SMITHSONIAN

HANDBOOKS

OF NORTH AMERICA
EASTERN REGION
FredJ.Alsop III

Ruby-throated ^l^k ,

Hummingbird ^%

Ruddy Turnstone
Boston Public Library
Boston, MA 02116'
 r

jo Ayadojd am Jd6uo| on

NMVdQHlIM
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2014

https://archive.org/details/smithsonianhandbOOdkpu
 SMITHSON AN
HANDBOO S EC

BIRDS
OF NORTH AMERICA
EASTERN REGION
Fred J. Alsop III
 SMITHSONIAN
HANDBOOKS

BIRDS
OF NORTH AMERICA
EASTERN REGION
Fred J. Alsop III
 Editor-in-Chief Russell Greenberg, Ph.D.
Director of the Migratory Bird Center at the National Zoological Park

Senior Editor Jill Hamilton

Editorial DirectorLaVonne Carlson
Art Director Tina Vaughan
Publisher Sean Moore
Production Director David Proffit

Produced by Southern Lights Custom Publishing

Managing Editor Shelley DeLuca
Production Director Lee Howard
Iraphic Design Miles Parsons, Tim Kolankiewicz, Scott Fuller
President Ellen Sullivan

First American Edition, 2001

2 4 6 8 10 9 7 5 3 1

Published in the United States by

DK Publishing, Inc.
95 Madison Avenue
New York, New York 10016

Copyright © 2001 DK Publishing, Inc.

The name of the Smithsonian Institution and the sunburst logo are
registered trademarks of the Smithsonian Institution.

All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright

Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior
written permission of the copyright owner.

DK Publishing, Inc. offers special discounts for bulk purchases for sales
promotions or premiums. Specific, large-quantity needs can be met with
special editions, including personalized covers, excerpts of existing
guides, and corporate imprints. For more information, contact Special
Markets Department, DK Publishing, Inc.,
95 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016; Fax: 800-600-9098.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Birds of North America: East - 1st American ed.

p. cm.
ISBN 0-7894-5156-6 (alk. paper)
1. Birds — East (U.S.) — Identification. 2. Birds — Canada, Eastern — Identification.
DK Publishing, Inc.

QL683.E27 B57 2001

598'.0974—dc21
00-047413

Printed and bound by R. R. Donnelley 6k Sons Co. in the United States.

Color reproduction by Colourscan, Singapore.
See our complete catalog at

www.dk.com
 CONTENTS
A
Introduction • 6
How this Book Works 8
Guide to Visual References 10
Anatomy of Birds 12
Topography of a Bird 14

Variations within Species 16

How to Identify Birds 18
Identifying Birds in Flight 20
Behavior 22
Abundance and Distribution 24
Watching Birds in the Backyard 26
Watching Birds in the Field 28
How to Be a Better Birder 30
Conservation 32
Extinction 34

ft
Species Profiles • 38

Glossary 728
Index 732
Acknowledgments 750
6 • INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
Birdwatching, or birding as
it is now commonly called, is

practiced by more than 60 million

North Americans - making it,the
single largest hobby on the
continent. North America is an
exciting place to go birding because
it holds billions of birds representing

more than 900 species that are

permanent or summer residents,
visit regularly, or stray occasionally to
the continent.

AVIAN DIVERSITY
Having attained the power of flight
more than 150 million years ago,
birds might be expected to be
uniformly distributed in every corner
of the Earth. But they are not. They
are bound to the earth by the
habitats to which they have adapted
and limited by geographical barriers
as well as the history of their lineage.
Different species are often
associated with major plant
communities, or biomes, that
provide them with critical habitat
requirements for part or
all of their annual
cycle. Polar
regions of
The GREAT BLUE HERON has
adapted to freshwater habitats.
The SNOWY OWL is a resident
of the arctic tundra.
permanent ice and snow are home to
Ivory Gulls; the arctic tundra to
Snowy Owls, ptarmigans, jaegers,
Gyrfalcons, and countless shorebirds
in summer. The great block of
northern coniferous forests provide
seeds for crossbills, grosbeaks,
finches, and nuthatches; in summer,
insects for flycatchers, vireos, and
warblers abound. Deciduous forests,
southern pine forests,
grasslands, and deserts all
hold particular
species of birds
different from those in other
biomes. Other species, such as
herons, are adapted for freshwater
ponds, lakes, rivers, and streams; still
others for marshes and seashores as
well as the open ocean.

BIRDWATGHING IN EASTERN
NORTH AMERICA
The avian diversity of
eastern North America is
reflected in the more than
690 species of birds that have
been recorded roughly east of the
100th meridian, the approximate
north-south line used as a division
in creating this book.
Within the eastern half of the
continent lie the ancient mountains
of the Appalachians, the Gulf and
Atlantic Coasts, grasslands, southern
swamps and pine forests, the
massive eastern deciduous forests,
the Great Lakes, boreal coniferous
forests, tundra, and ice fields.
Among the birds inhabiting this vast
area the continent's greatest
is
diversity of wood warblers.
Many birdwatchers practice their
hobby close to their own backyards.
They learn to recognize the species
they see most often and occasionally
identify a "new" species for the
yard, perhaps even photograph the
birds they see. Many take their
AMERICAN COOTS thrive in hardwood swamps.
INTRODUCTION • 7
The BLACK-THROATED
BLUE WARBLER nests
in deciduous and
coniferous forests.
birding to the field. Some are so
passionate that they travel North
America identifying as many species
as they can, often covering many
miles on short notice to observe a
newly discovered vagrant.
Not even the most ardent birder
has seen all of the more than
920 species now accepted as having
occurred in North America. But that
is part of the fun and challenge of
birding. It holds something for every
level of interest, and the amateur
birder stands as much chance as the
professional of making a discovery
that sheds important light on the
field of ornithology.
1 M
8 • INTRODUCTION

HOW THIS BOOK WORKS

Until now, no tool for identifying taxonomic order and include all
birds has also provided access to those known to breed east of the
information on behavior, nesting, 100th meridian in North America
and similar birds in
flight patterns, a north of Mexico, or adjacent islands
compact and user-friendly format. and seas within 200 miles of the
Written for the novice as well as the coast, and all species documented as
experienced birder, this book regular visitors or vagrants by the
showcases in individual page American Ornithologists' Union
profiles each of the 689 species of (AOU) and the American Birding
birds documented for eastern North Association (ABA). Only those
America. The species are in species listed on the current AOU
Check-list of North American Birds
(7th edition, 1998 and its 42nd
Supplement, 2000) and the ABA
1998-99 ABA Check-list Report,
Birding 2>\\ 518-524 are included.
Other species that have been seen
but not yet accepted by one of
these two bodies are not included.
Also excluded are a host of
introduced exotic species that are
living in the wild, mostly in
southern California and southern
Florida, that are not yet recognized
by either the AOU or the ABA as
having viable breeding populations
in North America.

FINDING YOUR BIRD

To find a bird, you can scan the pages of the woodpeckers. They are followed by the
book, or look up either scientific name or passerines, the perching or songbirds, which
common name in the index. The species are begin on page 431. Once you have found your
in taxonomic order, beginning with the non- bird's species profile, it will help you identify
passerines such as grebes, loons, ducks, the bird as well as provide ready reference to
hawks, owls, doves, hummingbirds, and its natural history.

LEAST GREBE (non-passerine) NASHVILLE WARBLER (passerine)

Birds that do not perch and sing are in Birds that do perch and sing are in the
the first part of this book. second part o f this book.
 INTRODUCTION • 9

Scientific Scientific name Average length

family nanu of species ? from tip of
bill to r ip of tail

Flight pattern .

indicated by icon
text provides
further insight

Color-coded
map shows
bird's range at
Shape(s) and
various times
location(s) of
nest indicated of year

by icon
\ Nest
description
and egg
identification
Whether male and i Habitat
female have similar symbols
or different plumage

Species use of man-made nesting Factors affecting species' continued

structures or attraction to feeders a viable population
existence as
10 • INTRODUCTION

GUIDE TO VISUAL REFERENCES

PHOTOGRAPHS squared blackish
Because users of this guide will be tail with slight cleft «

chestnut sides of
viewing these birds in backyards,
blue-black face extend to
woodlands, and other natural crown
environments, realistic-
whitish
photographs are used as
forehead
visual reference. Some
rare and seldom- short black
photographed species bill

are illustrated. Unless chestnut throat

otherwise noted, the with black
center patch
primary image shows the
male bird in breeding blue-black
plumage. If the adult female has wings and back
CUFF
significantly different plumage SWALLOW
from the male a second image depicts
the female in breeding plumage. If field whitish underparts

marks are not visible in a photograph they with dusky gray-brown

sides and flanks
are described in the accompanying text.

ILLUSTRATIONS
Many birds also have other plumages, including the
winter plumage, which are depicted in illustrations.
The plumage of the immature if different from both
adults also is illustrated. Some species have different
Light Morph Winter White
color morphs, which are also illustrated. Juvenile plumage morph

SIMILAR BIRDS Similar Birds

In many cases can be difficult to distinguish between
it

certain birds in the field. Thus species accounts feature Cave Swallow
Pale cinnamon-buff
a list of similar birds with accompanying text that
throat; cinnamon
identifies distinct features and behavior that clearly set forehead; richer
them apart. Male and female symbols indicate the sex cinnamon-rust rump.

of the bird that could be mistaken for the species being

profiled.

DISTRIBUTION MAP
Each species profile has a map showing where the bird
is likely to be seen either all year long (permanent

resident), in the breeding season (summer resident), or

in thewinter (winter resident). The maps depict only
those parts of each species' range within North America
and up to approximately 100 miles offshore north of
central Mexico to the northern borders of Canada.

permanent resident summer resident 'inter resident

 1

INTRODUCTION • 1

SCALE SILHOUETTES Flight Pattern

These show the silhouette of the bird overlaid
proportionally on a copy of this book.

Swift graceful flight alternating several

deep, rapid wing beats with long elliptical
glides with sharp sweeping upturns at the
end. Soars on thermals and updrafts.

FLIGHT PATTERN
Each birds flight pattern is shown in

NEST IDENTIFICATION its species profile by an icon. For

The Nest Identification box provides icons more information on flight patterns,

describing nest shape and location. see page 20.

Pellets of clay ormud, with lining of grasses, down, and feathers • usually
Nest Identification
under eaves of buildings or under dams or bridges; sometimes on ridges of
Shape

Location
^ canyons; rarely on trunk of conifer tree under overhanging branch • built by
both sexes • 3-6 white, cream, or pinkish eggs, marked with browns; oval to

g long oval, 0.8 x 0.5 inches.

Shape Location

a
Burrow Excavated
3
Burrow Preformed
F
Crevice
f
Deep Cup Floating
ffi
Man-made
L | w ^ # |
Bank Building Bridge Cave Chimney Cliff
Av
Conifer

A.
None
<V
Open Cup
~6T
Pendant Platform
<=>
Saucer Scrape
Bl
Jf « 1* — E
Decidous Floating Grass Gravel Roof Hollow Log Man-made Pebbles

-
Shallow
©Sphere
E'
Tree Cavity Primary
5
Tree Cavity Secondary
JiH
Reed/Cattails
*k
Shrub
±_
Snag
— ^
Bare Soil Stump

HABITAT
Habitat
^l ». ssss At the bottom of each species account is a set of icons
representing all the habitat types in the order in which the bird
is found, from the most to the least likely.

forest: coniferous, broadleaf, temperate, semidesert

or tropical
_i_ desert
open forest;more space between the
trees, tundra forest, semiopen areas 5555 lakes, rivers and vicinity, sandspits,

mudflats, ponds
forest edge, oak and riparian
^ upland streams and vicinity
mSt grassland with scattered trees (includes
farmland, citrus groves, orchards) &2& open sea, low flat islands

_A_ bushes, shrubs, thickets and ^Sft rocky or sandy seashore, bay islands,

undergrowth; tropical lowland coastal islands, shallow coastal habitats, coastal

bays, coastal mangroves, tidal flats, sand spits,

areas of scrub vegetation, frequently mudflats

with thorns
s'/SS freshwater marshes, swamps
'iiilriitlii i«< open landscapes: grassland,
j|» rocky places or cliffs (both on the coast
tundra, savanna, coastal ponds/sloughs - salt,
and inland)
brackish or freshwater, coastal marshes, coastal
wetlands, salt marshes, prairie potholes
A. mountains, wooded canyons
12 • INTRODUCTION

ANATOMY OF BIRDS
Birds are the most diverse terrestrial vertebrates with more than
9,800 extant species. Mammals are the only other homeothermic group
with whom they share the planet. Yet, although mammal species number less
than half that of birds, the mammals are much more varied in body shape
and size. Mammals vary in form from primates to giraffes to armadillos, with
specialists in running, hopping, flying, swimming, burrowing, digging, and
climbing. Birds, however, all look like birds - with the same basic
architecture, a body shape dictated by the demands of flight.

FEATHERS
Birds have three basic types of feathers: down, most of the bird's body. Typical contour
contour, and flight (wing and tail) feathers. feathers consist of a central shaft or quill and
Down feathers are next to the bird's skin for the flattened portion or vane. Contour feathers
insulation. The contour is the most commonly that extend beyond the wings and tail are the
recognized feather and the one that covers flight feathers.

Down Contour Flight

(Wing and tail)

/on curved
BONES it,

neck hidden tailhone rising

In most species both the under feathi above wing bones
wings and the legs must be in this posture i

strong enough to transport the

full weight of the bird, yet light

enough to fly. Some bones have

been fused and some bear pelvis carries
internal struts. Ribs are overlapped legs and tail
for strength; others are hollowed,
thinned, and reduced in numbers for
lightness. In flying birds, and those
breastbone can
flightless birds like penguins that use the wins, muscle.
flipperlike forelimbs to "fly"
underwater, the sternum, or
breastbone, bears a thin knifelike keel to
The same characteristics of strength and
which the large flight muscles of the breast elasticity found in a lard's feathers also can be
the pectoral muscles, arc attached. found in the anatomy of its skeleton.
 INTRODUCTION • 13

BILLS
Birds' bills arc composed of a horny sheath cracking to nectar probing and from fish-
overlying a bony core. The entire lightweight catching to fruit-picking. Birds also use their
structure has evolved in countless ways to the bills to build nests, preen, and court. Bills may
specialized needs of its owner, from seed- change in size and/or color in breeding season.

The ROSEATE The NORTHERN The RUBY-THROATED The RED CROSSBILL'S

SPOONBILL uses its CARDINAL uses its HUMMINGBIRD uses its bill features mandibles
spoon-shaped bill to scoop conical bill to crunch seeds long needle/ike bill to probe crossed at the tips that arc
food from water. into flo wers for nectar. ideal for digging the seeds
out of pinecones.

LEGS AND FEET

The and springy,
legs of birds are thin, strong, tendons. Toes generally number four with
and most species lack feathers on their
in three forward and one opposable toe pointed
distal parts where they are instead covered backward, but some North American birds
with scales. Muscles, which are concentrated have only three. Toes are covered by scales
on the portion of the leg nearest the body, and have claws at their tips which in birds of
control the extremities with a series of prey are enlarged into strong talons.

The AMERICAN ROBIN like the HAIRY

Some, The MALLARD has The DOUBLE- The BALD
has a typical birds foot: WOODPECKER, three webbed toes and CRESTED EAGLE has claz
four toes with three have two toes forward one vestigial toe in CORMORANT has enlarged and
forward and one bach. and two back. back. four webbed toes. elongated into
talons.

WINGS AND TAILS

The shapes of wings and (c) contrast with the broad
tails are an adaptation to splayed wings and broad
where and how a bird tail of an eagle (d), which
flies. Look carefully at allow an eagle to soar.
flight silhouettes: forest Terns (e) have long
raptors (a)have rounded elegant wings; albatross
wings for living in dense wings (f) are very long,
vegetation; swallows (b) b with an extended inner
have narrow tapering section for flying over
wings. The tapering wings water like a sailplane.
and narrow tail of a falcon
14 • INTRODUCTION

TOPOGRAPHY OF A BIRD
book you
Asnumber
you consult the species encounter
profiles in this
of ornithological terms that describe the "landscape," groups
will
or
a

of feathers, of a bird's body. Learning these terms will help you use your
field guide and, when you look at living birds, prompt you to see more detail
with each sighting.

TIPS FOR THE FIELD

1. Start by looking at the bird's head. Note its bill and the markings on its face.
2. Get a feel for the bird's overall shape and size and note body markings.
3. Note shapes and markings of tail and wings.
4. Watch it fly and note markings visible in flight.
INTRODUCTION • 15
16 • INTRODUCTION

VARIATIONS WITHIN SPECIES

irds are the most colorful of all terrestrial vertebrates. Their coloration
B varies widely not only from species
plumage colors differ between the sexes, between adults and their young,
to species but within species. Often

and from season to season. All of these different color patterns increase the
challenge of identification for the birder.

male/female
variations
Within a species, adult
males often differ in color
and pattern of plumage,
and sometimes in size, Juvenile
ale Female
from adult females.
PAINTED BUNTINGS have three distinct plumages.

JUVENILE PLUMAGE
VARIATIONS
On an individual bird, color changes
occur when feathers molt, or drop from
their follicles to be replaced by new
feathers. In its life span a bird will molt
many times. After its first molt, when it

loses its down, the bird will attain

natal
its juvenile plumage. This will be its first

plumage with contour and flight feathers. Juvenile

This plumage often does not resemble Female
that of either adult and is worn briefly for
Male
a few weeks or months. For the purposes
of this book the term "juvenile" is used
to refer to subadult plumaged birds that
Male and female NORTHERN CARDINALS have
different plumages, while juveniles resemble females.
may, or may not, be sexually mature.

OTHER SUBADULT PLUMAGES

Although in many species, such as the bunting and cardinal, the juvenile attains adult
plumage after its first year, there are species inwhich it takes the juvenile longer to do this.
It may take juveniles of some species two years or more. These
€> individuals may experience what are known as first, second, or even
third winter or summer plumages before attaining the plumage
of adult birds. The Ring-billed Gull is one such example.

Adult
RING-BILLED GULL
1^
Third Year First Year
 INTRODUCTION • 17

SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN ADULT BIRDS

Most adult two molts a year with a complete molt
birds have
of all feathers after the breeding season and a partial molt in
late winter/early spring in which only the head and body
feathers are replaced.

MALLARD in
eclipse plumage

The late winter or early spring molt produces the brighter

plumage associated with many breeding birds and is called the
breeding plumage or alternate plumage. Male ducks undergo a molt
just after the nesting season begins and get a fresh coat of
feathers that is drab like the females called an eclipse plumage.
INDIGO BUNTING Fall molts produce a plumage called winter plumage, fall plumage,
in breeding plumage or basic plumage.

OTHER VARIATIONS
Some genetic variations in color and pattern can be seen among populations representing
different geographical races, of a species. These races are also referred to as subspecies.

"^^^
SLATE
COLORED OREGON PINK-SIDED WHITE-WINGED GRAY- HEADED
JUNCO JUNCO JUNCO JUNCO JUNCO
The DARK-EYED JUNCO lias five adult plumage variations associated with different geographical regions

Hybrids between species may produce birds that Some species have two
share some characteristics of each parent but still or more color phases or morphs.
have a very different appearance.

LAWRENCE 'S BRE WSTER 'S

WARBLER WARBLER
Results from crosses between Golden-winged Warblers and The EASTERN SCREECH-OWL has red. gray,
Blue-winged Warblers and their offspring. and brown morphs.
18 • INTRODUCTION

HOW TO IDENTIFY BIRDS

Birds that come to backyard feeders often stay long enough for you to
study them in detail, but not all birds are so cooperative and often a
fleeting glimpse is all you get. Learn to get the best look you can under the
conditions and to see the entire bird well. First impressions of a bird,
especially a new species for you, will give you clues for comparing it with
birds you already know. What you are looking for are field marks, those
physical clues that include size, shape, color patterns, and behavior, and
also the habitat the bird is in and the sounds it may make.
Learn to routinely and quickly look at the details of the head; markings
on the body, wings, and tail; and the shapes of the bird's parts.
HEAD
Is the crown:

mustache marks malar marks ear patches a mask through

the eye

BODY PLUMAGE
Are the underparts:

spotted
plain and unmarked streaked
 INTRODUCTION • 19

TAIL
Is the tail:

forked rounded fan-shaped

3^wedge-shaped pointed

notched square

MARKINGS
Does it have distinctive wing or tail markings such as:

spots contrasting colors

BILL
Is the bill:

cone-shaped needlelike hooked decurved

t spatulate long or short

SONG BEHAVIOR
Many expert birders The behavior of the bird will
rely on their ears as also provide clues to its

much eyes to
as their "dentity. Does it bob, wag, or
identify birds. Any of pump its tail either up and
the many cassette down or back and forth? Note
tapes, CDs, or videos its flight pattern. Does it back

can help you learn the down a tree or go headfirst?

songs, calls, and other For more information on
sounds birds make. Behavior, see page 22.
20 • INTRODUCTION

IDENTIFYING BIRDS IN FLIGHT

How a bird flies - the speed of the wing stroke as well as the pattern - can
often help you recognize a species.

Direct- steady flight with tegular w»ing beats,

along a constant line; typical of most species,
including waterfowl, herons, doves, crows,
shorebirds, and many songbirds.

Dynamic soaring- glides over water "downhill"

with the wind to its back and when close to
the surface quickly turns 180 degrees back
into the wind. There the bird is lifted back up
to near the original height upon which it turns
back and soars "downhill" again. Characteristic
of many pelagic species, including albatrosses,
shearwaters, and petrels.

Flap and glide - alternates a burst of several

wing beats with a short or long level glide.
Many birds of prey, both hawks and owls, use
this flight pattern as do Black Vultures, ibis,
and pelicans.

Flightless - many species living in

environments free of predators have given up
the energy-demanding activity of flight. The
only flightless North American species, the
Great Auk, was hunted to extinction in 1844.

Glide - wings are held fully or partially

extended as the bird loses altitude. Many birds
glide down to a landing, or from perch to
perch. Hawks may glide from the top of one
thermal to the bottom of the next in migration.

Hawking- flying up from the ground or down

from an aerial perch to seize a flying insect and
looping back down to the same or nearby
perch. Characteristic of flycatchers and other
small, active insect-eating birds such as
warblers, the Cedar Waxwing, and several
species of woodpeckers.
Hovering- rapid wingbeats while the bird
remains suspended in one spot over the
ground or water. Typical of hummingbirds,
kingfishers, American Kestrel, Osprey, Rough-
legged Hawk and many small birds that hover
briefly to glean food from vegetation.

Moth/ike - an erratic, sometimes bouncy, slow

flight seen in nightjars, a few storm-petrels,
and in the display flights of some small birds.

Skims - the flight pattern of the Black

Skimmer in which the bird flies a steady
course with its lower mandible cleaving the
surface of still water as it feeds.

Static soaring - requires about a twentieth of

the energy of flapping flight. Birds soar on
rising heated columns of air, thermals, or on
deflected currents and updrafts. Large hawks,
eagles, vultures, storks, White Pelicans, and
gulls soar this way.

- an energy-saving style
Straight line formation
of flight used by some
larger birds such as
cormorants, pelicans, ibis, some waterfowl, and
others. Birds may fly one behind the other, or
abreast as do some scoters and eiders.

Undulating - some small birds conserve energy

by on one or more wing beats and then
rising
folding the wings to the body and swooping
down to the next wing beat. Characteristic of
woodpeckers, finches, and chickadees.

V formation - an energy-saving flight style used

by some larger birds, including ducks, geese,
cranes, and cormorants.

Zigzag - a pattern used by birds flushed from

the ground as a way to elude predators. The
Common Snipe and several species of quail
are good examples.
22 • INTRODUCTION

BEHAVIOR

A large portion of the bird behavior we admire is instinctive and

associated with particular species and families. So as you look
for field marks, notice the bird's body language.
It will give you many clues to its identity.

TAIL MOVEMENT
Some birds flip their tails as they move or
perch. The tail may be cocked at an angle over
the back, fanned open or closed, wagged,
bobbed, or pumped up or down. Some birds
constantly bob their bodies up and down as
they walk or stand; others bob or jerk
occasionally, while others sway back and forth
as they walk.

BODY MOVEMENT BEWICK'S WREN holds its tail

Some birds hop like a sparrow. Some run or high above its back as it hops, often
walk. They may climb trees straight up, hitch flicking it from side to side.

up or back down them, walk headfirst down

them, or cling upside down. Many birds wade
like herons and egrets, or swim like ducks and
geese. Some aquatic species feed by dabbling
or tipping up their bodies with their heads and
necks beneath the surface. Others dive
completely below the surface.
 INTRODUCTION • 23

FORAGING
Notice whether the bird
forages on the ground, in the
treetops, or at the mid-story
level. Shorebirds may stay on
the dry sand or away from the
water's edge on a mudflat, or
they may wade in the shallows,
while some species may wade
up to their bellies. Some
shorebirds pick at their food
while others drill and probe
rapidly in the mud.

A juvenile WHITE IBIS probes with its bill for food in shallow water.

These MOURNING DOVES ore foraging on the ground.

DISPLAY BEHAVIORS
Many species exhibit
distinctive display behaviors
during breeding season.
They may dance like
Prairie-Chickens, cranes, or
Western Grebes; skylark like
sparrows or buntings; or put
on the aerial shows of
woodcock and snipe. Many
species, especially ground-
nesters, will try to lead
intruders away from the nest
with distraction displays
including the broken-wing
or crippled-bird act.

The GREAT EGRET flashes its long white plumes in routship display.
 —
24 • INTRODUCTION

ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION

What does it mean when change. Birds are easily impacted by
someone says a bird is changes in climate and habitat
"common" or that a species is brought about by natural or human
"abundant" or "rare?" To appreciate causes, with seasonal migrations
1

a bird species presence (or lack of being the most obvious result. Thus
it) in a given region you need to knowing the seasonal occurrence of a
consider the factors of habitat, bird is important
confirming its
in
geographical range, and season of identification. The
range maps in
the year. Keep in mind that the this guide are color-coded to provide
distribution and abundance of birds, you with this information. You can
among the most mobile of the get even more specific information
earth's creatures, are not static and from local checklists, local bird
the boundaries of populations often books, websites, and local birders.

\bundant means a species is so

conspicuous that birders usually
observe more than 25 individuals
daily in proper habitat and season.

Common means •
birders are likely to
see 5-25 individual:
daily in proper
habitat and season. /HACK-CAPPED
CHICKADEE

Fairly common means a

species is common enough

that birders should observe at

least one individual daily in
proper habitat and season

YELLOW-THROATED
VIREO
Casual means a bird that w anders into
North America at infrequent intervals and
is not observed annually, but exhibits a

pattern of occurrence over several decades.

Rare can mean either that the

species is widely distributed

outside North America but

exists in low numbers here,
or that the entire population
• is small and local.

WHITE-THROATED
I.V/// /./•.. !.V NIGHTHAWK ROBIN
 INTRODUCTION • 25

Irriiptive means • Vagrant is a migrant that has

the speeies is
strayed off its usual route.

erratie in its

movements -
present and even
numerous in a

region in one
year and absent |
the next. «^ i

SNOWY
OWL

Exotic means a non-native

species illegally released or
escaped, such as the many
parrot species in south Florida,
Perm a mill
or a non-native species that has
residents live
arrived in the region on its own in the same
like the Cattle Egret, or with
geographic
passive human assistance (such
region all
as hitching a transoceanic ride
year.
on a ship).
CATTLE I
EGRET NORTHERN
CARDINAL

Slimmer residents breed and •—

raise their young in one region
and leave winter in anothe
to
region, usually to the south.

CEDAR SHY
WAXWING iLBATROSS

Accidentals are species that

have occurred fewer than ten
times in a region.

Transients pass through a

region only once or twice
a year during their spring
and/or fall migrations. •

AMERICAN TREE
SPARROW

Winter residents arrive in a region SEMIPALMATED

only during the winter months SANDPIPER
after their breeding season, and
usually breed to the north of it.
26 • INTRODUCTION

WATCHING BIRDS IN THE BACKYARD

you provide suitable food, shelter, and water, birds wil come to your
If
baekyard. If you offer a variety of these necessities you wil attract a
greater diversity of birds. Place your feeders, nesting boxes, and birdbaths
:hs *

where the birds will feel safe from people and animals and where you can
see the birds as you go about your daily routine.

FOOD AND FEEDERS

Many people enjoy feeding birds year-round. Basic types of feeders
include platform feeders, hopper feeders, tube feeders, ball feeders,
window feeders, fruit feeders, nectar feeders, and suet feeders.
Standard foods include black (oil) sunflower seed (the best single
seed), striped sunflower seed, hulled sunflower (chips/hearts) seed,
niger (called "thistle") seed, safflower seed, white proso millet seed,
red millet seed, milo seed, corn (whole kernel, shelled, and cracked),
peanuts, peanut butter, suet and suet mixes, fruits, and nectar.

HOUSE FINCHES and a NORTHERN CARDINAL find food and shelter. AMERICAN GOLDFINCHES
at a tube feeder.

A female RED-BELLIED WOODPECKER finds suet in a wire cage feeder.

 INTRODUCTION • 27

WATER
Birds need
water as much
as they need food.
If you include even
one dependable source of
water in your yard you will
attract a great variety of birds to
drink, bathe, and cool off. If
there is a running water or
dripping water element even

•Km**** more species will come.

There are many styles of
water containers to choose from but the only
requirement is: Maintain a stable supply of
clean water in a shallow container no deeper
than three inches.
NORTHERN CARDINAL at a traditional birdbath.

Two types of nest boxes you can

make yourself.
"Hotel" for PURPLE MARTINS.

SHELTER AND NEST BOXES

Planting trees, shrubs, and other vegetation not only
provides food for birds but shelter and nesting places.
Many species will use nest boxes. Others will use nesting
shelves or ledges, and larger species will use raised
nesting platforms. Nesting boxes can be made of wood,
aluminum, or plastic; natural gourds are often used for
martins and swallows.

Urban nest for MOURNING DOVES

28 • INTRODUC TION

WATCHING BIRDS IN THE FIELD

is needed to watch birds, other than your own curiosity.
Very little gear
Two
indispensable items are a good pair of binoculars and a good field
guide. Birding with experienced birders who know the area is also valuable
in getting you off to a good -start. It is a good idea to keep a small notebook
handy. Later you may want to add a camera and telephoto lens; a spotting
scope with tripod becomes a good investment for the more serious birder.

Birders at Point Pelee National Park. Ontario.

BINOCULARS
Look for magnifying ranges from 7x to lOx power.
The outside diameter of the lenses that are
farthest from your eyes (the objective lenses)
should range from 35mm to 50mm. The power of
magnification and the diameter of the objective
lenses (the latter helps determine light-gathering
ability) are combined and stamped on the
binoculars as two numbers such as: 7 x 35, 7 x 50,
or 8 x 42. Small compact binoculars such as
8 x 23 are lightweight and tempting to carry in the
but the small size of the objective lenses
field,
BINOCULARS
Look for magnifying ranges from amount of light they can gather, making
limits the
7x to I Ox power. birdwatching under low light difficult.
 INTRODUCTION • 29

BASIC PHOTOGRAPHY EQUIPMENT

The best camera body for bird photography is a 35mm single
lens reflex (SLR). This camera allows you to view the
subject directly through the lens. Many birds move quickly
so your camera should have a fast shutter speed of at least
1/500 sec or higher, and the films you use with natural light
should have high exposure speeds in the range of 200-400
ISO (ASA). A telephoto lens will allow you to photograph a
larger image; you will need one in the 300mm to 500mm
range. A sturdy tripod is required for sharp exposures.
Use blinds to conceal yourself from the bird and let you
get much closer. Automobiles will work as long as you
stav inside.

TRIPOD
To improve the sharpnei
of your exposures

CAMERA TELEPHOTO LENS

35mm single lens reflex (SLR). lens in the 300 mm
Look for a to
500mm ranee.

A temporary moveable blind in the form of a simple tent c an conceal birde o put wary birds at ease.
30 • INTRODUCTION

HOW TO BE A BETTER BIRDER

T here are many ways to improve your birding
enjoyment of birdwatching.
skills and increase your

STUDY AT HOME
Time spent at home studying your field guide will
make a big difference. Find local checklists of birds,
or state and regional bird books, that provide even
more specific information about the birds in your
area. Listen to recordings of bird songs and calls.

IMPROVE YOUR FIELD SKILLS

Birds have keen color eyesight and hearing.
They are frightened by sudden movements,
loud noises, and bright clothing that does
not "blend" with the background.
Experienced birders move deliberately,
stalking quietly.They converse in low tones
and stand patiently.

Birds are curious and attracted to sounds.

When you make "pishing" noises (forcing
air out through clenched teeth as if saying
"pish, pish, pish"), or "squeaking" (making
a high-pitched squeak by sucking air
through closely pursed lips, a sound that can
be amplified by "kissing" the back of your
hand) many birds' curiosity will be piqued
and they will come closer. Often they
produce alarm notes or assembly calls,
causing even more birds to come out where
you can see them.
Birders at Cape May Point, New Jersey.

KEEP A RECORD
Keeping good records of the birds you see will
help you learn when seasonal species are
present and how abundant they may be. There
is still much science does not know about
birds, particularly about behavior and
abundance in some habitats, and the amateur
birder can make valuable contributions.
 INTRODUCTION • 31

PRACTICE BIRDING ETHICS

Birding is nor without its responsibility to the
w elfare of the bird. The American Birding
Assoeiation has compiled a Code of Ethies for
its members. (Copies ean be obtained by
writing to the ABA at the address below.)
Their basie message is that birders' actions
should not endanger the welfare of birds or
other wildlife; they should not harm the
natural environment; and birders must always
respeet the rights of others, especially their
rights to privacy and private property rights.
A female feeds baby bluebirds.

BIRD PROTECTION IN
BREEDING SEASON
Remember that birds are
sensitive to disturbance.
Nothing should be done that
will frighten them or alter the
surroundings of their nest.
Once frightened, they may
abandon the nest,
and this could
set their
breeding back
a whole year.

The welfare offledgling SCREECH-OWLS like these depends on

birders who practice good ethics.

JOIN A CLUB
Every state and province has established bird clubs. Many local clubs are associated with
state, provincial, or regional ornithological societies that network
have regular
activities,
meetings, and publish newsletters. You can locate your nearest bird clubs on the
internet, or though the Conservation Directory of the National Wildlife Federation, your
state conservation or wildlife department, local library, or newspaper.

Birding organizations exist on the national and international level as well. Some national
organizations and their publications are:
• American Birding Association, PO Box 6599, Colorado Springs, CO 80934; Birding.
• American Ornithologists' Union, The Auk; Association of Field Ornithologists, Journal of
Field Ornithology; Cooper Ornithological Society, The Condor; Wilson Ornithological
Society, Wilson Bulletin. All can be contacted c/o Ornithological Societies of North
America, 810E, 10th Street, Lawrence, KS 66044.
• Laboratory of Ornithology at Cornell University, 159 Sapsucker Woods Road, Ithaca,

NY 14850; Living Bird quarterly.

• National Audubon Society, 700 Broadway, New York, NY 10003.
32 • INTRODUCTION

CONSERVATION
We are lucky that here in
America we have lost
North

relatively. few bird species to

extinction. Laws to protect,some
species were passed as early as the
late 1700s, but even then some
came too late or were not enforced.
Today, all species of birds native to
North America are protected by
state, provincial, and federal laws
and cannot be collected or held in
captivity without a legal permit
(introduced, non-native species are
not so protected). Some species,
considered game species, are
managed and can be legally
harvested during hunting seasons.
Still, many species of North

American birds are in decline.

Several species require
management because their
populations have become
dangerously low. These species are
given additional protection and
listed by state, provincial, or
federal authorities as "threatened"
or "endangered." The bird
conservation effort across America
is joined by organizations such as The WOOD STORK is declining due to

habitat destruction and the disruption

the National Audubon Society, the of water flow through southern Florida.
American Bird Conservancy, and
Partners in Flight. The latter
group an Americas-wide
is

coalition of more than

Some populations of 160 organizations and
I. EAST TERN are government agencies.
endangered due to human
disturbance of nesting areas Many of our continent's
birds have not fared well
at the hands of man. They
have been persecuted as
pests, victimized by wanton
shooting, deprived of habitat,
subjected to poisons, forced into
competition by introduced species,
 INTRODUCTION • 33

The SPECTACLED EIDER has seen major decline in

recent rears due to the introduction o f firearms into its
limited nesting range.

and preyed upon by brood parasites. Many

of the species that nest in North America,
particularly songbirds and shorebirds, are
neotropical migrants wintering in other
countries where they are exposed to
similar stresses, often with less protection.

Birds and other wildlife need our help now more

than ever before. Conservation requires the
support of every citizen to prevent the continued The CALIFORNIA CONDOR is now
nearly extinct in the wild due to hunting
loss of our natu?~al heritage.
and lead poisoning.

LAUGHING GULLS and BROWN PELICANS live side by side with America's offshore oil industry.
34 • INTRODUCTION

EXTINCTION
The North American continent north of Mexico hosts more than
700 species of native nesting Direct persecution and indirect
birds.
population stresses caused by loss of required habitat - both factors
generated by humans - have resulted in a small percentage that are now
either extinct or on the very brink of extinction. Likewise, many other
species are declining and some are in serious trouble. The first to go was the
Great Auk, the only flightless species on the continent, after centuries of
unregulated exploitation. Many of these species were abundant, and some,
like the Passenger Pigeon, were among the most numerous species in North
America. Often sheer numbers made them easy to kill in quantity and their
marketing profitable. Improvements in firearms and transportation, plus the
conversion of the vast eastern forests into farmland, hastened the decline of
these species.
Today we are more enlightened. We have enacted laws and extended
efforts to save species. There are preservation success stories with species
like Peregrine Falcons, Bald Eagles, Brown Pelicans, Ospreys, Whooping
Cranes, and Trumpeter Swans. But, there is still much to do as human
populations continue to alter critical habitats.
The Eskimo Curlew, Ivory-billed Woodpecker, and Bachman's Warbler
are considered probably extinct. The four species on the pages that follow,
the Labrador Duck, Great Auk, Passenger Pigeon, and Carolina Parakeet, are
now classified as extinct.

Family
SCOLOPACIDAE Species
Numenius bo realis ^th 14 inches Wingspan 23 _ 7 inches
2

Eskimo Curlew
Once among the most numerous shorebirds in North America, this bird was rare by the 20th
century due to unrestricted shooting during fall migration on the North Atlantic Coast, on the
wintering grounds in Argentina, and in spring migration in Texas and on the Great Plains.
Gregarious by nature, large flocks attracted market and sport hunters, who killed them by the
wagonload and shipped them to eastern cities. Most records
in the 20th century were in spring on the Texas coast;
blackish brown crown
the last specimen was recorded in Barbados in
and upperparts with buff
1963, and the last sight records were in 1982 potting and feather edging
in Canada.
decurved
SONG Soft tremulous
•

• twittering
whistles in flight. Calls thin high-pitched
squeaks and whistles.
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious Similar Birds
in migration and
on wintering Whimbrel
arger; longer decurved
grounds; often bill; buffy central crown
in large flocks. stripe; primaries barred
pale cinnamon 4
Approachable; habit of wing linings brown and buff; gray-
brown body; paler
returning to site after shots
underparts streaked and
fired into flock made it spotted with dark
vulnerable to hunters. Nested on browns; upperparts
edged buff-gray; gray-
Arctic tundra; wintered in open areas,
buff supercilium.
prairies, and agricultural fields.
 INTRODUCTION • 35

Family Species Len Sth 19.5 Wingspan 30_

p ICIDAE Qampephilus principalis inches 32 inchcs

Ivory-billed Woodpecker red crest

The largest woodpecker north of Mexico
black
depended on large tracts of primeval
forecrest
ihite streak from
bottomland and swamp forests to sustain
to back of wing
its feeding habits. The head and bill
were used by Native Americans for trade
patch on
lute
items and early settlers valued them for folded wing
good luck, but it was the felling of the
large southern forests and the loss of its
food supply that doomed this woodpecker.
Once it became rare, people hunted the
remaining birds for museum and private
collections. An estimated twenty-two birds
Similar Birds
existed in the US in 1938; the last records
were in the 1940s. Unverified sightings are stil Pile ate d
Woodpecker
being reported from the South, and a Cuban Smaller • male has red
subspecies was confirmed to be alive in the late 1980s. crest and mustache
• SONG Nasal clarinet-like yank, yank, yank, often in a series
mark; black mask
extends from lores to
like a large White-breasted Nuthatch. nape; white supercilium
• BEHAVIOR mated for life, or in small family groups
In pairs, begins behind eye;
white chin; white line
just after nesting season.Fed on wood-boring insects under
extends from base of
bark of dead or dying trees, some fruits and berries. Ranged bill to sides of breast
from Ohio River Valley to east Texas, Gulf Coast, and also to • female has black
the state of Florida. forehead and mustache.

Family
pA RiJLIDAE Species
\fermivora bachmanii
Length
4.25-4.75 inches Wingspan 5,75.7,5 inches

Bachman's Warbler black forecrown

Possibly never very numerous, this songbird gray hindcrown yellow forehead

lived in bottomland forests and swamps and and nape « j and snpern I'm in
their canebrakes along the coastal plain from
southern Kentucky and Missouri to South
Carolina. It was found in the Gulf coastal upperparts laige black bib
states in migration on its way to and from on breast
wintering grounds in Cuba and in some
locations along the Suwannee River in yellow underparts
Florida. The clearing of these forests for
timber and agricultural drainage hastened
the decline. The last certain US record
was near Charleston, South Carolina, in
1962; and the last individual seen was a
wintering female in Cuba in 1981.
Similar Birds
• SONG Buzzy trill of 6-8 notes on a
Hooded Warbler c?
Worm-eating Warbler
single pitch; similar to
Similar to male but has
or Chipping Sparrow but higher pitched. yellow face; black hood
Persistent singer on breeding grounds. from crown to throat;
white outer tail feathers.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs.
Nashville Warblerc?
Foraged at middle to high level in trees.
Similar to female but
Nested in thickets within 3 feet of ground has yellow chin, throat,
in briers, canebrakes, or bushy tangles. and underparts; gray
Gleaned insects from foliage and branches. head, crown, and nape.
36 • INTRODUCTION
Family
ANATIDAE s P ecies Camptorhynchus labradorius Len Sth
20 inche Wingspan 3() _ 32 inches

Labrador Duck white head, neck,

This small duck was thought to have and breast
nested on islands on the south coast of black back, rump, fad,
the Labrador Peninsula. was marketIt sides, and flank
hunted into the 1860s even though its
flesh was not relished and specimens
often spoiled. The last recorded
individual was shot off the coast
of Long Island in 1875.
• SONG Unrecorded.
large white wings
• BEHAVIOR Wary, quick to
with fusions Ki\(, KlDKK
fly on whistling wings. Small primaries Male has white head,
upper hack, breast, and
flocks of 7-10 in winter.
flanks;stubby orange
Leathery spoonlike expansion brown wings bill; orange forehead;
at end of upper mandible and with large lavender crown and
white patches nape • female has rusty
prominent vertical lamellae in
brown body; black bill.
the lower mandible were used
I black bill
to sift shellfish from mud or Common Eider
with creamy-
Male has sloping green,
sand. Reported to have fed pink basal black, and white head;
on marine invertebrates half white back and breast;
and seaweed. Nested on black sides and
brown body underparts; orange bill
tundra islands; wintered at sea
• female has tawny
frequenting sandy bays and coastal chestnut body with
estuaries along North Atlantic Coast Fl-.M \l I blackish bill.

Family Species Length Wingspan

A LCIDAE Pinguinus impennis 28 _30 inches 2 3_25 inches

Great Auk
The was the original penguin and the only flightless species on the continent in
largest alcid
historical times.Widespread in the 16th and 17th centuries, it was recorded as breeding on
islands from Scotland and Sweden to the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Canadian Maritimes.
Once numerous, centuries of raids on its colonies by sailors and fisherman who took adults and
young for food brought it to extinction. Wintering along the Atlantic Coast occasionally as far
south as Florida, the last known pair was captured at their nest on Eldey Rock off the coast of
Iceland on June 3, 1844. —
-• large a relied black b ill crossed
• SONG Generally silent except by numerous vertical white lines
when alarmed in breeding colonies.
large white oval
Croak or guttural gurgling. short white
in front of eye
postocular
• BEHAVIOR Flightless. spot white underparts from upper
Gregarious; in flocks or small • breast to tip of undertail coverts
groups at sea. Nested in large
colonies on isolated rocky Similar Birds
islands inNorth Atlantic. Razorbill
Widespread at sea in the Much smaller; single
vertical line near tip of
nonbreeding season in
bill; white line from
winter. Walked upright on base of bill to eye;
land standing erect. Used white underparts ascend

short wings to move swiftly to point on throat; black

upperparts, tail, and
underwater, steering with its wings; white trailing
feet, diving down to an estimated edge on secondary
250 feet to feed on, fish. feathers.
 INTRODUCTION • 37

Family species Length Wingspan

COLUMBIDAE Eaopisfei misratonus U) inch( 2 4-25.5 inches

Passenger Pigeon
I he most abundant bird in North America at the

time of European settlement may have made up

a quarter of its bird population. The Passenger

Pigeon and the eastern deciduous forest upon

which it depended were destroyed
simultaneously. John James Audubon
described migrating flocks that stretched for
miles in the sky and took three days to pass
over, and which he estimated to contain over
As the forest was reduced to
a billion birds.
sand) gra)
farmland, the birds were hunted throughout underfill rts
the year. The last known wild specimen was
shot in 1898; and the last surviving bird,
Martha, a captive reared individual, died at
age 29 in the Cincinnati Zoo in 1914.
Similar Birds
• SONG Loud grating croaking, chattering,
Mourning Dove
or clucking notes. Not dovelike.
Smaller; pinkish fawn
• BEHAVIOR Highly gregarious; lived, foraged, head and underparts;
wandered, and nested in large groups. Fed on tree brownish gra^
upperparts; white-
seeds, fruits, berries, buds, and invertebrates. Nomadic;
tipped outer tail
went where food was plentiful. Nested from Missouri, feathers; black spotson
Kentucky, and Virginia northward into southern Canada upper inner wing; black
spot on lower cheek.
and west to Kansas. Wintered south to Gulf ("oast.

Family
PsiTTACIDAE Species Length Wingspan 24 _ 26 nches
Qonuropsis carloinesis 16inche; ;

Carolina Parakeet
Once abundant in the East from eastern
Nebraska to New York and south to the Gulf
Coast, this beautiful parakeet was hunted for
its feathers, the pet trade, for sport, and as a
pest of orchards, cornfields, and gardens. • large hooked
Flocks had such strong bonds that when pinkish cream bill
some of their numbers were killed the green body, wings,
remainder of the flock returned to their and tail
bodies repeatedly until all were shot. By
the late 1870s it existed only in remote
Florida swamps; the last known birds
were shot in the early 1900s, and the last
reported individual of the only endemic-
US parrot died in the Cincinnati Zoo in
the year 1914.
• SONG Loud quarrelsome screams given • pointed rail,
yellow below
in flight.

