Materials and Corrosion 2005, 56, No.
4 Impressed current cathodic protection
Impressed current cathodic protection
Development of optimum system configurations for ships using scale models
(physical scale modelling)
The purpose of this fundamental study was to establish optimum
cathodic corrosion protection system configurations for ship hulls.
Comprehensive surveys were conducted in order to develop a better
understanding of the electrochemical processes occurring on a ship
hull in a seawater electrolyte. The results obtained show that the
performance of a system can only be evaluated when it is installed
on a real object. However, once installed the location of the im-
pressed current anodes and the reference electrodes cannot be chan-
ged if the potential distribution over the underwater hull is not op-
timal. Hence, a procedure had to be established that permits the
development and optimisation of system configurations for future
objects.
A validated, experimental laboratory technique using scale ship
models was established to determine the fundamentals of cathodic
corrosion protection and to develop a theoretical understanding of
the underlying mechanisms. The findings obtained in practice could
1 Introduction
When planning and designing a ship, the materials must be
adapted to the environmental conditions in such a way that the
authorized life is achieved without requiring corrective repair
after construction.
If a sufficient life cannot be ensured by using economically
acceptable materials additional corrosion protection means
must be applied.
For various reasons, Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
(ICCP) systems offer the most promising method for effi-
ciently controlling corrosion on hulls, marine steel construc-
tions and steel surfaces wetted with seawater. Cost analyses
for ships revealed that, based on a operating period of 25
years, impressed current systems are more economical than
galvanic anodes.
Compared to static structures, the protection of ships re-
quires careful consideration of the specific conditions. For
the design of an impressed current system, characteristics
such as the hull shape, the different materials, the changing
operational conditions and the speed of the ship must be in-
cluded in the technical specifications.
The entire underwater hull constitutes a large complex body
comprising at least the following three components:
* H. Fr. Arendt,
Bundeswehr Technical Centre for Ships and Naval Weapons,
Berliner Str. 115, D-24340 Eckernförde (Germany)
jetzt:
Villenweg 7, 24119 Kronshagen (Germany),
e-mail: h-f.arendt@webmaster7.de
F 2005 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
271
H. Fr. Arendt*
be applied to the models. The model studies were conducted in a
systematic manner and under defined conditions in German stan-
dard (DIN) artificial seawater and in a natural electrolyte.
The experiments clearly showed the functional correlation be-
tween the geometric configuration of the reference electrodes on
the hull and the locations of the anodes. The results reflect the in-
terrelationships between the electrochemically more positive
bronze propeller and the steel. The configuration developed in
the course of the experiments provided an optimum distribution
of the protection current over the entire hull model.
The data from the model study were applied to the design fea-
tures of the Class 123 Frigate. Subsequently, the efficiency of this
procedure was evaluated on a real object in a real electrolyte.
The results obtained clearly demonstrate that physical scale mod-
elling is a rational, scientific method for the evaluation and design
of impressed current cathodic protection systems.
– the coated steel surface
– rudders, stabilisers, A-brackets
– uncoated propeller surfaces
These components have different free corrosion potentials
and thus different polarisation requirements. As these compo-
nents constitute electrically coupled metals, mixed potentials
develop if the structure is not cathodically protected.
The processes occurring on the underwater hull, especially
in the stern section, inevitably lead to corrosion damage.
Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the factors
immediately affecting the potential profiles along the under-
water hull is required. ICCP is aimed at a uniform potential
profile over the entire hull under all operational conditions. In
practice, however, such a uniform profile is very difficult to
achieve.
2 Potential controlled impressed current systems
With this active corrosion control method, the potential of
the material is changed by using a DC power source in such a
way as to bring on a cathodic reaction in the material to be
protected (reduction area). To this end, the metal must be pro-
vided with electrons, i.e. must be connected to the negative
terminal of the power source. The positive terminal is used
for the anodic reaction (oxidation) in the electrolyte. The cur-
rent can be supplied via inert platinised titanium anodes and is
controlled with respect to the potential. For this control pro-
cess, a potential value provided by a reference electrode is
used for controlling the current supplied in order to achieve
a specified nominal value.
