.[20] Ref. Figures 4.1–4.2

In their simple form, modern gas turbines operate on the Brayton cycle. (ref
Figure 5.1) Either or both axial and centrifugal compressors are used to
provide compression. The types of gas turbines that most often include
centrifugal compressors include small aircraft engines (ie turboshafts,
turboprops and turbofans), auxiliary power units, and micro-turbines. The
industry standards applied to all of the centrifugal compressors used in
aircraft applications are set by the FAA and the military to maximize both

40
safety and durability under severe conditions. Centrifugal impellers used in
gas turbines are commonly made from titanium alloy forgings. Their flow-path
blades are commonly flank milled or point milled on 5-axis milling machines.
When tolerances and clearances are the tightest, these designs are completed
as hot operational geometry and deflected back into the cold geometry as
required for manufacturing. This need arises from the impeller's deflections
experienced from start-up to full speed/full temperature which can be 100
times larger than the expected hot running clearance of the impeller.

• In automotive engine and diesel

engine turbochargers and superchargers.[21] Ref. Figure 1.1

Centrifugal compressors used in conjunction with reciprocating internal

combustion engines are known as turbochargers if driven by the engine’s
exhaust gas and turbo-superchargers if mechanically driven by the engine.
Standards set by the industry for turbochargers may have been established
by SAE. [22] Ideal gas properties often work well for the design, test and
analysis of turbocharger centrifugal compressor performance.

• In pipeline compressors of natural gas to move the gas from the

production site to the consumer.[23]

Centrifugal compressors for such uses may be one- or multi-stage and driven
by large gas turbines. Standards set by the industry (ANSI/API, ASME) result
in large thick casings to maximize safety. The impellers are often if not
always of the covered style which makes them l ook much like pump
impellers. This type of compressor is also often termed an API-style. The
power needed to drive these compressors is most often in the thousands of
horsepower (HP). Use of real gas properties is needed to properly design, test
and analyze the performance of natural gas pipeline centrifugal compressors.

• In oil refineries, natural-gas processing, petrochemical and chemical

plants. [23]

Centrifugal compressors for such uses are often one-shaft multi-stage and
driven by large steam or gas turbines. Their casings are often
termed horizontally split or barrel. Standards set by the industry (ANSI/API,
ASME) for these compressors result in large thick casings to maximize safety.
The impellers are often if not always of the covered style which makes them
look much like pump impellers. This type of co mpressor is also often
termed API-style. The power needed to drive these compressors is most often
in the thousands of HP. Use of real gas properties is needed to properly design,
test and analyze their performance.

41
 • Air-conditioning and refrigeration and HVAC: Centrifugal compressors
quite often supply the compression in water chillers cycles.[24]

Because of the wide variety of vapor compression cycles ( thermodynamic

cycle, thermodynamics) and the wide variety of workings gases
(refrigerants), centrifugal compressors are used in a wide range of sizes and
configurations. Use of real gas properties is needed to properly design, test
and analyze the performance of these machines. Standards set by the
industry for these compressors include ASHRAE, ASME & API.

• In industry and manufacturing to supply compressed air for all types

of pneumatic tools. [25]

Centrifugal compressors for such uses are often multistage and driven by
electric motors. Inter-cooling is often needed between stages to control air
temperature. Note that the road repair crew and the local automobile repair
garage find screw compressors better adapt to their needs. Standards set by
the industry for these compressors include ASME and government regulations
that emphasize safety. Ideal gas relationships are often used to properly
design, test and analyze the performance of these machines. Carrier’s
equation is often used to deal with humidity.

• In air separation plants to manufacture purified end product gases. [25]

Centrifugal compressors for such uses are often multistage using inter -
cooling to control air temperature. Standards set by the industry for these
compressors include ASME and government regulations that emphasize
safety. Ideal gas relationships are often used to properly design, test and
analyze the performance of these machines when the working gas is air or
nitrogen. Other gases require real gas properties.

• In oil field re-injection of high pressure natural gas to improve oil

recovery.[23]

Centrifugal compressors for such uses are often one-shaft multi-stage and
driven by gas turbines. With discharge pressures approaching 700 bar, casing
are of the barrel style. Standards set by the industry (API, ASME) for these
compressors result in large thick casings to maximize safety. The impellers
are often if not always of the covered style which makes them look much like
pump impellers. This type of compressor is also often termed API-style. Use
of real gas properties is needed to properly design, test and analyze their
performance.