• BEHAVIOR Social. Gregarious, occurring in

flocks except in breeding season when pairs nested
in dense colonies. Mated for life. Roosted communally
in hollow trees. Fed in bottomland forests, riverbanks, and Similar Birds
cypress swamps on tree seeds, thistle, cocklebur, grass seeds, No similar native species.
fruits, and berries.
38 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
G AVIIDAE Species
Qavia stMata Length
2 4_27 inches
w <ngspan 42 ^ 5 inches
Red-throated Loon
This is the smallest loon and the only one

without profuse white spotting on its gray head :lt

upperparts in the breeding plumage. When and neck
the bird is on the water, its slender bill
appears upturned and is often hefd pointed
upward by the swimming bird. In juvenile
and winter plumage both sexes have a
dark slender
gray crown and hindneck, dark gray
upturned bill
back with many small white spots,
pale upturned bill, and a white face,
medium gray
sides, foreneck, and underparts. back with small,
thin black stripes
indistinct spots
on hindneck •

dull red patch

• SONG Usually On
breeding ground,
silent. on foreneck

prolonged wails and gooselike kwuk-kwuk-kwuk.

Similar Birds
• BEHAVIOR neck drooping. Only
Flies with
loon to leap directly into flight from water or land. Arc tic Loon
Pacific Loon
Feeds primarily on fish, which it catches in dives
Breeding adults have
down to 90 feet. Solitary except on wintering dark throat; dark flanks;
grounds and in migration, when hundreds may large white spots on
congregate in bays along the coast. back • in winter
plumage, lack white
• BREEDING Usually a solitary nester. Sometimes forms spots on back; bill not
loose colonies. upturned; dark gray of
crown and hind neck
• NESTING
Incubation 24-29 days by both sexes. Young contrast sharply with
leave nest and take to water about 1 day after hatching, then fly white face and
at about 49-60 days. 1 brood per year. foreneck. • Arctic Loon
in the West only.
• POPULATION Common to fairly common on breeding
grounds; fairly common on coast in winter; casual to very
uncommon inland in winter.
Flight Pattern Populations stable.
• Conservation
Vulnerable to loss of habitat due
to development in high Arctic
and to pollution, particularly oil

Direct flight with swift rapid wing beats spills, in wintering areas. Many
drown in gill nets.

Nest Identification
Moist depression or heap of damp vegetation mixed with mud • male sometimes
constructs copulation platformaway from nest • 1-3 olive-green to dark brown
Shape ^ Location eggs, sometimes with blackish brown spots.

Plumage Sexes sjm]lar Habitat N»jt _ r Migration

M gratory
j
Wei § ht 3.4 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 39

Family Species Length Wingspan 43,43 inches

QAVIIDAE Gavia pactfica 26 nc h cs
j

Pacific Loon
Until recently this species was considered a race of the Arctic Loon, which it
closely resembles. The Pacific Loon flies with its head and neck held straight.
When swimming it holds its dark slender bill level. Winter adults have dark ell
gray upperparts and a thin dark strap that reaches around the chin. Underparts
are white year-round.

pale gray
head, nape,
and hindneck

black sides of Winter

neck with white black back with Plumage
stripes rows of large
• white spots

white
underparts

* black sides
and flanks
• SONG Generally silent. On
breeding grounds, variety of guttural quacks and croaks, Similar Birds
and a long drawn-out ah-hah-awee.
ARCTIC LOON
• BEHAVIOR Migrates in flocks, unlike other loons. Feeds More white on flanks •

primarily on fish but takes some crustaceans and mollusks. Nests breeding adults have
on freshwater lakes and islands from tundra to boreal forests. dark chin • in winter
lacks chin strap. • in the
• BREEDING Solitary. Monogamous. West only.
• NESTING Incubation 23-25 days by both sexes, but female RED-THROATED LOON
does more. Young leave nest shortly after hatching. First flight at Breeding adults have
60-65 days. 1 brood per year. red foreneck; lacks large
white spots on back; bill
• POPULATION Common to fairlycommon on tundra is upturned.
breeding grounds. During winter, uncommon on the West Coast,
casual on the East Coast, and rare inland. Stable.
• Conservation
Flight Pattern Affected by encroachment of
humans on breeding grounds.
Vulnerable to the pollution of
its wintering areas, including
oil spills. Also vulnerable to
Direct flight with rapid wing beats. drowning in gill nets.

Nest Identification
Heap of vegetation pulled up around nest • edge of water on ground • built b}

Shape ^ Location
both sexes • 1-3 brownish eggs with blackish brown spots.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexes sim ; lar S3* Mi gratory 3 7 poun(Js

DATE TIME LOCATION

40 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
QAVIIDAE Qav 28 _36 jnches 5() _ 58 inches

Common Loon
Frequenting quiet lakes and usually sleeping on the water,
this large bird rarelycomes on land except to nest. It must glossy black head
run at least 20 yards across water to gain enough with greenish
momentum to fly. Loons require such pristine conditions sheen

to nest that their presence as a ne'sting bird is a good

red-brown
indicator of the wilderness condition of a lake and the ~
eyei
frequency of human activity on it. Winter adults
have gray or brown upperparts; an irregular or stout, straight

broken pattern on the head to the base of

the eye and the sides of the neck; white
underparts, chin, and foreneck; a checkered black-

blue-gray bill; and a white eye ring.

white breast
and belly

• SONG Usually silent away from breeding areas. Different calls

on breeding grounds: tremolo or "loon's laughter"; yodel, sounding
like yodel-ha-oo-oo\ wail; and talking kwuk.
• BEHAVIOR Rides low on water. Dives to 200 feet to catch fish.
Winter
Eats freshwater and saltwater fish, crustaceans, amphipods, snails, Plumage
leeches, frogs, salamanders, and aquatic insects. Eats larger prey
Similar Birds
on surface and smaller prey underwater. Can stay underwater up
to 60 seconds. Loons migrate alone or in small groups. Yellow-billkd
• BREEDING Monogamous. Loon
Solitary nester on islands, always
Pale yellow bill in all
within a few feet of water. May use same nest year after year. plumages, with dusky
• NESTING Incubation 26-31 days by both sexes, mostly by base in winter; bill is

larger and culmen is

female. Precocial young leave nest soon after hatching; fed and less curved • in winter
raised by both sexes. First flight at 70-80 days. 1 brood per year. has paler head and
• POPULATION Fairly common. Decrease in some breeding neck and brown patch

areas in southern parts of range.

• CONSERVATION Prone to environmental loss due to human
disturbance and reduced food
Flight Pattern supply resulting from acid
rain. Some abandon nests due
to human activity. Some
breeding grounds protected
Rapid direct flight with strong wing beats.
by volunteers.
Head, neck, and legs extended and
drooping slightly below midline of body
give hunchbacked appearance.

Nest Identification Bed of stems, grasses, and twigs • floating in bog; or on ground, hidden in
crevices or muskrat houses • built by both sexes • 1-3 olive-green to dark
brown eggs usually scattered with dark brown spots; subelliptical to oval,
Shape so.
3.5 x 2.2 inches.

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat _^ Migration

M gratory
i
Weight 9 j poun ds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 .

BIRDS or NORTH AMERICA • 41

Species Length Wingspan S4 _ W)inc|u

Family
( ; AVIU)AK qc adams 30_36 nches
;

Yellow-billed Loon
Once weather prophet in Eskimo folklore, this
considered a

loon is its species and has the northernmost range

the largest of
of any loon. Swimming with its head tilted slightly upward,
this bird sometimes carries its young on its back. Winter
blackhead large ivory to
plumage shows a tan crown with a white face and a
with greenish yellow bill
dark ear patch.
purple glos
straight upper
inaudible

lightly
angled lower
mandible

partial
white collar

black-and-white white underparts

checkered back

The bill is pale ivory to straw-yellow in any plumage (with a dnsky base in
winter) and is straight above with an upward-angled lower mandible, giving the
bill an upturned appearance.
4>
• SONG Generally silent off breeding grounds. Similar to Common Loon, but Winter
laughter call is harsher. Also gives yodel, wail, and talking calls. In flight, makes plumage
ha-ha-ha-ha-ha-ha-lia
• BEHAVIOR Almost never comes on land except to nest. Similar Birds
Swims low water with bill tilted slightly upward. Dives for
in
Common Li >on
small fish and crustaceans. Uses feet to propel underwater. In summer has black
Solitary or in pairs or family groups; almost never flocks. Breeds bill • in winter has dark
upper edge on bill and
on tundra lakes and rivers; winters on saltwater coasts.
darker head anil face
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. • holds bill parallel to

water when swimming.

• NESTING Incubation 2,7-M) days by both sexes. Young stay
in nest 1-2 days. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• Population Uncommon
Flight Pattern to rare south of Canada on West
Coast in winter. Rare, casual, or
accidental elsewhere in winter. IT
• Conservation Oil spills
and pollution detrimental to
Fast direct flight on strong deep wing
beats with head, neck, and feet extended Arctic population.
bevond bodv.
7

Nest Identification
Twigs, grasses, and mud; sometimes no material used • generally covered by
mounded vegetation • small hummocks on water • 1-2 olive or brown eggs with
Shape
IL- dark brown spots; subelliptical but varies, 3.5 x 2.2 inches.

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei S ht

Sexes simiIaf Migratory 12.1 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

42 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
PoDICIPEDIDAE Species
Tachybaptus dominicus Len 6tn 9-10 inches Wingspan 20 inches

Least Grebe
As its name suggests, this is the smallest of the North
American grebes. It also has the most restricted
range, barely crossing the southern border from
Mexico. It may hide among tall vegetation in

shallow, warm ponds, sloughs, and* ditches in

which it forages and nests. Apart from its size,

can be distinguished from other grebes by its

golden eyes and short dark bill. In winter the
sides of the head are brown rather than gray,
the back and bill are lighter in color, and
there is less black on the back of short
the head and neck. neck

» SONG Bold resonating trumpetlike note.

• BEHAVIOR Feeds primarily on aquatic insects. Like all Similar Birds
other grebes, eats its own
which may form a ball in the
feathers,
Pied-billed
stomach. The purpose of this unusual behavior is unknown, but
Grebe
it may protect the gastrointestinal track from the sharp bones of Larger; thicker light-
the fish they ingest. coloredbill; eye ring

and dark (not

• BREEDING Monogamous. Occasionally form loose colonies. golden) eve.
• NESTING Incubation 21 days by both sexes. Precocial
young stay in nest 14 days. Carried by parents for 3-4 days. Fed by

Flight Pattern
with more in the Tropics.
• POPULATION Common.
• Conservation Readiness
to use newly created bodies of
water may be employed as a

Direct flight with rapid wing beats. means of increasing populations.

Nest Identification
Platform of decaying vegetation • either floating or anchored by aquatic plants in
middle of secluded pond • built by both sexes • 2-7 whitish to very pale blue-
Shape Location
^ green eggs that become nest stained; long pyriform, 1.3 inches long.

Plumage Sexes simi]ar Habitat Migration Wei S ht 4.5 ounces

Nonmigratory

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 43

Family Species Len ^th 12-15 inches W'^gspan

PQDICIPEDIDAE Podilymbus podiceps 2 2.5 inches

PIED-BILLED GREBE
The most widespread and best-known grebe in North
America sometimes hides from intruders by sinking large dark eye

until only its head shows above water or by diving head

like other members of the group. This stocky grebe
has a large head and short thick bill that gives it a
chickenlike profile, easily distinguishing it from
other grebes, even at a distance. The bill is
light-colored and has a black ring around it
during the breeding season but lacks the
ring in winter.
brownish
gray overall «

• SONG Loud cuckoolike Winter

call, cuck, cuck, cuck, cow-cow-cow, cow-ah-cow-ah.
Plumage
• BEHAVIOR Forages by diving from the surface and
Similar Birds
swimming underwater, propelled by its feet. Feeds some on
vegetation, but about half of the diet is made up of aquatic- Least Grebe
insects with the remainder split almost equally between small Smaller with golden
(not dark) eye; more
fish and crustaceans. slender dark bill; much
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. more restricted North
American range.
• NESTING Incubation 23-27 days by both sexes, but female
does more. Precocial young move from nest to adult's back less

Flight Pattern First flight at 35-37 days.

Young fed by both sexes.
1-2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Very
common in range.

Direct flight with rapid wing beats. • Conservation May be

declining due to habitat loss.

Nest Identification
Platform of decaying vegetation • inconspicuously anchored to vegetation in

open water among reeds or rushes • built by both sexes • 2-10 pale bluish white
Shape j& Location or nest-stained eggs; elliptical to subelliptical, 1.7 inches long.
|^

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat _ := Migration
g ome m j grate
Weight
15 6 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

44 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family S P ec,es Len Stn Wingspan
p 0 PICIPEDIDAE Podiceps auritus 1 2-1 5 inches 24 inches

Horned Grebe
The "horns" for which this bird is named are actually
tufts of golden feathers above and behind the eyes,
that are present only during the birds breeding
season. In summer the reddish neck of the
Horned Grebe distinguishes it from the

Eared Grebe, which shares much of the black

breeding range. The Horned Grebe's life head
is tied to water, breeding in freshwater golden
'

"horns
habitats and often spending the winter
both in freshwater and in saltwater.
• SONG This grebe gives an abrasive
keark, keark otyark, yark. It also makes a
repeated prattling sound followed by
reddish neck dark
shrill screams.
straight
bill

short tail

Similar Birds

Eared Grebe
• BEHAVIOR The Horned Grebe eats More triangular
head; has black neck
as its primary diet mostly fish and some in summer • dusky
crustaceans as well as aquatic insects. neck and black
Tamer than other grebes, it often allows cheeks in winter.

a close approach by humans. Its nests Winter Plumage Western Grebe

are often built so that they are concealed ci.ark's Grebe
Black above and
poorly or not at all.
white below; much
• BREEDING Monogamous. Most often a solitary nester; larger; much longer

sometimes in loose colonies of 4-6 pairs. necks and bills.

• NESTING Incubation 22-25 days by both sexes. Young fed

by both sexes. First flight in
Flight Pattern
45-60 days. 1 brood per year,
sometimes 2.
• Population Common.
• Conservation
Declining apparently due to
Direct flight with rapid u ing beats and habitat loss.
oil spills

Nest Identification
Floating heap of wet plant material, including underw ater plants, rotting
vegetation, rubbish., and mud • often anchored to vegetation • 3-7 whitish to
Shape £q Location
^ very pale green eggs, usually nest-stained; 1.7 inches long.

Plumage Scxes Migration Wei § nt pound

sj mi j ar Migratory 1

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OK NORTH AM K RICA • 45

Family Species Len ^th 17-21 inches Wingspan 30_

p 0 DICIPEDIDAE Podkeps grisegena 32 ind)es

Red-necked Grebe
Slightly smaller than the Western and (Mark's grebes,
this bird's neck is much thicker in appearance. In flight
blackish rap <

it is the only grebe that shows white leading and

edges on the inner wing. Although it requires
trailing
most of the
large bodies of freshwater for breeding,
population spends the winter months on saltwater.
• SONG On breeding ground, utters drawling
cries and crick-crick, during courtship both
sexes make loonlike calls of ah-ooo, ah-ooo,
ah-ooo, ah-ah-ah-ah-ah. white cheeks
• BEHAVIOR Feeds primarily
on small fish and crustaceans
that it gathers in dives to
25-30 feet. One of

dark gray side

the shyest grebes around the nest, it often slips away in the JUVENILE WINTER
presence of intruders.
Plumage
• BREEDING Monogamous. Usually a solitary nester but Strntiat Buds
sometimes breeds in small colonies.
Western Grebe
• NESTING Incubation 20-23 days by both sexes. Young fed clark's grebe
Similar in size; long
by both sexes. First flight at 49-70 days. 1 brood per year.
necks al\vu\ s w hite
• POPULATION Fairly common in suitable habitat in below; pule to whitish

breeding range and along both North Atlantic and North Pacific sides; red eyes, not
dark asin Red-
US states bordering
coasts in winter. Casual to rare inland from
necked Grebe.
Canada south to the Gulf Coast in winter.
• CONSERVATION Declining overall due to pesticides, oil spill
in marine environments, and
Flight Pattern habitat loss.Recent declines
due egg inviability, shell
to
thinning from pesticides and
PCBs, and increased egg
predation by raccoons.
Direct flight with rapid wing beats

Nest Identification
Plant material, fresh and decaying reeds • floating or anchored in shallow water

• built by both sexes • 2-6 bluish white or very pale buff eggs that become
Shape ^ Location nest-stained brown, 2.1 inches long.

Plumage
§e Sexes similar Habitat Migration Wei ^ hl 2.3
Migratory pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

46 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
p 0 DICIPEDIDAE s P ecies Podiceps nigricollis Len Sth
12-13 inches Wingspan
22 .5 inches

Eared Grebe
The "ear" for which this bird is named is a wide
golden tuft of feathers behind the eyes, present
only in breeding plumage. It has a more
triangular-shaped head than other grebes and
is the only one that has a black neck during

breeding season. The neck remains

dusky gray in winter - a good field
mark. The slender, dark bi
appears slightly upturned.

SONG Utters soft poo-eee-chk in courtship. Also has grating shrieks. Winter
• BEHAVIOR Pairs and family groups during the nesting season but ofte Plumage
nests in dense colonies ofup to several hundred pairs. Breeding
Similar Birds
pairshave several mutual displays, including an upright
"penguin dance" side-by-side on the water. Forages by diving Horned Grebe
and swimming underwater for aquatic insects, which make up Reddish neck in

most of its summer diet. Many winter in marine environments, summer • white in
winter plumage; white
where shrimplike crustaceans become their principal food. A cheeks (not blackish
gregarious bird that often gathers in large flocks in winter. like Eared Grebe) in

Tends to ride higher on the water than the somewhat similar winter • gold feathers in

breeding plumage are

Horned Grebe.
restricted to "horns"
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. above and behind the
eye, not over the ears.
• NESTING Incubation 20-22 days by both sexes. Young leave
nest after lastegg hatches. Fed by both sexes. Become
independent 21 days after
hatching. 1 brood per year,
Flight Pattern
sometimes 2.
• Population Common.
Becoming increasingly more
common in the East in winter.

Direct flight with rapid wing beats

Numbers concentrated on lakes
in Great Basin during migration.

Nest Identification
Fresh and decayed vegetation • floating but anchored by standing vegetation
• built by both sexes • 1-9 whitish or bluish white eggs that become nest-
Shape UL Location stained brown, 1.7 inches long.
Jj^

Plumage Sexes simUar Habitat

te _ Migration
Mj gratory Weight
10 3 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 47
Family Species Len 2th Wingspan 31 _4 0 inchcs
p 0 DICIPEDIDAE Aechmophorus occidentalis 22-29 inches

Western Grebe black of cap

Identical in shape and size to Clark's Grebe, the
extetids
Western Grebe shares much same range. of the It below eye
has a long swanlike neck and a slender, greenish
yellow bill. Like all other grebes, it has feet
modified for swimming, and the toes are
lobed, not webbed as in waterfowl. Fish
make up most of its diet.
• SONG Bold crick-kreek. Grating
whistled c-r-r-ee-er-r-r-ee.

• BEHAVIOR Both Western and

Clark's Grebes have a
structure in

grayish sides Similar Birds

Clark's Grebe
Almost identical in all
the neck that allows rapid spearlike
plumages but paler with
thrusting of the bill. Like all other white face extending
grebes, it practices the peculiar behavior above eye; orange (not
of carrying newly hatched young snuggled yellow-green) bill

• more similar head

in the feathers of its back swims, and
as it
pattern in winter, when
even as it dives if disturbed by an intruder. Winter Western may have
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Plumage whiter lore and Clark's
may have darker lore.
• NESTING Incubation 23-24 days by both
Horned Grebe
sexes. Young climb on parents' backs within minutes of birth
In winter, plumage also
and leave nest soon. Young fed by both sexes. First flight at black and white but
63-70 days. 1 brood per year. much smaller; shorter
neck; short, dark bill.
• POPULATION Fairly common to common. Casual in East
during fall migration and winter.
• Conservation From
Flight Pattern 1890s to 1906, thousands shot
for feathers to make hats,
coats,
gill
and capes. Oil spills
nets currently major causes
of mortality. Vulnerable also to
and
ils2>
"W
Direct flight with rapid wing beats. loss of habitat.

Nest Identification Plant material • floating or anchored to standing vegetation in shallow

water • by both sexes • 1-7 pale bluish white eggs that become
built

Shape ^ Location
nest-stained brown; subelliptical to long elliptical, some tending toward
oval, 2.3 inches long.

Plumage Habitat .„ Migration Weight

Sexe§ Some migrate 3 3 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

48 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len Sth Wingspan
PQDICIPEDIDAE Aechmophorus clarkii 26 inches 3() _4 0 inches

Clark's Grebe
Until recently this bird was considered a pale morph of the
Western Grebe, which it closely resembles in size, shape,

behavior, habitat selection, and range. It differs in bill color

and by having a white face abova and below the eyes,
topped by a black cap. The range is not well known.
• SONG Ascending kree-eek.
BEHAVIOR Gregarious; often colonial during the
•
breeding season; wintering mostly in large numbers
along the Pacific coast in salt water. Has structure
in neck that allows rapid, spearlike thrusting of
bill.Like other grebes, legs set far back
under the body make walking on land
slow and laborious but swimming

and diving easy. Courtship behavior much like Western Grebe,

with water "dances" including pairs running across the surface Similar Birds
with bodies vertical and necks thrust forward. Western Grebe
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Only other large, black-
and-white grebe with a
• NESTING Incubation 23-24 days by both sexes. Precocial long neck; yellow-green
1

young climb onto parents backs within minutes of birth. First bill instead of orange;
black of cap extends
flight at 63-77 days. Young fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
down through eye.
• POPULATION Common to fairly common in number;
accidental in the East.
• Conservation Plume
Flight Pattern hunters once devastated
populations. Oil spills and
accidental drowing in gill nets
are current major causes of
mortality; also vulnerable to loss

Direct flight with rapid wing beats ot habitat.

Nest Identification
Made of floating detritus • in shallow water • built by both sexes • 1-6 bluish

Shape ^ Location Hj^

w hite eggs that become nest-stained brow n. 2.3 inches long.

ia § e Habitat Migration Weight

Sexes similar 4 Some migrate 3 3 pound

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 49
Wingspan
Family
QlOMEDEIDAE Species
Thalassarche chlororhynchos
Length
28 _ 32 inches ?0 _ 81 inches

Yellow-nosed Albatross
This large rather slender and lightly built seabird
is one of two species of albatross that make :
theirhomes in the south Atlantic
but also make rare to casual
long slender w
appearances in the west Atlantic
off our shores. Generally found
well out to sea, this bird has
sometimes been seen from
shore and even inland on
rare occasions. It can
be identified bv
light gray
its light gray
head
head, black bill

(the yellow
patch of color
on the upper
mandible can slender hooked
black bill with yellow
only be seen on
ridge and red tip
adults at close range),
and underwings, which are white underneath
with dark tips and narrow dark margins on front
and back. Juveniles have all-black bills, and the dark
markings on their underwings are wider.
• SONG Generally silent at sea. Breeding call is a high-
pitched sound and continual clattering and braying.
• BEHAVIOR Often in small flocks where birds are more abundant.
Less drawn to ships than the Black-browed Albatross. Feeds primarily at
night on the ocean's surface on squid, cuttlefish, and other
marine animals. Land and water takeoffs require it to run across
Similar Birds
the surface into the wind while flapping its wings; may leap into
air from cliffs. After breeding season adults and juveniles
Black-browed
Albatross
disperse widely in southern Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Larger; bulkier; yellow
• BREEDING Solitary to colonial. beak; longer dark eye
line; broader dark
• NESTING Incubation 78 days. Semialtricial young remain in anterior margin to
nest 130 days. 1 brood per year. underwing.

• POPULATION A rare wanderer to the Gulf and Atlantic

Coasts from Florida to the Maritimes.
• Conservation Many
Flight Pattern albatrosses were killed for
feathers and wings in late 19th

^ and early 20th centuries; most

*> of this took place on remote

Soars effortlessh wht n winds permit; may

islands when birds gathered for
soarand glide for hoi irs using little energy nesting. Many populations still

and few adjustments to wing position. have not recovered in number.

Nest Identification
Made primarily of mud • conical • 1 white egg; oblong, 3.7 x 2.5 inches.
Shape
ILL-
Plumage Weight
Sexes simUar Habitat Migration
\ onm j sratorv 5 4 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

50 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Fam,!>
DIOMKDEIDAE s P ecies
Thalassarche melanophris Length
3 ,_ 37 inches
I Wingspan ^95 inches

Black-browed Albatross white head

and neck +
This albatross is a common
on the open sea in the
bird
southern oceans, but only rarely crosses the Equator
into the North Atlantic. The dark blackish back
contrasting against the white heap!, neck,
rump, and underparts recalls a very
large Great Black-backed Gu
but the bird's black tail dark blackish •
and stiff wing beats
and glides on long
narrow pointed large hooked
wings yellow bill xcith
reddish tip

black tail

quickly
identify this
albatross.
Juveniles have a
darker bill and

underwings, and a
narrow grayish collar.
• SONG Loud braying
from nest.
• Behavior Often follows
ships. Settles on water to feed.
making shallow dives from surface for food.
Similar Birds
Feeds on squid, cuttlefish, small fish, crustaceans, and
garbage from ships. Like other albatrosses, it can spend Yellow-nosed
Albatross
extended periods at sea. where it drinks saltwater by removing
Black bill with yellow
excessive salts with salt glands in the tube nose. After breeding
^ ridge on upper
season adults and juveniles disperse widely in southern oceans mandible: more
extensive white on
primarily south of theTropic of Capricorn.
underwing with
• Breeding Colonial. narrow dark borders:
• NESTING Incubation 64-79 days by both sexes. light gray head.

Semialtricial young stay in nest 4-5 months. First flight as early

as 116 days. 1 brood per year.

Flight Pattern
• Population Rare to
casual in North American
western Atlantic from North
Carolina to Newfoundland.
One of most abundant
Soars effortlessly for long periods of time
albatrosses in cold seas of the
on stiff wings when there are winds: may
circle, arc. and glide for long distances. southern Atlantic.

Nest Identification
Mud and grass • grassy tufts on slopes or cliffs overlooking ocean • conical
• 1 white egg with smattering of red spots at the base. 2.6 x 4 inches.

Plumage
Sexe§ Mmibr Habitat
^m Migration
Nonmigratory We, S ht
Undetermined

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 51

Family Species Length Wingspan 47 nch(

PrqCELLARIIDAE pulmaniS glacialis 19 i nc hes j

Northern Fulmar
When threatened by an enemy or handled by a person,
the Northern Fulmar discharges oil from
a foul-smelling
its stomach by This audacious bird follows
spitting.
fishing boats, often closely, to take advantage of refuse.
The light morph is superficially gull-like in
appearance, but its stiff-winged flight is

like a shearwater's. It mostly gray

is pale wing patch
at base of gray
above with a white chest and belly; the
primaries
dark color morph is gray overall.
Fulmars are rarely seen from shore
rounded
away from the breeding colonies, proportionally
except during storms. large white head
• SONG When feeding, makes
chucking and grunting noises.
large raised
During breeding season makes nasal tubes
variety of guttural calls.
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious.
hort heavy
Highly pelagic; may not come
mellow bill
ashore until 3-4 years old. with hooked
Grabs food with beak from just tip

below surface and eats on the

water. Sometimes makes shallow
dives, using wings and feet for
propulsion. Eats variety of fish,
crustaceans, squid, marine worms, and
carrion. Feeds alone, in pairs, or in
flocks. Drinks seawater by sucking it up
dove-fashion. In flight carries wings
Similar Birds
stiffly and wheels up in arcs over waves
Light morph generally similar to
by taking advantage of winds.
gulls, which have a more slender
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. neck; thinner bill without nasal
• NESTING Incubation 52-53 days tubes; deep, steady flapping wing
beats (not stiff-winged)
by both sexes. Semialtricial young fed • also generally similar to other
by both sexes. First flight at shearwaters, which have more
46-51 days. 1 brood per year. pointed wings; darker, thinner bill;

most do not follow ships.

• Population Common;
abundant in some places. In winter found at sea off both coasts.
• Conservation
Flight Pattern Population growth possibly
supported by fishery wastes in
x^x , x^x North Sea. Humans, introduced
predators, and avian predators
take a toll, but humans are
Flap and glide flight on bowed wings with
bursts of stiffwing beats alternating with major predator for meat, eggs,
periods of effortless banking and gliding. and feathers.

Nest Identification
Slight depression on ground • sometimes layered with pebbles • may be built by
both sexes • 1 white or off-white egg, often nest-stained and occasionally
Shape j-m Location marked with reddish brown; subelliptical, 2.9 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes simjlar Habitat
^^ Migration
Migratory Weight
r> ounces
21.5

DATE TIME LOCATION

52 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
14 _ 16 inch(
Family Species Length Wingspan 38_4
p ROCEL ARIIDAK j>terodrotna arminioniana 0 jnches

Herald Petrel
This tropical seabird has three different color morphs: light
intermediate, and dark. These seabirds prefer the waters
below the Equator: but in August of 1933. a Herald Petrel
was blow n by a hurricane to upstate New York. First
recorded off North Carolina in the late 1970s, this bird
has been seen May through early September since
the early 1990s. Intermediate plumaged forms long icings
exist between the light and dark
slender body

dark forehead and rap

dun Mat k bill

morphs that have

white, gray, or dark
gray variegated Dark morph
chests and bellies. In
flight, note the silver-gray
to w hite base on the underwing
flight feathers of the dark morph. and
the dark M across the upper w ings of the light morph.
• SONG Several squeaky whistles, moaning notes. Also cooing
Light
and chatter resembling that of a tern.
MORPH
• BKHAYIOR Wide ranging. Stays on open sea and offshore
waters near nesting grounds. Eats mostly squid and crustaceans. Similar Birds
Skims water, grabs pres w ith bill, and ingests w hile in flight. SHEARWATER

M
s \

• Breeding Colonial. Light undervvings;

shorter tail; broader,
• NESTING Breeding biolog\ poorh know n. Incubation more stout bod\ ;
high
estimated at 49-54 days by both sexes. Semialtricial voting fed forehead; very different
flight pattern.
by both parents for 90-100 days then abandoned. Grown chick
makes way to sea in next few days. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Rare to

Flight Pattern uncommon. Rare but regular in

late spring to late summer off
x^x , x^x coast of North Carolina.
• CONSERVATION
Several fhittery wing beats followed by a
Vulnerable to human intrusion
glide, and high erratic soaring arcs that
become higher and more dashing as wind and predators introduced on
speeds increase. nesting grounds.

Nest I dent ifica Hon

Bare soil in burro >n warm island • burrow excavated or cleaned out by both

Shape H C
si
Location
sexes • 1 w hire e oval, 2.4 inches Ions'

Plumage Sexes Migration Wei § ht

5.7oui
similar J5» Migratory

DATE ME LOCATION
 BIRDS OF NORT1 AMERICA 1 • 53

Family s P ecies Pterodroma Len £ th 15 Wingspan 36 jnchcs

p RO CELLARIIDAE I ccdww inches

Bermuda Petrel
ror three hundred years this bird was
believed to be extinct, but the
Bermuda Petrel, also called the
Cahow, was rediscovered in 1935 large black-brown cap
Today there are thought to be extendi to eye level

about two hundred birds, and grayish brown

white forehead
its population is slowly upperparts, .shading
and face to black on rump
increasing under rigorous
protection on islets around
Bermuda. It is occasionally
short heavy 1
spotted in the warm waters
black bill'
of the Gulf Stream off the
coasts of North and South
Carolina after breeding
season. In flight it shows
white underparts and
white underwings with
blackish margins and tips.
Juveniles resemble adults.
• SONG Call is eerie ca-
how, heard in the fall near
the breeding colony.
• Behavior Little is

known about the behavior

and biology of this bird
away from nesting
Black-cappkd
colonies. Sightings off the
Petrel
Carolinas have been of Wide white rump
solitary birds. Activities at collar; heavier bill;

proportionally shorter
nesting colonies are primarily
wings; paler
nocturnal. Catches food inbill. Eats mostly fish and squid taken underwings; brownish
from water surface. Does not follow boats. black extends to eye
and nape; brownish
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. black upperwing
• NESTING Incubation 51-54 days by both sexes. Semi- • atypical individuals

altricial young remain in nest 90-100 days, tended by both often lack white collar
and/or rump.
sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Rare. Limited range is slowly increasing by use
of artificial burrows that are
Flight Pattern predator free and exclude
tropicbirds as nest competitors.
• Conservation
Endangered and protected by
law. Efforts are ensuring
Fluttery wing beats alternate with glides.
High erratic soaring arcs become higher adequate nesting sites that are
and more dashing as wind speeds increase. free of predators.

Nest Identification
No nest material • in ridges of cliffs or in rock crevices, sometimes in burrow,
but most in artificial tailored nest chamber • 1 white egg; oval, 2.4 inches long.
Shape
j
Plumage
Sexes simj , ar
Habitat^ ^ Migration
Migratory Weight
gy ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

54 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
p RO CELLARIIDAE Species
Pterodroma hasitata Len eth
16 inches Wingspan
35 ^0 inches
Black-gapped Petrel
This poorly known "gadfly" petrel, which is found well offshore
in the Gulf Stream, holds broad wings bent at the wrist in
its

flight. Its dark tail is long and wedge-shaped, contrasting with the
rump, uppertail coverts, and tail base, all of which are white in
most birds, although a few atypical individuals have a dark rump.
Above its white forehead and dark hooked bill, the black cap
is separated from the brownish gray upperparts by a broad

white colla i

black cap

white
forehead

long wedge-
shaped dark tail

pinkish legs

vhite underparts

white collar, although this field mark is lacking in some birds. It Similar Birds
is possible to mistake vers dark-plumaged individuals for the
Bermi da Petrel
very rare Bermuda Petrel well off the Atlantic Coast. The Black- Much rarer; lacks w hite
capped Petrel is fairly common off the western edge of the Gulf color; shorter bill;
narrower white rump
Stream off North Carolina, and as many as a hundred birds have
patch.
been recorded on some days.
GREATER
• SONG Noisy at night on breeding grounds. Generally Shearwater
remains silent at sea. Larger; hooked black
black cap extends
• BEHAVIOR Noted for its high, erratic, roller coaster-like
bill;

below eye; white collar,

arcing flight at sea, especially in steady winds. Springs lightly underparts, and V-
from the water into flight. shaped band on
uppertail coverts; dusky
• BREEDING Little is known about breeding habits. Nests on
smuge on belly; black
mountains and cliffs on a few islands in the Caribbean. tail; flight pattern

• NESTING Incubation 51-54 days by both sexes. differs.

Semialtricial young remain in nest 90-100 days, and are fed by

both sexes.
Flight Pattern
• POPULATION Declining
due to disturbance by humans
and predation by mongooses
and rats.
• CONSERVATION Little
Often swoops upward in great arcs
protection has been established
above horizon.
over much of its breeding range.

Nest Identification
No lining in either excav ated or preformed burrow on sea cliffs • 1 white egg.
Shape
£^ g Location

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat Migration
Migratory Weight
9-8 ounces

DATE TIME. LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 55

Family Species Length Wingspan 37 jnchcs

PRQCELLARIIDAE pterodroma feae 14inch(

Fea's Petrel
Fea's Petrel and Zinos Petrel (P. madeira, a bird that
breeds only on the island of Madeira) are so similar
that it is extremely difficult to distinguish one
from the other. Both are either threatened
or endangered because of their small dark mask
around eye.
populations, so taking a specimen has not
been appropriate. Without a specimen
that would allow critical measurements
to be taken in hand, it was not possible
to certify which species had been seen
duck black
off the mid-Atlantic Coast. However, bill
recent photographs and field notes
tend to indicate the petrel being
observed is the Fea's. The combination
of white underparts, a dark facial mask,
a partial breast band, mostly dark
underwings, grayish brown upperparts
with a dark M
pattern, and wings bent
back at the wrist separate this gadfly
petrel from others that appear off the
East Coast.
• SONG Loud shrieking or softer
twittering, heard only at night
around nesting islands.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary off North
and mid-Atlantic Coasts. Spends Similar Birds
most of its time at sea. May rest on
Herald Petrel
water. Often feeds in large flocks Pale morph • ashy
around nesting islands and in waters of Southern Hemisphere. brown head and
Eats various small fish and squid. Occasionally follows ships. upperparts; ashy brown
mantle with blackish
Flight alternates glides with rapid wing beats in a zigzag
brown primaries; dark
progression, sailing in high arcs in strong winds. M marking across
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. upperwing; white
underparts with dusky
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Incubation breast band; white-
48-54 days by both sexes. Young altricial; single hatchling fed tipped blackish
undertail coverts.
by regurgitation by both sexes for 90-100 days, then abandoned
1 brood per year.

• POPULATION Rare in

Flight Pattern North America off coasts of

North Carolina, Virginia, Nova
Scotia; May through September.
• Conservation Highly
threatened species. Vulnerable
Fluttery wing beats alternate with glides.
High erratic soaring arcs become higher to predation by rodents and cats
and more dashing as wind speeds increase. on breeding islands.

Nest Identification
Small amount of plant material • long horizontal burrow or space between rocks

shape
sap • built by both sexes •white egg, flecked with reddish or violet at large end;
1

short subelliptical to short oval, 2.2 x 1.65 inches.

Location
^
Plumage Habitat Migration Weight
Sexes similaf Mi gratory Undetermined

DATE TIME LOCATION

56 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
PRQCELLARIIDAE Calonectris diomedea 18 _ 21 inche$ 44 jnches

Cory's Shearwater
The found along the Atlantic Coast skims the
largest shearwater
surface of the ocean with slow wing beats and a buoyant flight
similar to that of the albatross. When this bird is seen flying
straight ahead, its wings show a distinctive downward bow from
wrist towing tip. The large pale bill as well as the way the
brown upperparts blend gradually with the white
underparts without producing a capped
appearance is distinctive. Cory's is the brownish gray
only Atlantic shearwater that upperparts
narrow pale tips
occasionally soars. of uppertail
coverts contrast
• with dark tail

large pinkish
yellow bill
with dusky tip

• SONG Generally
silentexcept on
breeding grounds.
• Behavior
Gregarious, often
forming flocks that
number in the
hundreds or
thousands.
Frequently follows
predatory fish to
feed on the bait fish Greater
Shearwater
they drive to the
Dark bill; distinct dark
water's surface. cap with white collar
Feeds at night on across nape; clear white

crustaceans and large rump band; smudge of

dusky color on belly;
squid it takes from clear contrastbetween
the surface. Has a keen sense of smel dark upperparts and
white underparts.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial.
• NESTING Incubation 52-55 days by both sexes. Semialtricial
young stay in nest about
90 days, although parents
Flight Pattern
abandon young while still in

X^X , x^x
nest. Young are fed by both I
( /
>o
sexes at night.
• Population Numerous,
Soars if wind is up, looping and circling on
fixed wings. Or, deep wing beats with
but showing some decline.
wings bowed downward in long low glide.

Nest Identification
Both sexes work together to either dig a new burrow or clean out a previously
used burrow • sometimes under a rock • no material added • 1 white egg; blunt
Shape ^ Location
^ oval or subelliptical, 2.X inches long.

Plumage Sexes simi Habitat , Migration

Migrator> Wei S nt 1.2 pound*
ar ,

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 57

Family Species Length Wingspan

PrqcELLARIIDAE puffinus graVis 18_2o nches
i 39,5.48 inches

Greater Shearwater
This large powerful shearwater is

common off the Atlantic-

fairly
Coast of the US in spring migration
where remains well out to sea on its
it

way to south Atlantic breeding grounds

its

Party fishing boats and sports fishermen

know this strong heavy-bodied bird well,
for it often comes to their boats and may
try to take the bait off their hooks as the
lines are lowered to the bottom or
retrieved close to the surface. The
bird sometimes takes
dark cap extending
fish that are tossed white U-shaped
be/ov eye
band on upper
back overboard. tail coverts
Although it appears
gull-like at a distance,
the bird is easily
distinguished by its

stiff straight wings. A

dark brownish black cap
*
extends beneath the eyes
and is often separated from the
brownish gray back by a white nape collar.
A dusky smudge on its belly and pinkish
legs and feet are visible from below when
the bird is in flight. black-capped
Petrel
• SONG Noisy with catlike squalls when Smaller; different flight
aggressively feeding around fishing trawlers. pattern; different under
• BEHAVIOR Attracted to boats and tame wing pattern; white
forehead; larger white
on water near them. Attends fishing boats rump patch.
where it competes for food in a hostile
Cory's Shearwai
manner. Dives to 20-30 feet in
Pale bill; lacks
pursuit of fish. distinctive cap, white
nape collar, white U-
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. shaped rump patch, and
• NESTING Incubation by both sexes. First flight at 84 days. smudge on belly.
Semialtricial young fed by both sexes at night.

• POPULATION Total well over 5 million and seems to be

increasing. From the Gulf of
Flight Pattern Maine northward it is common
in the summer.

• Conservation Many
are killedby severe storms in
North Atlantic; carcasses
In strong winds soars in high arcs, c ften
banking to change direction. Or, de ep sometimes found on beaches.
wing beats with a long glide near w ater.

Nest Identification
Lined with grass • sharply angled • about 3 feet long • sometimes in crevice

Shape g Location
among rocks • 1 white egg.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

9 pounds
Sexes similar \ fj gratory j

DATE TIME LOCATION

58 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family s P ecies Length Wingspan 37,43
PrqcELLARIIDAE Puffin us griseus 18 _ 20 inches I

inches

Sooty Shearwater
A common summer silvery gray
underling
long slender

visitor offboth the

Atlantic and Pacific
Coasts, this stocky short-
necked sooty brown bird
is probably the best-
known shearwater in
North American waters.
It normally feeds well
offshore, but during
strong onshore winds
hundreds of birds may
be seen by observers
from the shoreline.
Look for the long
slender dark wings
with silvery gray
underwing coverts.
Some may have
birds
a white underwing
lining. Legs and feet
are blackish.
• SONG TheSooty
Shearwater except for
is silent
Similar Birds
noisy squeals when squabbling dark sooty brown
for food. Also makes inhaled and plumage, darkest on Short-tailed
tail and primaries Shearwater
exhaled koo-wah-koo-wah-koo-wah
Shorter bill; less
when on breeding grounds. contrasting grayer
• BEHAVIOR This
follow ships like
bird often gathers in large flocks.
some other seabirds, but is
Does not
attracted to fishing
4> underwing linings often
restricted to a panel
the median secondary
on

on long narrow slightly swept-

trawlers. Flies with long glides coverts and extending
back wings. Sometimes makes short dives for fish, squid, and slightly onto the inner
median primary coverts;
crustaceans. May plunge to dive on open wings from several
underwings may be
feet above water. dark overall, lacking
• BREEDING Colonial. The
Sooty Shearwater nests on various pale panels • only in
the West.
isolated islands in the southern oceans.
• NESTING Incubation 52-56 days by both sexes. Semialtricial
young remain in nest for about
97 days. Adults usually leave at
Flight Pattern
night. Young fed bv both sexes
at night.

Strong direct flapping alternating with

• Population The Sooty
Shearwater is an abundant bird,
with a total population of more
Hp
long glides. than 10 million.

Nest Identification
Made of leaves and grass • up to 10 feet long • built by both sexes • 1 white

Shape
^ gj Location
egg; elliptical, 1.9 x 3 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simUar Habitat
^ Migration
M gratory
j
Weight
, 8 pound

DATE TIME. LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 59

Species Length Wingspan 33.35 inchcs

Family
PrqCELLARIIDAE pufftnus p uffinui , j 2 _ 15 j nch(

Manx Shearwater
From a distance in flight, this medium-sized shearwater
appears simply black above and white below. The white
undertail coverts extend almost to the tip of the short black cap
tail,and the underwing linings are white. Some rare extends
belo*
East Atlantic races are not as white
blackish
below. In all plumages note how
upperparts
the dark cap extends onto the
face and auriculars below

white of chin
and throat extends
to sideof head
behind ear coverts

hite underparts

the eye, bordered

below and behind by a whitish
^ndles^^
crescent that extends from chin and
head behind the auriculars, or ear
throat to the side of the
Similar Birds
coverts. Manx
Shearwaters seem to be increasing in numbers,
with more birds being recorded on pelagic birding trips off the Audubon's
Shearwater
North Carolina coast.
Similar but smaller;
•

•
SONG Generally silent at sea.
BEHAVIOR Gregarious. This shearwater is excellent on the
wing with stiff rapid wing strokes followed by shearing glides
low over the water. Banks from side to side, showing black
4 dark undertail coverts;
different flight pattern
with more rapid,
fluttering wing beats.

Black-vented
upperparts first, then the snow-white underparts. Good Shearwater
swimmer; sometimes goes underwater for fish and squid. Adults In the West only • dark
mottling on sides of
may forage more than 600 miles from nesting burrow, returning
face, neck, and breast;
to it at night. Does not follow ships, but is attracted to smaller duskv to dark undertail
fishing boats and trawlers.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial.
• Nesting incubation
47-63 days by both sexes.
Flight Pattern
Semialtricial young fed by both
sexes. Parents abandon young at
60 days. Young leave nest
8-9 days later. 1 brood per year.
Long glides interrupted by several rapid • Population Apparently
wing beats.
increasing off the East Coast.

Nest Identification
Lined with grass and leaves • on ground • on isolated islands • built by both
sexes • 1 white egg; broad or blunt ovate or subelliptical, 2.35 x 1.6 inches.
Shape
S. 3
Plumage Habitat Migration Weight
0 pound
Sexes similar Mj gratory j

DATE TIME LOCATION

60 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
PrqCELLARHDAE Species
p lt fflllus ifa
Length
n inches Wingspan
27 jnches

Audubon's Shearwater
The smallest shearwater regularly seen off the Atlantic beats
its wings

more This stocky bird

rapidly than any other Atlantic shearwater.
with broad wings has dark brown upperparts, matching its tail,
which is long for a shearwater. Pinkish legs and feet, dark
undertail coverts, and dark tail are visible from below.
• SONG Generally this shearwater is silent. However, it has
dark upperparts
been heard to emit a variety of sounds including squeals,
grunts, and cooing produced on its breeding grounds and
during confrontations with other birds.

dark /
hooked bill

white underparts

• BEHAVIOR Away from its breeding areas, Audubon's Similar Birds

Shearwater is often seen in flocks that may number up to Little Shearwater

hundreds of birds. As a rule, this shearwater does not usually More white in face and

follow ships. It tends to spend most of its time on the water,

where it may dive for its primary diet of marine organisms and
animals, especially fish and squid.
1 under wings; white
tinder tail coverts;
grayish legs and feet;
different flutter-and-
glide flight.
• BREEDING This shearwater nests in colonies on small
isolated islands, usually in rock crevices or under clumps of
Manx Shearwater
Larger; different flight
dense vegetation. pattern with more
• NESTING Incubation 51 days by both sexes. Semialtricial soaring and less
flapping.
young stay in nest 71-73 days. Fed by both sexes at night. 1
brood per year.
• POPULATION Declining.
Flight Pattern • Conservation
Protected in only part of its

breeding range. Caribbean

populations disturbed by
humans; adults and young taken
Flap and glide flight ith rapid from nest burrows for food.
wing beats.

Nest Identification
No lining • on ground or in rock crevice • built by both sexes • 1 white egg,

Shape
S3P Z inches long.