The potential profile along the underwater hull is deter-
mined by the specific configuration of the system, i.e. by
DOI: 10.1002/maco.200403834
272 Arendt Materials and Corrosion 2005, 56, No. 4

Fig. 1. Mixed potentials in the stern section with the impressed current system switched off

Fig. 2. Free corrosion potential of the coated steel hull and lowered potential in the desired range of cathodic protection

the number of anodes and their respective locations as well as
by the locations of the reference electrodes in relation to the
hull, to the propeller and to each other. In addition, the dis-
tances between the reference electrodes and the impressed
current anodes are to be defined.
Ship steel can be considered sufficiently protected against
corrosion if its potential has been lowered by approximately
200 mV below its free corrosion potential.
3 Surveys of real objects
Comprehensive surveys were carried out on ship hulls to
gain a better understanding of the electrochemical processes
involved in the cathodic protection provided by galvanic an-
odes and impressed currents. Divers were employed to mea-
sure potentials on the hulls, the appendages, the shafts and
propellers of various ship classes. The values measured pro-
vided very differentiated information about the factors di-
rectly affecting the distribution of the protective current.
While the surveys of ships equipped with galvanic anodes fo-
cussed on the verification of the protection potential, the tests
conducted on the ships equipped with impressed current sys-
Materials and Corrosion 2005, 56, No. 4
Fig. 3. Potential distribution in the stern section of a four propeller
system (measured across the hull)
tems were far more comprehensive and included measure-
ment engineering surveys conducted over a longer period
of time. In this way, extensive information about the potential
profiles along multipropeller ships could be obtained for the
first time.
Impressed current cathodic protection 273
3.1 Practical trials on ships with impressed current
systems
3.1.1 Fast patrol boats
These boats are made of ship steel. Their propulsion system
consists of four shafts with four aluminium multicompound
bronze propellers, eight spring steel A-brackets made of
high-alloy steel and two rudder blades. It was difficult to gen-
erate a sufficient protection potential in the stern section as the
respective materials possess very different free corrosion po-
tentials and constitute electrically coupled metals (Fig. 3).
3.1.2 Frigates
Part of the information from the surveys conducted on the
fast patrol boats were taken into account in the construction of
the Class 122 Frigates. The anodes and reference electrodes
were configured on the basis of relevant standards and in co-
operation with the Netherlands Navy. At that point in time, the
state of the art suggested that approximately six anodes should
be evenly and symmetrically distributed over the underwater
hull to optimise the potential profile (Fig. 4).
Opinions differed as to the location and number of refer-
ence electrodes. They were finally installed in the midship
section.
Measurements conducted on the underwater hull of this
ship class revealed a very non-uniform potential profile. In
the stern section, the specified lowering of the potential by
U ¼ 200 mV was not achieved. Here, the protection potential
could be corrected slightly by making modifications in the an-
ode circuit and a greater lowering of the potential by
U ¼ 260 mV.
It turned out that, under the conditions of the multi-propel-
ler system, most of the protective current impressed via the
anodes flows off to the uncoated surfaces of the propellers
which are nobler with respect to their free corrosion potential.
3.2 Lessons learned from the practical trials
The results confirm that it is impossible to evaluate the per-
formance of a system before it has been installed and tested
under practical conditions.
Fig. 4. Symmetric distribu-
tion of anodes and reference
electrodes over the hull
274 Arendt
Systems permanently installed onboard a ship provide only
little scope for experimental surveys. Sea trials are time con-
suming and often very difficult to conduct.
It is not possible to correct the location of the anodes and the
reference electrodes once the system is installed onboard the
frigates.
4 Optimising system configurations by means of
physical scale modelling
Therefore it was necessary to find a method for developing
or optimising system configurations. Neither catalogued nor
computer-aided methods were available for a theoretical de-
termination of the best technical solution.