Performance[edit]

42
Figure 5.1 – Brayton cycle. Illustration of the Brayton cycle as applied to a gas
turbine.

Figure 5.2 – Example centrifugal compressor performance map.

While illustrating a gas turbine's Brayton cycle,[12] Figure 5.1 includes

example plots of pressure-specific volume and temperature-entropy. These
types of plots are fundamental to understanding centrifugal compressor
performance at one operating point. Studying these two plots further we see
that the pressure rises between the compressor inlet (station 1) and
compressor exit (station 2). At the same time, it is easy to see that the specific
volume decreases or similarly the density increases. Studying the
temperature-entropy plot we see the temperature increase with increasing
entropy (loss). If we assume dry air, and ideal gas equation of state and an
isentropic process, we have enough information to define the pressure ratio
and efficiency for this one point. Unfortunately, we are missing several other
key pieces of information if we wish to apply the centrifugal compressor to
another application.

Figure 5.2, a centrifugal compressor performance map (either test or

estimated), shows flow, pressure ratio for each of 4 speed-lines (total of 23
data points). Also included are constant efficiency contours. Centrifugal
compressor performance presented in this form provides enough information
to match the hardware represented by the map to a simple set of end-user
requirements.

43
Compared to estimating performance which is very cost effective (thus useful
in design), testing, while costly, is still the most precise method. [9] Further,
testing centrifugal compressor performance is very complex. Professional
societies such as ASME(i.e. PTC–10, Fluid Meters Handbook, PTC-
19.x),[26] ASHRAE (ASHRAE Handbook) and API (ANSI/API 617-2002, 672-
2007)[23][25] have established standards for detailed experimental methods
and analysis of test results. Despite this complexity, a few basic concepts in
performance can be presented by examining an example test performance
map

Rotary-screw compressor

The compression action of a twin-screw compressor with a six----lobe female

screw and a five-lobe male screw and the compression of one pair of cavities
is highlighted: air is sucked in through the intake port, compressed (shown
by the color change from cyan to red) and released through the outlet port.

Rotary-screw air compressor internal view

A rotary-screw compressor is a type of gas compressor, such as an air

compressor, that uses a rotary-type positive-displacement mechanism. They
are commonly used to replace piston compressors where large volumes of
high-pressure air are needed, either for large industrial applications or to
operate high-power air tools such as jackhammers and impact wrenches. For
smaller rotor sizes the inherent leakage in the rotors becomes much more

44
significant, becoming less practical than piston types for smaller volume air
compressors.

The gas compression process of a rotary screw is a continuous sweeping

motion, so there is very little pulsation or surging of flow, as occurs with
piston compressors. This also allows screw compressors to be significantly
quieter and produce much less vibration than piston compressors.

Working[edit]

Cross-section through the rotors of a typical screw compressor with a male

rotor having 5 lobes and a female rotor having 6. For five rotations of the
female rotor, the male rotor makes six rotations. Click here for the animated
diagram

Rotary-screw compressors use two meshing helical screws, known as rotors,

to compress the gas. In a dry-running rotary-screw compressor, timing gears
ensure that the male and female rotors maintain precise alignment. In an oil-
flooded rotary-screw compressor, lubricating oil bridges the space between
the rotors, both providing a hydraulic seal and transferring mechanical energy
between the driving and driven rotor. Gas enters at the suction side and moves
through the threads as the screws rotate. The meshing rotors force the gas
through the compressor, and the gas exits at the end of the screws. [1]

The effectiveness of this mechanism is dependent on precisely fitting

clearances between the helical rotors and between the rotors and the
chamber for sealing of the compression cavities. However, some leakage is
inevitable, and high rotational speeds must be used to minimize the ratio of
leakage flow rate over effective flow rate.