Plumage Sexes simi ar i

Habitat Migration
Migratory We 'S ht 5.9 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 61
Family
ProCELLARIIDAE Species
pujfmm assimiUs Length
1() _ n inche5 Wingspan
23 _ 25 nchcs ;

Little Shearwater
The smallest of the shearwaters, this bird has been
spotted off the Atlantic coast of North America
only a few times. Unlike many seabirds, it

often follows ships. Its sma slaty brown to slaty brown to

black-and-white or blue-black nape blue-black back
size,
and cap
dark slaty-brown and
white appearance
(similar to that of
the larger Manx
Shearwater), white
and stiff-
face,
winged fluttering
flight are all
distinctive. Under
extensively white
conditions of light
underwing with
winds, it flies with narrow black
several quick shallow margins and tip
whirring wing beats,
laty brown to blue-
followed by short low black on leading edge
glides.However, in higher of wing, Jading to

winds it arcs and soars, lighter gray on

trailing edge
wheeling, gliding, and
sideslipping over waves and
executing quick fluttering Similar Birds
wing beats in the troughs. Audubon's
• SONG Often silent at sea. Shearwater
Larger and chunkier;
Throaty, wheezy sounds; a rapid longer bill; dark
repetitive kakakakakakaka -itrrr. undertail coverrs; wider

• BEHAVIOR Solitary; often in small flocks near breeding

dark margins on
underwings; less white
grounds. Swims and dives for food. Also picks food off surface of on sides of neck and
water, pattering with feet across water and with wings held face; unmarked
above back like a large storm-petrel. Eats fish and squid. charcoal-gray wings.

Usually feeds alone; sometimes in small flocks. Spends a lot of Manx Shearwater
time on the water. Larger, darker face;
broader dark edge to
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. underwings; different
• NESTING Incubation 53 days by both sexes. Semialtricial flight progression.

young stay in nest 72 days; fed at night by both sexes. 1 brood

per year.

Flight Pattern • Population Accidental

off the Atlantic Coast.
• Conservation
Vulnerable to disturbance by

Flies low, fast, and straight with rapid

humans; also predation at
flapping action and banking glides. In nesting colonies by introduced
strong winds, arcing banks and glides. predators.

Nest Identification
Burrow without lining • on ground under rock crevice or in bank dug mostly
by female • white egg; elliptical, 1.9 x 1.3 inches.
Shape 1

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei § ht 8.0 ounces

Sexes simi , ar Mi gratorv

DATE TIME LOCATION

62 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len §tn 6-7.5 Wingspan
HYDROBATIDAE Oceania oceanicus inches j 5 — j 7 inches

Wilson's Storm-Petrel
This is the storm-petrel that is most commonly seen

off the Atlantic Coast, and it may be one of the

most abundant birds in the world. It is the
smallest storm-petrel seen off the Atlantic
Coast. Few pelagic birds are easily
identified from a rocking boat at sea,
but this species can be identified by dark sooty
,
r , • , Drown piu maze
6 •
\
,

its short squared tail and feet dark bill

extending beyond the tip of the

green webbing
squared to slightly <
broad white U-shaped bet-ween toes
rounded tail band on rump extends
to undertail coverts
dark legs

tail, rather short

Similar Birds
rounded wings, and its large U-shaped rump
patch. These birds often come very close to boats, crisscrossing Leach's
Storm-Petrel
the wake of the boat and providing excellent views and easier Larger; longer forked
confirmation of their identity. tail without feet
• SONG Usually silent at sea, but makes noisy chattering protruding beyond
mothlike
tip;

flight pattern.
sounds around nesting colonies.
Band-rumped
• BEHAVIOR Generally flies close to water surface with
Storm-Petrel
purposeful shallow wing beats similar to a swallow or small tern. Larger; longer tail;

Frequently patters feet on water while holding wings above the flight pattern is with
shallow wing beats
body as it feeds on small marine organisms, often "dancing" on
followed by stiff-winged
the surface and almost hovering in one place as the winds lift it glides similar to those of
kitelike a few inches off the surface of the water. Frequently a shearwater.

follows ships and chum lines (slicks of fish oils); attends fishing
boats and whales as it forages.

Flight Pattern
• Breeding Colonial.
• NESTING Incubation 40-50
days by both sexes. Semialtricia
young fed by both sexes. Young
leave nest at 46-97 days.
Direct flight with steady shallow • POPULATION Large and
wing beats.
apparently stable.

Nest Identification
No built nest • hides egg in hole or crevice • 1 white egg, usually with reddish
brown spots on larger end.
Shape
a
Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
^^ |
Migration
M igratory |
Weight
u QU
DATE TIME LOCATION
 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 63
Species Length Wingspan 16 jnches
7i5 _g inches
Family
HYDROBATIDAE Pelagodroma marina

White-faced Storm-Petrel
The White-faced Storm Petrel is the only Atlantic storm-petrel that
displays the combination of dark upperparts and light underpants.
This bird may resemble a phalarope when sitting on the water. One
of the species considered truly pelagic, it forages for its food in the
deeper ocean waters well offshore. In flight note its white
underparts and its black legs and feet with toes protruding beyond
the square short blackish gray tail. From above, a grayish rump
patch is evident. The webbing between its toes is yellow.

dark gray
upperparts
blackish postocu/ar
stripe
square short black
gray tail

•bite forehead
and face
yellow webbing
between toes
black bill

black legs
and feet

• SONG This petrel is

generally silent at sea. Typically

the only sounds it makes are various
different chirps and chatters around the
area of its breeding grounds.
• BEHAVIOR This bird does not follow ships.
with jerky wing strokes, making a banking and
It flies

weaving pattern over the water. When feeding it often

strikes the surface in short bounding splashes, pushing off the
water with its long legs into another short glide before repeating
the performance.
• BREEDING Colonial. Breeds on small oceanic islands.

Flight Pattern
• Nesting incubation
55-56 days by both sexes.
Young semialtricial; first flight at
52-67 days.
• Population This bird s
Rapid shallow wing beats followed by
stiff-winged glides; also performs erratic
status has not been determined.
side-to-side flight.

Nest Identification
On oceanic islands • 1 white egg with wreath of dark dots around larger end.
Shape
3L S
Plumage Habitat Migration We| g nt 1.7 ounces
Sexe§ simUar Migratory

DATE TIME. LOCATION

64 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
HYDROBATIDAE s P ecies Hydrobates pelagicus Len Stn 5.5-6 Wingspan
inches \4^\5,S inches

European Storm-Petrel
Found primarily in the northern and eastern Atlantic
and rarely reported in the waters off Nova
Scotia, this gregarious bird is the smallest
and most common of the storm-
brownish white rump and
petrels in the waters off dark bro wnish
black wings uppertad coverts black overall
western Europe and
throughout the
Mediterranean. It
has a weak batlike
flight, fluttering black bill
low over the short blackish
surface of the tail with
rounded
sea, and it often
corners
follows ships.
Wintering at sea,
strong offshore
winds sometimes
bring it close inshore off
the British Isles. It appears
small and dark in flight with a sooty black
underparts
U-shaped white rump patch and
narrow buff-gray bar on the
upperwing. The broad white stripe on the underwing is Similar Birds
diagnostic. It has black legs and feet. Juveniles resemble adults
Wilson's
but have a more pronounced pale upperwing bar. Storm-Petrel
• SONG In nesting colony, an ongoing churring song Larger; broader white
band across rump; long
interspersed with chikka sounds, as if the bird were hiccoughing. legs; feet trail beyond
Silent at sea. tip of tail; yellow-
webbed
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in small groups or flocks. Feeds far
more
blackish feet;
direct and
offshore for small fishes and zooplankton containing mollusks swallowlike flight.

and crustaceans. When feeding holds wings midway above back

Leach's
and patters on the surface with its feet. Follows ships for oils, Storm-Petrel
animal fats, and scraps. Larger in size; longer,
more pointed wings;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Mates for life. less white on rump;
• NESTING Incubation 38-50 days by both sexes. Semialtricial forked tail; erratic

young remain in nest 56-73 days, fed by both sexes through mothlike flight.

regurgitation. 1 brood per year.

• POPULATION Rare to
Flight Pattern casual vagrant off the North
Atlantic Coast of the Maritimes.
• Conservation Some
colonies have declined due to
the introduction of cats and
Weak, fluttering, rapid, almost
continuous, batlike wing beats other predators on nesting areas
interspersed with short glides. of offshore islands.

Nest Identification No nest materials • preformed or excavated burrows, rabbit burrows, crevices in
stone walls or between boulders, and cliffs • 2-3 feet deep • built by both sexes
• 1 white egg, often speckled with reddish brown, concentrated at larger end;
Shape jpf
g Location
elliptical to subelliptical, 1.10 inches long.

Plumage
Sexeg simi , ar
Habitat
^ >^ Migration
Migratory Wei ^ nt 0.9 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 65

Family Species Len ^th 8-9 inches Wingspan 18 _ 19

HYDROBATIDAE Oceanodroma leucorhoa inchcs

Leach's Storm-Petrel
This slender long-winged storm-petrel
can be seen off both coasts of North
America. Some of the birds found off
the Pacific Coast have dark rumps, long narrow
pointed wings
rather than the more common and
conspicuous white rump broken
in the middle by a gray-brown
stripe. Besides the rump, this
bird s plumage is entirely lighh r grayish inner
dark brown. The tail is long wing bar on upperwing
and forked, but the fork is

V
not always easily seen. It

has short legs and feet

that do not reach or
protrude beyond the tip
of its tail. Pacific
• SONG Short sharp
Similar Birds
ticking notes ending in
a slurred trill. Wilson's
Storm-Petrel
• Behavior Strictly
Shorter, rounded w ings;
nocturnal on breeding feet extend beyond
grounds. Does not follow squared, not forked,

ships. Feeds on surface tail; has swallow like

flight pattern.
of water on small squid,
crustaceans, and fish. Asm STORM-PETREL
and Black
Often feeds with wings Storm-Petrel
held above horizontal Both lack the erratic

while it patters on water flight pattern • both

range off Pacific Coast.
surface. Its characteristic
flight is slow, erratic, and ^nd-rumped
Storm-Petrel
mothlike, or similar to that of
Larger; shorter wider
a nighthawk. wings; conspicuous
• BREEDING Monogamous large white rump patch;
stiff-winged glides and
and colonial.
zigzag flight like a small
• NESTING Incubation 38^46 days by both sexes. Semialtriciai shearwater • ranges off
Atlantic Coast.
young remain in nest 63-70 days. Fed at night through
regurgitation by both sexes. First flight at 63-70 days. 1 brood

Flight Pattern • Population Slight

decline, although total
population is in the millions. ffn
L\ /

• Conservation Some
m TV-t

i
•

declines are showing on islands

Bounding and erratic; mothlike with where humans have introduced
frequent changes of direction and speed.
predator species.

Nest Identification Lined with leaves and grass • under grass, rocks, or tree roots, or on bank • may
be built by both sexes, although some literature states only the male digs burrow
Shape g Location
^ • 1 creamy w hite egg, often nest-stained and occasionally marked w ith reddish
purple; subelliptical to oval, 1.3 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexes simi , ar Migratory j 2

DATE TIME LOCATION

66 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
HYDROBATIDAE Qceanodroma castro 7>5 _ 8>5 jnches 16<5_ 18 ; nches

Band-rumped Storm-Petrel
This tropical bird spends its time alone or in small
groups at sea. It is seen in summer off the Atlantic
Coast of North America. It seldom walks on the
water. Often in the company of other storm-
0
petrels, it can be separated from them by
its flight pattern, which resembles

that of a tiny shearwater. In

flight the white rump patch is
clear, and the black legs and
feet do not project beyond
faint pale gray-brown
the blackish tail, which
upperwing bar
in fresh adults has a
slight notch.

sooty blackish
brown overall

Similar Birds
bold white band
on rump and Wilson's
uppertail coverts. storm-petrel
Smaller in size; larger

t
;
-shaped white rump
patch; longer black bill;
Juveniles resemble
yellow-webbed black
adults but paler feet project beyond
short stubby
greater coverts create black bill squared tail; prominent
a more distinct bar diagonal secondary w ing
bar; more erratic and
on the upperwing.
fluttery flight.
• SONG High-pitched squeak around nest. Silent at sea. Leach's
• BEHAVIOR Solitary, in pairs or small groups away from nests storm-petrel
in nonbreeding season. Feeds but does not follow ships.
at sea Smaller; more distinct
diagonal upperw ing bar;
Eats crustaceans, small fishes, and other marine animals.
longer more pointed
Nocturnal around nesting burrow. wings; more deeply
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Mates for life. forked tail; ragged-
edged white rump
• NESTING Incubation 40-48 days by both sexes. Semialtricial patch with central
young remain in nest 53-95 days, fed by both sexes through dividing line; bounding
nighthawklike flight.
regurgitation. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Rare off North Atlantic; casual to uncommon in
Gulf of Mexico; fairly common
Flight Pattern on mid-Atlantic Coast off North
Carolina and Virginia. Storm-
driven birds accidental inland.
A \* \ A \
• Conservation
Vulnerable to introduced
Buoyant zigzag with several rapid wing
strokes followed by glide on horizontal or predators in nesting areas and to
slightly dow nward-bowed wings. pollution from oil spills.

Nest Identification
No nest materials • burrows or crevices of rocky areas, 2-3 feet deep • dug by
both sexes or cleaned out from previous year • 1 white egg; elliptical to
Shape
gg^ g Location
^ subelliptical, 1.3 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat Migration
Migr We 'g nt 1.5 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AM K RICA • 67
Family Species Length _ 3 ? inches Wingspan 35 _38 ; nches
pHAETHONTIDAE I
p/ujet/loll lep turus I ?8

White-tailed Tropigbird
This bird nests in Bermuda, the Bahamas, and throughout the
Caribbean. It is the smallest of the tropicbirds, and the one
most likely to be spotted off North America's Atlantic
coast. It also is the only tropicbird with a long
black bar on the upperwing coverts. The
white tail streamers can be up to
sixteen inches long. Legs and
feet are yellowish; toes have
black webbing.
• SONG In flight, a
piercing scream keek or
keck, often rapidly

white overall

long white streamers

on tail

repeated. Can is a
guttural squawk.
• Behavior
Solitary or in noisy Rkd-billed
pairs or small groups.
Ranges widely over oceans in nonbreeding season. Spots food
-A Tropicbird
Larger; mostly white
crown; narrower black
from 50-100 feet above water, hovers, then makes direct dive. bars on upperparts;
black eye stripe; black
Eats small fish, crabs, and squid. Floats high in water with tail
primaries and primary
cocked upward. Attracted to ships, it may hover before landing coverts; red bill

in rigging. Comes farther inland than other tropicbirds. • juvenile has black eye
stripe, usually meeting
• BREEDING Monogamous. Semicolonial. around nape; fine
• NESTING Incubation 40-42 days by both sometimes
sexes, barring on upperparts;

shorter period. Young altricial; first flight at 70-85 days; fed by large black primary
patch; yellow bill; lacks
both sexes. 1 brood per year.
long streamers.
• POPULATION Uncommon but regular in the Gulf Stream
off North Carolina; and inconsistent on Dry Tortugas. Rare
rare
elsewhere on the Atlantic Coast
Flight Pattern to the Maritimes; one record in
California.
• BlRDHOUSES Will nest in
artificial in-ground chambers.
Buoyant graceful pigeonlike flight with
wing strokes alternated with
fluttering
• Conservation
soaring glides; hovers briefly over prey or Vulnerable to introduced
perch before dipping down to it. predators at nesting sites.

Nest Identification
No nest • on ground in ridges of cliffs, crevices, caves, or sheltered by grasses or

Shape
^B W 1 bush • 1 whitish to pale buff egg, flecked with brownish and purple spors; ovoid,

Location _ ^ |g £
2.28 x 1.6 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simUar |
Habitat
^^ Migration
Mig ratory Weight 1S
3 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

68 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len gth wi "gspan
p HAETI )NXJ DAE
I( Phaethon aethereus 30-44 inches 4() _42 inches

Red-billed Tropigbird
The largest tropicbird,
this robust species w ith

a bright red bill is rare

at seaalong the coasts of black wing tips

black
southern California, the
barring on
Gulf of Mexico, and the back
Atlantic Coast north to the Outer
Banks of North Carolina. The
barred back of the adult bird is dark band from
distinctive, but these markings are not front of eyes to
back of head
easily seen at a distance. This is
especially true when viewing birds from a pointed
moving boat at sea, where the birds most decurved
crimson bill
often are encountered. The long streamers
formed by the two central tail feathers
are found on adults only.
• SONG Shrill rasping call,

krreea and krri-krri-krri-

krri-krrriik.

• BEHAVIOR Eats squid and

Plunge dives from air for
fish.

prey, catching it in its bill, it under water or on

then swallowing
the surface. This bird rarely alights on the sea. Does not carry Juvenile
prey in mouth while in flight. Does not follow boats but may be
attracted to them. Often seen circling a boat several times or Similar Birds
sitting on water nearby before departing. Tropicbirds fly
White-tailed
superbly but have difficulty walking on land, usually shuffling Tropicbird
around with their breasts touching the rocks. Adult lacks barring on
upperparcs; black bar
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. across inner wing;
• NESTING Incubation 44-45 days by both sexes alternately. yellow to orange bill.

Altricial young leave nest 90-120 days after hatching.

• Population Rare to
Flight Pattern casual straggler to coastal
waters of the southern United
States. Common to fairly
common on subtropical and
tropical islands in the Pacific,
Rapid pigeonlike direct flight with stiff south Atlantic, and Caribbean.
shallow steady wing beats.

Nest Identification
I tees no materials in nest • in cavity of burro 1 red-brow n or w hitish

Shape Ag buff blotched or spotted egg.

Plumage
Sexes simi ,.
ir
Habitat
^ Migration
\\\^ x
We 'S ht 1.7 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AM K RIGA • 69
Species Length Wingspan 60_62 nc hes
Family
SULIDAE Sn!(/ (jacty iatm I
26 _3 4 inchcs I
i

Masked Booby
Sometimes called the Blue-faced Booby, this species white head
can be seen from shore perched atop the backs of
far
and neck
sea turtles or napping with its head concealed in its yellow eye
back feathers. One of the largest of the booby
family and an adept diver, it can plunge vertically long, stout
from 40 feet in the air to 6-10 feet underwater. yellow to
greenish bill
• SONG Male makes high-pitched whistle;
female makes louder, lower honk or trumpet.
Rarely vocal except on breeding grounds • dark facial skin
or while feeding.
• BEHAVIOR Eats flying fishes
and small squid by plunge
diving. Usually found far
blue-gray
from land because it throat pouch
prefers deep
water where
its prey

olid black trailing

edge on wing

Similar Birds
pointed
white rump m BLUE-FOOTED BOOBY
black tail
and If*

A
Bright blue feet;, blue-
underparts gray bill; dark brown
yellow to
wings; dusky head;
olive-gray legs
longer tail.
and feet
is more abundant. Diurnal,
returning to roost in evening.
c Northern Gannet
No black facial skin;
pale blue bill; w hite
Often pursued by frigatebirds tail; black w ing tips
attempting to steal a booby's catch. Juvenile • juveniles have bluish
gray dark
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. bill;

underwing with white

• NESTING Incubation 38-49 days by both sexes. When axillaries; long tail

• eastern range.
second egg hatches, the older sibling attacks the younger and
throws it out of nest. Altricial young remain in nest 109-151
days, fed by both sexes.

Flight Pattern
• Population Uncommon
in the Gulf of Mexico; rare
northward on the Atlantic
Coast to the Outer Banks of
North Carolina. Breeds on
Alternates strong, rapid wing beats with Florida's Dry Tortugas. Casual
glides when flying over ocean.
visitor to southern California.

Nest Identification
Slight rim of pebbles • on ground • built by both sexes • 1-2 chalky w hite eggs;

Shape Location _ oval, 2.5 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes sim ;, ar Habitat
^^ ligration
Nonmigratory Wei ^ ht 3.2 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

70 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len Sth Wingspan
SUUDAE Sula nebouxa 32 inch* 6Q_62 inches

Blue-footed Booby
Its vivid blue feet and legs make this
medium-sized booby easy to identify.
At the nesting site, the Blue-footed
Booby is unwary of humans. Stories
are told of these birds boldly landing
on ships, where they were easily
caught by sailors who ate them gray
for their next meal. orbital ring facial
white patch on
skin, and bill
SONG Male makes

Mb
• a upper back
melancholy whistle; female has
vibrating trumpetlike notes.
f1 htm
• BEHAVIOR Feeds in
j. i

groups near shallow water

dark brown
off beach. Dives for fish upperparts
from 50 feet above
water, often catching
the fish underwater
on its wav back to

Masked Booby
Yellow to olive-gray
feet; white on upper
wings, head, neck,
the surface. Often catches flying fish in the air and eats them and upperparts;
yellow bill.
whole. Mostly diurnal in warm waters usually not far offshore.
Male's courtship ritual includes stiff-bodied high "goose steps" Brown Booby
Dark brown head,
around mate that show blue feet to greatest advantage.
neck, and upperparts;
• BREEDING Monogamous. '
yellow bill; yellow

• NESTING Incubation 41 days by both sexes. First flight at

feet; smaller.

102 days. Not colonial but nests often close together.

• Population Rare to
Flight Pattern casual along southern Pacific
Coast and inland in California
to Salton Sea; irregular in
Arizona; accidental in
Washington and Texas.
Strong, moderately rapid wing beats
interrupted by sailing glide; also powerful,
• Conservation
deep wing beats. Protected bv federal law.

Nest Identification
Places nest on flat ground close to others • 2-3 chalky, pale blue-green eggs.
Shape

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat

^^ Migration \j
onmigratory Wei e ht
2.8 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 71

Species Length Win gspan

Family
SULIDAE Sula leucogaster 26 _?9 inches 57.59 inc:hcs

Brown Booby blue orbital ring

Because of its habit of landing aboard ships

to escape, sailors nicknamed this
and not trying
bird "booby,"meaning "dunce" in Spanish.
The Brown Booby is one of the most common
boobies and prefers to feed and travel in large
flocks. The female can be distinguished from
the male by its yellow (rather than blue) orbital
ring and yellow Males of the subspecies
bill.

North America,
brwsteri, rarely observed in
have white foreheads and whitish tan heads
and necks. Juveniles have gray facial skin
and underparts, and underwings washed
with dusky brown.
• SONG Usually silent at sea. On
breeding grounds, a harsh honking.
Also gives harsh brays and a hoarse
hissing whistle.
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious.
Marine and pelagic but often Red-footed Booby
seen from shore. Eats parrot Brown morph and
juvenile similar • brown
fishes, mullets, flatfishes,
overall; brown underw ing;
and halfbeaks. Feeds gray to pinkish bill, legs,

inshore more often and feet.

than other Blue-footed Booby

boobies by Juvenile similar • white
patch at base of neck;
making dark brown white rump.
shallow wedge-shaped tail
yellowish legs Masked Booby
plunging andfeet Juvenile similar • brow n
dives from 30-50 feet coloring extends only to
above the water. Prefers to perch rather than sit on the water throat; has complete
and comes ashore at night to roost in trees, shrubs, wharfs, w hire collar.

buildings, etc. Attracted to ships and will perch in their rigging. Northern Gannet
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Juvenile similar
dark gray upperparts with
• larger;

• NESTING Incubation 40-47 days by both sexes. Altricial light spots and spangling;
young stay in or near nest; fed by both sexes. First flight at grayish underparts
• eastern range.
84-119 days. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Casual to rare in South Florida and Florida

Flight Pattern California. Accidental elsewhere.

Wide range of nesting sites has
kept population stable.
• Conservation
Strong direct flight, alternating with
Vulnerable to breeding colony
flapping and gliding, producing slightly
undulating progression. Often flies low disturbances as well as
over water. Flocks sometimes fly in lines. introduced predators. "\ '

* .

Nest Identification
Grass, twigs, and debris • on ground • 1-3 whitish to pale blue-green eggs with
chalky coating, often nest stained; ovate to elliptical ovate, 2.4 x 1.6 inches.
Shape -^r- Location
^
Plumage Habitat Migration j^t Weight
Sexes djffer on migratory 2.4 p 0un(j

DATE TIME LOCATION

72 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length _? 8 inches Wingspan 53 _6() inch
SlJLIDAE SuJa sula ?6

Red-footed Booby
Preferring to feed at night far offshore, this
tropical bird is the smallest of the boobies
Ii«ht blue fart
and has more color variations than perhaps
any other seabird. It has at least four color
morphs in two general forms: white and light blur bill
gray-brown. The white morphs show an pink at base
overall white color, with black primaries,
median primary coverts below and
secondaries that occur in either a white-
tailed or black-tailed form. The brown Juvenile
morphs have either a brown rump
and tail or a white rump and tail.

Juveniles of all morphs are

brownish gray overall with
brownish underwings, a gray-
blue bill, and pinkish legs
and feet.
• SONG A
bravlike chatter.
low throaty
I m ,, > . • red legs

Dark Morph Similar Birds

Blue-footed booby
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Seminocturnal and crepuscular. Bright blue feet;
smaller; blue bill; white
Highly pelagic and rarely seen from mainland. May forage underparts; brown
several hundred miles from land. Eats fish and squid. Plunge- wings and mantle with
dives for most food in deep waters. Also catches flying fish in white patches on back
and neck; white axillars
air. Attracted to ships and lands on them. Often feeds in large
and wing linings
flocks and returns to land to roost at night. • juvenile dark overall
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. with white neck patch.

• NESTING Incubation 43-49 days by both sexes. Altricial NOR1 HERN GANNET
Larger; white
young stay in or around nest 15 weeks; fed by both sexes. secondaries; dark gray
1 brood per year. feet and legs • juvenile

• POPULATION Casual along the California coast, Gulf speckled white

Coast, Dry Tortugas, and Florida. Accidental elsewhere on

Atlantic coast.
• Conservation
Flight Pattern Population reduced due to
destruction of habitat
(principally the trees they
require for nesting) by land
clearing, herding of goats, and
Scion" steady wing beats with glides.
Graceful, agile; skims low ox er water. 5 or
tourism development.
more may form line dipping up and dow n.

Nest Identification Sticks and twigs • in trees, shrubs, or on thick grass tufts • built by both sexes;
female does most of building w hile male gathers material • 1 chalky white egg;
long elliptical or long to short subelliptical, generally broader at one end;
Shape £q Location 4^ 0i
2.5 \ 1.6 inches.

Plumage Scxcs simi ar ,

Migration
on migratory We 'g ht 2.1 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 73

Family Species Length Wingspan 65 _

SULIDAE Moms bassanus 35 _40 inch( 71 inch<

NORTHERN GANNET creamy yellow to golden

* orange wash on head
Like white flying cross pointed at all ends - long
a large

pointed black-tipped wings, long pointed white tail, and

long bill often pointed downward toward the water -this
is the largest indigenous seabird of the North Atlantic.
hni'i pa/i
Gannets feed and travel in small flocks, but nest in huge blue bill
dense colonies of five thousand or more birds. They stay
at sea the first three years of life, then head for land only
black bare shin
to breed. Juveniles have dark gray upperparts and
at base of bill
heavily spotted, paler gray underparts, then become
pied black, white, and gray as they progress into
adult plumage. Males are larger than females.
• SONG Silent at sea except when feeding.
v/iite o verall
Clamorous honking and various low groans and
clucks around nest.
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Dives underwater,
asdeep as 50 feet, plunging like an arrow
from up to 100 feet high. Grabs fish
and squid with bill. Roosts on water
after feeding; sleeps in large rafts.
Returns to nesting site W Juvenile
annually; sites used for
hundreds of
dark gray legs
years.Ranges • and webbed feet
primarily over
continental
shelf. Rarely pointed
Similar Birds
pelagic over white tail

truly deep waters Masked Booby

Yellow bill; black facial
• BREEDING Monogamous; mates for life. Colonial. Mated skin; black tail; solid
pairsperform complex "dance" at nest, similar to that of black edging (all flight

feathers) on wings.
which they face each other, wings slightly raised
albatross, in
and opened, tail raised and spread. This is followed by a Red-footed Booby
repeated series of bows, bills raised and waved in air, more White morph • smallei

w hite or black tail; all

bows, and feigned caressing of each others breast.
flight feathers and
• NESTING Incubation 42—44 days, by both sexes; male does primary cov erts are-

black; eoral-recl feet.

more. Young stay in nest 95-107 days. Both parents feed by
regurgitation. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Common.
Flight Pattern Often seen from shore in
migration and winter. Rare to
casual on Great Lakes in fall.

t • CONSERVATION
Vulnerable to oil spills, human
Alternates rapid wing beats with short
glides at frequent intervals. Soars to great disturbance at nesting colonies.
heights. Glides low in strong w inds.

Nest Identification
Pile ofs ;aweed and refuse • on ridgt >f cliff chalky light blue egg becoming
nest sta led; ovate to elliptical ovate; ches.
Shape . Location

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat n» Migration \ ij
gratorv Weight
6 5 poun( | s

DATE TIME LOCATION

74 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len eth Win gspa n 96-1
PELECANIDAE Pelecanus erythrorhynchos 60-63 inches 10 inches

American White Pelican

One of the most distinctive birds blue-gray bar
in North America, this huge skin around pale yellow crest n -oJ>

pelican, with its immense bill and bill

black wing tips
|
vast wingspan, is one of the and outer trailing
largest waterbirds. Making edge of wing
graduated plate:
their summer home near
on upper
inland lakes, breeding mandible
birds shed the upper
mandible plate after
the eggs are laid
and show a
dull grayish
crown and
nape. In flight
the head is drawn
back on the shoulders
with the bill resting on
the breast, and the black
primaries and outer
secondaries contrast sharply
with the white plumage. Young
have a dull grayish bill and a brownish
wash on the head, neck, and upper wing coverts.
• SONG Mostly silent. On nesting grounds
guttural croaks.
• BEHAVIOR Entire flock may work Winter Similar Birds

communally by "herding" them into

to catch fish Plumage Wood Stork
shallow water or an enclosed area, then scooping Black trailing edge to
wing (all flight
the fish out of the water with pouches that can hold up to
feathers): black tail;
3 gallons of water. Eats fish of little or no commercial value. dark head and bill; long
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. legs trail bevond tail in

flight.
• NESTING Incubation 29-36 days by both sexes. Young stay
Brown Pelican
in nest 17-28 days; fed by both sexes. Gather in groups called
Gray-brown upperparts;
pods after fledging and continue to be fed by adults. First flight dark wings; darker bill;

at 9-10 weeks. 1 brood per year. plunge dives for fish

while flying.
• POPULATION Fairly common to common. Breeds in
western lakes; winters in southwest and Gulf Coast states. Casual
wanderer in migration.
Flight Pattern • Conservation Some
decrease due to habitat loss and
pesticide poisoning; however,

V\ has increased since 1970s.

Despite legal protection most
Strong slow deep wing beats. Soars high
on thermals Flies in straight line or V deaths due to shooting.
formation.

Nest Identification
Made of built-up dirt and rubbish • on flat ground • 1-2 dull or chalky white-

Shape eggs; ovate to elongate-ovate with some nearly elliptical-oval. 3.5 x 2.2 inches
Location

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat _m^ Migration
Migra( Wei g ht 15.4 pound*

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 75

Species Length Wingspan 7g_

Family
p EL ECANIDAE peiecanus ocadentalis 4g_50 inches 84 inches

Brown Pelican kite head

Louisiana's state bird is the smallest of the i nd'neck
world's pelicans. Strietly a marine bird, it almost
faced extinction because of pesticides and pale yello w
forecrown
hydrocarbons that led to the thinning of its
and forehead
eggshells and reproductive failure in many
colonies in the 1960s and 1970s. The
pale yellow eyes
population is now recovering, although it
is still listed as threatened. It is rarely
blackish pouch
seen inland except around the Salton
Sea. The color of pouch its gular
varies from red in the West to yellowish gray
bill with scarlet cast
blackish in the East. Young
on distal portion
birds are brownish with a and yellow tip
whitish belly.
• SONG Adults are silent
except for occasional
low croaking. Young
make snakelike hiss. blackish brown
breast and belly
• Behavior Coastal JUVENILE
and pelagic. Eats fish
Similar Birds
taken near the surface by
plunge-diving from air and American White
Pelican
scooping up prey with pouch. Black wing tips and
Sometimes attended by gulls that outer secondaries; white
attempt to steal the catch before it can body: huge salmon bill;

orange-red legs and

be swallowed. Gregarious. Often flies in long lines close to the
feet; does not plunge
water, with each bird closely following the flight path of the one dive for food.
ahead and all flapping and gliding in unison.
Northern Gannet
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Juvenile has dark gray

• NESTING Incubation 28-30 days by both sexes. Young begin upperparts with pale
speckling; paler
to walk out of nest at 35 days if nest site is on ground, but do underparts; pointed,
not leave nest until 63-80 days, when able to fly, if nest is straight pale bill;

elevated in shrub or tree. Tended and fed by both sexes. pointed tail with white
U patch at base; long
1 brood per year.
dark-tipped wings
• POPULATION Fairly common to common on Pacific Coast • Atlantic and Gulf
from central California southward, on the Atlantic Coast from Coast range.

Maryland southward around the tip of Florida, and westward along

the entire Gulf Coast. Wanders
Flight Pattern north along coast in spring and
summer. Rare inland, but
common in Salton Sea.
"t "f "T • Conservation Listed as
threatened. Declined in mid-
Graceful, powerful flight with deliberate
wing beats alternating with short glides. 1900s due to pesticides;
Flies in straight line formation. currently recovering in number.

Nest Identification
Sticks, reeds, and grass • in vegetation 6-20 feet high or on ground built up
4-10 inches • built by female with materials gathered by male • 2-4 white eggs
Shape ^ .^gr. Location <^fe
^ often nest-stained; long oval, 2.8 x 1.8 inches.

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei S ht

Sexes simi , ar Migratory 8.2 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 ;

76 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA

Family
p HALACRO( 0 RA( 1IDAE s P ecies Phalacrocorax brasilianus Len #n 23-29 inches Wingspan 40
inches

Neotropic Cormorant
Primarily found along the Mexican
border, Neotropic Cormorants can be
spotted perched on fence posts or in
trees. This small slender cormorant,
with a long tail frequently holds its

neck in an S-shape. The throat

pouch is yellow-brown and has white tufts on
pointed posterior edge of 4
the sides of the
a white edge when the bird is brownish yellow throat
skin rem lies behind eye
head in breeding
breeding. It inhabits freshwater, plumage
brackish water, or saltwater. brownish
Juveniles are brownish in color. upperpa its
black overall
sealed black
• SONG Low gutteral piglike
grunts.
pointedfeathe
• Behavior With eyes on back and
scapulars long; slender body
adapted underwater as wel
for
as aerial vision, all cormorants
swim well and dive for fish
from the surface. Occasionally
hunts cooperatively, beating the
water with its wings, confusing
fish. Also eats amphibians and
crustaceans. Often perches
upon leaving water and holds
\
Juvenile

wings and tail open in "spread Similar Birds

eagle" fashion to dry them. DOl'BLK-CRKSTED

Unlike other North Cormorant
Larger; heavier looking
American cormorants, often shorter tail; rounded
perches on wires. tipson scapular and
• Breeding hack feathers; yellow -

orange throat pouch;

Monogamous. Golonii green sheen on head,
• NESTING neck, and underparts.

Incubation 25-30
Brandt's
days by both sexes. Cormorant
Altricial young Bluish facial and

fed by both sexes; throat skin • West

Coast range.
swim and dive at 8 weeks, feed until 1 1 weeks, and become
independent at 12 weeks. 1 brood per year.
POPULATION
Flight Pattern Widespread in Mexico; rare
to casual in states along
Mexican border from
southern California to New
Mexico; fairly common in
Typically flics fairly low over w ater with southern Texas. Increasing
strong rapid wing beats.
and spreading north inland.

Nest Identification
Made of sticks with depression at center • lined with twigs and grass • built by

both sexes • 2-6 (usually 4) chalky bluish eggs, soon becoming nest-stained; oval
Shape Location
4£ to long subelliptical.

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat Migration Wei S ht 2.8 pounds

Nonmigratory

DXVli TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NOR TH AMERICA • 77

Family s P ecies Pluilacrocorax auritus Len §th Wingspan

PhalacROCORACIDAK I 32 inches 52 inch

Double-crested Cormorant
The most widespread cormorant in North America bright orange- yet
appears blackish overall from a distance, but may fada I skin
appear to have a green sheen in certain lighting.
During breeding season it shows two small tufts of long pale
hooked bill
feathers; they are black in eastern birds, but larger
and mostly white in western birds. Its wings are
not completely waterproof, so upon leaving the
water the bird often perches on exposed objects
with its wings held out to catch the sun's rays
and dry its feathers. This cormorant swims
low in the water with its bill tilted slightly
upward. In flight it has a distinct crook
in its neck. Immature birds are brown
with white face, foreneck, and breast.
• SONG Deep guttural grunt. Juvenile
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious
Dives for fish, crustaceans, Similar Birds
and amphibians from
Neotropic
surface. Excellent diver, Cormorant
using feet for propulsion. Smaller; longer tail;

Able to stay at 5-25 feet posterior edge of gular

skin often pointed with
below surface for whitish border.
30-70 seconds.
Brandt's
Cormorant
Strictly coastal and
pelagic western range;
dark face; blue throat
patch with buff border;
shorter tail; flies with
• Breeding blacklegs head and neck held

Monogamous. Colonial.
andfeet straight.

• Nesting incubation Great Cormorant

28-30 days by both sexes. Altricial young may leave nest at Larger throat pouch
bordered by w hite
21-28 days but may return to be fed by both sexes. First flight feathers; white cheeks
at 35-42 days. Independent at 63-70 days. 1 brood per year. and flank patches
• POPULATION Common. Fluctuates because of persecution (breeding) • Hast Coast
range.
at nesting colonies, although increasing and expanding range,
particularly in interior, in last 2 decades of the 20th century.
• Conservation Often
Flight Pattern killed by fishermen who believe
birds compete with them. Many
-r "t "t "T populations hit hard, especially
on California coast, in 1960s and
1970s by DDT, causing
Strong powe rful direct flight. Sometimes
soars briefly on thermals. Groups fly in reproductive failures.
straight line or V formation.

Nest Identification
In trees made of sticks and debris and lined w ith leafy tw igs and grass • on rocks
made of seaw eed and trash gathered at water's edge • near water • built by
Shape ^ Location
^ j|bg^ — often
female • 2 nest-stained bluish white eggs; long subelliptical, 2.4 x 1.5 inches.

Plumage Migration Weight

Sexes simi , ar M; sratory 4q p()UIuis

DATE TIME LOCATION

78 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family s P ecies Phalacrocorax carbo Length Wingspan 63 inches
PhALACROCORACIDAE 35.40 jnches

Great Cormorant heavy hooked

The North American cormorant

largest
is able to carry water in its throat pouch

to pour over its chicks when they have

been exposed to high temperatures. A bright yellow
proficient swimmer and diver, this bird throat pouch
blocklike head
with large
has been found as deep as a hundred
border of
feet below the surface. Its large size, white
large bill, pale yellow chin, and white feathers

throat patch distinguish it from the

Double-crested Cormorant, the only
other cormorant sharing its northern
Atlantic range. In breeding season short
white plumes appear on the side of the
neck, and white patches are visible on
its flanks while in flight. Juveniles have

brown upperparts and a white belly.

JUVENILE
• SONG Usually silent. Low throaty
groans on breeding grounds.
• BEHAVIOR Excellent swimmer.
Rides low in water, holding bill slightly
angled above horizontal; uses webbed
feet to swim. Dives for fish and
crustaceans. When perched wet, holds
wings in spread eagle position to dry.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial.
Breeds on cliffs or rocks.
• NESTING Incubation 28-31 days by
both sexes. Altricial young stay in nest
50 days. Fed by both sexes. First flight at Similar Birds
50 days. Fledged young may return to nest double-crested
at night until they achieve independence in short Cormorant
tail Smaller; orange throat
30-40 more days. 1 brood per year.
patch; no flank patches
• POPULATION Fairly common. Increased • juveniles have
dramatically; range has spread southward. slimmer bill, deep
orange facial skin, pale
Thought to be limited by interactions with more
breast and darker bellv.
numerous and well-established Double-crested
Cormorant. Winters in small numbers from
Maritimes
Flight Pattern south to South Carolina; rare
farther south.
• Conservation
Vulnerable to disturbance at
colonial nesting sites as well as
Strong direct flight with steady wing
beats, but slow to reach full flight speed.
the pollution of its marine
Flies in V or straight line formation. environment.

Nest Identification
Made of twigs, seaweed, and bits of refuse • lined with grasses and moss • on
ground in moderately elevated area • built by both sexes • 3-5 pale blue-green
Shape ^ Location eggs, often nest-stained; long oval, 2.6 inches long.

Plumage Sexes simi!ar Habitat

^ Migration
\\\ gTatory
Weight
5 0 poun d s

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 79

Family Species Len eth Wingspan 45.43

ANHINGIDAL Anhinga anhinga 35 inches inche .

Anhinga
Although clumsy on perches and slow on the ground, the
Anhinga is a graceful flier capable of soaring to great heights.
It's also called the snakebird because of its long thin neck

and small narrow head, which appears serpentine

when this bird swims with its body submerged
to the neck. Water turkey, its other common
name, comes from the long buff-tipped tail.
• SONG Mostly silent. Low grunt similar
to that of the cormorant. When quarreling
makes distinct rapid clicking sound,
guk-guk-guk-guk-guk.
• BEHAVIOR Swims underwater
and uses sharply pointed bil
to spear fish. Eats small to

long fan/ike tail

withbuff
terminal band

medium freshwater
neotropic
fish, frogs, water snakes, and
Cormorant
leeches. Also known to take Brownish yellow facial

goldfish from outdoor ponds. and throat skin;

blackish overall with
Spends much time perched
green sheen; browner
after swimming with wings upperparts scaled with
and tail spread out to dry. black; shorter thicker
neck; hooked bill;
• BREEDING Monogamous. swims on water's
Usually colonial, often with surface between dives.
egrets and herons. Bare facial
Double-crested
skin and eye of male become Cormorant
blue-green and lacy black-and-white
plumes appear on head and neck in breeding condition.
• NESTING Incubation 25-29 days by both sexes. Fed by
J Larger; heavier; shorter
thicker neck; shorter
tail; yellow -orange
throat pouch; hooked
both sexes. Altricial young will jump out of nest after 14 days if bill;swims on water's
surface between dives.
disturbed. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Fairly common to common in breeding
range. Casual wanderer north of
Flight Pattern breeding range. 1
• Conservation in the
past often killed by fishermen
fearing competition from the
fishing abilities of this bird.
Strong graceful direct flight. Often
soars like a raptor.

Nest Identification
Sticks • often lined with grass and leaves • built bv female; male sometimes
gathers materials • sometimes uses nest of Snowy Egret and Little Blue Heron
Shape ^ Location & 4^ • 2-5 white to pale blue eggs that become nest-stained; 2.1 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes differ
Habitat
te _ Migration
Most do not migrate Weight
ZJ pound

DATE TIME LOCATION

80 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species
F mtta m agnif,cens len ® h 37-41 Wingspan
FREGATIDAE , I inches I 82 _ 94 inches

Magnificent Frigatebird straight hooked

The male has amost striking courtship display when gray bill

he inflates his throat sac into a huge brilliant red entirely

black with
balloon. In flight it looks almost sinister with its black
purple
plumage, long thin crooked wings, and deeply forked gloss on
tail often folded into a point. Juveniles are black head and
back f
without gloss and have a white head, neck, sides,
breast, and belly. Even when not nesting, flocks of • bright
red pouch
these birds often gather at their permanent roosts
usually
in treetops, or on high cliffs. shows as
• SONGClacks bill; nasal hack or ka-ack\ soft red patch
on throat
chippering at nesting grounds. Silent at sea. when not
• BEHAVIOR Soars over sea to find food. distended

Dives for prey and catches it in bill from

surface. Eats fish, crustaceans, and
jellyfish. Attacks other large seabirds
in flight until they drop or
disgorge their catch, which the
frigatebird then catches in
midair. Roosts communally
and is gregarious.
• Breeding
Monogamous. Colonial.
straight «

• Nesting incubation hooked

40-50 days by both sexes. gray bill

Fed by both sexes. First

flight at20-24 weeks. Young white breast Great Frigatebird
never left unguarded because and s ides Male has pale brownish
other birds in colony may eat alar bar; scalloped pale

eggs and hatchlings. Most

FEMALE grayish axillars; green
gloss on head and back
females do not breed every year. • female has gray-white
• Population Total difficult to throat, breast, and uppei
belly; red orbital ring;
monitor. Rare to casual on Salton Sea broader biack belly
and along California coast to Washington. patch • juvenile has
Breeds on Dry Tortugas off Florida Keys. white head, neck, and
breast; neck and head
Fairly common to casual along Gulf of Mexico,
tinged with rust-brown.
Florida coasts, and north to North Carolina. Rare
straggler north to Maritimes and inland, especially forked Yy^
after storms. ta^ *
v
Flight Pattern • Conservation \
Frigatebirds are legally
protected, but they are still

killed in the nest by local

people, who hunt at night with
Very high effortless soaring
Extremely graceful and buoyant

Nest Identification
flight.

in the air.
flashlights
years no
and clubs. Some
young survive.
1
Made of sticks, tw igs, grass, and reeds • in mangroves, trees, or bushes 2-20 feet ,

above ground • built by female with materials gathered by male, who iften
Shape ^ Location jflfe
^ steals from neighbors' nests • white egg; rarely 2.
1
(

Plumage Habitat Migration

Nonmigratory Wei § ht 2.8 pound
Sexes djffer

DATE TIME LOCATION

 ,

BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 81

Species Length Wingspan 69_ 76

Family
FREGATIDAE pregata ariei 28_32 inch( inches

Lesser Frigatebird black head with

The Lesser Frigatebird, a native of the southern metallic green black orbited
oeeans and the smallest of the Fregatidae and purple gloss tins.

family, has been reeorded only once in North

America. It is perhaps the easiest of all the
frigatebirds to identify, at least while it is in grayish black bill

flight, because both adults and juveniles red throat pouch

have a white "spur" in the axillaries that
extends onto the black underwing. The
spur is buff colored on females. Male
• SONG Usually silent. At nest
makes crackling noises. black back and mantle glossy black
upperwings
• Behavior Eats fish, with metallic green
purple gloss
crustaceans, and jellyfish. Has
been known to follow ships. black
underpa its
Soars effortlessly for extended
periods. Acrobatically chases
other seabirds to steal food ddish
from them. brown to black
feet and legs
• Breeding
black head, throat,
Monogamous; colonial.
and foreneck form
'

dark hood

grayish to
dark hood extends pinkish bill
V shape to middle
upper breast
'hite nape collar
blackish
• Nesting upperwings
Incubation 40-50 days Juvenile
by both sexes. Young
altricial; first flight at
Female Similar Birds

6 months. Fed by both Magnificent

sexes. This species Frigatebird
Larger; entirely black
nests only once every axillaries • male lacks
2 years because its white on underparts
young grow slowly. • female lacks white
nape collar.
• Population Recorded
as accidental in Maine resulting from a tropical storm that carried
thisnonmigratory species north.
Flight Pattern common around its
It is

breeding areas in tropical and

subtropical oceans.

rt • Conservation
legal protection, frigatebirds are
Despite

Soars effortlessly for extended periods still killed in their breeding

range by local inhabitants.