Fig. 6. Hull model, front view
Materials and Corrosion 2005, 56, No. 4
Fig. 5. Insufficient cathodic protec-
tion in the stern section
A validated experimental laboratory technique employing
scale ship models was established to develop the fundamen-
tals and a better understanding of the mechanisms of cathodic
corrosion protection.
Studies were conducted to evaluate the performance of ex-
isting and newly developed configurations and focussed on
the number and locations of the anodes and reference electro-
des [1, 2].
4.1 Experimental laboratory technique
4.1.1 Models
Models of the hull are generally built to a scale of 1:19
(Fig. 6). Consequently, the frigate models are about 6.5 m
long. As a prerequisite for the fundamental model studies,
the model must be made of materials whose polarisation char-
acteristics are identical to those of the original objects. Silver/
silver chloride monitoring electrodes are used to measure the
potentials on the hull shell. The shell is punctured at some 50
representative test points to accommodate the monitoring
Fig. 7. Locating holes for the silver/silver chloride electrodes
(stern section)
Materials and Corrosion 2005, 56, No. 4
Fig. 8. Test laboratory with the model hull and the electrolyte tank
electrodes. The silver/silver chloride glass electrodes are in-
serted into these boreholes along with purpose-made water-
tight seal liners (Fig. 7). Thus, this measuring system can
be used to constantly record and monitor the potential distri-
bution over the entire underwater hull of the model.
4.1.2 Test tank
The test tank is about 10 m long and approximately 2 m
wide (Fig. 8). When filled, the tank is regularly checked
for freedom from potentials.
4.1.3 Electrolyte
As a matter of principle, the characteristics of the electro-
lyte in the tank that affect corrosion are kept constant. Thus,
the functional relationship between the electrochemical data
and the main influencing parameters is defined. German stan-
Impressed current cathodic protection 275
dard (DIN) artificial seawater and natural seawater from the
Baltic Sea (Kieler Förde) are used for the static tests con-
ducted in the tank. During the individual test series the elec-
trolyte is slightly circulated. This circulation causes the elec-
trolyte to flow slowly past the shell of the hull whereby a con-
stant ion exchange on the coated steel surface is achieved.
During the tests, this procedure ensures a comparatively quick
polarisation of the potentials and thus stable potential values.
4.1.4 Control units
Special “electrical corrosion protection systems” have been
developed to control the currents impressed on the models.
These systems are potential controlled units that permit the
implementation of all conceivable circuit configurations in-
cluding multichannel systems. As with the real objects, the
lowering of the potential is effected by means of zinc refer-
ence electrodes. The anodes consist of platinised titanium
wire embedded in scale plastic casings. The anode shields
are true to scale and comply with the specifications of the re-
levant standards.
4.2 Theoretical considerations and laboratory tests
The studies described in this paper employed scale models
of the Cl. 122 and Cl. 124 Frigate. The different test config-
urations were established on these models in a systematic
manner.
The theoretical considerations of the relationship between
the model and the electrolyte did not require the scale of the
model to be applied to the conductivity of the electrolyte, i.e.
the conductivity of the electrolyte was not reduced by the
same factor as that employed for the models.
Artificial seawater as specified in DIN 50907 was used for
the tests to be conducted within the scope of these basic sur-
veys.
Normally, the results of model tests are applied to real ob-
jects. With these studies, however, the results obtained in prac-
tice were first applied to the model.
Fig. 9. Model test configuration: Loca-
tion of system different from real ship –
anodes and reference electrodes closer
to the stern
276 Arendt
Fig. 10. Reduction from six to four anodes Electrodes moved to-
wards the stern
Fig. 11. Changes to active anodic surface area
During the first test, the configuration of the system in-
stalled onboard the Cl. 122 Frigate was modelled. The objec-
tive of this test was to find out if the potential profile on the
model matched the one measured on the real ship. The poten-
Materials and Corrosion 2005, 56, No. 4
tial distribution determined on the model actually correlated
with the potential profile of the Cl. 122 Frigate. Thus the basis
for the fundamental studies was established. It was possible to
create potential fields on a physical model that are identical to
those on real objects in real electrolytes.