In contrast to Roots blowers, modern screw compressors are made with

different profiles on the two r otors: the male rotor has convex lobes which
mesh with the concave cavities of the female rotor. Usually the male rotor has
fewer lobes than the female rotor, so that it rotates faster. Originally, screw
compressors were made with symmetrical rotor cavity profiles, but modern
versions use asymmetrical rotors, with the exact rotor designs being the
subject of patents.[2]

45
Technical Illustration of Rotary-Screw Compression system

Size[edit]

The capacities of rotary-screw compressors are typically rated

in horsepower (HP), Standard Cubic Feet per Minute (SCFM)* and pounds per
square inch (PSI.) For units in the 5 through 30 HP range the physical size of
these units are comparable to a typical two-stage compressor.
As horsepower increases, there is a substantial economy of scale in favor of
the rotary-screw compressors. As an example, a 250 HP compound
compressor is a large piece of equipment that generally requires a special
foundation, building accommodations and highly trained riggers to place the
equipment. On the other hand, a 250 HP rotary-screw compressor can be
placed on an ordinary shop floor using a standard forklift. Within industry, a
250 HP rotary-screw compressor is generally considered to be a compact
piece of equipment.

Rotary-screw compressors are commonly available in the 5 through 500 HP

range and can produce air flows in excess of 2500 SCFM. While there are high
pressure rotary-screw compressors, within the compressed air community,
the upper pressure limit is generally around 125 PSI.

Rotary-screw compressors tend to be smooth running with limited vibration,

thus not requiring a specialized foundation or mounting system. Normally,
rotary-screw compressors are mounted using standard rubber isolation
mounts designed to absorb high-frequency vibrations. This is especially true
in rotary-screw compressors that operate at high rotational speeds.

*To a lesser extent, some compressors are rated in Actual Cubic Feet per
Minute (ACFM). Still others are rated in Cubic Feet per Minute (CFM). Using
CFM to rate a compressor is incorrect because it represents a flow rate that
is independent of a pressure reference. i.e. 20 CFM at 60 PSI.

Applications[edit]

Rotary-screw compressors are generally used to supply compressed air for

larger industrial applications. They are best applied in applications that have
a continuous air demand such as food packaging plants and automated
manufacturing systems. In larger facilities, that may have only intermittent

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applications, the average usage among the many work stations will place a
continuous demand on the compressor. In addition to fixed units, rotary-screw
compressors are commonly mounted on tow-behind trailers and powered with
small diesel engines. These portable compression systems are typically
referred to as construction compressors. Construction compressors are used
to provide compressed air to jack hammers, riveting tools, pneumatic pumps,
sand blasting operations and industrial paint systems. They are commonly
seen at construction sites and on duty with road repair crews throughout the
world.

Oil-free[edit]

In an oil-free compressor, the air is compressed entirely through the action of

the screws, without the assistance of an oil seal. They usually have lower
maximal discharge pressure capability as a result. However, multi-stage oil-
free compressors, where the air is compressed by several sets of screws, can
achieve pressures of over 150 psi (10 atm) and output volume of over 2,000
cubic feet per minute (57 m3 /min).

Oil-free compressors are used in applications where entrained oil carry-over

is not acceptable, such as medical research and semiconductor
manufacturing. However, this does not preclude the need for filtration, as
hydrocarbons and other contaminants ingested from the ambient air must
also be removed prior to the point of use. Consequently, air treatment identical
to that used for an oil-flooded screw compressor is frequently still required to
ensure a given quality of compressed air.

Oil-injected[edit]

Diagram of a rotary-screw compressor

In an oil-injected rotary-screw compressor, oil is injected into the

compression cavities to aid sealing and provide cooling sink for the gas
charge. The oil is separated from the discharge stream, then cooled, filtered
and recycled. The oil captures non-polar particulates from the incoming air,
effectively reducing the particle loading of compressed-air particulate
filtration. It is usual for some entrained compressor oil to carry over into the
compressed-gas stream downstream of the compressor. In many

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applications, this is rectified by coalescer/filter vessels.[3]In other
applications, this is rectified by the use of receiver tanks that reduce the local
velocity of compressed air, allowing oil to condense and drop out of the air
stream to be removed from the compressed-air system by condensate-
management equipment.

Oil-injected rotary-screw compressors are used in applications that tolerate a

low level of oil contamination, such as pneumatic tool operation, crack
sealing, and mobile tire service.[4]

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