Nest Identification
Sticks • in w tree or mangrove shrubs • 1-2 white eggs.
^
l<

Shape Location lSjb

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat
^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei § ht
1.7 pound

DATE TIME LOCATION

82 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family species Len Sth Wingspan
ARDEIDAE Botaurus lentiginosns 23 inches 42 _ 50 inches

American Bittern
When it senses danger, the American
dark brown
Bittern hides by standing motionless crown
with its bill pointed upward and its

body tightly contracted. Thus it

pointed
can be mistaken for a wooden yellowish bid
stake in the marshes, saltwater
and freshwater bogs, and
wetland ponds it inhabits.
streaked brown
The dark and light vertical and buff
streaks blend with shadows upperparts
and highlights cast by long black strip
or patell on each
surrounding vegetation, so
side of neck
the bird often goes
unnoticed even from a
few feet away. In flight
the somewhat pointed
dark outer wings
contrast sharply • streaked
with the inner pointed
brown and white
wings and body. underparts
wings with
• SONG Oonk-a- contrasting
dark tips
lunk or punk-er-lunk, Juvenile
often heard at dusk; it

is one of the strangest

sounds produced by any Similar Birds

bird; sounds like ,EAST BlTTKRN

someone driving a stake Much smaller; black
crown and back; shows
into the mud with a
buff wing patches in
wooden mallet. flight.

• Behavior Stands Yellow-crowned

motionless, often hidden by Nighi-Heron
marsh vegetation, on ground or in Black-crowned
Night-Heron
water to search for prey. Eats frogs, Juveniles have more
small eels, small fish, small snakes, heavily spotted
salamanders, crayfish, small rodents, and water bugs. upperparts; lack black
mustache lines on face.
• BREEDING May be polygamous. Solitary nester.
• NESTING Incubation 24-29 days by female. Young stay in nest
14 days. Fed by both parents.
1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Fairly
common. Declining in the
South from marshland drainage.
• Conservation Protected
Strong direct flight with dc rapid by law. Wetland conservation is
wing beats.
critical for this species.

Nest Identification
Grasses, reeds, and cattails • lined with fine grasses • on dense marsh ground, dry
ground above water, or mud in tall vegetation • built by female • 2-7 pale brown
Shape Location
^ to olive-buff eggs, 1.9 inches long.

Plumage Sexes simi)ar Habitat

m _ Migration
Migraatory Wei § ht 1.6 pounds

DATE TIME EOGATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 83

Family
ARDEIDAE Species
ixobrychus exilis
Len &h 11-14 inches Wingspan j 6 _ 18 inches

Least Bittern
This shy bird of the marshes is the
smallest heron in North America.
Because of the thick
vegetation it

frequents and
its retiring
nature, it

often goes
unnoticed and
is probably more

common than
reported. Its small
size and buff inner wing
patches seen in flight quickly
separate it from all other
species. Adult females have a
dark brown crown, back, and
tail; juveniles are similar but
more heavily streaked.
• SONG Call is series of
harsh kek notes. Song is softer
ku notes, somewhat dovelike.
• BEHAVIOR Shy secretive
denizen of the marsh. Seldom
seen or heard. When
approached closely often
freezes in place with neck
stretched upward, bill pointed
skyward, and body
compressed. May sway back
and forth with rhythm of
surrounding vegetation to
help blend into background.
Green Heron
When flushed, flies weakly yet migrates long distances. Larger; lacks buff
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary to loose colonies. coloration and wing
patches in flight.
• NESTING Incubation 17-20 days by both sexes. Young stay
in nest 25 days. Fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year.
• Population Thought to

Flight Pattern be declining because of habitat

loss, though still abundant in

parts of North America.

• Conservation
Neotropical migrant.
Weak direct flight with low labored Conservation of wetlands key to
wing beats.
population success.

Nest Identification
Platform • bent marsh vegetation with sticks and grass on top • well concealed

in marsh growth, near or over water, on ground, or in low shrub • built by both
Shape sexes • 2-7 pale green or blue eggs; elliptical, 1.2 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei § ht

Sexes differ Migratory 3.0 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

A
84 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
A RDEIDAE Ardea forodias 46 _ 52 jnches 77^? inche .

Great Blue Heron

Often called "crane" or "blue crane" by locals, the
Great Blue Heron is the largest, most widespread,
and best-known heron in North America. Its
size, long yellowish bill, and mostly
bluish gray body readily distinguish
it. In the breeding season several
long black occipital plumes
adorn the back of the
crown. In south bold black line
on both sides
Florida a paler
of crown

t;long, stout I whih

yellowish bill
face

white-headed
form was formerly
considered a separate *black-and-white streaking
species called
,, , tt
Ward
7

s or
in midline of foreneck
™' /,/,,„

ttTt , t y . ,, ,
•
body
Wurdemann 1

s Heron. An
white all

morph with yellowish legs found in

southern Florida is called the Great White Heron
and formerly was also considered a separate species.
• SONG Mostly silent except at colonies, where it makes series
of squawks and low croaks.
• BEHAVIOR In flight the long neck is folded back into a
compact S-shape typical of other herons and egrets, and the long
legs trail far out behind the short dark tail. Feeds by standing still
in water for long periods and grabbing fish and other animals that Juvenile
come within range of a lightning thrust of its daggerlike bill, or
by walking slowly along waterways or through marshy Similar Birds
vegetation or grassy fields.
Sandhill Crane
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial.
• NESTING Incubation 25-30 days by both sexes. Young
remain in nest 65-90 days. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year
4 Bald red crown;
bustlelike
flies
tail coverts;
with neck extended.

in the North, 2 per year in the South.

Flight Pattern common, and widespread.

• Conservation This
species and other "long-
legged waders" have
benefited from state and
Direct flight w ith slow stead} wing beats. federal protection, particularly
of breeding colonies.

Nest Identification Sticks • lined with twigs and leaves • usually in trees 20-60 feet above ground
w sometimes shrubs; rarely on ground, rock ledges, or coastal
Shape ^ or
• built
ater; in low

by female from materials gathered by male • 2-7 pale blue or light bluish
cliff

green eggs; oval to long oval, long elliptical, or subelliptical; 2.5 inches long.
Location 4g | 4 ^> gj

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat ligration

Northern birds migrate We '£ ht 5.7 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 85

Family Species Length Wingspan 55

ARDEIDAE Ardga alf)a 3 7 _4! inchcs | ; nchcs

Great Egret
The largest white egret found over most of its range
can be distinguished from other white egrets and
juvenile herons by its size, yellow bill, and black
legs and feet. This tall, slender-necked bird
develops long trains of lacy plumes on its
back that extend beyond the tail when
breeding, and its yellow bill appears more
orange in color.
• SONG Bold throaty croaking or
repeated cuk, cuk.
• BEHAVIOR Prefers to feed in
open areas from salt marshes to
freshwater habitats.

yellow bill

Diurnal in its activities, it

flies singly or in groups to

communal roosts in trees for
the night. Feeds on wide Similar Birds
variety of small aquatic-
Great Blue Heron
animals and animals found in
wetland environs, from fish to
frogs, snakes, crayfish, and
\
1
Wiedemann's Heron
(morph) larger with
yellowish legs and feet.

large insects. Snowy Egret

• BREEDING Monogamous. Smaller; dark hill.

Colonial, usually with other Reddish Egret

species of herons, egrets, ibis, White morph smaller
u ith dark hill.
and other similar species.
Little Blue heron
• Nesting incubation
Juvenile smaller with
23-26 days by both sexes.
Young stay in nest 21 days. Fed
r dark

c\i
hill.

11 e Egret
by both sexes. 1 brood per year. d '
Much smaller; yellow

• POPULATION Decimated by plume hunters in late 1800s. legs and feet.

Protected since early 20th century. In recent decades breeding

range has expanded northward.

Flight Pattern • Conservation with full

protection in North America,

species is increasing. Still,

factors such as polluted waters,

coastal development, and
Buoyant direct
wing beats.
flight with deep steady

Nest Identification
draining of wetlands
negatively impact egrets.
1
Made of sticks • unlined or lined with fine material • in tree or shrub, usually
10-40 feet above ground • built by both sexes • 1-6 pale blue-green or light blue
Shape Location eggs, 2.2 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexes similar te Somc mij , ratc 2 Q pounds

DATE TIME LOGATION

86 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len §th 24 Wingspan 36
ARDEIDAE Egretta garzetta inches inches

Little Egret
This Old World native has been found with increasing regularity in
North America in recent years. Similar to the it appears Snowy Egret
larger because of its slightly longer neck and legs. Feeding is more
deliberate than the erratic rushing about often seen in a foraging
Snowy Egret, with movements similar to a Little variable lore color
can be yellow
Blue Heron. Breeding adults have two
or three long plumes on their
upper backs.
black lull

straight back
plumes

small all-white body

black legs

Similar Birds

Snowy Egret
Often appears to be
smaller; shorter neck;
shorter thinner black
• SONG Clamorous, croaking ark-ark-ark legs; shorter bill: yellow
• BEHAVIOR Very sociable; always feeds in small flocks. Eats lores; crested; brighter
yellow feet • in
frogs, small fish, and insects. Feeds in shoals, meadows, fields,
breeding plumage has
or on banks. Flight is more hurried than that of other herons. many long upward-
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. curved plumes on back.

NESTING Incubation 20-24 days by

1
• both sexes. Fed by both Great Egret
Twice the size; yellow
sexes. Semialtricial young fledge nest at about 30 days. 1 brood
bill; black legs and feet.
per year.
• POPULATION Common in Europe. Rare to casual in spring and
summer North America on
in

Flight Pattern northern Atlantic Coast from

Newfoundland to Virginia; not
known to have nested here.
• Conservation
Protected by law and may not
Direct flight with steady deep wing beats. be ke P c without a permit.

Nest Identification
Dry twigs • in trees • occasionally in dry reed • 5-6 greenish blue eggs
Shape m^ Location
m£
Plumage Sexes simi]ar Habitat Migration Wej g ht l.l pounds
te Migratorv

DATE TIME LOCATION

 1

\
BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 87

Family Species Length 22-?6 inches Wingspan 4() _4 3

ARDEIDAE £gretta gU /ar , inche .

Western Reef-Heron yellow-green

This native of Africa and Asia has strayed out of
facial skin with
its range and been seen in Massachusetts orange tint <

once. Almost exclusively coastal, it also

frequents mudflats and estuaries. Also
called the Western Reef-Egret, this
species has two distinct color morphs.
The dark morph in flight appears
blackish with a white chin and
throat and a white patch on the
primary coverts. The juvenile
dark morph is similar to the
adult but its plumage is light
gray to slate-gray, and its toes are
yellow to orange-yellow. The
white morph is white overall
with two long narrow plumes
on the back of its crown.
• SONG Generally silent.
When disturbed, it gives a
guttural kawww.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in
pairson exposed reefs or
mudflats. Often stands
slouched and rests on tarsi
in shallow water or onshore.
Eats frogs, fish, mice,
crustaceans, and mollusks.
Does not spear food, but
grasps with mandibles and
swallows whole. Waits for prey to
come close or stalks it with
deliberation, then a lightning-quick
thrust. Stalks in crouched position;
seldom dashes in active pursuit. Nests
and roosts in small groups inland in trees or on rock ledges.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial.
• NESTING Incubation 20-25 days by both sexes. Young
semialtricial;brooded bv
female; stay in nest about
Flight Pattern
30 days, fed bv both sexes.

x 1 brood per year.

• POPULATION
North America in
Accidental in
Nantucket,
Slow purposeful direct flight with deep Massachusetts.
rapid wing beats.

Nest Identification
Untidy structure of sticks • in tree, on ground, under shrub, or on rock
ledge • built by both sexes • 2-5 pale green to blue-white eggs; oval,
Shape ^ Location $b ^^ mmm 1.6 x 1.2 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat Migration
Nonmigratory We '£ ht 1 4.

DATE TIME LOCATION

A
88 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan 33,45
AEDEIDAE Kgretta thula ??_27 inches inches

Snowy Egret yellow eyes,

This is perhaps the most beautiful of all North ^
American egrets and herons in its nuptial
plumage, and the daintiest with or without it.
This energetic medium-sized whke egret has
black legs and bright yellow "slippers."
Slaughtered by the thousands for its soft, lacy
breeding finery, it was the most persecuted
of all egrets by plume hunters in the late
19th and early 20th century.
• SONG Generally silent. Vocalizations
are harsh squawks.
• BEHAVIOR Most active heron
when feeding. Rushes after prey
in manner of Reddish Egret.
Often sticks one foot forward
in water and rapidly
vibrates it to startle prev.
Crustaceans, insects,
and fish are important
components of diet.
• Breeding
Monogamous.
Colonial, often
nests in mixed
colonies w ith Winter Plumage
other herons
Similar Birds
and egrets.
• Nesting CAttle Egret
Incubation 20-24
days by both
- Stockier; shorter neck;
yellow bill and legs.

Great Egret
sexes. Young stay Much larger; yellow
in nest30 days.
Fed by both sexes.
i bill; black feet.

LITTLE BLUE HERON

1 brood per year.

• Population
Increasing.
expanding northward.
Range
black legs

> Juvenile has greenish

legs; gray bill
black tip.
with

Flight Pattern • Conservation

Buoyant flight with steady
wing beats.
Seemingly thriving today, but
almost extirpated in the early
20th century by demand for its
"cross aigrettes" for ladies'
fast
fashions.

Nest Identification
Made of sticks • lined with fine tw igs and rushes • in short tree or shrub,
5-10 feet high • sometimes on ground • built by both sexes • 2-6 pale bh
Shape Location 4^ ^ green eggs, 1.7 inches long.

Plumage Scxes simi

ar ,
Habitat Migration
M gratory
i
Wei § ht
13.1 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 89

Family Species Length Win § s P an 40-41

ARDEIDAE R rf(J caeruiea 24_29 nC he:
i
inches

Little Blue Heron

Adults appear entirely dark at a distance, hut at closer
range they are slate-colored with a purplish maroon
head and neck. This is the only dark heron species
in North America in which the juvenile is

white. The juvenile begins

1 b molting
° into .
.
purplish
,

maroon
. .

adult plumage in its first spring and head and neck

gradually acquires more blue-gray
feathers, achieving a calico
gray bill
appearance in the transition x ir/i blai k t ip

from white to
slate gray.

gray body

greenish gray legs

Juvenile
• SONG Breeding male makes eh-oo-ah-eh-eh. Both sexes make
loud nasal skea or scaah and low clucking notes. Similar Birds
• BEHAVIOR Prefers fresh water but can be found in brackish RKDD1SU R1-. 1

water and salt marshes. A stealthy stalker, it moves slowly as it Dark morph similar to
adult; rufous head and
wades in shallow water or along water's edge for prey. Feeds on
neck: pink bill with
a variety of small vertebrates, crustaceans, and large insects. morph
black tip • w hite
Roosts in trees and shrubs at night. similar to juvenile.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial; often nests in heronries Tricolored Heron

with other species. White underparts.

• NESTING Incubation 20-24 days by both sexes. Young stay

in nest 42-49 days. Fed by both
Flight Pattern
sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Increasing
and expanding.
• CONSERVATION
Responding to protection of
Direct flight with steady quick wing beats. nesting colonies.

Nest Identification
Sticks and tw igs • unlined or lined with finer material • usually in tree or shrub,
3-15 feet high • occasionally on ground • built by both sexes • 1-6 pale blue-
Shape £q Location green eggs: elliptical to subelliptieal. 1.7 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight 12. c>

Sexes simi , af
.

Mi £rat0 rv ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

90 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length ? _ Wingspan 36 inches
ARDEIDAE Egretta tricolor 4 26 inches

Trigolored Heron
Our only large dark heron with white underparts slate-gray
upperparts, neck,
can be found in salty coastal marshes to inland
and head
freshwater. Its long, slender neck and long, thin
bill make it seem larger and skinnier»than other
medium-sized herons. Tricolored refers to the
dark upperparts, white underparts, and reddish
brown stripes on the foreneck. In breeding
plumage there are white plumes on the back of
the crown and shaggy purplish or tan feathers
on the lower neck, crown, and back.

• Song Call
by both sexes,
aaah and seaah.
Breeding male
makes //;;// and
groaning
sounds. Both
may give culh-culh call. Little Blue Heron
All dark without white
• BEHAVIOR Often feeds by wading more deeply than many underparts and rump.
other herons, up to its belly. In short flights may leave neck
REDDISH EGRET
stretched forward and legs dangling loosely beneath body. Rufous head and neck
Some wander inland after breeding season. indark morph.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial; often nests in mixed

colonies with other species.
• Nesting incubation 21-25
Flight Pattern
days by both sexes. Young stay
in nest 35 days, fed by both
sexes. 1 brood per year.
• Population Probably
Direct flight with steady declining due to habitat loss.
wing beats.

Nest Identification
Sticks and twigs • lined with fine twigs, grass, or leaves • usually 2-30 feet
above ground, rarely on or near ground • built by both sexes • 3—1 light bluish
Shape Location 43^ <3jfe green eggs; ovate to oval or elliptical ovate to elliptical oval, 1.7 inches long.

Plumage Sexes
simikf Habitat ^ _ Migration
Some migrate Weight
i4. 6 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 91

Family Species Len £th Win g s Pa n 46

ARDEIDAE Egvtta rufescens 27-32 inches inches

Reddish Egret rufous head and neck

appear shaggy
This coastal
inhabitant is an
uncommon to rare
egret with two
distinct color
morphs, white and
dark.The dark morph
is more common.
• SONG Generally
silent. On
nesting
grounds, low croaks and
soft clucking notes.
• Behavior a bird of
coastal salt pans and
shallow tidal flats that can
often be identified at
some distance by its unusual
feeding behavior. Often dashes
after prey,running and lurching in
firstone direction and then
another with wings jutting in and
out or held skyward in canopy Juvenile
fashion. Sometimes
feeds by stirring
bottom mud with a
foot and striking head and
escaping prey. neck appear white body

• Breeding
Similar Birds
Monogamous.
Colonial. Little Blue Heron
• Nesting
Incubation 25-26
days by both sexes.
Young
White
Morph dark blue legs
ind feet 4 Smaller; darker; lacks
rufous head; neck and
bill

tip;
dark gray u ith

greenish gray legs.

black

i
stay in nest Great Egret
42-49 days, fed by pink bill Larger; yellow bill;

with black legs and feet.

both sexes. 1 brood
black tip
per year.

Flight Pattern • Population Rare to

uncommon. Nearly killed off by
plume hunters in late 1800s.
Numbers have been increasing
gradually with complete
Direct flight with buoyant steads- protection. Current total US
wing beats.
population about 2,000 pairs.

\est Identification
Platform of sticks and grasses with little or no lining • on ground in Texas;
3-15 feet high in tree in Florida • built by both sexes • 2-7 pale blue-green
Shape ££. Location Jjj- eggs, 2 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat Migration
Most do nQt m ig rate Weight
15 9 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

A
92 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
ARDEIDAE Species
Bubulcus ibis
Length
]9 _ n inches I Wingspan
36_38 jnches

Cattle Egret
This is the only small white egret with the

combination of a yellow bill and yellow legs and

feet. Breeding adults have patches of buff-
orange on crown, nape, lower foreneck, and
back. Nonbreeding adults and immature
birds lack the buff-orange patches and
have yellow bill, legs, and feet. A
big-headed, thick-necked, short-
legged egret of the Old World
(originally found in Spain,
Portugal, and Africa), it

introduced itself to South

America in the 1880s
and to Florida by the
early 1940s. From
there it moved
over most of the
US and into
southern Canada.
• SONG Various short yelloi
croaking sounds at orange legs
breeding colonies;
otherwise silent.
• BEHAVIOR Associates with cattle,
Juvenile
horses, or other livestock in moist or dry
pastures, where it feeds primarily on large
insects disturbed by feeding livestock. Several Similar Birds

birds may accompany a single cow, often riding on its back. Also s Snowy Egret
follows tractors plowing fields to feed on the exposed insects Longer, more slender neck;
black bill and legs.
and grubs. Largely diurnal, flying at dusk to communal roosts
with other egrets, herons, and ibis to spend the night perched Little Blue Heron
"v^-n. Juvenile is larger with
in trees or shrubs. They often form the nucleus of nesting
^Y-^s. longer, more slender neck;
colonies of other species of heron and egrets, and their presence greenish gray legs and feet;
J,
may encourage the nesting of these birds in the heronries. black-tipped grayish bill.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial; often found in mixed _jf Great Egret

breeding colonies with other species. w Larger; black legs and feet.

• NESTING Incubation 21-26 days by both sexes.

Semialtricial young remain in
Flight Pattern
nest about 45 days. Fed by both
sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION North
American population increasing.
• Conservation Nesting
Direct flight with steady, rather rapid colonies protected.
wing beats.

Nest Identification
Sticks and reeds • lined with leafy green twigs • in tree or shrub • built by
female from materials gathered by male • 1-9 pale blue or light bluish green
Shape Location j^.
4jg eggs; subelliptical or elliptical, 1.9 inches long.

Plumage Sexes simi ar ,

Habitat^ k
Migration
Mi ratorv
Weight
j L9

DATE 1ME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NOR TH AMERICA • 93

Family
ARDEIDAE Species
nitrides v j mmis I
Len Sth 18-22 inches I
Wingspan
26 nchcs
;

Green Heron
Looking similar to a crow while flying, the Green
Heron has a thicker neck and more bowed wing dark rap
beats. It widely distributed heron found in
is a
almost every wetland in summer. Perhaps more
blue than green on the back, this heron has a
dark cap ending in a shaggy crest on the
occiput, with a chestnut head and neck. Its
legs appear more yellowish in nonbreeding
season. Juvenileplumage has more
brown on the upperparts, heavily
streaked underparts, a white chin
and dull yellow legs.

• SONG Bold abrasive kyowk or

skeow, sometimes soft kuck,
kuck notes.
• Behavior Diurnal
species that retires to
ground or close to it for
the night. Often walks
slowly when hunting or
stands and waits
motionless in water or
on an overhanging
perch for prey to
come close enough
for a quick strike.
When disturbed,
often nervously flicks
its short tail and
elevates shaggy crest.
Has been seen placing
food or bait in the water
deliberately to attract Little Blue Heron
Larger; longer neck
fish.Often perches in
and legs; lacks chestnut
trees and shrubs. head and neck and
• BREEDING Monogamous. pale underparts.

Usually solitary forms small colonies.

pairs; occasionally
Sometimes nests rather distant from water.

Flight Pattern
• Nesting incubation
19-25 days by both sexes.
Young remain in nest for
16-17 days, fed by both sexes.
1 or 2 broods per year.

Direct flight with ow steady arched • Population Common

wing beats.
and stable.

Nest Identification
Sticks and twigs • in tree or shrub, 5-30 feet off ground • built by both sexes
• 2-7 pale green or blue-green eggs; elliptical to subelliptical, 1.5 inches long.
Shape Location
flfe JJJ Ay ^
Plumage
Sexes sim ;, ar Habitat _ Migration
Some m ja ra te Wei § ht 7.5
ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

94 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
A RDEIDAE y xcticorax nycticorax ?5-28 inches 15 inches

Black-crowned Night-Heron
The scientific name of this bird means "Night black cap
Raven," and it refers to the nature of the bird md nape
as does the common name of Nigljt-Heron.
A stocky bird with short legs and a thick,
dark bill
short neck, it prowls freshwater pools,
marshes, and streams and coastal
estuaries across much of North
America. In flight the toes often white plumes on back crown
protrude beyond the short tail.
Juvenile plumage shows
brown above with white spots
and streaking, buff-brown
below with dark brown spots
and streaking. Juveniles
have a yellowish bill with a
dark tip and greenish
yellow legs and feet. .

• SONG Low, harsh woe

and guttural quock or quaik.
• Behavior Primarily
nocturnal. Roosts in trees by
day and actively feeds at night.
Some feed during daylight
hours. Omnivorous, feeding on
whatever is most handy. Diet
ranges from fish to mollusks, American Bittern
small rodents, frogs, snakes, Similar to juvenile

crustaceans, plant material, • thinner long yellowish

bill; dark mustache
eggs, and young birds.
stripes; lacks white
Often stands very still in spotting above.
water for long periods of
time, expertly grabbing fish that swim too
•

•
BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial.
NESTING Incubation 21-26 days by both sexes. Young stay
close.
V yellow-crowned
Night-Heron
Similar to juvenile
• more gray-brown with
smaller white spots;
in nest 28 days. Fed by both sexes. First flight at 42 days. After thick dark bill; thinner
neck; longer legs.
49 days, may follow parents to foraging areas to beg and be fed.
1 brood per year.

• Population Overall
Flight Pattern stable or increasing.
• Conservation
Benefited from general
protection by state, federal, and
conservation agencies. Loss of
Direct flight with slow steady wing beats wetland habitat affects food
supply and reproduction.

Nest Identification
Sticks, twigs, and reeds • lined with finer material • on or above ground as high
Shape as 150 feet • built by female with materials gathered by male • 1-7 pale green

Location jm — a* m ft ^> or light bluish eggs; oval, 2 inches long.

Plumage Sexes
simiiar Habitat
te _ ^_ Migration
Migratory Weight 19 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 95
Family
ARDEIDAE I
Species
yy(mutsS(l vl() lacCa Len Sth 22-28 inches Wingspan 42 ^4 ; nches

Yellow-crowned Night-Heron
At home in coastal mangroves, inland
swamps, and riparian woodlands, this
short-necked, stocky heron has a
gray body and a large black head
boldly marked with a white
cheek patch and white crown
with yellowish tints on the
forehead. During breeding
season adult males and females
have long white occipital
plumes on the back of the
head. The long yellow legs
protrude well beyond the
short tail in flight.

• SONG Short woe or

Its quak is higher and 1<

harsh than that given by

the Black-crowned
Night-Heron.
• Behavior While
mostly nocturnal, it

is often active
during the day.
Exhibits strong
preference for Black-crowned
Night-Heron-
crustaceans,
Black back; white head
although it eats a with black cap; short
variety of other yellowish legs
• juvenile has brown
aquatic organisms
crown; brown
from fish to upperparts with large
shellfish. white spots and
streaks; whitish-tan
• Breeding underparts with brown
Monogamous. streaking; short yellow-
Solitary nester or green legs and feet;
forms small loose yellowish bill with
black tip.
colonies. Also joins large
nesting colonies with
other herons and egrets, often chooses nesting site located on
periphery of the colony.
Flight Pattern
• Nesting incubation
21-25 days by both sexes.
Young remain in nest 25 days.
Fed by both sexes. Probably
1 brood per year.
Direct flight with steady deep wing beats
• Population Stable.

Nest Identification
Sticks • lined with twigs or sometimes leaves • either on ground or in tree
30-40 feet high • built by both sexes • 2-8 pale blue-green eggs; oval to long
Shape Location oval, 2 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexes similar te Mj gratory j 6 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

96 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan 38
XHRESKIORNITHIDAE Rudm a/bus ?i_?7 inches jnches

White Ibis
The all-white plumage and long reddish decurved
bill are distinctive. The color of the bill blends into J
the scarlet face of breeding birds; nonbreeding
adults show a pink to red face. In flight the black vhite plumage
wing tips are conspicuous. The juvenile White black wing tips
Ibis is the only dark ibis with white show inflight
underparts and rump.
• SONG Male emits advertising
call of hunk-hunk-hunk-hunk.
Female squeals.
li

st arlet (arc

' eddish legs

reddish decurved
bill with black tip

Feeding birds give soft grunting croo,

croo, croo frequently as they forage.
• BEHAVIOR Like other ibis, flies with neck and legs
outstretched, often in long, loose lines. Seems to prefer
marshes and pools near the coast, where it feeds by probing. ilar Birds
Primarily diurnal like other ibis. Flies to communal roosts in
Glossy Ibis
shrubs and trees in evening for the night.
White-] mkd
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Usually nests in mixed 4f Similar to juvenile but
Ibis

colonies with other wading species. differ in all plumages

• NESTING
young remain
Incubation 21-23 days by both sexes.
in nest 28-35 days. Fed by both sexes. Probably
Altricial
4 by white underparts
and rump • Glossy Ibis
range only in the East.

1 brood per year.

• Population Common to

Flight Pattern abundant in coastal marshes

but local. Range has increased,
but Florida population much
"t "T lower than previous levels.
Some heavy losses after major
Rapid wing beats followed by short glide. hurricanes destroy
Flies in straight line formation.
roosts/rookeries.

Nest Identification Sticks and sometimes cordgrass or reeds • near water, occasionally in shrub or on
low, matted vegetation • usually 7-15 feet above ground or w ater • built by

Shape ^ female from material gathered by male

blotches of brow n; subelliptical to long
• 2-4 pale blue to green-w hite eggs with

elliptical, 2.3 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei g nt

Sexes simi i ar
,

= z=sz S()mc migrate 2.3 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 97

Family Species Length 21.5-27.5 inches Wingspan 36_3

THRESKIORNITHIDAE Eudoctmus ruber 8indK .
s

Scarlet Ibis
Looking like a White Ibis dyed red, the adult is

unmistakable in scarlet plumage with black

wing tips. The decurved bill is pinkish
brown to red, and the legs and feet
are pinkish red. Origins of birds
in Florida are suspect: some
are escapees, while others
were deliberately
introduced. Some Scarlet
Ibis in Florida have
hybridized with the
closely related
White Ibis,
producing
various shades
of pink
offspring.

1 black
wing tips
conspicuous
in flight
• Song
Alarm call is a bubbling
gwe, gwe. Generally silent
except at nest where it

utters a high, thin tior-tior.

• BEHAVIOR Gregarious.
Somewhat nervous and
wary; shies away from
humans. Prefers tropical and
subtropical coastal marshes and swamps. Feeds principally on
crustaceans but also eats fish and other aquatic vertebrates.
Diurnal, flying to communal roosts in trees for the night.

Flight Pattern
' BREEDING Colonial; often
nests with other species.
• NESTING Incubation about
23 days by both sexes. Young
stay in nest 28 days.
Several rapid wing beats followed by
short glide. Flies in straight line
• Population Casual in US;
straved from South America.

Nest Identification
Frail structures built of dry sticks • placed in fork of branches • sometimes uses

abandoned nests of herons or egrets • 5-35 feet high in mangroves or in shrubs

Shape Location over or near shallow water • 2-3 dull olive-green or buff eggs.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
m — n» Migration
NJonmigratory We 'S ht 1.3 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

98 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
THRESKIORNITHIDAE piegadis falcinellus 19 _ 26 inches 36 _ 38 inches

Glossy Ibis dark iris

From a distance this large bird
with a dark decurved bill
appears dark overall in the
freshwater or saltwater
metallic green and purple
marshes it frequents, gloss on back, wings,
but closer observation head, and neck
revealsdeep
chestnut plumage
glossed with
metallic greens and
purples. The species
occurs widely in the
Old World and evidence
suggests that perhaps it

introduced itself to North

America in the 1800s. Its North
American range may be limited due to its

recent arrival on the continent, as well as

competition with the already established
White Ibis. Breeding plumaged birds
show intense green patches in their wings,
greenish legs with red joints, pale blue
around the face and blue-gray facial skin
in the loral region.

• SONG Guttural, grating croak, ka-onk.

• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Flies in lines
or groups, with individuals often changing
position in the flock. In flight the head, neck, and
legs are extended. Highly prone to wandering, thus Similar Birds
turns up from breeding range, especially
at great distances

4
White-faced Ibis
in spring. Uses long bill to probe for food, particularly crayfish Reddish legs and lores
and crabs in their holes. Also readily eats water snakes. Often bordered with white;
white line around lore
feeds with other large wading birds, including the White Ibis. encircles eye; red iris.

Flies to roost late in the day and frequently is seen roosting with
% White Ibis
other species of ibis, herons, and egrets.
/ L Juvenile • white
f
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial; often nests in mixed " underparts and rump.

colonies with other ibis, herons, and egrets.

• NESTING Incubation about

Flight Pattern
Several shallow rapid wing beats
followed by a short glide. Flies
straight line formation.
21 days, mostly by female.
Semialtricial young remain in
nest for about 28 days, fed by
both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• Population Common but
local. Greatly increased and
in
expanded during 20th century.

Nest Identification
Platform of sticks and marsh plants with depression in center • occasionally
lined with leaves • in shrubs or low trees; on the ground on islands • built by
Shape ^ Location
m Av £ both sexes • 1-5 pale blue or green eggs, 2 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
m _ Migration
Migratory Weight
Undetermined

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 99
Family
THRESKIORNITHIDAE Plegadis chilli

White-faced Ibis
This bird isalmost identical to the Glossy
Ibis in all plumages; winter-plumaged birds
and juveniles must be inspected closely to
distinguish between the two species. The
best field marks are leg and lore color
(pinkish in winter and juvenile birds, red
in breeding birds). In breeding plumage
white feathers border the lores and
extend behind the eye and under the
chin. In summer and winter, adult
White-faced Ibis has a red iris.
• SONG Feeding call is a

multisyllable oink. Also

gives low-pitched graa,
graa, graa.
• Behavior
Gregarious. Flies
in straight line
formations.
Feeds by
probing with
long bill,
eating crayfish
and other
invertebrates, as
well as frogs and fish.
Usually frequents
freshwater marshes, but
coastal birds forage in salt
marshes and include crabs in diet.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial;

often nests in mixed colonies with other ibis, herons, and egrets.
Similar Birds
• NESTING Incubation 17-26 days by both sexes. Young stay
Glossy Ibis
in nest about 28 days. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
Blue-gray lores;
• POPULATION Uncommon to fairly common, but local. dark legs; dark eye.

Local numbers fluctuate, but total North American population

has increased since the 1970s. Range also has expanded eastward.
• Conservation Serious
Flight Pattern concern in early 1970s, when
reproduction failed in many

1A1
colonies due to eggshell
thinning from pesticides
present in food chain.
Several shallow rapid wing beats followed
by short glide. Flies in straight line
formation.

Nest Identification
Bulrushes or other plant stems with depression in center • usually in thick
marsh growth or short trees • built by both sexes • 2-5 pale blue-green to dark
Shape Location turquoise eggs; mostly elliptically ovate, some' almost round; 2 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
, = _ Migration
Most m j grate Weight
l 6 pound

DATE TIME LOCATION

100 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Species
Family
T HRESKIORNITHIDAE frjaia ajaja
Length
30—40 nc j |les
Wingspan 50—
53 inches

Roseate Spoonbill
The only spoonbill native to North America, this is also the bare greenish
only large pink wading bird normally found on our southern head
coasts. Adults and juveniles alike are unmistakable with large
spatulate bills. In flight the adult bird looks almost entirely pink
and flies with its neck and legs extended. During breeding
season the head sometimes becomes a copper-buff color.
Juveniles are pale whitish overall.
• SONG Soft quacking sounds when disturbed.
• BEHAVIOR Feeds while wading in shallow
• white back
water by rhythmically sweeping its
spoonbill back and forth. Sensitive
nerve endings snap bill shut

white breast
and neck
pink rump

red coverts on wing form

ed bar on folded wing

pink wings
and underparts

pinkish red legs

and feet

on any prey encountered.

Often quite tame. Individuals and flocks frequently found in
Similar Birds
company of other wading birds.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial;
Greater Flamingo
often nests in mixed
Much larger in size;
colonies with other wading birds. entirely pink; longer

• NESTING Incubation 22-24 days by both sexes. Young stay legs and neck.

in nest35-42 days. Fed by both sexes. Capable of strong flight Scarlet ibis
iu 49-56 days. 1 brood per year. Much deeper red;
slender decurved bill.
• POPULATION Fairly common but local. Virtually eliminated
from US in 1860s as water colonies were destroyed. Recolonization
began in Texas and Florida in

Flight Pattern early 20th century. Still

Steady flapping wing beats
glides in between.
vulnerable to degradation of
feeding and nesting habitats.
• Conservation
Drainage for development and
ith short
mosquito control threatens
foraging habitat.

Nest Identification Platform with deep hollow in center • made of sticks • lined with twigs and
leaves • in mangroves, trees, and shrubs • usually 5-15 feet above ground or

Shape Location 4£ & water • built by female with material from male
brown and occasionally wreathed, 2.6 inches long.
• 1-5 white eggs, spotted with

Plumage Sexcs simUar Habitat^ Migration

Some migrate Weight Undetermined

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 101

Family Species Length

4 g_ 57 inchcs Wingspan
ClCX)NIIDAE Jabiru mycteria 9() inches

Jabiru
With long neck and legs, this
its

wader one of the largest flying

is naked black head
birds. Unlike herons the Jabiru and neck
always flies with its neck fully
extended forward and its legs
extended behind. Long, broad
wings are used for soaring.
During breeding season the
Jabiru 's red pouch brightens
and inflates. This huge stork
is one of those rare to casual

visitors you should look for

in south Texas, where it
may occur in the company
ofWood Storks. Like them,
the head and neck are
naked, but they differ in
showing an entirely white
plumage. Juvenile has a
sooty-brown head with a
mottled brownish, gray and
white body.
• SONG Typically silent.
Utters low grunt and hisses.
Rattles bill to communicate.
• Behavior Eats fish,
eels, amphibians, small
mammals, snakes, and birds.
Juvenile
Stalks prey and stabs it with bill

before eating. Usually solitary or

in pairs; not in flocks. Wary.
Frequents extensive marshy savannas, Similar Birds
swampy woodlands, and sometimes Wood Stork
agricultural areas such as rice fields. Smaller; no red neck

• BREEDING Monogamous. Loosely

Breeding colonial. pouch; black tail and
flight feathers.
depends on water levels and may vary from year to year. Nests
during the dry season in Central and South America.
• NESTING No information

Flight Pattern
available. Does not breed in
North America.
• POPULATION Rare to
accidental in south Texas and
Oklahoma. Population declines
Flaps with slow deep wing beats often
in breeding range due to habitat
followed by short glide. Soars and circles
like a hawk on thermals and updrafts. loss and shooting.

Nest Identification
Sticks • huge; bird adds to it year after year • high in trees • 2-4 whitish eggs.
Shape ^fc, Location
£
Plumage Habitat Migration Wei § ht
Sexes simi j ar te Migratory 15.2 pound*

DATE TIME LOCATION

102 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan 65 inches
QCONIIDAE Mycteria americana 35 _45 inches

Wood Stork bare gray head

Numbers of the only stork that breeds and upper neck
in North America are much reduced
from their former levels. This large
bird of southern wetlands and swamps
appears all white on the ground,
except for its bare grayish "flinthead" duck gray-brown
decurved bill
and upper neck, blackish gray legs
with pink feet, and a black tail. In
flight the trailing edge of the
wings is black. Storks fly with
legs and neck extended. Some
wander northward after the
breeding season in late
summer and are irregularly JUVENILE
recorded north to California,
Tennessee, and Massachusetts; Similar Birds
casually as far north as
Great Egret
southern Canada. Many retreat Slender w hite neck;
to Florida in winter. feathered head;
yellow beak.
• SONG Usually silent. Adults
clatter and snap bills during american
White Pelican
courtship and copulation. Adults
Short legs don't trail
also infrequently produce airy, behind white tail;

low, rasping fizz or hiss much longer orange

beak; shorter neck.
reminiscent of Turkey Vulture.
• BEHAVIOR Walks or wades White Ibis
Smaller; entirely
in shallow water up to its belly
white except for red
with head down when feeding. legs, feet, face, and
Reproductive cycles triggered decurved bill with
black tip • in flight,
by drying up of waterholes
body appears white
that concentrate fish in with black wing tips;
sufficient numbers for red features may look

efficient feeding of young. dark • flight pattern

differs, with several
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. rapid wing beats
• NESTING Incubation 27-32 days by both sexes. Young stay alternating with a
glide.
in nest 55-60 days. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year likely.

• POPULATION Fairly common. Destruction of habitat and

disruption of water flow through
Flight Pattern south Florida major causes of
decline. Recently shifted range
to South Carolina.
• Conservation
Alternates between strong flapping flight
Endangered in US due to loss

and gliding. Masterful at soaring, riding of breeding habitat.

high on rhermals.

Nest Identification
Large sticks • lined sparsely with fine materials and green leaves • 50-80 feet
above ground in large cypress trees standing in water • built by both sexes
Shape • 2-5 whitish eggs, elliptical to subelliptical, 2.7 inches long.

Plumage Sexes
similar Habitat
m Migration
Nonmigratory Wei ^ ht 6.0 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 103

Family
CATHARTIDAE Species r oragyps atratus
Length 23-27 inches Wingspan 54 _ 60 inchcs

Black Vulture
Alternating between several quick flaps
and a short sail on flat wings, this bird wrinkled grayish
seems to labor on the wing more black skin on
sooty black
than the Turkey Vulture that it head and neck
plumage
superficially resembles. In flight
the wings are wide, with the six
outermost primaries showing white
bases beneath. The tail of this
vulture is short and squared, barely
extending beyond the wing, and the
feet often protrude beyond it.

long gray-
white legs and
gray-white feet

• SONG silent, but when competing

Usually
for food it makes grumbling, barking, and hissing noises. Similar Birds
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or found in small to large groups. Often
roosts
in
communally. Diet consists primarily of carrion. Aggressive
it often dominates carrion when other
nature for a vulture,
species are present. Sometimes attacks and kills prey. It spreads
its wings when on the roost, especially in the morning, to catch
* _
Turkey Vulture
Bare red head (black on
juvenile); long
rectangular tail;

wings from below

2-toned

(black in front, silver-

the ultraviolet rays of the sun.
gray trailing edge);
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. holds wings in dihedral
when soaring.
• NESTING Incubation 37-48 days by both sexes. Semialtricial
young remain in nest 80-94 days, and are fed by both sexes.
1 brood per year.

Flight Pattern • Population Fairly

common to common. Decline in
f f > A the Southeast has been due to
the loss of safe nesting habitat.
Overall, there has been a slight
Several quick deep wing beats folk increase in the Northeast as
by a glide; soars on thermals.
range has expanded.

Nest Identification No nest • lives in dark recesses or under cover in caves, hollow logs, stumps,
tree trunks, or abandoned buildings • 2 light grayish green or bluish white
Shape eggs, usually marked with brown or lavender; elliptical ovate or elongate
Location ovate, 3 inches long.

Plumage Weight 4
Sexes similar Habitat Migration
g ome m j grate 8 pound .

DATE TIME. LOCATION

104 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len eth Win g s P an 68-72
CATHARTIDAE Cathartes aura 26-32 inches inches

Turkey Vulture brown-edged

upperwing
Commonly known as a "buzzard,"
this bird ranges throughout the
United States and into southern
Canada and south to South
America. It gets its name
from the red skin on its
head and dark body
feathers that resemble
a turkey. This
carrion feeder is

perhaps most
often seen in
flight, when
itstwo-tone
wings, black in
front and silver-
gray flight
feathers behind, are most
visible.Soaring birds hold their wings Black Vulture
Very black, including
above their backs in a shallow V called a
head and stubby tail;
dihedral and rock from side to side as if pale longer whiter legs often
fleshy protrude beyond
unsteady in the air. tail in
white h flight; white primaries
• SONG Usually silent. Makes hisses,
under wing tip; flaps
grunts, or growls around food. and glides more.
• BEHAVIOR Circles just above treetops Golden Eagle
and up to 200 feet high, searching for prey, by Much larger; looks

smell and sight. Birds gather quickly after an

animal dies. F eeds primarily on fresh or rotten
a heavier; shorter fan-
shaped tail;

feathered head; large

larger

carrion. Also eats roadkill (many become victims strongly hooked yellow
to autos themselves); stillborn livestock and beak; flies with w ings
held in flat plane.
afterbirth; and dead young of egrets, herons, Juvenile
ibis, and similar species, Has been
at heronries. Zone-tailed Hawk

A
Black; feathered head;
known to eat vegetables and even pumpkins if shortage bold white tail bands;
of food. Master at soaring. Often roosts communally at night. barred black flight
• BREEDING Monogamous. feathers; yellow cere,
legs, and feet.
• NESTING Incubation 38-41 days by both sexes.
Semialtricial young stay in nest 66-88 days; both sexes feed by
regurgitating. 1 brood per year

Flight Pattern • Population Common.

Very slight overall increase.
f ^
f A, • Conservation
Remarkably resistant to most
diseases, especially those likely
Circles with wings in shallow V and rocks
unsteadily; moderately slow steady wing to be present in carrion.
beats w hen not soaring.

Nest Identification
Bare floors of caves, rock outcroppings, hollow trees, empty buildings, and rocks
Shape »y on cliffs • 1-3 w hite or cream eggs, often splashed with brow n: subelliptical.

Location _^ ^ jj^ Jg ^
long oval, or elliptical, 2.8 inches long.

Plumage Scxcs ± Migration

Migratory We 'S nt 3.2 pound
pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 105

Length Wingspan
Family
PHOENICOPTERIDAE Species
pfroenicopterus tuber 36_50 nches
; 6Q inchcs

Greater Flamingo
Also known as the American Flamingo, this shy bird is
distinguished by its unique bill, long neck, long legs, and
brilliant pink color. The brightest pink coloring can be
found on the undersurface of the wing, on the axillars and
underwing coverts. The flamingo is an excellent swimmer, flattened, bent pink
but it usually is observed on extensive mudflats or wading bill with black tip
in the shallows adjacent to them, with its bill, and and creamy pink base

sometimes head, submerged as it slowly walks ahead

filtering food from the ooze.
• SONG Honking and cackling. Low onk and ohrn
and higher aah AAH aah. A flock sounds gooselike or
like a group of frogs calling.
• BEHAVIOR water of any wading
Feeds in
very long neck
depth. Immerses water and sucks up
bill in

organically rich bottom ooze from which it

filters out edible content with its bill

and tongue. Feeds primarily on

pale scapulars
planktonlike macroscopic
organisms, including algal
material, bacteria diatoms
plankton, tiny fish, and
brine fly larvae.
• Breeding
Monogamous. long pink

4»
Social -•
legs with
and colonial.
darkerjoints
• Nesting
Incubation 28-32 days by
Juvenile
both sexes. Fed by both sexes
3-4 days with nutritious red liquid
Similar Birds
secreted by glands in parents' digestive tract. Chicks then are
herded into a group called a creche. Young have short straight Roseate Spoonbill
Long, straight greenish
bills first 40 days. First flight at 75-77 days.
gray spa tu lute bill;

• POPULATION Casual in south Florida; accidental greenish gray bare

head; white back,
elsewhere, principally on Texas coast. Most records in US may
neck, and breast;
be escapees from captivity, especially those in Florida, but there shorter legs and neck.
is a very small nesting population of unknown origins in Florida

Bay. Caribbean population rose from 12,000 birds in 1971 to

26,000 in the mid-1980s,

Flight Pattern probably due to protection of

the primary nesting and
wintering grounds.
"T "T "T • Conservation Some
protection in Caribbean
Direct flight with rapid wing beats in long
lines w ith neck extended forward and legs breeding areas, but much
trailing. Flies in straight line formation. greater efforts are needed.