4.3 Results of the model tests
One main purpose of the tests was to determine the loca-
tions and numbers of anodes and reference electrodes re-
quired. A large number of test configurations was set up on
the model (Fig. 9). The test layout as well as the special mea-
suring system permitted the constant plotting of all potential
characteristics over the entire wetted surface of the shell. The
tests clearly showed the functional relationship between the
geometric configuration of the reference electrodes on the
hull and the location of the anodes. The location of the refer-
ence electrodes determined the strength and efficiency of the
protection profile [2].
The location of the anodes and their active surfaces affect
the potential profile over the entire surface of the underwater
hull. The results reflect the interrelationships between the
electrochemically more positive surfaces of the bronze pro-
pellers and the steel. One factor that had a decisive effect
on the experimentally determined configurations was the re-
location of the reference electrodes towards the stern section.
In this way, the increased protection current required in this
area could be provided. It is evident that potential profiles and
current outputs are determined by the location of the anodes
and reference electrodes relative to the propellers and the ex-
posed steel surfaces. Non-ferrous propellers dominate the
cathodic processes in the stern section [1, 2].
Further more, a reduction of the number of anodes could be
achieved.
Six anodes were required for the system configuration on
the real ship while the number of anodes required for the mod-
el could be reduced to four (Fig. 10). The geometric config-
uration of the anodes was also modified.
Another step taken to optimise the protective current dis-
tribution in the stern section was to modify the size of the ac-
tive anodic surface areas (Fig. 11).
Fig. 12. Results from
the model studies ap-
plied to the design char-
acteristics of a real
frigate
Materials and Corrosion 2005, 56, No. 4
Fig. 13. Optimised system configuration on the real ship
The performance characteristics established demonstrate an
optimum distribution of the protective current over the entire
underwater body of the hull model.
Upon completion of the these fundamental studies, the
question arose as to what extent the relationships established
on the model can be applied to a real ship.
5 Application of the relationships established on the
model to a real frigate
First, the results from the model studies could be validated
against data from the Class 123 Frigate.
The data established on the model were applied to the de-
sign characteristics of this ship class (Fig. 12).
After the data had been applied, the efficiency of this meth-
od was evaluated on a real object in a real electrolyte (North
Sea water). The potentials on the underwater hull of the Fri-
gate “Brandenburg” were measured at about 100 test points.
The tests also included measurements with the impressed cur-
rent system switched off to determine the free corrosion po-
tential of the coated surface (Fig. 13). The measurements re-
quired to determine the protection potential were conducted
after an appropriate polarisation period.
The protection potential was ideal, i.e. it showed a uniform
potential distribution. The uniformity of the protection poten-
tial over the entire hull exceeded the results of the model stu-
dies.
Thus, the suitability of this experimental modelling tech-
nique (physical scale modelling) has been demonstrated.
Impressed current cathodic protection 277
6 Conclusions
The laboratory and the scale models provide a validated ex-
perimental technique that produces unique and reproducible
results for the design of impressed current corrosion protec-
tion systems at an early stage of the design process.
The data obtained are indispensable for the development
and optimisation of specialised naval systems. These data
are not commercially available.
The system configurations experimentally developed for
the frigates are significantly more efficient and economical
than existing systems.
It is evident from the results that scale models represent a
rational scientific approach to the evaluation and design of
impressed current corrosion protection systems.
The development of a theoretical understanding of the me-
chanisms of impressed current cathodic protection formed an
essential part of theses fundamental studies.
7 References
[1] D. Tighe-Ford, J. McGrath, CORROSION ’91, NACE Interna-
tional 1991, paper no. 308.
[2] P. Khambhaita, D. Tighe-Ford, CORROSION ’95, NACE Inter-
national 1995, paper no. 308.
(Received: August 20, 2004) W 3834