Nest Identification
Raised cone-shaped nest of mini on mudflats • built by female w ith assistance
from male • cone usually o-18 inches high and 17-20 inches in diameter at base
Shape with hollowed top • may be 2 feet apart or closer • usually chalky white egg.
1

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei e ht 7.8
pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

106 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Len ^th 19-22 inches Win gspan
Family
ANATIDAE species Dendrocygna autumnalis 34 _36 inches

Black-bellied Whistling-Duck
This gooselike duck with long
legs and neck is much more
common in the American
• white eye ring
tropics. In flight its long
white wing patch contrasts gray ish white face

sharply with the black

flight feathers, and the
bright chestnut
reddish feet protrude back
beyond the black tail.
It is the only North

American duck with an

entirely red spatulate
bill. Juveniles are paler
above and below,
lacking the black belly
and having bars of black
bright •
mottling on their sides, chestnut neck
flanks, and lower and breast
bellies; bills are gray.
white wing
• SONG High-pitched
patch
4-note whistle, pe-che-
che-ne or wha-chew-whe-
whe-whein\ often is given
in flight.

• Behavior often in
small groups. Flocks on
shallow water; perches in trees.
Feeds primarily at night.
Frequently retreats to woodlands Juvenile
when disturbed; easily maneuvers
between trees. Primary diet aquatic Similar Birds
vegetation, cultivated grains, and seeds.
Fulvous
• BREEDING Monogamous. Whistling-Di ck
• NESTING Incubation 25-30 days by both sexes, but SL» Gray and feet;
bill, legs,

paler brown plumage;

primarily by male. Young precocial; leave nest 18-24 hours after
lacks black belly.
hatching. Tended by both sexes for at least 144 days. Possibly
2 broods per year. "Dump" nests produced by more than one female
laying eggs in a single nest are

Flight Pattern
common, which results in
documented nests containing
more than 100 eggs.
• Population Uncommon
to casual. Local.

Direct flight with strong rapid wing beats. • BlRDHOUSES Will nest in
tree boxes.

Nest Identification
8-30 feet above ground in elms, willows, and other trees • also on ground
among rushes, weeds, or grasses near water's edge • built by female
Shape S»
§ • 12-16 white or creamy white eggs, 2 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexes simiiar 4 Mj gratory { 8 pound

DATE TIME LOCATION

 '

BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 107

Family Species Len 2th Win gspan

ANATIDAE Oendrocygna bicolor 1 8-2 1 i nches 36 inches

Fulvous Whistling-Duck
In
this
One
in
its

duck
upright stance with
is somewhat gooselike
its

of the most widely distributed waterfowl

the world, this rich fulvous brown duck
resembles no other North American
duck on land or water. It flies with a
long legs and neck,
in appearance.
tawny-fulvous
head and neck
V
noticeable droop in its long neck
dark cap and
and with legs and feet extended line extending
beyond the tail. Its white down midline
rump patch contrasts of hindneck

against the black tail. brownish black back

with feathers edged
tawny-brown

black tail

tawny-fulvous
vhite rump vhite slashes
underparts
sides

• SONG High squeaking ^-syllable whistle, pe-chee, usually is given

while bird is in flight.

• BEHAVIOR Feeds at night. Walks on land. Eats grass and

Similar Birds
weed seeds. Forages in fields for waste grain; seems to be
particularly fond of rice. Roosts by day in dense vegetation. BLACK-BELLIEO
Whistling-Duck cf
Often found in large flocks. Bold white wing stripe
• BREEDING Monogamous. in flight; black belly;
red bill, legs, and feet.
• NESTING Incubation 24-26 days by both sexes. Young stay
in nest 55-63 days. Young tended by both sexes but find own food
1 brood per year

Flight Pattern • Population Uncommon

to fairly common locally.

T Decline

•
in
in Southeast.

Conservation
Southwest; increase

Direct heronlike flight with slow deep

Considered a "pest" species by
wing beats.
some rice farmers in the South.

Nest Identification Woven grass, sedges, and cattails • no down added • on ground next to water or
in dense marsh justabove water in bulrushes or dense beds of cattails • rarely in
Shape «-«<vQ 2
tree cavity • built by female • 12-14 white or buff-white eggs; bluntly ovate,

Location _^ £ short ovate, or oval; 2.1 inches in diameter.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexes simi , ar Mj gratory j 6 pounc i s

DATE TIME LOCATION

108 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len §th Wingspan 13 _i inches
ANATIDAK frnser brachyrhynchi 26 inches 7

Pink-footed Goose
This conspicuous short-necked, stubby-billed, pink-legged
dark brown
native of Greenland often feeds in flocks with birds of head and neck
other species. During migration vagrants
have made their way to the North . hort
American Atlantic Coast. In bluish gray mantle tubby neck

flight the blue-gray mantle

and upperwing coverts
contrast with the

pale gray
base of tail

pale feather tips white belly

produce barring on
flanks and uppe/ parts

darker head and

neck. Undertail coverts
are white. Juveniles are
darker brown with a more scaly
appearance on the sides, flanks, and back.
• SONG litters harsh high musical honking notes ung-unk or
Similar Birds
wink, wink.
Greater White-
• BEHAVIOR In family groups; young feed close to parents.
fronted Goose
Often join flocks of other species. In summer feeds on grass and Larger pink to orange
aquatic vegetation; in winter eats grains, grasses, and potatoes. bill;orange legs and
feet; distinct white
Breeds on open tundra and rocky country. Some winter in
patch at base of bill;
British Isles and western Europe on farmland in salt marshes. shows dark mottled
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial or semicolonial. patches on belly.

• NESTING Incubation 26-27 days by female. Precocial young

leave nest soon after hatching.

Flight Pattern
Tended by both sexes. First
flight at about 56 days. 1 brood
per year.
• Population Rare to
accidental straggler to
Swift purposeful direct flight with strong Newfoundland and northern
wing beats. Flies in V formation.
Atlantic Coast.

Nest Identification
Shall< / scrape on ground • lined with moss and down fro female
eggs; ibelliptical, 3.1 inches long.
Shape Location

Plumage
Sexes si ,
Habitat
^ Migration
Migratory Weighty pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 109

Family Species Length _34 nc h es Wingspan 53 _62 nchc

An[ATIDAE A mer albifront I
?6 j i

Greater White-fronted Goose

The only North American goose with the
dark brownish
combination of a white face at the base of gray head, neck, vhite on front of
the bill, dark barring on the belly, and and upperparts head and around
orange -yellow legs and feet. In flight the base of bill extends
to forehead
blue-gray wing coverts contrast with the
brown body and U-shaped rump patch, and
pink bill
the "specklebelly" is easily seen. Huge
with wh ite tip
numbers winter on the eastern Great
Plains. Individuals or small flocks,
often mixed in with other
species of geese, may
show up

brownish gray
underparts with heavy
dark mottling and barring

Similar Birds

Snow Goose
Juvenile dark morph
has dark legs and bill;

lacks white on face;

anywhere lacks dark barring on
in eastern undei parts.
Canada or the Empkror Goose
northeastern US Juvenile has dark bill;

outside their normal range. lacks dark barring on

belly • western range.
• SONG High-pitched laughing
kah-lah-aluek and loud wah-wah-wah. Bean Goose

• BEHAVIOR Dabbles and walks well on land. Feeds on

grasses, grain, aquatic plants, and insects. Favors freshwater
pools, lakes, and marshes. In winter found in grasslands and
J Black bill with yellow
band near tip; gray-
brown overall; darker
brown on upperparts;
orange feet and legs;
agricultural fields. Flies high in V formations with clamorous whitish center to belly
"talking" among individuals in flock. • western range.

• BREEDING Monogamous.
• Nesting incubation
22-28 days by female. Young
Flight Pattern
precocial; first flight at

"1 *"* ± 38-49 days. Tended by both

sexes. 1 brood per year.
• Population Common to
Steady direct flight with rapid ing beats. fairly common. Midcontinent
Flies in V formation.
numbers increasing.

Nest Identification
Plant material and down • on ground near water in open, wet tundra • built by-

female • 3-6 buff, cream, pinkish white, or nest-stained eggs; elliptical to ovoid,
Shape 3.1 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexes Mi gratory 6 0 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

110 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species chen caeru iescens Length Wingspan
ANATIDAE I
2 5-3 1 inches inches

Snow Goose
This species comprises two color morphs that, until the last
quarter of the 20th century, were considered separate species:
Snow Goose for the white morph and Blue Goose for the dark
or blue morph. The plumage of thcwhite morph is entirely
white in adults except for black primary feathers. Blue
morph adults have a white head and neck with a dusky
gray-brown body and white tail coverts.
• SONG Shrill falsetto notes and occasional softened
honk. High-pitched nasal barking continuously in
chorus in flight.
• BEHAVIOR Flies in bunched flocks or in broad
U formations. Dabbler that walks easily on land.
Grazes on tender shoots, waste grain, and other
vegetable matter. Color morphs tend to
segregate on breeding
grounds, but mixed f P^k bill

partners sometimes
do pair and nest.
• Breeding
Monogamous.
Colonial; densities black
of up to 1,200 pairs "grinning
per square mile. patch " on
cutting edges
• NESTING of mandibles
Incubation
23-25 days by
female. Precocial
young leave nest Ross's Goose
soon after hatching, Smaller; short, stubby
tended by both bill: rounder head; lacks

parents. First flight 2pr grinning patch.

at 38-49 days. Emperor Goose

Similar to blue morph
1 brood per year. White morph Dark morph • black throat and
• Population Very juvenile juvenile
foreneck; bright orange-
common abundant.
to yellow legs and feet
• western range.
Increasing overall, with blue morph increasing and white morph
decreasing because of selection by predators on breeding
grounds and hunters on
wintering grounds.
Flight Pattern
• Conservation Some
T management in certain areas
breeding range to prevent
overpopulation and destruction
of

Strong direct flight with moderate of habitat by increased

wing beats.
populations.

Nest Identification
Built by female • filled with mosses • lined with grasses and down • 3-5 white
or nest-stained eggs, 3.2 inches long.
Shape Location «— ±dUi

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight Undetermined

Sexes similar Mi gratory

DATE TIME LOCATION

 1

BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 1 1

Family Species Length Wingspan 47 _ 54 inches

ANA DAK I I Chen rossii 21-26 inches I

Ross's Goose
Often seen with the Snow Goose, North
Americas smallest goose is said to have a gentle
expression. Like the Snow Goose, Ross's Goose
round head
has both a white morph and a very uncommon
blue morph. can be distinguished from the
It

Snow Goose from a distance by its smaller size

and shorter neck and at closer range by its
stubby triangular bill, which lacks the short neck
tubby,
"grinning patch." In flight it has
triangular, deep
faster wing beats than the pinkish red bill
Snow Goose. with warty
bluish base
black
wing tips

snow-white body

• SONG Low throaty

kug or weak kek, kek or
ke-gak, ke-gak. Similar to
call of smaller races of
Canada Goose. Blue
• Behavior Eats fresh morph
grasses and grains. Often
can be seen feeding with Similar Birds
Snow Geese. Snow Goose
|
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. 1
Longer neck and bill;

i» has "grinning patch"

• NESTING Incubation 21-24 days by female. Tended by both on cutting edge of bill;
sexes. First flight at 40-45 days. 1 brood per year. flatter head; rusty
• POPULATION uncommon
migration and outside
Rare to in stains often visible on
face in summer; slower
its wintering grounds Mexico, and the states
in California, New wing beats.
along the lower Mississippi River. Fairly common on its
breeding grounds.
• Conservation Numbers
Flight Pattern were decimated by market
hunting, especially in
California, until it was regulated
early in the 20th century.
Populations increased in the last
Rapid direct flight w th strong wing beats. half of the 20th century.
Flies in V formation.

Nest Identification
Soft grasses, moss, and twigs • lined with small amount of down • bui

by female • 4-5 white eggs; subelliptical, 2,9 x 1.9 inches.

Shape -+3r- Location

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat __^ m Migration
Migraitory We| S nt
3.7 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

112 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Branta Length Wingspan 75 inches
ANATIDAE (Ylfl(U/ells js I
2 5-+5 inches I

Canada Goose
Found in every province and state at some time of
the year, this is the most andcommon, familiar,

widespread goose in North America. Breeding

programs in the 20th century established or
reestablished populations in the southern part
of the range. Size varies tremendously over
the vast range, from 22-inch Mallard-sized
geese reaching 45
arctic birds to giant
inches and weighing 24 pounds.
• SONG Small races make
high rapid cackle; large
races make deep, musical
honk-a-lonk.
• Behavior
Mates for life.
Unlike most
waterfowl but
like most
other geese,
family units
remain together
through winter
and until they
return to breeding
grounds. Dabblers
and grazers; walk
well on land. Feeds
on variety of aquatic
and terrestrial plants -*
*4 Jk.
Similar Birds
• Breeding Brant
Monogamous. Lacks w hite chin strap;

• Nesting incubation black breast.

25-30 days by female. Young leave nest at 1-2 days. Barnacle Goose
Entirely white face;
First flight at 42-49 days for smaller races, 56-63 days for larger
black breast; w hite
races. Young feed themselves with parents' help.
sides • eastern range.
• POPULATION Common to abundant. Species as a whole
probably still increasing.
• CONSERVATION Widely
Flight Pattern harvested as a game bird; highly
managed on breeding grounds,
wintering areas, and migratory
staging areas. Widely
introduced to establish new
Strong direct flight with deep wing populations or restore
Flies in V formation.
extirpated ones.

Nest Identification
Sticks, grass, weeds, and moss • lined with down • on slightly elevated dry

Shape <ss» <v ground near water • will nest on man-made structures and nest platforms
• built by female • 4-7 white, nest-stained eggs, 2.9 inches in diameter.
Location «««« ]^ jg

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat ^ ,.
Migration
Migratory
Weight
8.4 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 1 13

Family
ANATIDAE Species
Branm hern ida
Length
22 _ 26 inches
Wingspan 43 ^ 8 inchcs

Brant
A tundra species most often seen wintering along sea
coasts, this small short-necked goose is not much
larger than a Mallard. The two
races in North
America Both have dark
differ in appearance.
brow n backs, but whereas the western bird
has a dark belly, the eastern form has a paler
one and its white patches do not meet at
the front of the neck. In both plumages
the white rump is conspicuous in flight.
• SONG Call is throaty
drawled c-r-r-onk, crr-ronk.

• Behavior often flies low in

ragged bunches with position of
birds changing often and
without appearance of
a leader. Incubating white scalloped
patch on sides of
upper neck

birds sit
head, neck,
tightlyon
and breast
nest and lie low
with neck and head
stretched flat, blending
with surrounding tundra. dusky brown bars <

on sides andflanks Similar Birds

Relatively tame. Feeds
primarily on vegetable matter. Canada Goose
Larger; longer neck;
• BREEDING Monogamous. large white "chin stra
Mates for life. Forms loose colonies. pale brown breast.

• NESTING Incubation 22-26 days by female. First Barn kcle Goose

flight at 40-50 days. Tended by both sexes. Whitish face and suit

• POPULATION Common and local. May be declining.

• CONSERVATION A die-off of eelgrass, a major source of food
for the Brant,on the Atlantic
Flight Pattern Coast in the 1930s had
serious impact on population.
No long-term damage
reported, because the Brant
switched to another food
Heavy direct flight with strong wing beats. source. Eelgrass made a
Flies in straight line formation.
partial recovery.

Nest Identification
Shallow bowl of grass and other materials • heavily lined with down • on small
island in tundra pond, usually 1-5 miles from coast • built by female •
Shape 1-7 creamy white or buff eggs; subelliptical to elliptical, 2.9 inches in diameter.

Plumage
Sexes simj j ar
Habitat
^ Migration
Migra . We 'g ht 3.0 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

114 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Length Wingspan 52 _ 56 inches
Family
AN ATI DAE Species
ft ranfa leucopsis 23 _ 28 inches

Barnacle Goose
A stray from its breeding grounds in eastern
white face, forehead,
Greenland to the north Atlantic Coast, this bird is
(in (I chin
kept by waterfowl fanciers, so birds^ observed
inland are possible escapees. In flight birds
show a U-shaped white rump patch and
silvery underwing linings, and they are
clamorous with hoarse barking
terrier-like calls.
• SONG High piercing
yelps. Frequently hisses
when disturbed.
• Behavior
Terrestrial species
that grazes
^jjjjla

primarily
near seacoasts
and in pastures,
and
grain fields,
Brant
meadows. Often places
nests on inaccessible rock -4 Canada Goose
Dark under wing,
forehead, and face;
shelves on on rocky pillars that are safe from many
cliffs or
sides not w hite.
predators, which makes escape from nest difficult to impossible
for young. Adults reported to transport young from nest to
ground or water in their bills or on their backs.
• BREEDING Monogamous.
Scattered colonies.
Flight Pattern
• Nesting incubation
24-25 days.
• POPULATION Casual to
accidental; occasionally strays
Strong direct flight with steady wing toNorth America from
beats. Flies in V formation.
Greenland and Siberia.

Nest Identification
Lined with feathers and down • in sand or on rock, often far from saltwater
Shape • 4—6 gray-white to yellowish eggs.

Location
^
Plumage
Sexes si m tar
j
Habitat n^js Migration
Migratory
Wei § nt 3.9 pounds

DATE TIME. LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 115

Family
An ATI DAK Species
Cygnm ohr Length
%_62 i nc hes Wi ^gspan
7 _ s feet

Mute Swan naked black lores

Affluent residents and urban parks introduced this
European swan to the environs of the Hudson River
and Long Island through gardens, pools, and ponds.
It has become established primarily along the

north Atlantic Coast from southern New all-white plumage

England to Virginia and secondarily
around the Great Lakes (where there
are now coordinated efforts to
reduce its numbers). Adults, ^- orange bill
with large black
with their graceful S-curved basal knob
necks, erected wing
feathers, and black- ^^>^.
-• long neck
knobbed orange bills,
x often held in
are unmistakable on S curce
the water.
• SONG Variety of
hisses, barks, and
snorts. Generally
silent although not
really "mute."
• Behavior
Decorative and graceful
on water but awkward on
land. Feeds by thrusting
its long neck down to collect

aquatic plants from bottom or

tips up. in defense
Aggressive Similar Birds

of territory, attempts to drive away any large bird

it
1) Tundra Swan
or animal (humans and dogs included). Prefers Winters in range of
introduction • black
freshwater, salt marshes, and protected bays.
bill without knob;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Forms long-term JUVENILE naked yellow lores

pair bonds. Pair defends large territory. Rarely (not all birds); holds
neck straight upright
nests in colonies.
and bill parallel to
• NESTING Incubation 35-38 days by both sexes, but female water; does not

does more. Precocial young tended by both sexes but feed elevate secondaries
when swimming.
themselves. First flight at 100-155 days.
• POPULATION Introduced, naturalized, and locally common.
Increasing by expansion from
Flight Pattern contiguous areas of release.
• Conservation Exotic
species; native of Eurasia.
Efforts to systematically remove
or reduce populations in some
Direct flight with strong steady wing beats. areas because of fear of
competition with native species.

Nest Identification
Plant material in mound • lined with down • on shoreline, small island, or

mound built up in shallows • built by both sexes • 4-8 light gray or bluish green
Shape eggs; subelliptical, 4.5 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat _ ^te Migration
Nonmigratory We 'g ht 26.0 pound

DATE TIME LOCATION

116 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len Sth Wingspan (>_ 8
ANATI DAE Cygnm buainator 58-72 inches 5 feer

Trumpeter Swan
The largest waterfowl in North America is also the largest
swan in the world. The species was on the brink of extinction
around 1900 due to egg and feather^collection as well as the
unlimited shooting of these birds. The population at that
time is estimated to have been as low as a thousand
individuals. Saving this species was one of the most bill held
notable conservation efforts of the 20th century. naked black lore,
parallel to
water when
• SONG Resonating honking notes; far-reaching taper into point
at eye andform swimming
deep rasping ko-ho. Often compared to old-
V at forehead <

fashioned oo-ga horns of vintage autos. Given

frequently in flight and while swimming.
• BEHAVIOR Dabbler; plunges head and
long neck deep into water to tear away
aquatic plants from bottom; sometimes
digs up tuberous roots with feet.

Defends large territory. Favors freshwater

lakes, ponds, and rivers; sometimes retreats to Tl \I)K\ S\\ \\
Smaller: black lore
coastal bays in winter.
tapers to point in front
• BUI'TDING Monogamous. Forms long-term "eye and goes straight

pair bonds. Solitary nester. JUVENILE across forehead; yellow

spot often present in
• NESTING Incubation 32-37 days, mostly by female. front of eye; rounded
Precocial young tended by both sexes. First flight at head without flat slope

91-1 10 days. 1 brood per year. bill to forehead.

• POPULATION Fairly common in breeding range. Numbers are

low, perhaps 6,000 birds, but
Flight Pattern stable or increasing.
• Conservation Some
T small local flocks stable,
threatened, or extirpated

Strong direct
because of changes in land use.
flight with sic. d\ wing
beats. Flights in cither straight line or Reintroduction into some
V formation. former ranges still underway.

Nest Identification Low mound of plain material on floating platform • on top of muskrat and
beaver lodges • made of bulrushes, reed grasses, and sedges • surrounded by
water • built by both sexes • 2-13 cream, white, or nest-stained eggs;
Shape
subelliptical to long elliptical, 4.4 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexes simi , ar Mi grat ory 25.1 pound

DATE riME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 117

Species Length Wingspan 6_ fcct

Family
ANATIDAE Cyg//us l0 /lim /, u//llls I
47 _ S8 inches I

Tundra Swan yellow to orange spot in

front of ere (most hi ids
The most common and widespread sw an in
North America, this species breeds on arctic
tundra and winters principally on the Atlantic and
Pacific Coasts. Wintering concentrations on some
coastal bays and lakes are spectacular in scope black bill with

and activity. Swans are often associated with slightly concave

profile to
water; they are exceptionally fast swimmers. rounded head
When flying they are large spectacular birds with
long triangular wings, snow white to the tips of
black lores pointed
all flight feathers. The thin outstreached neck to just in front o f eye
appears like a line more than half the length in dke straight line

of the body, with a black point at the end. across forehead

• SONG Clamoring notes or yodeling;

soft musical laughter, wow-HOW-ow,
heavily accented on second
syllable; repeated who-who's.
• BKHAYIOR Dabbler;
plunges long neck and entirely white body
head beneath water
to pick aquatic

JUVENILE

Similar Birds
vegetation and dig up roots of submerged plants. Like other
swans, runs across water beating wings to achieve takeoff.
its
Trumpeter swan 9 &
Once in flight flies with neck and head thrust straight forward
and feet protruding beneath tail.
1 Larger;
flat

spot
bill slopes into
forehead; no yellow
in front of eye; black

• BREEDING The Tundra Swan is monogamous. It finds a lores taper to point

touching eye and form V
mate and pairs for life. It is also known to be a solitary nester
across forehead; pink
that is widespread over the tundra. "smile line."

• NESTING Incubation 31—K) days, mostly by female.

Precocial young tended by both
sexes. First flight at 60-70 days.
Flight Patter n
1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Common on
f breeding range. Common to
rare on wintering range.
Strong direct flight with steady wing Increasing.
beats. Flies in straight line or V formation.

Nest Identification
Low mound of plant material such as mosses, dried grasses, and sedges • near
lake or other open water on ridge or island • built by both sexes, but male does
Shape more • 4-5 creamy white or nest-stained eggs; elliptically ovate, 4.2 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei § ht

Sexes sim ;, ar Migratory 1S.7 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

118 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan 7 _g fee£
AN ATI DAE Cygnm cyg^s 60 jnches

Whooper Swan
This Eurasian counterpart of the Trumpeter Swan is known for its loud
buglelike call. In ancient times the Icelanders thought Whooper Swans
had miraculous abilities and that once their eggs hatched the adult birds
flew to the moon. Like some swans this bird holds its neck stiff and
straight while swimming, exhibiting the black-tipped yellow bill. large swatch

The yellow of the bill extends forw ard below the nostril in an of lemon-
yellow at
acute wedge. Bewick's Swan, a Eurasian race of the base of bill
Tundra Swan that also may be seen on the Aleutian extends out
Islands, is similar but smaller, with a concave to form acute
long neck •
culmen and a straight to obtuse angle
between the black and yellow white overall •

flattened,
blunt black bill

parts of the bill. Immature Whooper Swans

Similar Birds
are a dusky gray color. They have black-
tipped bills with a pink patch on the base of ev Trumpeter swan
Sloping forehead; solid
the bill that appears in the same shape as the Jj
black bill and bare skin
yellow patch on the bill of the adult bird. coming to a point at eye
• SONG Loud beautiful buglelike call, gang-go • immature has pinkish
brown bill; gray-brown
gang-go or hoo-hoo-hoo. Noisiest of all the swans.
overall • voice differs; gives
• BEHAVIOR Juvenile
Eats invertebrates and water a deep honking.
plants. Feeds by dipping head and neck in water. p» Tundra Swan
Does not dive. Wings whistle in flight. Takes off from water Smaller; bill entirely black

after running on surface while flapping wings. and dorsal surface (culmen)
*" slightly concave; black facial
• BREEDING Monogamous; may pair for life. Solitary. skin tapers to point in front
• NESTING Incubation 35 days by female. Precocial young of eye and cuts straight
across forehead; yellow spot
leave nest shortly after hatching. Tended by both sexes. First
in front of eye.
flight at 78-96 days. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Accidental to casual in North America in the
Aleutians; has nested on Attu.
Flight Pattern Records on US Pacific Coast
south to California may be
either wild birds or escapees
from captivity.
• CONSERVATION
Unhurried rapid direct flight with deep Hunting the Whooper Swan
strong wing beats. Flies in V formation.
is prohibited by law.

Nest Identification
Heap of moss, reeds, or grass • on shallow water or hidden island • 4-6 large
yellowish white eggs; subelliptical, 4.4 inches long.
Shape
^ Location

Plumage
Sexes simi{ar Habitat _M Migration
Migratory Weight
20 .6 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 1
BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 1 19

Family Species Length Wingspan 54_ 6() nchc

ANATIDAE atrtna
Caifii moschata 25_35 inches ;

Muscovy Duck
Widely domesticated and gooselike, Muscovy Ducks appear
heavy and laboring when flying, with the body low and head
held high. White upper and lower wing coverts are conspicuous
in flight. Males are much larger than females and have bare
facial skin, a black to reddish knob at the base of the bill,
a crested head, and black legs and feet. Females
rested head <

are smaller and duller in color. bare black to

black upperparts
d face
with metallic
green gloss

white patch in
folded wing

Domesticated birds vary in their mix of dark and light plumage and
often have larger red wart patches on the face.
• SONG Usually silent. Male hisses; female may give rare guttural Domestic
croak or quack. white form
• BEHAVIOR Inhabits forested watercourses where it roosts in
trees at night and nests in natural cavities. Feeds primarily on Similar Birds
vegetable matter, particularly seeds, which it forages for in Neotropic
pools, rivers, bottomland, hardwoods, and grain fields. Generally Cormorant
solitary or in pairs; infrequently in small groups. More slender body;
longer, thinner neck
• BREEDING Polygamous. Males do not form pair bonds with and tail; lacks white
females and aggressively drive other males away. patches on wing.

• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known; incubation

estimated at 35 days.

Flight Pattern
• Population Uncommon
and local. Wild birds restricted
to the lower Rio Grande Valley.
• Conservation Nest box
program has been successful in
Strong direct gooselike flight.
northern Mexico.

Nest Identification
Nest boxes lined with little or no down • in cavities in trees, 9-60 feet above the
ground • 8-10 white eggs with greenish sheen.
Shape
W is
Location

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat
m Migration
Nonmigratory Wei 6 ht 6.4 pound

DATE TIME LOCATION

120 • BIRDS OF NOR TH AMERICA
Family
ANATIDAE Species
Aix spQnsa
Length
17 _ 20 inche;

Wood Duck
Considered by many to be the most beautiful duck in North
America, the colorful male of this species is unmistakable with
its large iridescent crest and multicolored bill.
In flight it
appears big-headed with a short neek and a long
squared tail. The bill angles downward.
• SONG Male makes soft up-slurred long,poinh
whistle. Female makes rising hoo-eek
and sharp crrreek crrreek.
^ iridescent
blue-sreen

burgundy flank

• BKHAYIOR
Frequents wooded
watercourses, ponds,
and swamps. Dabbler
that feeds primarily on
vegetable material and
insects but also eats
snails, tadpoles, and
salamanders. Walks
easily on land and often
forages there. Sometimes
several females "dump"
esigs in single nest box.
which may hold 20-40
eggs. Often perches in trees.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester.
• NESTING Incubation 25-37 days by
female. First flight in 56-70 days. Tended by
female. 1 brood per year in North: sometimes 2 in South.
• POPULATION Possible increase due reduced hunting
to
pressures and placement oi

Flight Pattern nest boxes in habitat.

• BlRDHOl SES YYu
nest boxes.
• Conservation
Habitat being lost to
Swift direct flight with rapid wing beats timbering and drainage.

Nest Identification
ifted with down • rarely nests in hollow fallen logs or barn lofts • built by
: female • 9-15 creamy w hite, dull white, or pale buff eggs; elliptical to
Shape
g subelliptical. 2 inches long.

Plumage Sexes differ Habitat

^ Migration
Migratory
We,ght
1.5 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 121

Length Wingspan
Family
ANATIDAE Species
Ams strepera 18 _? 3 inchcs 31 _36 nches
;

Gadwall
The male Gadwall is the grayest dabbling duck. Its gray body

eontrasts with the black rear and blends into the brown back,
neck, and head. In flight both sexes show a white speculum.
On water or land the white secondaries often appear as a
narrow white patch in the folded wing. The male has
yellowish legs and feet.
• S()NG Female makes series of loud
quacks that fall in pitch, kaaak,
kaaak-kak-kak-kak. Male makes
single low quack and shrill
whistling sound.

gray upper mandibh

with orange sidi

• BEHAVIOR Dabbler. Feeds in shallows primarily on plant

material. Often forages in grain fields and into wood lots for
acorns. Walks well on land compared to most ducks. Flies in
Similar Birds
small flocks. Usually shy and wary; sociable and gregarious.
Often feeds by dabbling with head underwater instead of Mallard 9
tipping up like many other puddle ducks. 4* Blue speculum
bordered with white;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. orange legs and feet.

• NESTING Incubation 24-27 days by female. Young

precocial; first flight at about
48-56 days. Tended by female.
Flight Pattern
1 brood per year.
• Population Uncommon.
Increasing due to expansion of
nesting habitat because of
unusually wet conditions in
Fast direct flight with rapid wing beats.
breeding range in late 1990s.

Nest Identification
Grasses and weeds • lined with down • near water or dry land, surrounded

Shape ^ Location ^^ by dense weeds or grass • built by female • 7-15 white to dull cream eggs.

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei S ht

Sexes differ igratory 2.2 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

122 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Wingspan 30 _
Family
ANATIDAE Species
Ams peneiope Length
18_ 20 inches 32 jnches

Eurasian Wigeon
Although the Eurasian Wigeon is not known to nest on buff crown
this continent, this dabbling duck has been a rare but
regular visitor in winter on both coasts in reddish head

North America for the last forty to

fifty years. The adult female
has a cinnamon-buff head
in contrast to the male's
reddish head. The
female also has two
morphs: rufous and
gray. In flight it is best
distinguished from the
American Wigeon by its dusky
axillars and underwing linings.

• SONG Male makes wild

musical whistle, whee-oo, and
short cheeping note.Female
makes hoarse croak and sharp
quack when alarmed.
• Behavior Highly
gregarious after breeding
season, often forming
large flocks on the
Eurasian wintering
grounds. Dabbles in
mud or tips up in
shallow water to eat
favorite foods: pond American Wigeon
Larger • male has
weeds, eelgrass, and other
gray head with wide
aquatic plants. Eats seeds but green posrocular
prefers leaves, stems, and buds. patch; bright white
crown; wine sides;
Also eats snails, beetles, and FEMALE white underwing
crickets. Walks well on land and
linings show in flight
often forages in fields and wooded lots • female generally
some distance from water. grayer with white
underwing linings.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Semicolonial.
• NESTING Incubation 24-25 days by female. Precocial young
leave nest shortly after hatching

Flight Pattern
and find own food but still
tended by female. First flight
at 60-70 days.

• Population Rare to
uncommon on both
visitor

Swift direct flight with rapid wing beats

coasts but more common on the
West Coast. Rare inland.

Nest Identification
Lined with grass and large amount of down • built in depression on ground,
well hidden in tall grass • 7-9 whitish to pale buff or cream-white eggs • eggs
Shape identical to those of American Wigeon.
a.
Plumage
Sexes djffer Habitat
^ fe _ Migration
Mj gratory Weight
1 8 pounc i s

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 123

Family Species Length

18 _ 2 3 inch(
Wingspan 30 _ 35 inchcs
AN ATI DAE j[ nas americana

American Wigeon
This species is identified in flight by the bold white patches on gray head with
its forewings, which are gray on females, and the white underwing w ide green
postocuiar
linings. The male has a conspicuous white forehead and crown,
stripe
leading hunters to nickname it "baldpate." Both males and
females are more rusty brown on their breast and sides than
other dabbling ducks. Legs and feet are gray. In flight females
show a white belly and undertail coverts and a green speculum.
• SONG Throaty whistle, whew, whew, whew. Female makes
weak guttural quack.

white of
underparts
onto flanks.

• Behavior
Dabbler. Flies in
tight flocks that
may twist and turn
like those of teals.
Eats plant material.
Will graze on shore
Eurasian Wigeon
and in fields. Often Rufous-brown head;
feeds in shallow water creamy buff forehead
with other duck and crown; gray sides
and back • female
species. Wary; takes flight
shows dusky underwing
quickly when it is disturbed. nings in flight; gray-

BREEDING morph has brownish

• Monogamous. Solitary. Nests on dry land,
gray head, throat, and
sometimes far from water; often on small islands.
breast; rufous morph
• NESTING Incubation 22-25 days by female. Precocial young has rufous head, neck,
throat, and breast.
stay in nest 45-63 days. Fed by female. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Common and apparently stable. Breeding range
expanding eastward in Canada
Flight Pattern and northeastern US. Increase
has been due to wet
conditions as well as increase
in nesting sites.
• Conservation No
Swift direct flight with strong wing beats. issues at present; carefully
monitored and managed.

Nest Identification
Grasses and weeds lined with down • on dry land, sometimes on island • built
by female • 6-12 white to creamy white eggs; elliptical, 2.1 inches in diameter.
Shape

Plumage
Sexes djffer Habitat ^ _ Migration
jyj lgratory
We 'S nt 1.7 pound*

DATE TIME LOCATION

124 • BIRDS OF NOR TH AMERICA
Length Wingspan 33,35
Family
ANATIDAE Species
Anas rubrjpes j 9_? A inches nches ;

American Black Duck

The darkest dabbling duck on the water looks almost black at a distance,
with apaler head and foreneck. In flight the white wing linings contrast
boldly with the dark body and wings. The purplish blue speculum is
bordered with blaek. and the posterior border often has a narrow white edge.
It is as large as a Mallard. Into the l MOs this was the most abundant duck in
c

eastern and central North America and was the most heavily hunted without
noticable decline in numbers. Today it seems to be losing steadily to
years of heavy hunting preasure and increasing greenish bill with
displacement by Mallards. black flecking <

brownish
black body

Male

• SONG Typical female gives loud duck quack; male makes

lower croak.
• BEHAVIOR Dabbler. Very alert and wary; one of the Similar Birds

quickest ducks into the air w hen disturbed, thrusting upward Mallard 9
energetically off w ater or land. Feeds in shallow w ater, taking Female lacks contrast
between head and
mostly plant materials in winter and a variety of aquatic insects
body: paler brown:
in summer. yellow -orange bill wit]

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. Sometimes blackish mottling;

bright orange feet:
hybridizes with Mallard.
metallic blue
• NESTING Incubation 23-33 days by female. Young stay in speculum bordered
nest 58-63 days. Fed by female. with a white front and
1 brood per year.
back: white tail.
• Population Fairly common.
• CONSERVATION Management w arranted due to decline in
uuiiiucis, \wiiv.n nia\ uv_ v.au>i.u
Flight Pattern by changes to its habitat and
deforestation. Both of these
circumstances seem to favor
T* Mallards, w hich tend to replace
Black Ducks where the two
Swift direct flight with strong wing beats. species coexist.

Nest Identification
Shallow depression with plant material added • lined with down • on ground
Shape among clumps of dense vegetation • sometimes in raised situation, as on top of
stump
^^
• built by female • 6-12 creamy white to greenish buff eggs.
Location
J^m* 48*

Plumage Habitat Migration We, S ht 3.1

Sexcs differ Migratory pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 '

BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 125

Family Species Len §th 23 Wingspan

AjsfATIDAE j ms platyrhynchos i nches 30_40 jnche

Mallard
One of the best-know n shiny green
waterfowl in the world, the head
Mallard can be found
almost anywhere shallow- metallie blue-violet
freshwater occurs. Some speculum with white
even reside in salt borders

marshes and bays. The 2 curled-up black

tall feathers
male is larger than the
purple-
female. Many chestnut
domesticated forms are breast

entirely white with an

orange bill, legs, and feet
• SONG Female makes
loud quack-quack-quack,
quack, quack-quack,
descending in scale.
Male sounds double
note and low reedy orange and
brown
kwek-kwek-kwek.
mottled bill
• Behavior
Generally found in
shallow freshwater,
where it dabbles
primarily for plant
food, also taking insects,
Female resembles many other
mollusks, and 1 white female ducks, but blue speculum
tad
crustaceans.
dives underwater. Walks
Sometimes

well and often forages on

orange
iind legs
feet
dTJ bordered white is

Northern Shoveler
Long dark
unique.

bill; white
(
.

chestnut sides.
shore in fields and woodlots FEMALE bre.isr;

Leaps directly into flight from water. Common MERGANSER^

Narrow red bill; puffy or
Frequently hybridizes.
crested head.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. RKD-BRKASTEI)
• NESTING Incubation 26-30 days by female. Young leave Merganser
nest soon after hatching. 1 brood per year. Narrow red bil puffy or
crested head.
• POPULATION Common to abundant.
• FEEDERS Corn or grains. In city parks some are tame enough to
be hand-fed by humans.
Flight Pattern • Conservation One of
the ducks harvested in greatest
numbers by waterfowl hunters.
Prone to lead poisoning from
ingesting spent lead shot with
Swift direct flight win« beats food from bottom ooze.

Nest Identification
Shallow pool of plant material gathered at the site, lined with dow n • may be
more than 1 mile from w ater, usually on ground among concealing vegetation
Shape
• built by female • 5-14 greenish buff or grayish buff eggs, 2.3 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei § ht

c;
exes differ Migrators- 2.4 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

126 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
ANATIDAE Species
Anas fuhigula I
len ^ 21 inches I
Wingspan 30_
33 inches

Mottled Duck
A large duck of southern marshes and coastal
resident
prairies, this birdis paler than the American Black Duck but

also shows white wing linings in flight that contrast with its
darker body. In flight it shows a metallic greenish purple
speculum that is bordered on both sides by a black bar,
and the trailing bar is also bordered with a narrow white
line. Although the current population is stable, it is not as
large as it was in the beginning of the 20th century as

the toll from civilization's expanding development and

agriculture's draining of southern marshlands has
outweighed the toll from hunting. fine dark
streaking on back
brown body with yellow-orange
of head and sub s
<

bill without
buff mottling of neck •
mottling

• SONG Male makes a low, raspy kreeeb, kreeeb, kreeeb.

Similar Birds
Female's quack similar to that of a female Mallard.
American Black
• BEHAVIOR Usually in pairs or small groups. Pairs persist
Dick
for most of the year except during the postbreeding season Much darker blackish
molt. A somewhat tame dabbling duck that eats more animal brown with streaked
cheeks and throat.
food than the closely related Mallard. Feeds primarily on
Q
mollusks, crustaceans, and insects, but also eats vegetable Mallard
Female has orange and
matter. Courtship and pair formation for this species take
brown bill with dark
place on the wintering grounds while Mallards, American mottling; white borders
Black Ducks, and other duck species are still present. on both sides of blue-
purple speculum.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester.
• NESTING Incubation 24-28 days by female. First flight at
about 60-70 days. Fed by
Flight Pattern
female. 1 brood per year.
• Population Common.
Stable. Introduced on South
Carolina coast.
• Conservation Heavily
Direct flight with strong rapid wing beats hunted in season.

Nest Identification Shallow bowl of grasses and reeds • lined with down and breast feathers • in
dense growth in marsh, usually within 600 feet of water, supported in dense
Shape «=> clumps of grass • may be several inches above ground • built by female
Location *** \
• 8-12 creamy white to greenish white eggs; elliptical, 2.2 inches long.

Plumage Wei £ ht 2.3

Sexes simi i ar
Habitat Migration
N on migratory pound

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 127

Family Species Length

14 _ 16 inches Wingspan 73.31 inches
AN ATI DAK A „as discon

Blue-winged Teal
One of the smallest ducks in North America travels great
distances between breeding and wintering grounds, as head
much Both sexes have a large pale blue
as 7,000 miles.
patch on the forewings and a long metallic green
speculum that is visible when wings are spread. Males in
breeding colors have a gray-violet head bordered by a
bold white facial crescent.
• SONG In flight, the male often makes a high
sibilant tseel. The female makes wak
quacking sound.
• Behavior Very
fast taking off
from the water,
this bird flies
quickly and
rapidly, often
twisting and
turning in
small compact
flocks. Plants make
up the bulk of its diet.
Often forages in
shallow waters. One of
the earliest ducks to
migrate southward to
wintering areas. More body with dark
than 90 percent of t chevron -shaped spots Similar Birds
population winters
south of US border. Northern Shoveler 9
Much larger; spatulate bill.
Tame, often allowing
close approach. GREEN-WINGED TEAL 9
Larger bill; lacks white
• Breeding undertail coverts and blue
Monogamous. Solitary nester. forewing patch in flight.
FKMALK
• Nesting incubation Cinnamon Teal 9
22-27 days by female. First flight at Longer bill; richer brown;
less distinct eve line.
35^-9 days. Tended by female. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Fairly common in the East; uncommon in
the West. Apparently stable.
Flight Pattern • Conservation Most
Blue-Winged Teals winter
south of US borders, so
Latin American cooperation
is needed to further

Fast direct flight with steady wing beats. conservation efforts.

Nest Identification Shallow depression with some grass or weeds added • lined with down • on

ground in prairie, hayfield, or coastal meadow • built by female • 6—15 white,

olive-white, dull white, or tinged olive eggs^ ovate to elliptical ovate, 1.8 incln
Shape
in diameter.

Plumage Habitat Migration ^j- Weight

Sexes differ gratory 14 4

DATE TIME LOCATION

128 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Species Length Wingspan
Family
ANATIDAE ^ nas cy an optera i4_i 7 i nc h e s 24_ 3Q mches

Cinnamon Teal
The male, with its rich cinnamon hues, is one of the most recognizable
ducks in western North America. The female's warm earth tones
blend well with the cattails and reeds that surround its home. The
Cinnamon Teal and the Ruddy Duck are the only waterfowl to
breed in both North and South America. In flight the upper in minion head
and in k <

forewing features a large pale powder-blue patch and the

speculum is metallic green with a white border. Juveniles
and eclipse males resemble females. long
spa in /tin
blue-black
bill f

Male

• SONG Male has low

pitched prattling chuk-chuk . brox rail

Female has weak quack.

• Behavior Eats aquatic
plant seeds and insects, rice
corn, algae, snails, and • blue mottling
on forewing
crustaceans. Unlike other
dabblers, skims water with bill or '"•v.. .
•

'
-r\"
reaches below surface. Leaps into
flight directly from w ater.
Similar Birds

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. Blue-winged Teal

t EMALE Females almost
• NESTING Incubation 21-25 days b identical • shorter, les
female. First flight after 4°- days. 1 brood per year. spatulate bill; more
• POPULATION Fairly common from the Pacific
to common distinct lore spot
eve line.
and

Coast to the eastern Great Plains and south into Texas and
west-central Mexico. Casual to accidental in the East in w inter and
spring migration.
Flight Pattern • Conservation Protected
except for licensed seasonal
hunting. Efforts made in last
half of 20th century to increase
nesting habitat. Declines due to
Swift direct flight with rapid wing beats. loss of wetland habitat.

Nest Identification On "round hidden vegetation • in dense marsh grasses and reeds
in tall

or in slight depression on hare ground • often 100 feet or more away from
w ater • built by female • u -12 pinkish buff or w hite eggs; subelliptical,
Shape Location tti
^ 2 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat Migration
M gratorv
i
Weight
j 4 4 ounces
_

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA 29

Species Length Wingspan 37.33 inchcs

Family
\\\| p
Afgas ciy eata , 7 _? () jnches

Northern Shovelkr
No duck in North America has a bigger bill. The large,
spatulate bill is longer than the head, giving the bird a

front heavy look. In flight both sexes show large powder- blackhead with
green <t/o
blue patches on the forewing and a metallic green
speculum. Both males and females have
bright orange legs and feet. Male
large spoon-shaped
black bill

Mallard
Male lias green head

but has chestnut breast;

white sides; lacks blue
• Song in patch on forewing
courtship male • female has smaller
bill; lacks blue on front
litters guttural who, who, Female
who or took, took, took.Female
utters feeble quack and descending WACK-wc/ck-mvick-wa-wa. Hi e -winged Teal
£
1

Smaller; shows pale

• BFHAVIOR Frequently swims with head held low, bill partly [

blue forewing patch in

submerged, straining water for small aquatic plants and animals flight • male has brown
through the comblike teeth along sides of bill. Animals make up body; gray head; white-
crescent on front of
approximately one-third of its diet. Swift flight into air by
face; small black bill
leaping off water. Rapid, sometimes darting, teal-like flight • female is brown
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. overall; small black bill.

• NESTING Incubation 21-27 days by female. Precocial young

leave nest within a few hours of
hatching. First flight at
Flight Pattern
38-66 days. Tended by female.
1 brood per year.
• Population Common to
abundant. Increasing due to wet
conditions in breeding range.
strong direct flight with rapid wing beats.

Nest Identification Partly filled with dried grasses and weeds • lined with down • close to water,

generally in area of short grass, or far from water on high dry ground of
prairies • built by female • 6-19 olive-buff or greenish gray eggs; elliptical,
Shape
2 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration We| S ht 1.4

Scxes diflfer Migratory pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

130 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len §tn Wingspan
AN ATI DAK Ams bahamensis 18-20 inches 2 6-31 inches

White-cheeked Pintail
Sometimes called the Bahama Duck, this native of the West Indies
and South America is a rare to casual winter visitor in southern
Florida. This freshwater duck is often kept in captivity. Any
individuals seen outside the Sunshine State are probably
escapees, and even those seen in southern Florida should be
treated with some suspicion. In flight the white cheeks and dark brown
forehead
neck contrast with the brown body; the long slender
and cap
neck, long pointed tail, and green speculum with buff
borders are definitive field marks. blue bill

• SONG Male has low squeaky call;

with bright
red base <

female quacks.

pointed
fawn-colored
tail
spotted fawny
or reddish underparts

• BEHAVIOR Eats seeds and parts of water plants but also takes small invertebrates. On
islands in the Caribbean often found alone or in pairs but
sometimes in flocks of 40 or more birds on inland bays, brackish Similar Birds
marshes, fresh- and saltwater ponds, and rain-flooded low-lying
Northern Pintail 9
places. Lacks red spot at base
• BREEDING Monogamous. Has produced hybrids with of bill; lacks white
cheeks; lacks heavy
Northern Pintail, Wood Duck, Mallard, American Wigeon, and
spotting on underparts;
others in captive or otherwise similar conditions. dark speculum with
• NESTING Incubation 25 days by female. Young leave nest white border on trailing
edge.
day of hatching. Tended by female. First flight at 35-50 days.
• POPULATION Casual in Florida. Ranges from common to fairly
common to locally common and
Flight Pattern irruptive in West Indies and
South America.
• Conservation Formerly
was hunted in the Caribbean for
generations. Now protected
Swift direct flight with rapid strong there by laws called
wing beats.
conservation ordinances.

Nest Identification
Only a few leaves added • concealed in thick grasses or weeds or under
mangrove roots • 5-12 buff or cream eggs, sometimes stained.
Shape

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat __^ Migration

Nonmigratory Wei § ht 1.2 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 131

Family Species Length Wingspan 29 _

A N ATI DAK 4 nas acuta ?i_?9 inches 35 inches

Northern Pintail
No other North American duck has the body
shaep of either on the water or in the
a pintail, chocolate head
and hindneck
air. It holds its long slender neck erect and its

long pointed tail at an upward angle on

the water. In flight pintails are long
greenish brown
and slender with a white trailing
speculum with
edge on the inner wing. white line on
• SONGFemales low trailing edge

quacks more guttural long white neck

black uppertail
with white "finger
than those of female and undertail extended upward
Mallard. Male utters coverts
behind face
weak nasal geeee
-• white breast
and uuderparts
long pointed
feathers at • vertniculated gray
center of tail sides and flanks

and double-noted
whistle, pruh or prripp.
• Behavior Dabbling duck.
long neck pointed brown tail
Prefers shallows in freshwater,
not as long as that
where it feeds primarily on • of male
vegetable material. Flocks of
pintails have reputation of losing
altitude rapidly, zigzagging in for
a landing from considerable
heights on wings that produce
an audible "swish" and planing
directly into a landing. Low- FEMAL1
flying on breeding grounds,
nesting individuals are sometimes
killed by hitting utility wires and fences. gray leg Similar Birds
and feet
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. Male is distinctive • female is
somewhat similar to many other
• NESTING Incubation 22-25 days by female. Young leave female dabbling ducks but the
nest within a few hours of hatching. First flight at 36-57 days longer tail and longer neck make
Young tended by female but find own food. 1 brood per year. it distinctive.

• POPULATION Abundant in West; very common in East.

Widespread and abundant, but
Flight Pattern some surveys show decline
since 1960s.
• Conservation As with
other dabbling ducks, lead shot
ingested from bottom ooze
Direct flight with fast wing beats on long
often leads to death.
pointed wings.

Nest Identification
Lined with grasses, twigs, mosses, leaves, and added down • on dry ground
among short vegetation near water • built by female • 3-12 olive-green, olive-
Shape buff, or cream eggs; elliptical to subelliptical or long oval, 2.2 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat
te _ Migration
Migratory Wei e ht
2.3 pound

DATE TIME LOCATION

132 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Wingspan
Family
A.NATTDAE Species
j{ nas querquedula Length
15 inches 24_31 inches

Garganey
A Eurasian dabbling duck, most Garganeys in eastern North
America may be escaped birds. In flight males show prominent
pale bluish-gray coverts and a shiny, green speculum with
white front and rear borders; the female's is less visible.
Male and
Male dark crown

red-brown
head

large bluish
pale eyebrow grayish wing shoulder patche.
distinct dark line
from bill thro * coverts
eyes to nape

white lore spot

bordered by
second dark I'm Similar Birds

Blue-winged Teal 9
fe' Cinnamon Teal 9
female look Rounder head; pale

similar in eclipse
_ blue patch on forewing;
no white border on both
plumage, but the mm edges of speculum.
male retains his
wing
• SONG
pattern.

distant rattling
• BEHAVIOR
Male makes
wooden
Feeds with
note, geg-geg-geg.
bill scooping
Female quacks.
in shallow water. Eats
% ^
^
Green-winged Teal
Darker and smaller
overall;
on both edges of
speculum; no pale gray
patch on forewing.
9
no white border

mollusks and crustaceans.

• BREEDING Monogamous.
Flight Pattern
• Nesting incubation
21-23 days by female. Precoci al
young leave nest first day of
hatching. First flight at about
44 days. Tended by female.
Swift agile direct flight with rapid • Population Casual to
wing beats.
accidental status.

Nest Identification
In long grasses or under cover of bushes on ground in a dry place usually
near water • built by female • 7-12 yellowish cream to light olive eggs,
Shape Location 1 .85 \ 1.3 inches long.

Plumage Sexes differ Habitat

^ Migration
jyjj gratory
Weight
j j

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AM K RIGA • 133

Species Length Wingspan

Family
AN ATI DAE Anascrecca 12 _i 6 nc he
;
2 q_25 inch.

Green-winged Teal dark glossy green patch from

The smallest dabbling duck in North America,
eye to nape with narrow white
the Green-winged Teal one of the most
is also border below
agile and fastest on the wing. Small compact
flocks of Green-winged Teals often wheel and
hank like Rock Doves in flight. Flying birds
show no pale wing patches but rather a
metallic green speculum bordered in vermicu iated gray
front with chestnut and behind sides and back «^

with white.
• SONG In courtship a
KRICK-et note, from
which species name is

derived; it has been

likened to the voice
of the Spring
Peeper. Female
makes a faint quack.
• Behavior
Forages in shallows by
tipping up. Walks
easily on land. Feeds
in fields, wood lots,

and agricultural
areas. Primarily
feeds on vegetable
materials.
• Breeding
Monogamous with
forced extra pair
copulation. Blue-winged Teal
In flight shows white
Solitary nester. belly and pale blue
• Nesting forewing patches •
female has longer bill.
Incubation 20-24 days
by female. First flight at Cinnamon Teal 9
-^v'H^^ Female is darker brow n
about 34 days. Young are
th longer
tended by female but find
El MAI I

their own food.

Flight Pattern
• Population Common.
Increasing.
• Conservation
Vulnerable to ingesting spent
lead shot from bottom mud
Swift, sometimes erratic, direct flight.
while feeding.

Nest Identification Grass, twigs, feathers, and leaves • lined with down • usually among grasses
and weeds of meadows, sometimes in open woodlands or brush within 200 feet
of water • built by female • 6—18 eream, light olive, buff, or dull white eggs;
Shape
elliptical to subelliptical, 1.8 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes differ Migration
M gratory
j
Wei § ht
12.8 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

134 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length
19 _ 24 inches Wingspan 28 _ 36 inches
ANATIDAE Aythya va l, sineria

Ganvasback
A sloping profile from the front of crown to the tip of its long
its

dark bill distinguishes this bird. one of the largest and

It is

heaviest ducks in North America. At a distance the male

appears white with a black rear and, breast. The long
sloping profile
neck and head are rich rust-red. The female is grayer
with a rusty tint to the neck and head.
• SONG Male makes grunt or croak; female
makes quack.
• BEHAVIOR A wary species that
often rafts well away from the
shoreline. Flies high,
frequently in
formations. Dives

black breast

deeply to
feed on
aquatic
vegetation
and mollusks.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Similar Birds
Solitary nester.
Rkdhead
• NESTING Incubation 23-29 days by female. First flight at Lacks sloping profile
• male has grayer
about 56-60 days. Tended by female. 1 brood per year.
sides • female is

• POPULATION Common to uncommon but local. darker brown overall.

Declining for some time, but drastic drop in recent years
because of drought and drainage of marshes where they breed.

Flight Pattern • Conservation Nesting

habitat loss primarily blamed for

-% decline. Releases from hunting

pressures and development of
nesting habitats may have
Strong direct flight with rapid wing beats. stabilized populations.
Flies in straight line or V formation.

Nest Identification
Dead vegetation lined with down • in marsh in stands of vegetation above
shallow water; sometimes on dry ground • built by female • 7-12 grayish or
Shape <=> Location greenish olive eggs, 2.4 inches in diameter.
|^

Plumage Sexes differ Habitat Migration Wei S nt 2.8 pounds

te Migrat

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 135

Species Length Wingspan 29 _ 35

Family
A.NATIDAE Ayt/,ya ameriaina I
18 _ 22 inches I inchcs

Redhead
A diving duck, of freshwater marshes in summer, this bird congregates
in large numbers on marine bays, estuaries, and big lakes in winter.
The male's golden yellow eye is the most striking of North
American waterfowl. In flight both sexes show a broad gray trailing round rufous
brown head
edge to the wing.
• S()NG Silent most of year. During courtship male utters
mewing sounds, whee-ough or keyair. Also makes low trilling

rrrrrr. Female has grating squak.

• BEHAVIOR Diving duck. Crepuscular activities,
including flight and feeding. Some feeding at night, smoky gray
upperparts c

black upper and lower /* ridi

a fail coverts

blue-gray bill with black tip

MALE and white subterminal ring
pale at base of bill
and on chin
,

Primary diet Similar Birds

of aquatic on tided bead cf Canvasback
vegetation. Male is whiter on. sides and
back; longer all-dark bill;
Female appears
sloping profile.
to take initiative
in courtship, often
chasing males. Greater Scaup
• Breeding cT
Lesser Scaup
Pale color on wings of
Monogamous. Female female does not extend to
Brood parasite.
• NESTING Incubation 23-29 days by female. Young leave *»9 primaries.

nest about day after hatching. First flight at 56-73 days. Young
1 9 Ring-necked Duck
tended by female but find own food. 1 brood per year. Female has peaked head.

• POPULATION Locally common. Declining in East. Far

fewer than historical levels.
Flight Pattern Decrease due to loss of nesting
habitat to agriculture, draining
of wetlands, and drought.
• Conservation Strictly
regulated with hunting bag
Rapid direct flight wi th strong wing beats. limits; some regions have no
Flies in V formation.
harvesting.

Nest Identification Dead vegetation anddown anchored to standing growth • on bed of reeds and
connected to vegetation or set in thick marsh grasses above water • built
cattails
by female • 9-14 pale olive, buff, or dull white eggs, 2.4 inches long • number of
Shape
eggs hard to determine because Females lay eggs in nests of other Redheads.

Plumage
Sexes differ
Habitat
m _ Migration
Migratory Weight
2 6 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

136 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Species Length Wingspan
Family
ANATIDAE Aythya co narii 14 _ 18 inches 24 _3() inches

RING-NECKED DUCK peaked black

This puffy-headed diving duck with a peaked crown head with
prefers small freshwater ponds, wooded lakes, and purplish gloss
swamps. On
water the male appears dark with whitish
gray sides separated from the blacky breast by a white
crescent that is clearly discernible at a distance.
Both sexes have a white ring on the bill, white
bellies, bluish gray legs and feet, and show a
gray wing stripe in flight. The cinnamon
ring at the base of the neck, which gives pale gray sides
the duck its name, is poor field
a
mark, seen only at close range
in good light.

• Song
Generally peaked head +
silent. Male
makes a faint
wheezy whistle;
female makes
harsh deeeer.

• Behavior
Swims lightly with
head up. Excellent
diver. Aquatic plants
more than 80 percent of
diet. Eeeds on bottom as deep as 40 feet below surface.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester.
• NESTING Incubation 25-29 days by female. Young leave
nest in 12-24 hours. First flight after 49-56 days. Young tended
by female but find own food. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Fairly

Flight Pattern common and widespread.

Stable or increasing.
• CONSERVATION As with
other ducks that feed on the
bottom, may ingest lead shot
Direct flight with rapid wing beats
and be susceptible to lead
loose flocks.
poisoning.

Grasses, sedges, and weeds • lined with down and marsh plants • on dry
Nest Identification
hammock, clump of brush, or floating mat of vegetation, close to open
water or just above water marsh border of pond or slough • built by
Shape ^ Location ^^ female • 6-14
2.3 inches long.
in
olive, gray, olive-brown, or green-buff eggs; elliptical to ov;

Plumage Sexes Habitat Migration Wei e ht

dj Migratory 1.6 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 137

Family Species Len 2 th 18-22 Win g s P an 30-35

ANATIDAE Aythya fuligula inches inches

Tufted Duck rounded black

head with purple
Superficially like Ring-necked Duck w ith a long
a

crested tuft, this Old World duck is accidental to

casual in North America, except on the western
coast of Alaska, w here it is a regular visitor. At
a distance the breeding male appears
black with white sides and flanks. In
flight both sexes show a broad
white wing stripe that hn& /oQSg crestech
extends onto the inner tuft on back of head

primaries.

white sides, Ring-necked Di ck

sometimes whitish
hort tuft
flanks, and belly Male has gray sides and
at base of bill
flanks; white crescent
separates black breast
from gray side. • both
sexes ha\ e gray wing
stripe.

• Song
Usually silent. Greater Scaup
Various soft growling Femal Lesser Scaup
Males have gray backs
notes and low whistles. • females have bolder
• BEHAVIOR Excellent diver. Prefers freshwater lakes and white face patches at
base of bill.
reservoirs but can be found in coastal marshes, bays, and
estuaries incompany of other diving ducks. Feeds on plants,
crustaceans, mollusks, and aquatic insects.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Sometimes forms loose colonies.
• NESTING Incubation
23-28 days. First flight within
Flight Pattern
45-50 days. Young tended by
female. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Uncommon
Not known to breed in
to rare.

Swift direct flight with steady wing beats.

North America; a visitor during
migration and winter.

Nest Identification
Grasses and dark gray down • hidden in reeds or under bushes close to water
• 7-10 yellow, brown, or greenish eggs.
Shape

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat Migration
Migratory We 'g nt 1.5 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

138 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length
]5 _ 2() inches
Wingspan 30_34 nches
AN ATI DAE) Ayt/iya marna ;

Greater Scaup
Breeds farther north than related species, this large rounded black head
diving duck prefers ponds and lakes in summer. It with green ish gloss
winters primarily along the coast, often in floating
1

flocks or "rafts' of tens of thousands. Color of gloss

on male's head usually greenish. From a distance
on the water males appear black in front, white in
the middle, and black behind. In flight the white
wing stripe extends onto the primaries.
• SONG Usually quiet. Common note
loud scaup. Courting males make soft
whistled week-wcek-whew; female
makes low harrrr.

• black tai
and tail coverts

• Behavior Diving white

duck. Often winters in around
huge flocks. Dives to 20 face at
base of
feet below surface to feed bill dark broz
on variety of insects, plants, Juvenile
and vertebrates in summer.
Diet at sea primarily mollusks Similar Birds
and vegetable matter. U-:sski< s< \i i'

• BREEDING Monogamous.
May nest in colonies. rj Wi Smaller • male has
grayer sides; more
poinred head with
• Nesting incubation usually purplish gloss
24-28 days by female. Precocial • females similar; white
to on wing does not
young led to water shortly after
extend onto primaries.
hatching. First flight at 35-42 days
Young tended by female but find own food. 1 brood per year.
• Population Common to

Flight Pattern uncommon. Abundant in

winter, with most individuals
wintering along seacoasts.
• Conservation Heavy
winter concentrations in
Direct flight with strong rapid wing beats coastal bays may be vulnerable
to oil spills and other pollution.

Nest Identification
Lined with dead plant material and down • usually very close to water on an
mats of floating vegetation • built by female • 5-1 1 dark
island, shoreline, or
Shape -^sr- Location ^ olive-buff eggs, 2.5 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat
^^ Migration
Migral Wei g nt 2.1 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 139

Species Length Wingspan 34.33

Family
AN ATI DAE Aythyaaffinis 15 _ 18 jnchcs I
inchcs

Lesser Scaup
pointed black
Like the very similar Greater Scaup, at a distance the male
head with
appears dark in front, white in the middle, and dark behind. purple gloss
The Lesser Scaup has a more pointed head. Color of gloss
on male's head usually purplish. In flight the white wing
stripe confined to the secondaries. The Lesser Scaup is
more commonly seen inland in winter than the Greater
Scaup and is perhaps the most abundant diving duck
in North America.
• SONG Courting males
utter low, whistled
whew. Females
make odd

rattling purr,
kwuh-h-h-h.
• Behavior Diving
duck. Behavior similar to
closely related Greater
Scaup. Diet varies with
habitat but fairly evenly
distributed between
plant and animal Greater Scal p
materials.
Female Larger; white wing
stripe extends through
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. secondaries and onto
• NESTING Incubation 21-28 days by female. Young leave primaries • male has
whiter sides; more
nest shortly after hatching. First flight after 45-50 days. Young
rounded head.
tended bv female but find own food.
• POPULATION Common. Slight decrease in 20th century.
• Conservation Deaths 1

n
Flight Pattern due to fishing nets and lines
may be significant. Like many
other waterfowl, ingests lead
shot on bottom while feeding,
often resulting in death.
Direct, swift flight with strong wing beats. Increased use of steel shot
intended to eliminate this.

Nest Identification
Addition of some grasses • lined with down • on dry land close to water, often
on islands, in tall prairie grass • built by female • 6-15 olive or olive-buff eggs;
Shape Location elliptical to nearly oval, 2.3 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexes diffcr Migratory { 9 pound

DATE TIME LOCATION

140 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Wingspan
17_ 19 jnches
Species Length
Family
AN ATI DAK p0 iySticta steueri 28 _ 3() nches
;

Steller's Eider
The smallest eider (about the size of a Surf Scoter), the Steller's Eider is

rarely found outside Alaska. The male is the only eider with bright, buffy
underparts. It- has a short bill and does not have the stout chunky
appearance of other eiders. Its white head, back, and sides are
ador ned with a black line down the center of the back, white head with
rear, and tail. Legs and feet are blue-gray like its black eye ring
bill, and its wings make a whistling sound

when the bird is in flight. On the back green "bump " on

of its white head the male back of head
bl ck down center
has a green "bump" of ? f/ ,

c i i , , , of back to tad
feathers with a black

• buff underparts
spot on the bottom MALE
center. The white
sides also have an
isolated black spot just
dusky bro\srn and
buff with barring
above the waterline and mottling
sometimes seen when
the bird is swimming.
• SONG Generally
silent.Courting male
gives low crooning notes;
female makes harsh growl.
• BEHAVIOR Feeds primarily
on crustaceans and mollusks in clear waters along Fkmale
rocky coasts. Must run on water before taking off.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Similar Birds
• NESTING Incubation by female, time undetermined. Young None in North American range.
leave nest shortly after hatching. Time of first flight unknown.
Young tended by female but find own food. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Uncommon
Flight Pattern to common and local. Alaskan
population has declined
significantly in recent decades.
• Conservation Grave
concern over significant
Sw ift direct flight with fast w ing beats population declines.

Nest Identification
Often deep holes in tundra • lined with bits of plant material and large amounts
of down • on ground near open water in open tundra or surrounded by low scrub
Shape • built by female • 5-10 olive-buff eggs with darker shades, 2.4 inches long.

Plumage Sexes differ Habitat^ Migration

M; gratory Weight
] 7 pound

DATE TIME LOGATION

 BIROS OF NORTH AMERICA • 141

Species Length Wingspan 35 _4 0 jnches

Family
ANATIDAE Somateria spectabilis 18_ 25 inches

King Eider
In breeding plumage, the male of this chunky sea duck
its

spectacular. It appears black above and behind, and white

blue-gray
in front, with a large blue-gray cap, greenish cheeks, and a crown, back of
large orange knob at the base of the bill. In flight it head, and napes
appears mostly black and white with a black 1

large orange
greenish
basal knob
back and large white wing patches. cheeks «k outlined in black
• SONG During courtship male
makes soft dovelike cooing in
threes, urrr-urrr-URRl

whih
flank spot \ black side
a)imive d flanks, and belly
nfJnrbhill
FEMALE
Female makes low
kuck or kwacfr, also
guttural croaking, Eclipse Juvenile
gag gag, gag. MALE
• Behavior Often Similar Birds
fly in big flocks
cT Common Eider
abreast, not one behind Black cap; white
the other. Favors rocky back • female has
dark chevron on
shores and reefs. Dives
to depths of 180 feet to
ides and flanks m sloping profile and
barred sides.

feed on mollusks and crustaceans, its primary food. cf Spectacled Eider

Black breast and
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. spectacles; white
• NESTING Incubation 22-24 days by female. Precocial young back • female has
pale spectacles.
leave nest shortly after hatching. First flight at 30-50 days.
Young tended by female but find own food. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Common to abundant breeding range.
in
Uncommon in winter in south
Flight Pattern Alaska, Great Lakes, or New
York, but wintering population
in Great Lakes is increasing.
Abundant in its remote
northern range. Population
Swift direct flight with rapid wing beats. totals several million. Casual
Flies in straight line formation.
on East and West Coasts.

Nest Identification
Lined with bits of plant material and large amounts of down • on raised dry
ground not far from water • built by female • 3-7 olive, buff, or pale olive eggs;
Shape 2.7 inches long.

Plumage
s exes differ
Habitat Migration
Migratory We 'g ht 3.7 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

142 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan 35,43
AN ATI DAE Somateria mollissima 2 3_27 inches jnches

Common Eider
The duck is best known for the female's soft down,
largest sea
used and insulation in pillows, comforters,
for its softness
head, with
sleeping bags and jackets. Eiders use the down to line their black cap feathers extend
<

nests. Rather than killing the eider, humans have learned to alongside of bill
take the down a few days after the young leave the nest. To
make a pound requires down from 35-40 nests. Juveniles
are similar to females. Western females are duller
brown; western males have a yellow-
orange bill, and most m ()ack Mg

have a narrow
black V on the
throat. sloping
profile
• Song Male feathers
light brown with
extend along
makes pigeonlike heavy dark brown
side of bill
cooo or hoarse kor-er- ^» barring
Similar Birds
korkorr-kor; also
moans. Female King Eider
makes hoarse Male has black back;
blue-gray crown; lacks
quacking sound, sloping profile • female
9
Silent in winter. has chevron pattern and
• BEHAVIOR Feeds at low tide by day. Dives only 33-60 feet lacks sloping profile.

deep. Uses wings to swim underwater and can fly straight out of cT Spectacled Eider
water. Breaks shellfish shells with gizzard. Male has large white
"goggles" with black
• BREEDING Monogamous. Nests in colonies. 9 border • female has
|
• NESTING Incubation 25-30 days by female. Young led to pale brown "goggles."

water by female after hatching. Female feeds young with help

of another female. First flight at about 56 days. 1 brood per year.
• Population Abundant to

Flight Pattern common; somewhat local.

• Conservation Local
populations vulnerable to oil

spillsand other forms of

pollution. Females still pursued
Swift direct flight. Birds fly abreast, often for valuable down. Heavily
in long lines.
hunted in the Arctic.

Nest Identification On bed of twigs, mosses, grass, and seaweed with large amounts of female down
used for lining and wrapped around and under nest • sheltered by rocks or
plants on ground • built by female • 3-5 light olive, brownish olive, or gray-olive
Shape Location
eggs, 3 inches long.

Plumage Sexes differ Habitat

^ Migration
Some migrate
Weight
4 9 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NOR TH AMERICA • 143

Family Species Len S th 5-2 Wingspan

ANATIDAE Histrionicus histrionkus 1 1 inches 2 4_28 inches

Harlequin Duck vhite triangle extends

The male of this small diving duck appears into chestnut line
entirely dark from a distance, but at close range bordering black crown
the plumage consists of a wild pattern of bold
white and black crescents, lines, and spots
Females are dark grayish brown with white spot and
vertical crescent
stubby bills and three white spots on
on back of heady
each side of the face. Juveniles are
similar to females.
• SONG Usually silent. In
courtship male gives mouselike
squeak. Both sexes have low
croaking calls.

black tad co vert.

long pointed
black tail

• BEHAVIOR
Favors fast-
flowing mountain
streams or isolated
pools during
breeding season.
Found along rocky
turbulent seacoasts
in winter. Dives
for food, swimming Juvenile
underwater using
both wings and feet.
May walk on bottom Similar Birds
of mountain stream Female Male is unmistakable.
with head down feeding on aquatic-
BUFFLEHEAD 9
insects. Mollusks and crustaceans form bulk of winter diet.
Smaller • female has
• BREEDING Monogamous. pf? single white spot on
face.
• NESTING Incubation 27-30 days by female. Young leave
nest shortly after hatching. First flight at 35-42 days. Young
tended by female but find own
food. 1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Common in
the West; uncommon in the
East. Stable in the Northwest,
but has declined there during
Rapid direct
the past century.
flight, often low over water.

Nest Identification
Grasses, twigs, and weeds lined with down • on ground close to water,
well hidden among rocks, under brush, or in hollow tree • built by female
Shape • 3-10 pale buff or cream eggs, 2.3 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes differ
Habitat
^ Migration
Migratory Weight
j 5 pQund

DATE TIME LOCATION

144 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Len § th Win gspan
Family
^NATIDAE Species
Melanitta perspicillata 1 7-21 inches 30_36 jnchcs

Surf Scoter white patch

mi forehead
The male's black-and-white head pattern has
given it the nickname "skunk head." The bill

of both sexes is swollen at its base, .and that of

the male is a bright combination of red, orange,
black, and white. The bill and forehead form a

slope similar to that of the Canvasback. In flight

the wings are dark and have no pattern.
• SONG Usually silent but sometimes makes
low throaty notes. During courtship male
whistles and has gurgling call.
• BEHAVIOR Very common along the coasts
in winter, where it often feeds beyond the

all black both

MALE

swollen greenish
black bill

surf line by diving

for food, primarily
Similar Birds
mollusks and
crustaceans. Occurs in White-winc d 9
S( :oter
rafts offshore with other
male lias white
two Long strings
scoters. wing patch.
of scoters may be seen as
Black Scoter
they move along the coast in winter. Lacks head pattern
• BREEDING Monogamous. • female has pale face

and foreneck.
• NESTING Incubation by female. Young leave nest shortly
after hatching. First flight within 55 days. Fed by female. 1 brood
per year.

Flight Pattern • Population Common to

abundant. May have declined,
but now stable and numerous.
t T Declining in the West; the
cause is unknown, but hunting
Rapid direct flight w th strong w ing beats. is a possibility.
Flies in straight line urination

Nest Identification
Lined with down and weeds • on ground, often some distance from water, and
clumps • built by female • 5-8 pale
Shape «=> Location _ ^ well hidden under low tree branches or grass
buff, pinkish, or buff-white eggs, 2.4 inches long.

Plumage Scxcs dlft -

Migration
M j sratory
Weight ?
z pountj s

DATE TIME LOCATION

 "

BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 145

Family
ANATIDAE Species
Melanitta fusca Len ^h 19-24 inches Wingspan
33^ j inchcs

White-winged Scoter
The largest of the scoters is the only one with a white
speculum, which is seen easily in flight but may show
white "swish
as a white patch in the folded wing or be concealed. mark passes
Scoters may bunched flocks, long lines, or V
fly in through eye •
formations. Winter duck hunters along the Atlantic
Coast discovered that when these ducks were flying
too high overhead or too distant to shoot, they often
would come closer when shouted at loudly.

black
white speculum may • body
show </s patch in
folded wing

brownish gray
billwith small
knob at base

Similar Birds
• Song Both Surf scoter
sexes utter cf
t Lacks white wing
patches • male has
whistle note in S

white fotehead and

courtship; hoarse patch on back of neck
<?
croak. In flight • female has 2 white
produces 6-8 bell-
Female patches on sides of face.

like notes.
^ Black Scoter
• BEHAVIOR Dives to depths of 40 feet. Feeds primarily on r~ Lacks white wing
shellfish, which it swallows whole and breaks up with grinding patches male has solid
•

black head • female has

action of powerful gizzard.
whitish-brown cheeks.
•

•
BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester.
NESTING Incubation 25-31 days by female. First flight at
> k chin, throat, and sides
of neck.

63-75 days. Tended by female. 1 brood per year.

• Population Common to

Flight Pattern abundant. Perhaps the most

common scoter.
• Conservation Sea
ducks are vulnerable to
pollution of wintering habitats
Direct flight with steady wing beats that
sometimes seem heavy and labored. Flies and oil spills close to coasts.
in straight line or V formation.

Nest Identification
Fined with leaves, sticks, and down • on ground • built by female • 5-17 light
ocher, pinkish, orcreamy buff eggs; nearly elliptical, 2.6 inches long.
Shape

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat _ Migration
Migratory Weight
3 9 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

146 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len ^th 7-2 1 nches W'ngspan 3() _ 35
ANATIDAE Melanitta nigra 1 i nches

Black Scoter
One of the large sea ducks, most birds of this species are
seen on wintering grounds along both coasts. The male
is the only all-black duck in North America. In flight

both sexes show a silvery gray sheen on the flight

feathers that contrasts with the black linings of
the underwings. Wings make a whistling sound
in flight. Males often winter further north
than females, keeping in tight-knit flocks
on the water. Adult males have all-black
yellow-orange
brownish black feet and lees. knob on black bill

Male

dark bill
sooty brown cap

• SONG Usually silent. center line to

hindneck and body pale brownish
Males melancholy
gray foreneck
mellow cour-loo thought
by some to be the most pale brownish
musical duck call. In gray cheeks and
courtship male sides of head

whistles; female has

abrasive cour-loo.
• Behavior Diving
duck. Usually feeds in Similar Birds
shallower more protected WHI'Ie-winged
waters about 25 feet deep. Scoter
Primary diet is mollusks. Surf Scoter
Both sexes show white
• BREEDING Monogamous. patches on head in all
• NESTING Incubation 27-28 days by female. Precocial plumages.

young; first flight at about 46 days. Female tends young but

leaves after 7-21 days.

Flight Pattern
1 brood per year.
• Population Common to
fairly common; casual to
T
uncommon in the winter in
interior. Declining.
Strong direct flight with rapid wing beats. • Conservation
Flies in straight line and V formation.
Vulnerable to coastal oil spills.

Nest Identification
Coarse grass • lined with feathers • on ground hidden in standing grass or
under shrub • built by female • 5-8 buff to pink-buff eggs; elliptical to oval,
Shape Location 2.5 x 1.7 inches.

Plumage
Sexes djffcf
. Habitat ,
_ Migration
Migratory
Weight
2.4 pound

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 147

Wingspan
Family
ANATIDAE Species
Clangula hyemalh
Length
15 _22 inches 26 _ 3J inches

LONG-TAILED DUCK
Both the genus name and the former common name of
Oldsquaw refer to the almost continuous chatter of this paleface
long-tailed sea duck. It is the only duck that undergoes patch i

two complete brilliant molts annually, plus an eclipse

plumage. Winter males have a mostly white body with
brownish black patches on the face, breast, and back,
and a long black tail. Winter females appear similar
but have a paler head. In flight both sexes show
uniform dark wings without markings.
stubby
black bill
with pinkish
long block tail
ring

• SONG Melodious ow-ow-

owdle-ow calls that may be
heard for a mile. Noisy at al
seasons.
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious.
This duck dives frequently and
has been caught in fishermen's X
nets at 200 feet. Breeds on Winter
vhite
freshwater pools in tundra, but Female underparts
Plumage
winters on very large lakes and ocean. Often
flies close to water in tight bunched flocks. Similar Birds
• BREEDING Monogamous. North krn PintailcT
• NESTING Incubation 24-29 days by female. Precocial young Lacks face patches;
greenish brown
leave nest shortly after hatching. First flight at 35-40 days.
speculum; never pied.
Young tended by female and frequently by an extra female but
find own food. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Abundant;
Flight Pattern numbers in the millions.
• Conservation Dense
concentrations vulnerable to oil

and other pollution of

spills
northern seas. Large numbers
Swift direct flight often with erratic side- sometimes caught and drowned
to-side turns of body
in fishing nets.

Nest Identification
Lined with available plant material and large amount of down • on dry ground
close to water, partially hidden under low vegetation or rocks • built by female
Shape • 5-1 1 olive-buff, greenish yellow, or olive-gray eggs; 2.1 inches long.

Plumage
Sexe§ differ Habitat ^_ _^^ Migration
Migraitory Wei ^ ht
2.1 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

148 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Wingspan
Family
ANATIDAE Species
Bucephala albeola Length
i3_i6 inches 2Q_ 24 inches

BUFFLEHEAD
The name of this large-headed duck, which means buffalo-headed or ox-headed,
belies the Buffleheads agility in flying, swimming, and diving. It is the smallest
diving duck, but it is one of the bes,t divers. In flight
the male's pink legs and feet are bright against white
underparts, and a white patch crosses the entire
inner wing; female shows white in the secondaries large dark
head with
only. These birds nest only in North America.
green to
• SONG Squeaky whistle and low purple gloss
squealing or growling call. in good light

In courtship
makes loud
grating or
chattering noise.
Female has a harsh quack,
ec-ec-ec and buzzy cuc-cuc-cuc.
Male mostly white
una II bill
• Behavior Can take off body i

directly from water unlike other

diving ducks. Uses feet to mall white cheek patch

swim underwater. Dives in • gray-brown body

groups for safety, leaving
"lookouts" on surface.
Eats aquatic insects,
Similar Birds
larvae, snails, small fish,
and aquatic plant seeds. Hooded ,

Merganser ®
On saltwater eats shrimp Larger; brown sides;
and other crustaceans, spikelike bill; large crest

shellfish, and snails. Male that can be fanned or

lowered.
performs head-bobbing
display in courtship. Rl'DDY DICK cT
Winter male resembles
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. male Bufflehead
• NESTING Incubation 28-33 days by female. Young leave • longer bill and tail;

e white cheek patch.

nest by jumping out of tree cavity within day of hatching.
1

Tended by female. First flight at 50-55 days. 1 brood per year.

• POPULATION Common but
Flight Pattern has declined.
• BlRDHOUSES Will use nest
boxes located near water.
• Conservation Much less
numerous now due to
Swift direct flight with rapid w ing beats. unrestricted shooting in the 20th
century and loss of habitat.

Nest Identification
No material added to nest • will use wooden box placed in tree • 8-10 ivory-
yellow, light olive-buff, or cream to pale buff eggs; elliptical to oval in shape,
Shape
gg
2

±9 *>8 2 x 1.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ
Habitat Migration
Migrat We '£ nt 1.0 pound

DATE TIME UOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 149

Family Species Length

6 _7 0 inches Wingspan 25-32
ANATIDAE Bucephala clangula j

Common Goldeneye
In flight, on its whistling wings, the male shows more white black head with
plumage than any other North American duck except for the green gloss •

Common Merganser. Both sexes exhibit large white wing

patches in flight. The small tight flocks often fly high.
• SONG During courtship male has
black back dark gray
grating zee-zeee or zee-zee-at, resembling
bill
call of Common Nighthawk. Female
has abrasive low quack.

white oval
spot in front of
golden eye

yellow legs
brownish gray andfeet
Female body
JUVENILE

Similar Birds

Barrow's
Goldeneye
Male has white crescent
in front of eye; black
• blackish bill with white patch head with purplish
vhite collar
yellow-orange tip on folded wing gloss; black of back
extends farther down on
sides; smaller white
• BEHAVIOR Male makes spectacular courtship display, 9 wing patch in flight •
throwing its head so that its neck contorts back to rump. Dives female has more
triangular head with
to 20 feet to forage for mollusks, crustaceans, insects, and
more sloping forehead;
aquatic plants. longer bill with yellow
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. only at tip.

• NESTING Incubation 28-32 days by female. Young may stay

in nest 1-2 days. First flight at
56-62 days. Young tended by
Flight Pattern
female but feed themselves.
1 brood per year.

• POPULATION Common.
Presently stable.

Swift direct flight with fast wing beats.

• BIRDHOUSES Will utilize
nest boxes.

Nest Identification
Lined with down • built by female • 5-19 clear pale green or gray-green eggs;
Shape elliptical to oval, 1 inch long.
gJ2 jg
Location & i$y jg

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei S ht

Sexes differ Migratory 2.2 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

150 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
ANATIDAE Species Bucephala islandica len &h 16-20 inches Wingspan 30 inches

Barrow's Goldeneye
In summer this mountain streams and
puffy-headed duck plays in
rides currents in large rivers. In winter is found on
it generally puffy black
saltwater along the coasts. The forehead rises abruptly from a head with
purplish
short triangular bill to a crown that appears flattened, and the
sheen
nape is puffy. Female bill color varies with season and may be
mostly dark with a yellow tip in the winter; the amount of golden eye
yellow gradually increases to the point the bill may be
entirely yellow or have dark
black of back extends as ba r

brown head <

golde

mottling at
the base
when breeding.
Common Goldeneye
• SONG Makes low
Male has large white
grating croaks. 1 grayish brow/ spot on face, not
grayish brown
During courtship mottling on breast crescent; more pointed
mottling on sides
male utters kittenlike and flanks head with greenish
gloss;mostly white
squeals and muted grunts. scapulars, not spotted
• BEHAVIOR Flies close to surface of water for some time • female has longer,
more slender bill with
after the running takeoff typical of diving ducks. Not as
yellow restricted to tip;
gregarious as many other waterfowl. Relatively tame. In western more gently sloped
mountains may nest as high as 10,000 feet above sea level. forehead.

• BREEDING Monogamous.
• NESTING Incubation
Flight Pattern
28-34 days by female. Young
stay in nest 1-2 days. First
flight at 56 days. Young tended
by female but find own food. 1
brood per year.
Swift direct flight; wings make • Population Uncommon
whistling noise.
to fairly common.

Nest Identification
Lip to 50 feet off ground in large tree cavity, rock crevice, or abandoned building;
also in burrow or on ground under bushes • built by female • 5-15 pale olive or
Shape blue-green eggs, 2.4 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes differ
Habitat _ Migration
Mjg ratory Weight
2A poun d s

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 151

Species Length Wingspan

Family
ANATIDAK Mergellus albellus 14 _ 16 nches
j 24_ 26 nch(
j

Smew
A Eurasian merganser that appears regularly in the white crest <

central and west Aleutian Islands in the fall, the Smew

is only rarely seen elsewhere in North America. It is

much smaller, shorter billed, and more ducklike than

other mergansers, providing a link between the
diving ducks and the "sawbills." No other duck in
North American waters appears as white as the
male. Females are smaller than males.
• SONG Usually silent. On breeding
grounds gives prolonged croak or
grunt, err-err-err-ump/i.
• BEHAVIOR Eats aquatic
insects and their
larvae. Also
eats fish.

black -and- whitt

wings
JUVENILE

white cheek
chin, and Long-tailed Duck
throat Male has brown patches
on face; brown breast;
• Breeding long spiked black tail •

female has brownish

Monogamous.
back • winter birds
Found in forests appear mostly white on
during breeding season water.

nesting in hollows of trees Hooded, Common,

on wooded banks of rivers and Red-breasted
and lakes and in swampy Mergansers 9
Larger; ragged crests.
river valleys.
• Nesting incubation
28 davs bv female.

Flight Pattern
Precocialyoung leave nest
within 1-2 days of hatching.
First flight at 65-70 days.
Young are tended by female.
1 brood per year.
Swift direct flight with rapid wing beats. • Population Accidental
Flies in V or straight line formation.
to casual.

Nest Identification
Usually placed in hollow of tree near water and lined with down feathers
2 plucked from the body of the female • 6-9 cream eggs, 2 x 1.5 inches long.
Shape
g
Plumage
Sexes djffer Habitat — >^ Migration
Mi gratory Weight
L4 pound

DATE TIME LOCATION

152 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
ANATIDAE s P ecies Lophodytes cucullatus Len ^ 16-19 inches Wingspan
24 _? 6 inches

Hooded Merganser
The smallest native North American merganser has the largest crest.
The is a vertical white fan bordered with black that can
male's crest
be raised and lowered during display. When the crest is folded,
the head appears puffy. Flying birds of both sexes show a
white wing patch on the secondaries. On water the male's
white breast broken by two black lines in front of the
chestnut sides serves as a good field mark.
• SONG Hoarse grunts and chatters. Displaying
male gives rolling froglike crrrroooo; sometimes
utters hollow pop.
• BEHAVIOR Male raises and lowers
crest frequently in display. Male
Excellent diver.

Uses both dull brownish

wings and feet gray head t loose rusty crest

to swim swiftly
dull bro wnish gray body
underwater. Thin, • wtih blackish back
serrated bill is

adapted for taking Similar Birds

fish, but also feeds
Red-breasted
on crustaceans, Merganser cT
aquatic insects,
Common
other animals, and Merganser c?
plants. Flies quickly Red bill: paler and
grayer; larger.
into the air off water.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Sol itary nester. BUFFLEHEADCf
Lacks chestnut sides.
• NESTING Incubation 26-41 days by female. Young leave
nest within 24 hours of hatching. First flight at about 71 days.
Young tended by female but
Flight Pattern
find own food. 1 brood per year.
• Population After past
decline, now increasing because
of nest boxes, including those
intended for Wood Ducks.
Rapid direct
Flies silently
flight
and
with fast wing beats • BlRDHOUSES Will nest in
swiftly.
artificial boxes.

Nest Identification
Wood chips with debris in bottom • 15-20 feet off ground • built by female
Shape • 6-18 white eggs, almost spherical; 2.1 inches long.
jg

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat^ _ Migration
M igratory Weight
{ 5 pounc i s

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 153

Family
ANATIDAE Species
Mergm merganser Length
U -Z1 inches Wingspan 31 _ 37
inches

Common Merganser
The Common Merganser is the largest merganser in
North America. The male's mostly white body, dark blackish green

head, and red bill easily distinguish it from the other head with
pe .
0
mergansers at a distances or in flight. This is the only
slender
merganser in North America in which the female is red bill
crested and the male is not. black
• SONG Male makes harsh croaks; female makes back

loud harsh karr karr.

• BEHAVIOR Expert diver pursues
MALE
small fish under water. Also
feeds on mollusks,

crustaceans, aquatic
insects, and some
plants. In winter
often stays as far
north as open water
will allow. Patters
across water or land
to build up speed
for takeoff.Often
flieslow following
stream courses.
Similar Birds
• Breeding clean separation between
Red-breasted
Monogamous. Solitary nester. chestnut neck and white Merganser
breast and underparts
• Nesting incubation Male has crest; streaked
reddish breast; gray
28-35 days by female. Young
sides • female has white
remain in nest 1 day or more. First flight at 65-70 days. Young chin and foreneck.
tended by female but find own food. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Fairly common. Stable in US; may be increasing
in Europe.
Flight Pattern • BIRDHOUSES Will use
man-made nest boxes.
• Conservation Some
fishermen feel it competes for

Direct flight with rapid wing beats and

their catches and try to kill
bill, head, body, and tail held in indiscriminately.
straight line.

Nest Identification
Wood chips or debris • lined with down, weeds, grasses, and rootlets
Shape 2
Abandoned • near water in large tree cavity or in rock crevices or holes • built by female
^ |g • 6-17 light buff or ivory-yellow eggs, 2.6 inches in diameter.
Location £ ±0
Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat « _ Migration
Migratory Wei S ht
3.8 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

154 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Length Wingspan
Family
ANATIDAE Species
Mergus serrator 16_26 inches 31 _ 35 jnches

Red-breasted Merganser
One of the fastest flying ducks, this species has been
clocked at 100 mph. In flight males show a large white
square on the inner wing; females have white
secondaries only. Both sexes have a ragged crest. It is
often seen from the shore along seacoasts in winter.
• SONG Generally silent. Female makes
harsh krrr-Krrr and hoarse croaks.
Courting male makes
catlike yeow.

black upperpart.

n ddish lezs
and feet

whitish chin, throat,

andforeneck

• Behavior
ilar Birds
Swift on the wing. Female
To take off, runs Common Merganser
with wings flapping Male has white
underparts and breast;
across either water or land. Dives to forage for animal food,
lacks crest
Principal diet is fish. Mergansers sometimes form a line to drive • female has clean-cut
fish into shallower water to catch them. line between rusty neck
and white breast.
• BREEDING Monogamous.
• NESTING Incubation 29-35 d ays by female. Young leave nest
within 1 day of hatching. First
flight after 59 days. Young
Flight Pattern
tended by female but find own
food. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Widespread
and common. Coastal
Fast direct flight with rapid wing be
wintering habitat vulnerable to
pollution and oil spills.

Nest Identification Lined with down • on ground in sheltered spot; sometimes in hollow stump,
under rocks, or in shallow burrow • built by female • sometimes eggs laid in
nests of Mallard. Gadwall, or Lesser Scaup • 5-16 olive-buff or green-buff eg
Shape
2.5 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes djffer Habitat ,

= ^ Migration
\ Iigratory Weight 7.5
pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 155

Family Species Len §th Wingspan

ANATIDAE Nomonyx dominicus 1 2-14 inches 20 inches

Masked Duck
A small, tropical duck that rarely wanders to, and even more
rarely nests in, the southern United States. The Masked Duck
is usually found in densely vegetated, warm freshwater pools
black face, *§pl
and marshes. This is one of the "stiff-tailed" ducks closely forehead, and
|

related to the common and widespread Ruddy Duck. Both

sexes show large white patches on the inner wing in flight.
• SONG Courtship calls of coo-coo-coo, ooo-ooo-ooo, du-dn-
du, kirroo-kirroo. When
alarmed male makes loud kuri-
kuroo, often repeated. Female makes henlike
clucking and hissing noises. MALE
long spiked
bluish bill
blackish tad

ich cinnamon-brown
body with black mottling
whiush brown face
with blackish brown
lines across cheek
• Behavior brown body
A shy and ith buff mottling
somewhat
secretive duck that
brown
hides in the dense
neck
vegetation in water. Winter
Dives for food; diet male
consists primarily of
aquatic plants, some Female Similar Birds
insects, and crustaceans. Can sink
Ri ddv Duck
slowly into the water. Takeoffs from water are often
Male has blackish cap;
accomplished by first diving beneath the surface and bursting white cheeks • female
up in flight from below. As with other "stiff tails" often holds q has single dark stripe on

long stiff tail fanned on water or wrenlike over back. cheek • both sexes lack
white inner wing patch.
• BREEDING Monogamous.
• NESTING Incubation 28 days by female. Young tended by
female but probably find own
food. 1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• POPULATION Casual to
rare; local. Does not seem to
have large populations
anywhere. Infrequent and
Direct flight, often close to water, with local nesting in coastal Texas
fast wing beats.
and Louisiana.

Nest Identification
Roofed made of reeds and grasses • sparsely lined with
over, basketball-like •
down • among marsh vegetation in shallow water or near water • built by female
Shape • 4-10 white or buff eggs; subelliptical, 2.5 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei 8 ht 12.8

Sexes djffer te Nonmigratory ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

156 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species
ANATIDAE QxyUra jamaicensi

Ruddy Duck
This big-headed chunky duck has a
long stiff tail that is often cocked and
fanned forward. Wings are uniform
in color. In winter males
become gray-brown with a blue
bill
gray bill. In breeding
season found in pairs or
small loose groups on
freshwater lakes and
ponds. After nesting, may
occur in large flocks; in
winter it can be found on
salt bays.

• SONG Usually silent.

In courtship male utters
continual chuck-chuck-
chuck-chuck-churrr.
• Behavior Diving
duck that can sink slowly
beneath the surface like
a grebe. When disturbed
often swims away
underwater instead
of flying away.
Gray legs and feet
are placed so far
beneath the body Masked Duck
Male lacks white cheek
that it cannot walk
• female has 2 dark
upright. Primary diet lines across face
of vegetable materials. • population very local.

Relatively tame.
Femalk pale underparts with
fine brown barring
Cinnamon Teal
• BREEDING Monogamous Lacks stiff tail and
white cheeks; large
• NESTING Incubation 23-26 days by female. Young leave pale blue forewing
nest within a day of hatching. First flight at 42—18 days. Young patch in flight
tended by female but feed themselves. 1 brood per year, • female lacks line
through face.
sometimes 2 in the South.
• POPULATION Fairly common to common. Current levels are
lower than in the past.
Flight Pattern • Conservation
Reasons for decline unknown,
but this bird is vers
-
tame and
by hunters.
easily killed
Shallow-water nesting areas
Jerky direct flight with rapid w ng beats. are subject to draining for
agriculture and droughts.

Nest Identification Grasses and cattails • lined with down • in dense marsh vegetation over shallow
water • sometimes uses abandoned nests • built by female • 5-17 creamy white
or nest-stained eggs, 2.5 inches long • eggs huge compared to body size and
Shape £q <^ Location
similar in size to those laid by much larger ducks.

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat
m Migration
M igratory Weight
u pounds
DATE TIME LOCATION
 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 157

Family Species Length Wingspan 54 _ 72 inches

ACGIPITRIDAE pantjion haliaetus ?i_24 inch*

OSPREY
A kindred of other diurnal birds of prey, the Osprey is so
didstinctive it is sometimes placed in it own family. Its large size
and uniquely curved claws allow the Osprey to carry a large
fish a considerable distance to feed to its young in the mostly
nest. Occasionally an eagle dives upon an kite head
dark brown upperparts
Osprey carrying a fish, forces a release,
with purplish gloss
and catches the fish for itself before
the fish hits the water.
• SONG Series of loud whistled
kyews or melodious whistle of
chewk-chewk-chewk or cheap-
cheap-cheap.

clear white belly

long tail with

toes equal in
narrow black bars
length on claws
curved into
• BEHAVIOR Eats mainly fish. Dives into
one-third of a
water to catch prey from 30-100 feet above circle

surface. Holds fish with both feet, stops to shake

water out of feathers, points fish head forward to
decrease wind resistance, and carries to perch or to
feed young. Often flies with distinctive crook or kink
in wing bent at wrist, which has a black patch.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial or
solitary nester. Similar Birds
• NESTING days by both
Incubation Bald Eagle
sexes; however, female does more, while male Entirely white head and

brings food.
by both parents.
•
Young

POPULATION Uncommon
coastal range.
1
stay in nest
brood per year.
48-59 days. Fed

inland; fairly common

Juvenile

in
0 tail; crown held
dark underparts and
underwings •
flat;

juvenile
has entirely dark head
and patchy tannish
white underwings.
• BlRDHOUSES Osprey will build nest on man-made
cartwheel on pole or on platforms built in marshes.
• Conservation
Flight Pattern Endangered in 1950s because of
chemical pollution (especially
DDT), but has since made a
comeback, at least partly by
transplanting young into areas
Deep, slow wing beats alternate with
where entire populations had
sometimes soars on thermals.
glides:
been extirpated.

Nest Identification Sticks, sod, cow dung, seaweed, rubbish, and similar material • up to 200 feet
above ground in dead or live trees near or over water, or atop telephone poles
Shape Location or bridges • built by both sexes • Usually 3 white or pinkish eggs marked with
4jg jg
brown and olive, 2.4 x 1 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexes simHar Migratory j
3>1 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

158 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
ACCIPITRIDAE s P ecies Chondrohierax uncinatus len &h 16 inches Win S s P an
34-37 inches

Hook-billed Kite
A native of South and Central America, this large kite
sometimes makes its way to southern Texas. A heap of
broken snail shells under a tree is a telltale sign of a
nest or habitual perch in the branches above. A
black morph exists, but it has not been seen in
the United States. Males are slate-gray
overalland have white eyes, which can
be seen at close range. Females are date-gray
brown with a barred reddish collar
and reddish underparts with
white barring. Juveniles have
whitish underparts with
brown barring, a white
Male
collar, and brown eyes.
heavily barred
• SONG Gives a underparts, including
musical, oriole-like underwings

2-3 note whistle.

Screams and chatters
when disturbed, weh
keh-eh-eh-eh-eh-eh-eh-eh.
• Behavior Diet banded tail

consists primarily of
various types of snails, barred reddish
but it also eats frogs,
p collar
Juvenile
salamanders, and insects. brown
Its flight is distinctively large heavy overall Similar Birds
floppy and loose, and the billwith
Zone-tailed Hawk

J
long hook
bird holds paddle-shaped
its Larger; wings not
wings slightly raised and reddish
paddle-shaped and are
held in a dihedral while
pushed forward. underparts
in flight; lacks barring
• BREEDING Monogamous. with white
hairing
on underparts.
• NESTING Incubation by
Crane Hawk
both sexes. Semialtricial Larger; narrower
young remain in nest blackish underwings;
35-45 days and are fed by underparts lack barring;
bright orange-red legs.
both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• Population Uncommon. Female

Flight Pattern
Found in the US only in the

Distinctly loose floppy flight. Soars on

V T
lower Rio Grande Valley of
southeastern Texas.
• Conservation Some
decline in the tropics; West
thermals and updrafts.
Indies population endangered.

Nest Identification
Dead twigs • built by both sexes • 2-3 buff-white eggs marked with reddish
Shape ^ Location 0i brown, 1.8 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat
te ^^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei 6 ht 9.8 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 159

Species Length Wingspan 45 _ 50 inche

Family
ACCIPITRIDAE Elanoides forftcatui 19_ 25 inches .

Swallow-tailed Kite
Flying swiftly with its wings cleaving the air and
itsforked tail opening and closing like scissors,
the Swallow-tailed Kite is a breathtaking sight.
The largest of the North American kites, this
bird resembles a huge Barn Swallow. The
long pointed wings
black upperparts contrast sharply with the
below with black flight
white head and underparts. Never taking feathers and white
time to hover, it will drop down to skim the wing linings

surface of water to bathe or drink and then

swoop suddenly up over the treetops. A
tropical species that in North America
isnormally found only in the snow-white
snow-white
southeast in the spring and head and hina
underparts
summer, during spring migration neck

individuals may "overshoot"

and appear as far north as 15-16-inch-long
New England. black black tail with
bill deep fork
• SONG Utters shrill ee-

ee-ee or pee-pee-pee. When

several fly together they
make sweet shrill cries of
peat, peat, peat; klee, klee,
klee; or soft whistles.
• Behavior Forms flocks
in winter or migration.
Catches and eats food while
flying. Feeds on insects such as
bees, dragonflies, crickets,
cicadas, and beetles. Also
consumes small snakes, lizards,
frogs, and small birds, which
often are taken from the treetops Similar Birds
• BREEDING Monogamous. Mississippi Kite
Forms loose colonies. Slightly notched black
gray underparts
• NESTING Incubation 24-28 days by tail;

and head.
both sexes, but mostly by female. Semialtricial
young stay in nest 36-42 days. Fed by both sexes.
Probably only brood per year.

Flight Pattern
• Population Common.
• Conservation Listed as
< f >» A endangered in South Carolina.
Disappeared from many areas in
early 20th century. Population
Buoyant flight with deep slow wing beats
and glides; a master at soring on thermals now apparently stable and
and updrafts. slowly expanding range.

Sticks, twigs, moss, and pine needles • lined with leaves and lichen
Nest Identification
• usually in treetop, 60-130 feet above ground, concealed by thick
foliage • built by both sexes • 2-3 white or creamy white eggs marked
Shape Location with brown, sometimes lavender, often concentrated at end; elliptical
4jg jfo.
to short subelliptical, 1.8 x 1.25 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes sim ;i ar |
Habitat
^g te |
Migration
Migratory |
We| g nt 15.6
ounces

DATE TIME. LOCATION

160 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length 1S _ Wingspan
ACCIPITRIDAE Elanus leucurus ]7 jnches | 4(M2 j nc h es

White-tailed Kite
Sometimes called the white hawk,
the White-tailed Kite soars and glides orange to

like a small gull. When seen from a, reddish

hrmcii eyes k hill
distance, this gregarious bird appears
completely white. Previously called
the Black-shouldered Kite, the white
linings of the underwing are broken pale gray
distally by a black "thumb" mark on upperparts
hiark patch
the wrist. It is the only North on shoulders
American kite to hover while
hunting, with tail down and often
with legs dangling, over savanna,
riparian woodland, marshes, grassy
white
foothills, or the cultivated fields it
underparts
searches for food. It is a master at
soaring on thermals and glides long
distances after reaching
considerable heights. Juveniles'
underparts and head are lightly
streaked with rufous.
• SONG Brief whistled keep,
keep, keep.

• Behavior Active
hunter. Pauses to hover
and study ground
before swooping on
prey. Eats voles, field
mice, pocket
gophers, ground
squirrels, shrews, small birds,
small snakes, lizards, frogs,
Similar Birds
grasshoppers, crickets, and beetles. Often roosts communally
Mississippi Kite
• BREEDING Monogamous. Nests built close together,
Lacks black shoulders
sometimes in loose colonies. and black "thumb"
• NESTING Incubation 30 days by female. Young stay in mark under wing; has
black tail.
nest 35-40 days. Fed by both sexes. Male hunts for food and
drives away crows and other hawks. Up to 2 broods per year.
• Population Common but
Flight Pattern local. Expanded in last half of
20th century.

; • Conservation Some
;. t concern about the spraying of
pesticides and insecticides in
Hunts by flying slowly, gracefully, gull-
like,with slow measured deep w ing bet open environments frequented
Soars on thermals and updrafts. by this species.

Nest Identification weed stems, and rootlets •

Sticks and twigs • lined with grasses, dry stubble,
in oaks,cottonwood, or eucalyptus, about 15-60 feet above ground • built by
Shape ^ Location ^-y
4jJ*
both sexes 3-6 white eggs, heavily blotched with rich brown; ovate to oval,
1.7 x 1.3
•

inches long.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat ^ _ te Migration
Nonmigratory Wei ^ ht Undetermined

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 161

Family s P ecies Ros/r/mmus soriabilk Len £th 16-18 inches Wingspan 45 nche
ACCIPITRIDAE I ;

Snail Kith
Also known as the Everglades Kite, this
resident of subtropical freshw ater marshes
has one of the most specialized diets of all
birds. It eats only snails of the genus
Pomacea, also called the green or apple
snail,\\ hich lays its tiny white eggs on

plant stems a few inches above water.

This gregarious bird flies slowly up to
30 feet above the marshes while
hunting, always keeping its bill
pointed downward in search of
freshwater snails. In flight the white
tail with broad dark tip is easily seen
The juvenile looks like the female
but is heavily streaked below.
• SONG Greeting call is grating
kor-ee-ee-a, koree-a. If disturbed at
nest, alarm call is cackling notes
resembling those of Osprey.
• BEHAVIOR Glides slow and
low over marsh, dropping to pick up
snail with one foot; flies to perch and
uses bill to extract snail from
shell. Roosts communally on
low bushes often over water.
• BREEDING When courting,
flies high and then dives
repeatedly in short sudden
dips with wings folded. Loose
colonies or solitary nester.
• Nesting incubation Northern Harrier cf
White patch on rump,
26-30 days by both sexes.
not on tail; narrower
Semialtricial young stay in nest pointed wings in flight,
23-28 days, tended by one parent or not paddle-shaped, and

the other. 1 brood per year; often held above back in

dihedral.
2 when food abundant.
• POPULATION Rare to uncommon. Local.
• Conservation Florida
Flight Pattern population endangered.
Droughts and man-made canals
have drained marshes, reducing
snail population. Widespread in
tropics, but vulnerable to
Flies on slow shallow wing beats habitat loss.
interrupted by short glides.

Nest Identification Green or dry sticks and 3-9 feet above ground in low tree or
leafy twigs •
hammock • built by both sexes, but male does most of work
of marsh grass

Shape ^ Location
• 2^4 white eggs, sometimes marked with brown; oblong, oval, or short
subelliptical, 1.7 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei § ht 13.3

Sexes differ , Nonmigratory ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

162 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Length Wingspan
Family
ACCIPITRIDAE Species
iCfjn ja mississippiensis 13 _ 1? inches 34_37 inches

Mississippi Kite
Far from shy, the Mississippi Kite has deep red eyes
been seen chasing bats into caves and
flying around horseback riders and pale ash-gray
cattle to catch insects. This bird is head
not territorial; several might perch
together in trees, even during
nesting season. They also gather
at communal perches and
foraging areas, and often soar
communally while hunting
insects. As many as 20 birds
have been recorded following a
herd of livestock for flushed
insects. The Mississippi Kite
never hovers and has a smooth
graceful flight with its white ye/low to red legs

secondary feathers showing.

• SONG Usually silent.
Has alarm call of whistled
kee-e-e. Also whistles phee-
phew, phee-phew,
resembling that of
Osprey.
• Behavior
Gracefully catches large
flying insects, often
eatingthem in midair.
White-tailed Kite
Hunts with flock. Lighter tail; black
• Breeding shoulder patches;
black "thumb" mark
Monogamous. Colonial.
under wing.
Little courtship activity
occurs on the US Northern
Harrier ®
breeding grounds as the Male hovers and is

birds are already paired larger; dark secondary

when they return from feathers; white rump
patch; facial disk.
wintering in the neotropics.
• NESTING Incubation 31-32 days by both sexes. Young
remain in nest 34 days, fed by
both sexes. 1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• POPULATION Common to
fairly common. Expanding
range, particularly west of the
Mississippi River. Regularly
Buoyant flight with steady wingbeats;
strays as far north as the
sometimes alternates several wing strokes
with short to long glides. southern Great Lakes region.

Nest Identification Sticks and twigs • lined with green leavesand Spanish moss (where available)
• inupper branches, small forks, and occasionally on horizontal lines,
Shape ^ Location i5§fe
30-135 feet above ground • built by both sexes • 1-3 white or bluish white
eggs, unmarked or faintly spotted, often nest-stained.

P| umage Sexes similar Habitat

Stt *** fL. toe — Mi S ration
Migratory Wei ^ ht 12.6 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 163

Family Species Len §th 34-43 inches Wingspan

ACCIPITRIDAE Haliaeetus leucocephalus feet

Bald Eagle
The national bird of the United States has
an awe-inspiring wingspan and striking snow-whih
head and neck
white head and tail that make adults easy
to identify. Big concentrations of these
huge birds can be seen perched in
trees and resting on sandbars when
salmon run in rivers of the
Northwest. Juveniles can be
recognized by their large size;
dark brown head, tail, and
body; mottled white patches
on underwings and
underparts; grayish eyes;
and light yellow feet.

• SONG Both sexes utter

gull-like squealing cackle
of k/eek-kik-ik-ik-ik or
lower kak-kak-kak.
• Behavior Hunts
for prey, primarily
fish, especially in
Golden Eagle
Similar to juvenile
breeding season. • adult has less massive
Sometimes steals bill; less blotchy white

fish from Ospreys. on underwings and

underparts; golden
Also eats carrion
feathers on head
and injured or • juvenile has distinct

crippled white patches at base of

primaries and base of
waterfowl, squirrels, white tail
yellow feet
tail; smaller head and
rabbits, and muskrats. aiid legs
bill; feathered legs.
• BREEDING Monogamous; thought to pair for
Steller's Sea-Eagle
life. Solitary nester. Adult has long wedge-
shaped white tail; white
• NESTING Incubation 31^1-6 days by both sexes. Semialtricial
thighs and shoulders
young stay in nest 70-98 days until first flight. Fed by both • juvenile has long
sexes. 1 brood per year. wedge-shaped white
with dark tips
• POPULATION Fairly common to common but local outside
tail

• Alaskan range.
Florida and Alaska.
• CONSERVATION Protected by national wildlife refuges and
legally with heavy fines. Made
Flight Pattern greatcomeback, especially in the
United States, since the 1970s
with widescale restoration
programs, and the banning of

Several deep wing beats alternate with

DDT and other chemical
long glides; often flies direct with deep pollutants. Moved from
steady wing beats. Also soars on thermals. endangered status to threatened.

Nest Identification
Made of large sticks and vegetation • deeply lined with fine material • in fork
tree or on ledge, 30-60 feet above ground • built by both sexes

^—
of tall • 2 bluish
Shape Location
fa white or dull white eggs, often nest-stained; 3 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes simHar Habitat _^ Migration
Migratory Weight
9 j pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

164 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len £th 31-40 inches Win gspan 5_ 8
ACCIPITRIDAE Haliaeetus albirilla fee£

White-tailed Eagle
Sometimes referred to as an erne, the White-tailed Eagle is

the fourth-largest eagle in the world and is only a little smaller

than Steller's Sea-Eagle. Birdwatchers in North America
sometimes can spy this native of Eurasia and Greenland on
the Aleutian Island Attu, where it has nested, or on other
Aleutian Islands. Eastern records of its appearance
exist from just after the turn of the 20th century
along the north Atlantic Coast. Juveniles
have darker plumage than adults and a
mottled white base of the tail.

• SONG Barking calls with head

thrown up and back, krick-krick-
krick or grah-grah-gnih.
• Behavior Hunts fish
by snatching them from ^
the waters surface.
Sometimes steals from
gulls; also eats young
gulls, ducks,
guillemots, alcids,
seals, rabbits,
rodents, and carrion.
Found near
seacoasts and rivers.

Bald E vgle

Juvenile 0 White undertail coverts;

white head • juvenile
has darker undenving;
darker tail lacks wedge
shape and narrow dark
• BREEDING Monogamous; thought to pair for life. Solitary
terminal band.
nester. Males fight in flight over mate.
• NESTING Incubation 35-45 days by female. Semialtricial
young initially fed by male then
fed by both sexes. First flight at
Flight Pattern
70 days. 1 brood per year.
• Population Accidental
to casual primarily on Attu and
other Aleutians. Declining.
Heavy flight with strong deep steady wing
beats; sometimes alternates with short to • Conservation Declined
long glides; soars on thermals. over 20th century.

Nest Identification
Made of sticks, grasses, seaweed, and bones of prey • in large trees, usually
conifers, often 60 feet above ground or on rocky ledges or even a hammock
Shape ^ Location
^ when trees are unavailable • 1-3 dull white eggs.

Plumage
Sexes simi i ar
Habitat —^ ^ Migration
Most df) not m grate
j
Weight
g g pound

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 165

Species Length Wingspan 38 _4 8

Family ACCIPITRIDAE Cinui •\a ne it: 16 _ 24 inches inche .

Northern Harrier
Its owl-like facial diskand white rump patch, which is
prominent in flight, set the Northern Harrier apart
from all other North American falconiformes. gray
Males take several years to acquire their gray- upperparts
plumaged upperparts. Their wings are long
with black-tipped trailing edges, and the
outermost four or five primaries are black.
chestnut
• SONG Shrill calls kek, kek, kek or keee,
spotting on
keee, keee, especially around the nest. throat and breast
• BEHAVIOR Hunts using low slow
flight that consists of alternately Male
flapping and gliding with the wings biack wing
held in a shallow V above the back, tips and
Often quarters back and forth over secondary
tips*
low vegetation and can turn and
drop rapidly on prey that it may
detect initially by sound. Feeds
on small mammals, especially
rodents up to the size of a small
rabbit, frogs, snakes, small birds,
carrion, and large insects.
Sometimes hunts the edges of
grass fires to capture prey driven
out by the flames. Courtship flight
of males is thrillingly acrobatic.
• BREEDING Some pairs
monogamous; some males are
polygamous with up to 3
mates. Solitary nester. Both brown Rough-legged
sexes very vocal with high- upperpart. wvk
pitched screams when Base of tail (not rump)
defending nest. Female white; broad blackish
subterminal band on
• Nesting incubation tail • does not course
31-32 days by female. Semi- low <>\ er fields but
hunts from perch or
altricial young stay in nest
by hovering.
30-35 days, fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year
• POPULATION Common but declining.
• Conservation
Flight Pattern Populations have declined
everywhere on its breeding
range because of the loss of
marshland habitat as well as
pesticides. Formerly, many were
Several deep wing beats alternate lost to shooting.
with glides.

Nest Identification Sticks and grass lined with fine material • usually placed on the ground • ma}
be 5 feet above water or marshy terrain • built by both sexes, but female doej
most construction • 3-9 bluish white eggs, sometimes spotted with brown,
Shape SSL 1 .8 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexe§ differ Some migrate j 2 6 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

166 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
Accipr RIDAE Accipiter striates io_l4 inches 20_28 inches

Sharp-shinned Hawk
A territorial bird, the Sharp-shinned Hawk
occasionally strikes humans in defense of
its nest. Its name describes its flattened,
thin tarsus or shank. This is the smallest
finely streaked
of the North American accipiters; the
red-brown throat
female is larger than the male. The
head and neck seem small for its
long, slender body. Its long tail
has three to four narrow black
crossbars, and is squared
blue-gray
or notched on the tip. upper-part. * red-brown bars
Juveniles have brown across chest and
upperparts and white belly

underparts with heavy

brown streaking.
• SONG When disturbed
utters kek-kek-kek or kik-kik-
kik. Call is melancholy cry.

• Behavior Eats mostly

small birds, including
songbirds, taken off ground
or twigs, or in air. Also eats
small mammals (including
JUVENILE
bats), reptiles, grasshoppers,
lav Birds
and other larger insects.
• BREEDING Monogamous Cooper's Hawk
Rounded tail; larger
Solitary nester.
(but female Sharp-
• Nesting incubation shinned approach male
Cooper's in size); larger
32-35 days by female.
head; more contrast
Semialtricial young stay between black crown
in nest23-27 days. Fed and face; wide white
by both sexes. 1 brood band on tip of tail (can
be tricky because of
per year.
feather wear);
• Population Common sometimes lighth
to fairly common. streaked undertail
coverts.
• FEEDERS Often attracted
to concentrations of small birds
at bird feeders, especiallv
Flight Pattern in winter.

• Conservation Decline
x^x ^ x^x during 1950s through 1970s due
to pesticides and heavy metal

More buoyant flight than other pollutants in environment.

accipiters with several rapid wing beats Some comeback in 1980s but is
between glides.
perhaps declining again.

Nest Identification Made of sticks and twigs • lined with strips of bark, grass, and coniferous
needles • sometimes in deciduous trees but usually conifers, 10-60 feet

Shape ^ Location ^ 0t above ground, next to trunk • 4-5 white or bluish eggs marked with browns,
1.5 inches long.

Plumage Sexes simikr I Habitat

m^ _j Migration
Some migrate Weight
3 6 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 167

Family Species Length

4_ 21 inch< Wingspan 27 _36 inches
ACCIPITRIDAE decipher coopeiii ,

Cooper's Hawk
The bird most likely to steal poultry off farms, Cooper's
Hawk is the true chicken hawk that small family farmers
have called the Blue Darter. It is named after William
Cooper, who was the first person to collect one of
these birds and have it identified. Like most
hawks, the juvenile has heavily streaked
underparts and brown upperparts,
whereas adults show blue-gray
upperparts. Females are larger
than males, and both show a
blue-gray back. In flight the Juvenile
long tail appears rounded.
rounded tail
• SONG Alarm cal dark gray or with dark bars
kac-kac-kac or kuck, black on top and a white
of head band on tip
kuck kuck, kuck.
• Behavior dap red to

territorial; will

yellow cere

not allow
Similar Birds
similar Sharp-
shinned Hawk in same Sharp-shinned Hawk
Shorter tail with
woodland. Attacks poultry, other birds, small mammals, and
notched or squared end;
takes songbirds out of nest. Occasionally eats fish.Sometimes smaller head; less
carries prey to water and kills it by drowning. Hunts by waiting contrast between back
in ambush or by dashing in swift low flight through wooded lot;
surprises prey and catches it with talons.
i and crown; narrower
white band at tip of tail
• male much smaller,

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. but female similar in

size to male Cooper's.
• NESTING Incubation 32-36 days by both sexes, but more by
female. Semialtricial young stay in nest 27-34 days, fed by both
sexes. 1 brood per year.

Flight Pattern
• Population Uncommon
to rare. Steadily increasing after

V
Rapid \ ving beats followed by short glide;
T
bottoming out
•
in
due
Conservation
in 1970s.

Decline
mid-20th century principally
to pesticides. Stable or
often c rcles in flight on thermals.
increasing in most areas.

Sticks and twigs • lined with chips, outer bark strips, and occasionally green
Nest Identification
conifer needles • in crotch of conifer near trunk or in deciduous tree, 10-60 feet
above ground • built by both sexes, but male does more • 4-5 bluish white or
Shape Location €jb greenish white eggs, spotted with browns and usually nest-stained; elliptical to
subelliptical, 1.5 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
^ Migration
Some m grate
j
Weight
12 3 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

168 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length 19 _? Wingspan 40_4
ACCIPITRIDAE Vcripiter gentilh 7 inches 7 nches ;

Northern Goshawk
An agile and proficient flier, the distinct white
ebrow over
Northern Goshawk is not afraid to
each eye a ide
catch prey nearhumans when it is posteriorly
hungry. This bold hawk has been
known to attack duck decoys. It
appears pale gray at a distance, and
in flight the shorter tail and
longer, broad wings (for an
accipiter) give the superficial
appearance of a Red-tailed
Hawk. The female is the
larger and dominant partner
blue-gray
in a pair.
back
• SONG Alarm call is

harsher and deeper than

Cooper's Hawk, kac-kac-kac
or k/ik, kuk\ kuk. Female
utters high-pitched
melancholy whine, kee-a-ah,
reminiscent of the Red-
shouldered Hawk.
• Behavior Eats
relatively
snowshoe hare, lemmings,
long rounded
and grouse; migrates south in wings
irruptive numbers when their
prey populations crash. Also eats
small to medium mammals, large
and small birds (including ducks lonS rounded
to weaee-
andj crows), andj some large insects.
\ i

shaped tail
Dives and kills prey on ground or in
air with deadly grip of talons. Female
very defensive of nest site to the point
Cooper's Hawk
of attacking intruders, including humans.
Shorter wings; longer
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. tail: darker blue-gray
upperparts; barred
• NESTING Incubation 36-42 days by both sexes, but female rusty iinderparts.
does more. Semialtricial young stay in nest 41-43 days. Fed by
both sexes. First flight at 45 days. 1 brood per year.
• Population Uncommon
Flight Pattern to rare.
• Conservation
Expanding range. Possible
increase in the Northeast during
recent decades. Southwestern
Several stro ig rapid wing beats
mountain populations may be
interspersec with glides; soars on thermals.
threatened bv loss of habitat.

Nest Identification Sticks and twigs • lined with bark strips, evergreen sprigs, grass, and feathers
• in fork of branch or trunk of tree, 20-75 feet above ground • built by both

Shape Location
^ sexes, but
stained or
male does more • 3-4 bluish or off-white eggs, occasionally nest-
spotted with brown; slightly elongate elliptical or oval, 2.3 inches long.

1a 6e
Sexes similar Habitat
jj^ M Migration
Migratory
Wei § ht
2.0 pound

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 169

Family Species Len £ th Wingspan 36 _4} inchcs

ACCIPITRIDAE Geranospiza caerulescens inches

Crane Hawk
This small-headed hawk is usually
orange-red
seen in forested areas near water. red eyes
The Crane Hawk soars tor only
black
short periods of time, and its (111(1 £

floppy wing beats are distinctive.

This slate-gray hawk is distinctive
on the wing with two white tail
bands, blackish underwings, and a
blackish
white crescent across the outer
slate tree rail
primaries. Juveniles are lighter
gray with pale buff mottling on
the chest, belly, and thighs.
• SONG Clear loud
whistle, wheeo-m'/ieeeoo, or
wavy white Una
thin kweeeuur. During
on undertail
interactions a series of coverts, lower
deep low whistles, belly, and thighs
^oop-voop whoooou long bright
orange-red legs
whoooou whooou.
• BEHAVIOR Perches in
trees. Uses its long legs to
reach into the crevices of
trunks, tree holes, and Birds
bromeliads while flapping
wings for balance; extracts
Common
Black-Hawk
lizards, frogs, insects, Stockier body; broader
nestling birds, and small wings lack \\ hire
long squared to crescent in primaries;
rodents. Often stands with
slightly rounded short fan-shaped tail
body horizontal above straight hia dish tail with with single broad w hire
legs. white tip band and narrow white
• BREEDING Monogamous. 2 broad white terminal band; yellow
bands belo w legs and cere.
• NESTING Breeding biology broader basal
HOOK-BILLED KlTECf
poorly known; incubation by female band Smaller; broader wings
estimated at 32-36 days. Young with white barring in

brooded by female; stay in nest estimated

semialtricial, primaries; barred
underparts.
27-35 days; fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION The Crane Hawk is an uncommon and local
resident in subtropical and
Flight Pattei tropical America. It has occurred
once in the US at the Santa Ana
National Wildlife Refuge in
southeastern Texas.
• CONSERVATION Many
,oose floppy wing beats alternated hawks are still killed by people
ith glides.
in Latin American countries.

Nest Identification
Sticks lined with leaves • in trees in middle to upper levels

Shape ^ ft
white eggs.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
^^ i5s _^^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei § ht 1 1.9 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

170 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length
16 _ lg jnches Wingspan 32 _38 inches
ACCIPITRIDAK j{ sturj na n itida

Gray Hawk
This stout little hawk is an uncommon and local resident of
low-lying woodlands along streams in south Texas and a
summer visitor to Arizona. It is not an accipiter as formerly
thought but actually a small buteolrke hawk. Juveniles are
rusty or sooty brown with brown-streaked pale to buff
underparts and have narrow dusky bars on the tail. In
flight adults show whitish underparts with gray
barring, rounded wing tips, a black tail with
numerous white bands, and a white rump.
• SONG Loud descending mournful
whistles, often in series of 3-7,
wheeeooo\ plaintive cree-ee-ee.
• BEHAVIOR Often perches
conspicuously on roadside
utility poles, wires, posts,
and trees. Darts to ground
for swift-running lizards.
Picks up prey in talons.
Also eats snakes,
rabbits, small
rodents, some
birds, fish,
and beetles.

Broad-winged Hawk
Barred reddish
broad black-and- underparts, including
white. bands on tail underwing linings, dark
trailing border of wing,
and pointed wing tips;
lacks white rump patch.
BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester.
NESTING Incubation 32 days by both sexes. Semialtricial
young stay with female in nest
30 days. Male brings food for
Flight Pattern
first 14 days. Then both parents

feed. 1 brood per year.

wt • Population
rare. No more
than 50 pairs
Casual to

Graceful buoyant flap-and-glide flight; known north of Mexico, but

soars often but not to great heights.
species is widespread in tropics.

Nest Identification Green twigs and sticks • lined with green leaves • 40-60 feet above ground
concealed in treetops, especially sycamore or cottonwood • built by both sexes

Shape ^ Location 0jb

• 2-3 white to bluish white eggs, seldom marked (brown marks when present)

but often nest-stained, 2 inches long.

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat

m^^ Migration
Some m grate
j
Weight Undetermined

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 171

Family Species Length Wingspan 48 _50 inches

ACCIPITRIDAE R u teogallus anthracinus 20_23 inches

Common Black-Hawk
The Common Black-Hawk is chunky,

gentle, and lethargic, except while

nesting, when it will often
plunge from great heights and white spotting on base
snap off dead branches from of outer primaries

trees during flight. They

most frequently use
large cottonwood
trees in riparian
stands along rivers
as nest sites. These
birds will abandon broad white
bright
band across
nest sites if there is
middle of short
ye/low cere

too much human mostly black tail

disturbance. In
flight adults
appear black with
a single broad
white tail band, a
narrow white white
terminal tip on the tipped tail

very short fan-shaped

tail, and a small white
wide wings Juvenile
patch at the base of the
Similar Birds
outer primaries. Juveniles have a
buff head and underparts and black-and-white bands on the tail.
Black Vulture
Larger whitish patch at
• SONG Often calls when soaring and in display during base of primaries; lacks
breeding season. A triple-note ascending whistle and a drawn- white bands on tail;

grayish white feet, legs,

out squealing ka-a-a-ah, ka-a-a-ah.
and bill.
• BEHAVIOR Sits on open perch or walks on ground watching
Zone- tailed Hawk

J
for fish and crabs washed up on sandbars. Eats frogs, fish, crabs, Narrower 2-toned wings
reptiles, small mammals, insects, and occasionally other birds. with dark wing linings
Soars often, especially in midday. and barred silver-gray
flight feathers; wings
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. held in dihedral; more
• NESTING Incubation 34 days by both sexes. Semialtricial tail bands; less yellow-
orange under eyes.
young remain in nest 42-49 days, then move to nearby trees
where parents continue to feed for another 35-42 days. 1 brood
per year.

Flight Pattern
• Population Rare, local.
• Conservation Declining
in North America, with an
estimated 250 pairs remaining.
Vulnerable to disturbance and
Soars on thermals; deep steady and fairly
slow wing beats alternate with short to loss of habitat.
long glides.

Nest Identification
Dry and mistletoe • in crotch of tree, usually cottonwood, sycamore, or
sticks
15-100 feet above ground • built by both sexes • 1-3 white eggs
large mesquite,
Shape Location sometimes marked with brown; short ovate or nearly oval, 2.3 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
m fe Migration
Some migrate Weight
L6 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

172 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len & h 7->4 inches wi ngsoan
ACCIPITRIDAE Parabuteo unkinctus 1 46 inchcs

Harris's Hawk
Named after a friend of John James Audubon. Edward
Harris, Harris's Hawk is This dark, sooty
rather tame.
brown hawk has beautiful markings, including rufous-
chestnut shoulders, underwing linings, and thighs,
and a boldly marked black-and-white tail setoff
by a w hite rump and white tail coverts. Once
called the Bay-winged Hawk, the juvenile
has streaked underparts. a white rump,
and rusty shoulders not as deeply
colored as those of the adult.
• SONG Loud harsh nasal
screams oijaaahrr, sounding
similar to a Barn ( )w 1.

• Behavior often
perches conspicuously
near roads on utility

white bands
on tail base
and tip

Jl/VENILE
poles, fence posts, and trees. Hunts actively with low quartering
Similar Birds
flight similar to that Northern Harrier, or with rapid dashes
of a
like an accipiter. Gregarious;hunts cooperatively in small Red-shouldered
groups, and large prey is shared. Often 2-3 hunt together, Hawk
Lacks white patch at
chasing pre} in turn until one makes the kill. Eats variety of tail base but has
small rodents, rabbits, ducks, herons, smaller birds, and reptiles. multiple narrow
white bands;
• BREEDING Polyandrous. Solitary nester.
tail

barred rufous
• NESTING Incubation 33-36 days b\ both sexes. Semialtricial underparts: black-

young stay in nest 40-49 days, fed by both sexes. Often and-white barring in

flight feathers.
2 broods per year.
• POPULATION I ncommon to fairly common but dec

Flight Pattern • Conservation 3^

Disappeared from some former
x^x , x^x

Usually
rapid
flies
V
close to ground with several
wing beats followed by
t
a short glide.
areas, such as lower Colorado
River \ alley and California; has
been reintroduced to California.
Threatened in some areas by
Soars on [hernials and updrafts. illegal capture for falconry.

Nest Identification and roots • lined with green mesquite. green shoots and leaves,
Sticks, twigs,
grass, bark,and roots • in cactus 10-30 feet above ground • built by both sexes,
but female does more • 2—+ white or bluish eggs, half marked with browns and
Shape jfc^ Location
lavender; short subelliptical to elongated. 2.1 inches long.

Plumage Sexes simi ar i

Habitat^ £ ^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei & ht 1.6 pound

DATE TIME LOCATION

 ,

BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 173

Species Length Wingspan

Family
ACCIPITRIDAE ^ uteo magntrostrts 13 _ 16 inches 27 _ 31 inch(

Roadside Hawk bright orange-

yellow cere
For birders who are as far south of th
gray-brown head
border as Central Mexico, the
Roadside Hawk is the common
small buteo of both slopes and can bright orange-
yellow lores
be seen perched on roadside fence
posts, wires, trees, or telephone gray-brown white eyes

lines. But north of the border in upperparts

the US, it is an accidental dusky gray-

straggler to the Rio Grande Valley brown chest

of southern Texas. In flight the

rounded wings show much rufous
and the grayish
in the primaries, rufous belly with
whitish to bu ff
tail has many dark bands. The
oarse bars
creamy to buff underwing coverts
have dark brown flecks.
• SONG A nagging drawling
whitish to pale buff
scream, KREE-yurrr or thighs with sparse
meeeahhh. dark brown spots
• Behavior
Prefers plantations, whitish to Juvenile
second-growth
woodlands, and
Similar Birds
woodland and field
edges. Often perches Broad-winged Hawk
Shorter dark tail with
low on roadside fence
wide white bands;
posts, trees, and utility bright orange-
whitish barred underparts;
yellow legs
wires, from which it tip on tail usually spreads tail

hunts by dropping on while soaring; prefers

more wooded habitat.
and small mammals; rarely eats
prey. Eats large insects, reptiles,
birds.Often tame, allowing a close approach by humans. Soars Red-shouldered
Hawk
infrequently, then keeps low and makes short flights.
Juvenile is larger; rufous
• BREEDING Monogamous. on upper and lower
wing coverts; narrower
• NESTING Incubation 21-27 days primarily by female. pale bands on long dark
Semialtricial young; first flight at about 40 days. Probably 1 tail; in flight shows

brood per year. narrow pale panel across

base of outer primaries.
• POPULATION southern Texas. Common to
Accidental in
fairly common from Central Mexico southward through its range
into Argentina.

Flight Pattern • Conservation

Deforestation in the tropics
seems have aided this bird as
to
it produces habitats more

favorable to the bird's hunting

Flies with series of ra pid stiff wing beats
interspersed with short glides. Soars and nesting habits, to the point
infrequently on thermals. that it is increasing in numbers.

Nest Identification
Made of sticks • in trees in mid to upper levels 20-60 feet above ground;
built by both sexes • 2 whitish eggs speckled to mottled with brown
Shape ±& Location • short elliptical; 1.9 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes simUar Habitat
^ ^_ Migration
Migratory Wei § ht 1.5
pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

174 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len Stn Win g s P an
ACCIPITRIDAE Buteo uneatus 17-24 inches 32-50 inches

Red-shouldered Hawk
This bird uses the same territory for years, yellow
and even succeeding generations may
return to the same territory. The longest
recorded continuous use of the same reddish
is forty-five years. Five races
territory shoulders

{Uneatus, alleni, extimus, elagans, and

texanus) show variations in color
and size but all have barred rusty extensive pale
spotting on
underparts, reddish wing linings,
upperparts
and shoulders with banded tails.

In flight the long black tail displays

numerous narrow white bands on
adults and juveniles. Flight feathers
are spotted and barred black and
white and show a pale "window" at
the base of the outer primaries. Male
is larger than female.
• SONG Evenly spaced series of
clear high loud and often rapidly
repeated kee-ah or clee-u clee-u clee-
u notes. Blue Jays can mimic the
call perfectly.

• BEHAVIOR Stalks prey

from perch. Catches and eats
small to medium-sized
mammals, small reptiles, yellow legs
amphibians, large insects, and feet
spiders, earthworms,
snails, and an occasional Similar Birds
bird. Prefers wet woodlands,
Broad-winged Hawk
often near water and swamps. long black tail Smaller; shorter tail;

Often perches low to hunt on with numerous lacks barring in flight

posts, utility poles, and low to narrow white feathers; fewer, wider

mid
•

•
level in trees.

BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester.

NESTING Incubation 28 days by both sexes.
bands

Semialtricial
4 white tail bands; lacks
reddish shoulders; lacks
wing windows;
peweelike call.

young stay in nest 35-45 days. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• Population Fairly v. J \

Flight Pattern common in range.

• Conservation Some

V
wing beats;
Flies with fairly rapid stiff
soars on flat wings and glides on slightly
t
decline due to habitat loss and
human encroachment
particularly in West. Pesticides
inMidwest interfered with
drooped wings. Soars on thermals. reproduction during the 1970s.

Nest Identification Made of sticks, twigs, inner bark strips, dry leaves, moss, lichen, and coniferous
needles • usually by a tree trunk 10-200 feet above ground • built by both sexes
• 2-6 white or bluish white eggs, often nest-stained and marked with brown;
Shape Location 0jb
^ short elliptical, 2.1 inches long.

Plumage Sexes simi ar ,

Habitat
m <JS ^ Migration
g ome migrate Weight
u pounds
DATE TIME LOCATION
 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 175

Species Length Wingspan 3 _ 39 inches

Family
ACCIPITRIDAE Hute() p/atypterus I
13 _ 19 inches 2

Broad-winged Hawk
The smallest of the North American
buteos is similar in size to a stocky crow.
dark brown
These birds, which migrate in flocks of
uppe/parts
thousands, make up the bulk of hawk
flights in September in the East. This
peaceful bird is one of the tamest

hawks. In flight the tips of the flight

feathers appear dark, producing a
black border along the trailing edge of
the wing, and the underwing linings
vary from white to rusty-buff. The
black-and-white bands in the tail are
approximately equal in width. Juveniles
are similar to adults but appear more
washed out and have fainter tail

bands; underparts are pale with

heavy dark streaking.
• SONG Thin shrill whistle,
peeteeee or peweeeeeeeeee, often
given in flight and similar to the
high plaintive whistled note of an
Eastern Wood-Pewee.
• BEHAVIOR Perches to watch
forprey from utility poles and
wires or near water along edge of
woods. Hunts along wooded roads
under the tree canopy. Swoops
down to grab prey with talons. Eats Red-shouldered
large black-
amphibians, reptiles, small rodents, and-white Hawk
shrews, rabbits, some small birds, Larger in size; narrower,
bands on taiU
more rounded wings
large insects, and insect larvae.
with barred and spotted
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. black-and-white flight
feathers; buff to rusty-
• NESTING Incubation 28-32 days by both sexes, but mostly
red wing linings; longer,
by female. Semialtricial young stay in nest 29-35 days, fed by narrower tail with white
both sexes. 1 brood per year. bands much narrower
than dark ones.
• POPULATION Common US and southern Canada
in eastern
west to a portion of eastern British Columbia. Rare in winter in
California and Florida.
Flight Pattern • Conservation Large
numbers once shot during
migration, particularly along
mountainous ridges in the East.
Now protected by law.
Several rapid shallow wing beats followed Neotropical migrant.
by a glide. Soars on thermals and updrafts.

Sticks, twigs,and dead leaves • lined with inner bark strips with lichen, outer
Nest Identification
bark chips, evergreen sprigs, and green leaves • in crotch of deciduous tree,
30-50 feet above ground • built by both sexes in slow process that takes
Shape ^ Location $b 3-5 weeks • 2-4 white or bluish white eggs sometimes marked with brown;
short elliptical, 1.9 inches long.

Plumage
Sexe§ similar I Habitat
m^ "["Migration
Migratory I
Wei e ht 14.8
ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

176 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
^ CIPITRIDAE Species
Bum brachwrus Length
i5_i 7 i nc hes Wingspan
35 nches
;

Short-tailed Hawk
This crow -sized buteo is a rare to uncommon resident of the mangrove and
cypress swamps of Florida and a rare to casual visitor in spring and summer to
southern Texas. Most often observed while flying, this hawk rises out of the
wooded lots in which it roosts on midmorning thermals, about the
time the vultures do, and often spends much of the day
high in the sky. In Florida the light morph, which
has white underparts from chin to tail, is
less common than the dark morph.

black underparts *

yellow legs and feet

• SONG High-pitched squeal and scream similar to that of the

Red-shouldered Hawk, but the second part can be extremely
Similar Birds
piercing, ssheeeeeeerrrrret v v v/.
• BEHAVIOR Rarely hunts from a perch; principally hunts SWAINSON'S
Similar to dark
II W\K
morph
from high and swoops down to treetops to snatch large
in the air
but larger; wings and
insects, small birds, lizards, and snakes. Known to eat various tail are narrower and
other bird species, this small raptor was once observed eating a longer; has dark flight
feathers • also similar to
Sharp-shinned Hawk.
light morph but has
• BREEDING Monogamous. Soli tarv nester. Male attracts blackish gray barring on
flight feathers that
female with display of aerial acrobatics.
contrasts with white
• NESTING Incubation about 34 days by female; male feeds wing linings; brown
female during incubation. Altricial young are fed by female, but head, neck, and band
across chest.
male brings food. First flight at about 40 days.
• POPULATION Rare to uncommon and local in southern and
central Florida; casual to rare in
Flight Pattern southeastern Texas; fairly
common Mexico, Central
in
America, and South America.
^x - (
<y t • CONSERVATION
Population appears to be stable,
Series of ra pid wing beats followed
by a glide. Soars on 1 sing thermals but only about 500 birds are
and updrat ts. recorded in Florida.

Nest Identification Fresh green sprigs, twigs, leaves, bits of moss, and lichen • at top of cypress or
other tree, 8-100 feet above ground • built by female with materials gathered

by male • 2-3 off-white or bluish white eggs, occasionally marked with brown,
Shape Location <j§fe
2.1 inches long.

P'umage Sexes similar Habitat

^ hi fc^
Migration
\ij gratory
Weight 1{)
pound

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NOR TH AM K RIGA • 177

Wingspan 46 _
Family
ACCIPITRIDAE Species
ft uteo ma nson
i j
Length
19_22 inches 5g inchcs

Swainson's Hawk
Sometimes traveling in huge flocks,
uniformly
these birds migrate from North America dark brown
to Argentina, about 11 ,000-1 7,000 upperparts

miles each year. This large buteo lives black bill with
in open rangeland, hill country, yellow cere
white win
plains, and grasslands where trees linings
white throat
are sparse. Swainson's Hawk is

about the same size as the Red- vide chestnut

tailed Hawk and has three band on chest

different color morphs: light,

rufous (intermediate), and dark.
This variety provides for a
confusing array of plumages:
dark morphs are dark brown Juvenile
overall; the rufous morph is

similar but with variegated pale buff to white belly

medium brown
underparts. In flight the
narrow, slightly pointed
wings are held in a slight
dihedral, and the bird
tilts from side to side I) AKK
like a Turkey Vulture. MORPH
• SONG Plaintive Similar Birds
whistle, kr-e-e-eeeeeer,
Short-tailed Hawk
similar to that of the
Shorter, broader wings
Broad-winged Hawk. narrowly banded
and tail; wings w ith
gray tail with wide
• Behavior dark subterminal band
pale barring only in
flight feathers • light
Hunts, sometimes in morph has completely
flocks, for grasshoppers and crickets. Stalks ground squirrels at white underparts and
their burrows. Catches prey in talons. Also eats mice, rabbits, white forehead
• Florida range; casual
lizards, frogs, toads, and an occasional game bird. Frequents
to southeast Texas.
grasslands, agricultural grain fields, and open landscapes.
Rko-tailed Hawk
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. Lacks breast band;
• NESTING Incubation 28-35 days by both sexes; female does pale flight feathers;
reddish tail.
more. Semialtricial young stay in nest 30-35 days. Fed by both
sexes. First flight at 38-46 days. 1 brood per year.
• Population Very
Flight Pattern common to common but
numbers are declining.

V
Alternates series of powerful deep wing
beats with long glides. Soars on thermals,
t
• Conservation Recent
heavy losses in South American
wintering grounds due to birds
eating insects that have been
updrafts, wings bent upward in dihedral. poisoned by insecticides.

Nest Identification Made of large sticks, twigs, brambles, grass, and similar materials • lined with
inner bark, fresh leaves, flower clusters, down, and feathers • in tree 6-70 feet
above ground • 2—4 bluish greenish white eggs marked with pale brown;
Shape Location
subelliptical to elliptical, 2.2 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes simUar Habitat
± _j Migration
Mjg ratory Weight
U ) pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

178 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Species Length Wingspan 48_
Family
A( CIPITRIDAE ft uteo albicaudatus 23 _ 24 inches 54 inches

White-tailed Hawk
The White-tailed Hawk's yellow legs are
the longest of any North American buteo. It dark gray
can be seen flying with its wings held in a upperparts •—
shallow V. Groups often twenty or more
to
may be attracted to grass fires from ten miles
away on prey escaping the flames.
to feed
The female is similar to the male but has
darker upperparts and more barring on
the underparts. Adults in flight
show light underparts, primaries
with dusky barring, black-
tipped flight feathers
framing the trailing long pointed
edge of the dark wing, wings project
beyond tip of
white wing linings,
t tail
and a short, broad
white tail with a black
subterminal band.
• SONG Usually
silent. Near nest may
give high-pitched alarm
call, screaming ke-ke-ke-ke or kite
underparts
keh-eh, keh-eh, keh-eh, keh-eh.

• Behavior Eats mostly

rabbits; also small rodents, reptiles, Similar Birds
frogs, grasshoppers, other large insects, and
Swainson's Hawk
an occasional bird. Will eat carrion. Catches
Dark morph lacks reddish
flying insects in the air. Spots prey from shoulder patch; uniformly
perch or while flying. dark upperparts and

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. Juvenile underparts.

Light Morph FERRUGINOUS HAWK
• NESTING Incubation 29-32 days mostly Lighter-colored head;
by female. Semialtricial young may stay with rufous thighs; feathered
parents up to 7 months. First flight at tarsus; larger reddish
patch on shoulder and
46-55 days. Not clear which sex feeds young
back; lacks dark
in first couple of weeks, but both sexes hunt subterminal tail band.
for food. 1 brood per year. Juvenile
Dark Morph
• POPULATION Rare to uncommon in
southeastern Texas; casual in

Flight Pattern southwestern Louisiana.

• Conservation On
threatened list in Texas.

<r t Decline in Texas from 1950 to

1970 possibly due to pesticides
Often flies close to ground with
strong steady wing beats; soars with and habitat loss.
slight dihedral.

Nest Identification Uses same nest year after year and adds to it with sticks, twigs, grasses, and
weeds • in top of low tree or shrub about 10 feet above ground • built by both
Shape ^ sexes • white eggs sometimes spotted with brown; oval, elliptical oval, ovate,
or elliptical; 2.5 inches long.

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat

Jt j^. Migration
Nonmigratory Weight
{ Q p()unds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 179

Species Length Wingspan 47 _

Family
ACCIPITRIDAE Rute() a ii,onotatuS I
lg _ 21 inch es I 53 jnches

ZONE-TAILED HAWK
Using what is called "aggressive mimicry,"
the Zone-tailed Hawk takes advantage of its

similarity to the Turkey Vulture, a bird most

animals perceive as harmless. This hawk
resembles a Turkey Vulture in flight and
appearance and even sometimes soars
with them. This capable hunter glides
slowly but plunges suddenly upon
prey once it is spotted. In flight
the wings are long, slender, and
two-toned, and the banded tail
is held partially spread.
Juveniles have a grayish
finely barred tail and white
flecking on the breast.
• SONG Squeaking,
peevish whistle
similar to that of
Red-tailed Hawk.

Turkey Vulture
Featherless head; no
tail bands; no barring in

flight feathers; grayish

brown legs and feet;
does not vocalize.

Common
• BEHAVIOR Turkey Vulture on wings held in a
Circles like a Black-Hawk
Broader wings with
dihedral. Eats small rodents and small birds, including nestlings,
dark flight feathers;
snatched with talons while in flight. Also takes lizards, frogs, shorter white-tipped
and small fish. tail with single broad
white band.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. Screams and
vigorously defends nest against intruders.
• Nesting incubation

Flight Pattern
35 days by both sexes. Fed by
both sexes. Semialtricial young
leave nest in 35—40 days.

rt
Flapping and gliding flight. Soars on
•
•
Population Uncommon.
Conservation Decline
thermals with wings lifted slightly above in population may be due to
back and tilting from side to side. loss of nesting sites.

Nest Identification Made of large sticks • lined with twigs bearing green leaves • in tree, usually
cottonwood or pine, 25-100 feet above ground • near stream • 2 white or bluish
Shape Location £fe
^ eggs dotted with lavender and yellowish brown, sometimes concentrated on one
end, 2.2 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes sjmilar Habitat
A _^ ^ ^±_ Migration
Migratory Wei ^ ht 1.4 pound

DATE TIME LOCATION

180 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len Sth 19-25 Wingspan 46_
ACGIPITRIDAE Buteo jamakemh inches 5g inches

Red-tailed Hawk
This hawk found in more habitats than any other North
is

American buteo and, consequently, is the most common

hawk on the continent. This species has five races:
a pale pink-tailed Great Plains race known
as "Krider's Red-tailed," &rideri; the
eastern borealis, the southwestern
fuertesi; the western, calurus; and
the rare "Harlan's Hawk 1

or harlani, once
considered a
|

separate species, • pale wing

which is very dark linings

v/ith a white-
based tail. All
reddish tail
adults show
dark a ranges from pale
huff-pink to deep large
brownish mantle in
d hill with
flight and dark brown ™fou yellow cere
whitish flight feathe hire belly
bar on leading edge of
with pale barring with broad hand
underwing. All juveniles
of dark streaking
have a dark brown tail with a
black band. Because it perches low
on woodland edges and along Eastern Adult
roadsides this is one of the most borealis
conspicuous and easily observed hawks.
• SONG Harsh descending slurred keeeeer-r-r. Also
rasping hissing screamy, p-s-s-s, kree-kree ree-e-e. Similar Birds

• BEHAVIOR Across its vast range takes a wide Rough-legged Hawk

Smaller and
variety of prey Eats small to medium mammals, bill feet;
feathered legs; white
reptiles,amphibians, grasshoppers, spiders, rump; white tail with
earthworms, crustaceans, some fish, and an multiple dark bands;
occasional small bird or bat.. Carries small prey to black belly (light
morph).
perch; partially eats large prey on ground.
• BREEDING Monogamous; may mate for life.
SvvAiNsoN's Hawk
Multiple tail bands; dark
Solitary nester. Krider's flight feathers; pale

• NESTING Incubation 28-35 days by both Red-tailed wing linings; brown

chest (light morph).
sexes; more by female. Semialtricial young stay in nest
days. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• Population Verv
Flight Pattern common. Some decline due to
habitat loss.

Several rapid strong \s

V
ing beats followed
by a glide. Soars well on thermals and
t
• Conservation Some
eggshell thinning.
and some are
killed illegally,
accidentally killed by cars.
Many still

sometimes hangs on updrafts.

Nest Identification Sticks anil twigs • lined with inner bark strips, evergreen sprigs, and green
leaves • in crotch of large tree, on cliff ledge, or on artificial structure, as high

Shape ^ Location
^ tijb
120 feet above ground • built by both sexes • 2-3 white or bluish white eggs
sometimes spotted brown, 2.4 inches long.

Plumage Sc \cs similar Habitat

«L_ _^± Migration
Migratory
Wei ^ ht
2.3 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OK NORTH AM K RICA • 181

Family Species Length ?2_28 inches Wingspan nches

AcCIPITRIDAE Bufeo lh 5f) ;

Ferruginous Hawk
rufou streaked \
One of the largest and most pow erful buteos,
head
this hawk is true to its Latin species name,
meaning kingly or royal. This bird has
light, dark, and reddish morphs; the
\ yellow 1

light morph is the most common. reddish lumen

upperparts •
Dark morphs are dark rufous to
dark brow n overall. In flight a

three hold the long pointed

w ings in a dihedral, and show a lute underparts
w hite patch at base of vith light reddish

primaries from above. The brown spotting

light morph appears almost

completely white from
below except for the
reddish legs, which form
a rusty red V beneath
the body.
• SONG Alarm call of
kree-a or kaah kaah.
• Behavior Eats
mainly ground
squirrels; spots them Dark
from perch, flies high morph
in air, and swoops
-• pale tail with Similar Birds
down to catch them.
buff-gray tip
Also hunts prairie dogs, Rough-legged
rabbits, small rodents, Hawk
Dark morph has
snakes, lizards, small to medium birds, and large insects. One of
the few- large hawks that hovers. Prefers
often hunts from low perches on fence posts, utility poles, or
open country, where it t banded tail with broad
dark subterminal band;
no rusty leggings.
small trees. "Krider's" Red-
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. tailed Hawk
Juvenile is shorter;
• NESTING Incubation 31-33 days by both sexes, but female more rounded wings;
does more. Semialtricial young stay in nest 40-50 days; for first dark subterminal tail

21 days female stays on nest while male hunts, then both sexes band to tip;
unfeathered tarsus.
hunt. First flight at 38-50 days. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Uncommon to fairly common. Rare to casual in
migration or winter to states
Flight Pattern bordered by the Mississippi
River and occasionally Florida.
• Conservation
T hreatened and declining due
Quarters back and forth close to ground;
to illegal shooting and loss of
alternates several deep flaps with glides
similar toNorthern Harrier. Soars on
habitat. Some are accidentally
thcrmals and hovers. killed by cars.

Nest Identification Sticks and debris • lined with finer materials, including cow dung • usually on
top of tree, 6-50 feet above ground; in treeless areas may build on cliffs or

Shape Location & ground • built by both sexes • 2-6 pale bluish white eggs blotched with pale
dark browns and buffs; between spherical and elliptical, 2.5 inches long.
tc

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexes simi , ar Migratory 2 3
. pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

182 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length
18 _? 4 nches Wingspan 48 _ 56
ACCIPITRIDAE ButeQ lagopus I
;
I

inches

Rough-legged Hawk whitish head

Named for the feathered shanks of its legs,
this big high-soaring hawk of the open LIGHT
country often seen perched on fence posts
is MORPH small bill
or dead trees. It flies low on long, thin pointed ith yellow cere

wings and is one of the few large hawks that

regularly hovers. In flight the light morph's long vhitish
grayish white tail with a broad dark subterminal nnderparts
band and white tail coverts contrast sharply with with dark
brown
its black belly and dark back.
streaking
• SONG Usually silent in winter. Circling pairs (heaviest on

in breeding season give melancholy whistle. upper chest

and belly)
• BEHAVIOR Eats mostly small rodents
and large insects. Usually catches prey
on ground. Often hunts from low perch
or by standing on ground on a mound or
other elevation. When hunting in flight,
flieslow over open vegetation,
quartering slowly back and forth, Light Morph
alternately flapping and gliding or Juvenile
hovering before plunging feet-first on
prey. Irruptive flights when prey long grayish white
tail with broad dark
populations crash bring many south subterminal band
in winter.
• Breeding
Monogamous. Pairs have blackish
Similar Birds
been recorded to remain brown
together for many years.
overall Red-tailed Hawk
Dark morph is dark
• Nesting brown overall; rufous
Incubation tail; shorter wings and

tails; smaller bill.

28-31 days by barred dark
female. Young leave gray tail Ferruginous Hawk
with broad Dark morph has whitish
nest at about 41 days dark earpal crescent on
and spend 21-42 days subterminal underwing; dark brown
band •
in Arctic after fledging overall; brighter rufous

and before migrating on lesser upperwing

south for winter.
• POPULATION Common
Flight Pattern
Alternates powerful flaps with glides.
Hangs in wind and hovers over one spot;
somewhat floppy wing beats at times.
coverts and tail coverts.
in breeding range; uncommon to fairly
common with erratic numbers
on wintering grounds.
• Conservation
Enormous numbers once were
shot in western US because of
tameness. In the West many
killed while feeding on animal
carcasses on highways.

Nest Identification Small twigs and plant material: 24-30 inches in diameter • in river valleys,

precipices, slopes in raised places • uses nest for several years; each pair can

Shape ^ Location
^
have several nests and use them alternately • 2-3 eggs when food is scarce;
5-7 eggs when food is abundant; blotched, white, or streaked with brown.

Plumage Sexes simi ar ,

Habitat^ ^ Migration \,fjg
rat
Weight 1.9
pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 183

Family Species Len Sth 33-38 inches Wingspan 6 _ H

ACCIPITRIDAE Aquila chrySaetos fcet

Golden Eagle
Like most other birds of prey, the
female Golden Eagle is considerably
larger than the male. This large
dark eagle is fairly common in the
West and rare to uncommon in
the East. It has been clocked in a
steep glide at 120 miles per hour and
is estimated to swoop on prey in dives

at more than 150 miles per hour.

Juveniles in flight display "ringtail"
plumage (a broad white tail band with a
terminal band of black) and a broad
white patch at the base of the
primaries. Large birds of prey require
large territories, and home ranges for a
pair of this species have been recorded
as large as 60 square miles.
• SONG Generally silent. Around nest
makes yelping bark, keya, and whistled
notes. During soaring courtship flight
yelps or mews.
• BEHAVIOR Favors rabbit, ground
squirrel, marmot, grouse, and ptarmigan.
Also eats large insects, other small
mammals, carrion, and reptiles,
including turtles. Has been known to
attack full-grown deer, antelopes, and
birds as large as Great Horned Owls and
cranes. Returns to the same nest yearly or
every other year.
Bald Eagle
• BREEDING Monogamous; may pair for life. Solitary nester. Juvenile has larger
• NESTING Incubation 43^15 days by both sexes; female does head; shorter tail;

mottled white patches

more. Young stay in nest 66-70 days, dependent on parents for on underparts make
first 30 days. First flight at 65-70 days. Usually has 1 brood more blotchy;
tail

every 2 years. underwing pattern;

bare tarsus.
• POPULATION Uncommon to rare in the East but fairly
common in the West. A total of only 4,000-5,000 pairs were
estimated in 1964. Circumpolar.
Flight Pattern • Conservation Protected
by law. Thousands once killed
x^x ^ x^x by ranchers in efforts to protect
livestock from potential
predation. Also killed in
Alternates deep slow powerful wing beats collisions with aircraft.
with glides or rides easily on thermals.
Protected areas established.

Nest Identification Stickswoven with brush and leaves • lined with fine material • located
10-100 feet high in trees • 8-10 feet across and 3^4 feet deep • built by both
sexes • 2 white or creamy buff eggs marked with brown or reddish brown,
Shape jjg, Location
^ fa, 2.9 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexes simjlar Some migrate 3 5 pound

DATE TIME LOCATION

184 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length ?? Wingspan
p AI CON DAE
I Micrastur semitorquatus 22-24 inches 32 _ 35 inches

Collared Forest-Falcon black crown and

A tropical bird, the Collared Forest-Falcon has been auricular cresct

known to stray north of Mexico into the lower Rio

broad yellowish
Grande Valley of southeastern Texas at least one green orbital ring
time. This large lanky forest raptor has both a
light and dark morph. The light morph showe
blackish brown
dark gray barred with white on the underside upperparts
of its flight feathers. The dark morph is

blackish brown overall with white spots on

the lower chest, a white-barred belly, and 'kite to pale
buff face and
flight feathers like those of the light
hind collar
morph. Light phase juveniles have a

dark brown head and auricular

crescent, buff-flecked upperparts,
dark-brown barring and scalloping
white to pale
on the underparts, and four tail
buff underparts
bands. This bird rarely soars; it is
more likely to be seen flying
close above the canopy or
beneath it. When perched the
white-tipped yellow legs
short wings barely reach the uppertail
base of the tail. coverts

• SONG Hollow repeated

descending co/iw, owhh, or how. Light
Also laughlike call, ka-how-ow- morph
ow-ow or hoh-hoh-hoh-hoh-hoh-
howh. Vocal at dawn and dusk.
blackish tail with
• Behavior Prefers white tip and 3
thickets in solid or broken narrow white bars

forests, thicksecond growth, and Similar Birds

scrub. Hunts by direct pursuit and ambush. Feeds on birds,
Cooper's Hawk
lizards, mammals, and large insects. Flies with agility around
Lacks collar and
trees and runs through understory in pursuit of prey. Vocalizes auricular crescent; has
loudly for extended periods at dawn and dusk. darker gray bands on
rusty-barred
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester.
tail;

underparts on adults
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known; incubation is • juvenile has heavily
streaked underparts.
estimated 28-34 days by both sexes, but mostly by female.
at
Young semialtricial; brooded by female; stay in nest about
28-34 days; fed by both sexes
1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• POPULATION Accidental
Lower Rio Grande Valley of
Texas. Uncommon and widely
distributed fromMexico
Alternates rapid wing beats with through Central and South
short glides.
America to Peru and Argentina.

Nest Identification
Uses tree cavity already in existence • 2 brown to buff eggs with heavy darker
brown mottling.
Shape

Plumage Sexes simjlar Habitat

m Migration
Nonmigratory Wei S ht 1.2 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 185

Family
pALC ONIDAE Species
cmwara phunis I
Len £th 20-25 inches I
w n §span
'

45 _4 8 inthcs

Crested Garagara
1 his large vulturelike raptor often
w alks on the ground on long legs
in search of prey. Its black crown
and short crest above the red to
yellowish bare skin of the face
are distinctive. In flight its flat
long neck
profile, broad wings, and fanned
tail are ravenlike. Flying birds

also show white patches at the

wing tips, a white head and
breast, and a white tail with a
broad black terminal band.
• SONG In breeding season
makes loud wick-wick-wick-
wick-querrr, throwing its head
backward over its back on the
last note. Harsh grating rattle.
Usually silent.
• BEHAVIOR Makes head-
throwing display. Only member of
Falconidae that actually collects
materials and builds nest. Often
scavenges with vultures, where it
may dominate the carcass. Feeds
on variety of animal material,
from large insects, reptiles,
mammals, birds, amphibians,
and fish to carrion.
• BREEDING Monogamous
Solitary nester.
• Nesting incubation
28-33 days by both sexes.
Semialtricial young stay in
nest 30-60 days. Fed by both
sexes. 1-2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Fairly common in Texas; rare to casual and
local in Arizona; rare in Louisiana; fairly common and local in Florida.
Has declined throughout range.

Flight Pattern Florida population stable; Texas

population increasing and
expanding; Arizona population
-r
W\ stable.
• Conservation
Strong steady deep wing beats often
alternates series of wing beats with long to Considered threatened federally
short glides. Sometimes soars c >n chermals. and in Florida.

Nest Identification Made of sticks, vines, and twigs • lined with fine material • 15-30 feet above
ground in palmetto or giant cacti • built by both sexes • 1-4 white or pinkish
white eggs marked with browns, rarely unmarked; ovate to broadly oval or
Shape Location
subspherical, slightly pointed at one end; 2.3 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
± Migration
Nonmigratory Weighty pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 —
186 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
PALCONIDAK Species
pa jco tinnuncului Length
12 _j 6 inches Wingspan 27 _ 3{) inches

Eurasian Kestrel gray head

The Eurasian Kestrel can be differentiated
from the American Kestrel by its larger size
and its single, rather than double, black
facial mark and wedge-shaped tail. Years
ago in France, this species was trained in single vertical'•
dark facia/ stripe
falconry to fly at bats. Accidental in
winter on the northeast coast, Eurasian
Kestrels have been known to travel
across the Atlantic Ocean, either by
flying or riding on a ship.

• SONG Creaking cackling shrill

kee-kee-kee call.
• BEHAVIOR Feeds primarily on large
insects, small rodents, and small birds. Prefers
open country where it perches on fence
posts, utility poles, and wires while it
watches for prey. Often hunts by hovering
in one spot over grasses or thickets.

•variegated white wedge-shaped

with brown head gray tail with
white tip

single vertical
dark facial stripe
broad black
subterinitial band •—

duller rusty
brown overall
than male
Similar Birds
alternating black
American Kestrel
Female and chestnut tail Male has chestnut cap;
hands
chestnut nape with
black splotch; chestnut
tail • female has less-
variegated darker cap
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. • both have 2 facial

• NESTING Incubation 28-32 days primarily by female. Young stripes;

rounded
square to
tail; smaller.
stay in nest 30-35 days, fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Accidental to casual, primarily in winter on the
East Coast from the Maritimes
Flight Patter, to New Jersey and on the West
Coast from islands in the Bering
Sea to British Columbia.

Flies with rapid

1H
wing beats followed by
• Conservation
greatest cause of death
Single
is being
shot bv humans.
a glide. Soars on thermals and updrafts.

Nest Identification Little, if any, nest material • use- abandoned nest of crow 01 magpie, split
or cavity in tree, and ledges on cliffs or buildings • 15—75 feet above ground
Shape [£J (a. gj' • 3-6 cream to white eggs blotched heavily with browns and nest-stained,
Location
|^ ££ £ 1.5 inches long.

ia 6 e Habitat Migration Wei S nt 6.6 ounces

Sexes differ Mjgra tory

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 187

Family Species Length 9_! Wingspan

FALCONIDAE .

Fal( 0 sp(irverms I
2 inches 2 Q-25 inche

American Kestrel black-and-white

The smallest most common North American falcon is pattern on head <

found over the continent and north to the tree line

all

in summer. It is sometimes called the Sparrow Hawk,

a misnomer as the bird is neither a hawk nor
does its diet include a significant amount of
sparrows or other small birds. In flight it shows
the typical long tail and long pointed wings of a
falcon. A bird of the open country, it often is

seen perched on wires along roadsides.

• SONG Alarm call a loud quick klee-klee-

klee or killy, Lilly, killy.

• BEHAVIOR When perched bobs tail.

Hunts rodents and insects from perch
or hovers. Also eats bats, small birds,
small reptiles, and frogs. Not
dependent on drinking water in
desert because it extracts water
from its diet.

• BREEDING
Monogamous. Solitary
nester.During courtship
male brings food and
feeds female in the air.

• Nesting incubation
29-31 days by both sexes,
mostly by female.
Semialtricial young stay in
nest 30-31 days, fed by
streaked pah
female. Male calls female underparts
from nest to feed. 1 brood
per year, sometimes 2 in
rufous tail
the South. with brown
• Population Common. barrings
black baud,
• BlRDHOUSES Readily nests and narrow
in bird boxes built especially for white tip m-

kestrels. Occasionally attracted to

bird feeders to prey on birds.
• Conservation Migratory
Flight Pattern
counts suggest recent decline in
the Northeast; other
populations seem stable.
Expanded establishment of nest
boxes in some areas, especially
Several rapid wing beats followed by a
along highways, seems to have
glide; often hovers on rapidly beating
wings. Also soars on thermals. encouraged recovery.

Nest Identification
and holes
Little, if any, nest material • in old flicker tree holes, niches in walls,

Shape under gables, 12-80 feet above ground • 3-7 white to cream or pale pink eggs,
g jg heavily blotched with browns, sometimes unmarked; 1.4 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes differ I Habitat
^^ Migration
Migratory |
We| g ht 3.9
ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

188 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Length
n _ 13 Wingspan
Family
FALCONIDAE Species
fa /ro columbarius inches 23_ 2 6 inches

Merlin
This medium-sized falcon of blue-gray crown

northern coniferous forests hunts

yellow enlarged
the openings in parklike grasslands,
area at base of
bogs, and shrubby barrens. In flight whitish buff
white chin and
itshows the distinctive falcon "jiz" head and nape
throat with
of long pointed wings and a long tail streaking narrow
with a big-headed, powerful look, black mustacht
and it displays impressive bursts of
speed when in pursuit of prey.
Geographic variation in color exists, blue-gray back
and wings
from pale prairie birds to dark Pacific
Northwest forms.
• SONG Ki-ki-kee, kek-kek-kek - whitish buff

underparts heavily
rapidly repeated.
streaked brown to black
• BEHAVIOR A relatively tame
bird, allowing close approach.
Defensive of nest; often attacks
intruders, including humans. yellow legs and feet
The Merlin flies close to the
ground and catches prey with Male
bursts of speed while in
pursuit, rather than by diving
or hovering. It is a bird that
often hunts from an open
perch. Primary diet of small
birds, mammals, and large
insects. May frequent cities Similar Birds
in winter.
American Kestrel d*
• BREEDING Monogamous Smaller; bobs tail and
Solitary nester. hovers; barred rufous
back and tail.
• Nesting incubation more heavily
28-32 days mostly by streaked
rkcrine Falcon
Larger; indistinct
female. Semialtricial underparts
barring on tail; dark
young stay in nest hood on head extends
25-35 days. Fed by both beneath eye like broad
sideburn.
sexes. 1 brood per year.
• Population Uncommon.

Flight Pattern
Female

• Conservation Some
declines attributed to pesticides
Swift direct flight with rapid powerful and heavv metals in food chain.
wing heats.

Nest Identification
Uses old tree nests of crows, magpies, and hawks, relined with bark and feathers
Shape ^^ 2 • 15-35 feet above ground • built by female • 2-7 white eggs, some marked
with reddish brown; short elliptical, 1.6 inches long.
Location $fc
^
Plunge Sexes differ
Habitat ^ Migration
Most migrate Weight
57 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NOR TH AMERICA • 189

Family Species Length s_

Wingspan 4(M8
FaLCONIDAE I'alro fn ,lora!is I
, ]8 inchcs ; nches

Aplomado Falcon eyebrow stripe

extends around back
T his raptor is similar in size to the black crown
of head, elm/,
Prairie Faleon. The Aplomado
Faleon throat, and breast
formerly ranged into the southern
black postoculai
US along the Mexican border from stripe
• white fare

Texas to Arizona, and was fairly

black nap* nlarged yellow
common in open desert and area at base of bill
grasslands in the summer prior to
blue-gray black mustache
the 1880s. By the early part of
upperpart.
the 20th century had all butit

disappeared. Continuing casual

records probably represent
birds from the population that
still can be found near

Chihuahua, Mexico. In flight

this falcon shows dark
underwings and cinnamon-
orange thigh "britches" and
undertail coverts.
yellow legs and feet
• SONG Shrieking keeh-keeh-
keeh and an abrasive single-
note keeh or kith.

• Behavior Found in
open grasslands, savanna,
and marshy habitats, where it .11 \ i.NII I

often hunts from a perch on a

pole, short tree, or shrub. Similar Birds

Often lands on the ground. Prairie Falcon

Hovers. Feeds primarily on Brown upperparts;
streaked whitish
large insects and small birds,
unclerparts; in flight
both of which it often catches in shows pale underwings
flight. Sometimes this raptor will with black axillaries and
dark bar on wing lining.
work grassfires, catching prey that
is driven from its grassland cover American KestrelcT
by the flames. Much smaller; barred
reddish brown back and
• BREEDING Monogamous. tail; lacks black on belly

• NESTING Possibly brood per year. 1

and sides.

• POPULATION Casual to rare. Essentially extirpated from US

Flight Pattern northern part of Mexico.

Fast swift direct flight with
beats. Also hovers.
• Conservation
< Endangered subspecies.
Restoration being attempted in
southeast Texas, where
deep wing introduced birds are
successfully breeding.

Nest Identification
Uses nests of other birds • 7-25 feet above ground in yucca tree • 3—4 white to

Shape ^^ Location
4^ 4^h
pink-white eggs, spotted or blotched with browns, 1.8 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei S nt 9.2

Sexes simi , ar Non migratory ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

190 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
FALCONIDAE Species
Falco msticolus Len Sth 20-25 inches Wingspan 48 _64
inches

Gyrfalgon
In the ancient sport of falconry Gyrfalcons were traditionally
reserved for the king. Today it is the mascot for the United

States Air Force Academy. The largest of all falcons, the

Gyrfalcon makes Arctic seashores, rivers, and islands its
home. A heavy, powerfully built falcon with a long
slightly blunted
tapered tail and broad wings, it has three color morphs:
i

thick-based wings
gray, dark sooty brown, and a white morph that has no
face or tail patterns. Upperparts range from white to
dark brownish gray. Intermediates occur, and adults of
allmorphs have a bright yellow cere, legs, feet, and
eye ring.

• SONG Alarm call is deep harsh hyaik-hyaik-hyaik,

kack-kack-kack\ or kyek-kyek-kyek.
• Behavior Eats mostly
birds such as ptarmigans.
grouse, gulls, alcids, gulls,
jaegers, ducks, and some
small birds. The larger
female takes Arctic ground whitish
squirrels, and both sexes underparts with
heavy to light
take lemmings
mottling
and weasels.

Gray morph

Dark
Morph

1 J Similar Birds

Peregrine Falcon
^ Smaller; helmeted
appearance with
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. mustache; more pointed
• NESTING Incubation 28-36 days, mostly by female.
wings; shorter tail.

Semialtricial young stay in nest 46-56 days, fed by both sexes

1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Rare over
Flight Pattern entire range. Some winters
bring birds as far south as
US.
x^x , x^x

Slow powerful stead} w ing

w\
beats,
central
• CONSERVATION
Protected by law and may not
often alternating with swift glides; be kept without a permit.
may soar on thermals

Nest Identification
Sometimes uses old cliff and tree nests of Rough-legged Hawk or raven • on tall

cliffs or ledge with protective overhang • 3-8 pale yellow, white, or buff eggs
Shape finely spotted with dark red; short elliptical, 2.3 inches long.

Plumage Sexes simi ar i

Habitat _^ Migration
Nonmigratory We 'S nt 2.6 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OK NORTH AMERICA • 191

Family Species Length Win ^ s P an 43-46

FALCONIDAE Fah .

() peregrjnus 16-20 inches inches

Peregrine Falcon
A peregrine in a stoop is one of the black head from cro wn to
below eye with "sideburns
fastest birds in the world, reaching 4'
gives helmeted look «
speeds of 175 mph or more.
• SONG Usually silent. On r o Iate- blm
sicn

breeding grounds makes loud

slate-blui
upperparts
^m^bi/lm ith

\^Jf dark'tip
witchew, witchew, witchew. When
disturbed gives loud repeated cack, N» white to
cack, cack, cack. buff chin
• BEHAVIOR Prefers open areas
with good vantage points on patch
which to perch, often near behind ear
water. Feeds almost exclusively
on birds it takes in the air after Juvenile
a steep swift dive from above
hite underparts with dark
them. Wanders widely after
wn to black barring
nesting season, following ept throat and chin)
prey south as far as
southern South Similar Birds
America. Faithful to Merlin cf
nesting sites and Smaller; heavily streaked
underparts; pale face
aeries, some of
with narrow mustache
which have been mark.
used by
GYRFALCON
generations of Much larger; more
peregrines for uniform and paler
centuries. coloration; pale head with
thin mustache mark.
Lives on
buildings in Prairie Falcon
large cities. Paler overall; light brown
upperparts; whitish
• Breeding underparts streaked with
Monogamous. Solitary nester. long slate-blue tail heavy brown spots;
with dusky barring and
• NESTING Incubation 28-32 days white terminal tip
whitish face and
supercilium; dark brown
mostly by female. Semialtricial young postocular stripe; thin
stay in nest 35-42 days. Fed by both sexes. mustache; brown barred
1 brood per year. tail; black axillars and

inner wing linings.

• POPULATION Common to fairly common on
tundra; fairly common in migration; uncommon to rare as breeding
bird in US. Increasing since

Flight Pattern continental lows suffered in

1960s and 1970s.
• Conservation Federally
listed as threatened. Regulation
of DDTalong with captive
Direct flight with rapid ing beats like breeding and release program
a pigeon.
have sparked comeback.

Nest Identification Made of debris on ledge • lined with grass • mostly on cliffs in southern US; also
in hollows of old trees or open tops of cypress, sycamore, or cottonwood,
Shape -^gr- Abandoned nests 50-90 feet above ground uses old tree nest
• rarely or cavity • built by female
• 2-6 cream or buff eggs, heavily marked with brown and red, 2.1 inches long.
Location
^ £gg«p
Plumia § e
Sexes similar Habitat Migration
Some migrate Weight
u pounds
DATE TIME LOCATION
 .

192 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA

Family Species Length Wingspan 4() _l?
FALCONIDAE fa/co mexicanus i5_ 19 i nc hes jnches

Prairie Falcon
I" ound on open prairies and grasslands yebroz
with suitable cliffs, bluffs, and dark p
outcroppings for nesting sites, this
bird's dusty sandy browns blend with
the landscape. It is paler overall than W^* yellow cere at

the similar-sized Peregrine Falcon, I base of bill

light brown
whose range it overlaps in the
upperparts edged . • yellow bill with
West. In flight the "armpits" are with buff *.
'

J& blue-gray tip

blackish on axillaries and inner
w ing linings. Juveniles are darker
"\
above than adults and more white throat,

heavily streaked below. chin, and face

• SONG Mostly silent.
whitish
Common alarm or territorial
underparts with
cackling call is shrill yelping heavy brown spots
kik-kik-kik or kek-kek-kek.
• Behavior
Ledge display and yello w legs and feet
spectacular
aerial displays
in courtship.
Often perches
on rocks, long dark
bro wn tail with Similar Birds
ledges, posts,
sandy bars
or utility Peregrine Falcon
poles while scanning for prey. Overtakes birds in Adults slate-blue
upperparts; darker
flight with rapid bursts of speed or in a dive from
head, helmeted
above. Eats primarily small birds, small mammals, 4!- appearance; in flight

and Nests in mountains

large insects. as high as lacks black w ing pits.

10.000 feet and descends in winter to foothills Merlin cf

and prairies. JlAKMLH Smaller • male has
blue-gray back; more
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. heav ily streaked
• NESTING Incubation 29-33 days, mostly by female. underparts; more
contrasting barring in
Semialtricial young stay in nest 31—1-2 days. Fed by both sexes.
tail: lacks black in
1 brood per year. wing pits.

• POPULATION Uncommon to fairly common. Declining in

Utah, western Canada, and agricultural California.
• Conservation The
Flight Pattern Prairie Falcon has experienced
some population declines which
X^X , X^A arc for the most part attributed
to disturbances from increasing

Swift flight with rapi j wing beats.

huma n e n c ro a c h men t

Sometimes alternates several rapid wing

beats with glide.

Nest Identification
On cliff ledge, occasionally in rock crev ice • abandoned nests • always facing
open habitat • 4—5 white eggs, heav ily marked with brown and purple; short
Shape elliptical and subelliptical, 2.1 inches long.

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat

^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei § ht 1.2 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 193

Family
CRAGIDAE Species
Qmlis mtula Length
u inchcs I Wingspan ?4-28 inches

Plain Chaghalaca
The only chachalaca that reaches North America, this bird
mostly lives in trees but flies to the ground for dust baths,
f locks of -I— 20 feed together peacefully; however, when

alarmed they half fly, half hop up through the trees w ith gray bill

their crests raised high, tails spread wide, and small wings
beating laboriously. This bird is noisy all year, but
especially during breeding season and particularly at
dawn and dusk, with multipitched choruses within and
• bare loose
between flocks scattered across wooded thickets. _^/ r ^z
reddish throat
• SO.NC Cr\ of single bird is /in-, iia-la, t . bur X skin (on breeding

when flock joins chorus, "chachalaca" /*^* in die on In

may be clearly heard over and over.

• BEHAVIOR Feeds mostly in trees
but sometimes on ground. Eats olive-brown
upperparts
berries, especially hackberries;
fruits, including wild grapes and
figs; seeds; green leaves; buds;
and insects. Moves easily through
dense vegetation and hops, dusky cinnamon
glides, and flies from branch to underfill its and
underfill 1 ovt rts
branch within boll of trees. 1

Glides between trees or across

roads on short rounded wings
with its long tail spread.
• Breeding
Monogamous. Social.
• NESTING Incubation
22-27 days by female.
Precocial young stay in
nest 3-4 days and flutter
out of nest onto
surrounding branches.
^ blackish tail with green sheen
and fairly broad pale tip

Fed by regurgitation by Winter

both parents. 1 brood per year. Plumage
• POPULATION Common but somewhat secretive except for vocalizations
in limited US range in lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas. Introduced on
Sapelo Island, Georgia. Common and widespread in Mexico

Flight Pattern feeders with fruits and seeds,

also to water elements.
• CONSERVATION Killed
for food in Mexico and other
Several rapid stiff wins beats followed parts of range south of US-
by a

fanned
short glide on spread wings and
tail.

Nest Identification
Mexican border.
V
E"rail structure of sticks and leaves • lined with green leaves • in fork in dense
bush or tree, -4—20 feet above ground • 2—4 creamy or dull white eggs,
Shape ^> Location 4^ t£fc 2.4 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
m ^ Migration
Nonmigratory We 'S ht 1.3 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

194 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Length Wingspan
Family
p H ASIANIDAE Species Perdixperdix 12 inches ]8_ 2 2 inches

Gray Partridge
Originally a natixe of Eurasia, this rotund gray-and-brown
partridge was introduced into North America in the early
1900s and is now a widely established game bird.
brown
When ground dweller takes off, its wings make
this
derail
a whirring sound, and the mottled brown back

and rufous-chestnut outer tail feathers are

visible.The white bill in the rusty face is
framed by vermiculated gray underparts
Females may lack a chestnut patch
on the belly, when present it is
smaller than in the male.
• SONG Low grating kee-ah reddish
or keep- keep or keee-UCK. When brown—barred
flanks
alarmed or excited, kuta-kut-kut-kut.
• BEHAVIOR Eats seeds of grains, weeds,
and grasses, as well as insects, includin dark chestnut
patch on belly
grasshoppers and beetles. Water
source is dew. Requires grit to assist
gizzard in grinding food; often finds Male
this grit in gravel roads, w here
birdsmay be seen outside the "ravish brown
overall*
dense cover they prefer.
rusty face and throat

Similar Birds

Chi kar
Larger: reddish bill and
n Female legs; sandy or gray-
raws and cfamily groups
. , ,

in summer; brown upperparts;

coveys of 15-20 birds
• BREEDING Monogamous.
• NESTING Incubation 21-26
Precocial young
tended 13-15 days
in winter. Prefers to walk rather than fly. white-buff cheeks;
prominent black line
extends across forehead
days mostly by female. through eyes; dark bars
led from nest by both sexes after hatching; on sides and flanks
• western range.
until first flight. 1 brood per year.

• POPULATION Introduced and established. Common but

declining in part of range.
Flight Pattern • Conservation Managed
for legal harvesting during
hunting seasons. Many killed by
mowing of fields and in
collisions with utility wires,
Flies with rapid stiff wing beats followed fences, and automobiles.
by a glide.

Lined with weed stems, dead grasses, and a fine inner layer of soft leaves,
Nest Identification
grasses, and feathers • in wild grass, hayfield, or grain field, within 2-4—50 feet of
field edge or along fencerows or roadsides • built by female while male stands
Shape ground • 5-20 olive or white eggs; subelliptical to short oval or short pyriform.
1 .4 inches long.

Plumage ^exes differ I

Habitat Migration
Nonimgratory Wei e ht 14 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 195

Family Species Length _ 36 inches Wingspan 32

p H ASIANIDAE piuisunius ( )lclua!S
( I
? t { h

RING-NECKED PHEASANT
First introduced as a game bird in California in 1857
and then in larger numbers elsewhere, the Asian Ring-
necked Pheasant is one of the most widely distributed redface
and most popular birds among hunters; thousands are vatth s
iridescent
harvested annually. The male has distinctive mottled ear tufts 1

short
brown plumage; a long, pointed tail; fleshy red eye rounded
patches; and a head that ranges in color from a glossy wings
iridescent
dark green to a purple hue. bronze
• SONG W hen alarmed utters hoarse croaking notes. overall

Male makes loud piercing double squawk kok-cack.

• BEHAVIOR Gregarious, forming flocks large
(sometimes large) in autumn and maintaining body
them into spring. Runs swiftly with tail cocked.
Strong flight, rising off ground at steep
angle with loud whirring takeoff.

brown, black,
and green
mottling
long
pointed tail

In spring eats mostly plant-based diet, including Male

grains, weed seeds, acorns, pine seeds, and wild
berries. Also eats variety of insects and occasionally
takes mice and snails. Roosts on ground or in trees.
Adults often have short life span (males average Female
10 months; females average 20 months). Many
• mottled buff-brown overall
young do not live beyond autumn.
• BREEDING Polygamous. Loosely colonial
• NESTING Incubation 23-25 days by Similar Birds
female. Precocial young can fly short sharp-tailed
distances at 7 days. Tended by Grouse
Similar to female but
female 35-42 days but feed ^ga*"' « ion
g smaller body; shorter,
themselves. 1 brood per year. pointed tail
pointed tail with
• POPULATION Common to fairly common. Some eastern white sides; barred
whitish underparts;
populations decreasing.
feathered tarsus.
• FEEDERS Drawn to feeders with corn or small grains
scattered on ground.
• CONSERVATION Managed
Flight Pattern asgame bird in North America.
Some populations may not be
self-sustaining, but occasional
releases from captivity help

Swift direct flight with shallow rapid wing maintain population. Never
beats. Often alternates several quick wing successfully established in the
strokes with short glides. South despite many attempts.
Lined with grass and weeds • usually on ground in shallow natural depression
Nest Identification
or one made by female • in grasses, hedgerows, grain fields, and brushy ditches
• built by female • 5-23 but usually 10-12 (large clutches occur when 2 hens
Shape lay in same nest) dark green-buff or rich brown-olive eggs; oval to short oval,
1.6 x 1.3 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ I
Habitat
^ te Migration
Nonmigratory Wei § ht 2.9
pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

196 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
p HASIANIDA , Bonasa umbel/us 17inche; 22 _ 25 jnches

Ruffed Grouse
Both the male and female Ruffed
Grouse are dramatic, not only in black ruffs on sides of neck are
appearance but in action. In spring inconspicuous until bird raises
the drumming of the male can be them in display

heard from half a mile away. The

brown or gray multibanded
sound is so low-pitched that one
upperparts with heavy rusty-red or gray
might feel as if it is coming from white spotting tail with with
within, and it can take a dark subterminal
moment to realize that its band and
whitish tip
source is a distant bird. The
female is known for its
crippled-bird act that
from the
distracts intruders
nest.This grouse has two
morphs: The gray morph is
brown or
more widespread, while the gray-barred
red morph is plentiful only underparts
in the Appalachians and
Pacific Northwest.
• SONG Short quit-quit noises
when alarmed.
• BEHAVIOR Eats insects, berries,
fruits, nuts, seeds of weeds and trees, tree Spruce Groi-.se
arrow chestnut band
leaf buds, and small reptiles and amphibians.
on tail tip • male has
Makes short flights. red eye comb; sharply
• BREEDING Promiscuous. Solitary nester. Male defined black breast
with white spots or bars
exhibits display called drumming; he raises his
on sides • female is

crest, ruffs, and fan-shaped tail and makes whirring dark rusty or grayish
sounds by compressing air between his body and brown with white
spotting and black
rapidly beating wings. This is done to claim territory
barring on underparts.
and attract females. Normally shy and retiring but can be
aggressive and has been known to run at humans in its territory. BU'K GROUSE
Dark tail with gray
• NESTING Incubation 21-28 days by female. Precocial young terminal band: mottled
leave nest within hours of hatching and in 10-12 days roost in gray underparts • male
has yellow-orange eye
trees with tending female. Young independent about 84 days
combs.
after fledging. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Common. Local populations fluctuate, with
irruptive dispersals into areas
Flight Pattern that are not normally occupied
by grouse.
X^X , X^X • CONSERVATION Managed
as a game bird over much of its
range; more killed annually than
Strong rapid flight w th rapid wing beats. any other grouse species
(3.5-3.7 million).

Nest Identification Lined with small sticks, pine needles, leaves, and feathers • usually near
tree trunk or sheltered by shrub, log, boulder, or tree stump • built by
female • 8-14 buff eggs, sometimes lightly spotted with browns,
Shape
1.5 inches long.

Plumage Sexes simi ar i

igration
Nonmigratory We '§ ht 1.4 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 197

Family Species Length Wingspan 33 nc

p H ASIANIDAE falcipennis canadensis 16 inc , K j | 1(

Spruce Grouse
Also known as the Black Grouse,
this bird is mainly a tree dweller.
Sometimes called a "fool hen" black chin,
because it seems fearless of throat, and
man, it is an easy target for foreneck
blackish tail
hunters. Franklins Grouse,
with chestnut
a subspecies in the northern terminal band
black
Rockies and Cascades, lacks breast
the chestnut band on the tail
tip,and the uppertail coverts
have white tips. In all other
forms the tail has a dark tip
and chestnut band. When
Male
flying over his territory, the
male Franklin's Grouse makes
a "wind cracking" sound with
his wings to mark his claim.
• SONG Usually silent.
Males make low hooting
sounds. Makes clucking
noise around intruders.
Rl ED GR( n SE
BEHAVIOR Arboreal.
I I

•
Slightly larger; slight
Tame. Eats buds and crest; dark subterminal

needles of conifers, tail band; dark patch on

side of neck • malt-
seeds of weeds and
lacks red eye comb;
grasses, berries, slight crest; pale chin;

mushrooms, fern barred pale breast;

nely barred gra\ or
fronds, some insects.
reddish brown tail with
Forages along dark barring dark subterminal band.
wooded roadsides. and white
Bli e Grouse
• Breeding spotting on
underparts
Dusky or sooty in color;

Promiscuous. broad pale band at tip

of blackish tail; mottled

Solitary nester.
gray underparts • male
• Nesting incubation has yellow or orange-
17-24 days by female. Precocial comb above eyes
IT. M \I
• w estern range.
young abandon nest upon hatching
and can take short weak flights at 7-10 days. Young tended by
female. 1 brood per year.

Flight Pattern
• Population Common.
Local populations fluctuate.
Southern edge of range may
have seen slight decline, but
still common in far north.
Strong rapid flight with series of rapid stiff

wing beats alternating with short glides on • Conservation Managed

downward-pointed wings. as a game bird.

Lined with dry grasses, leaves, twigs, and a few feathers • tinder low branch
Nest Identification
of spruce or bushes • built by female • 5-10 beautiful cinnamon to pink-buff
or cream-buff eggs, usually marked with large rich brown spots and blotches,
Shape Location some thickly and evenly covered with small spots or dots; oval to short oval,
1.7 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat «* Migration
Migratory Weight
u pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

198 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species
i agopus Length
15 _j Wingspan
pj-JASIANIDAE lagop us -j
inches 2 0-22.5 inches

Willow Ptarmigan bright red eyebrows

The ptarmigans are small Arctic birds that (eye combs can be
change their brown summer plumage to white concealed)
in winter. Molting birds are often a patchwork
of w hite and brown feathers, and white
feathers grow to cover toes for winter. Unlike
other ptarmigans, the male Willow stays with
the female and staunchly defends its territory;
this bird has been known to attack a grizzly
bear that came too close to the nest. The
male also will attack a human trying to
catch one of its chicks. Among the
most migrators of grouse, some
7

casually w inter as far south as the

US-Canada border.
• SONG Low throaty
rumbling sounds and noisy
cackling.In display, male
makes harsh barking go-
back-go-back-go-backa-go-
backa-go-backa.
• Behavior in
summer eats flower
buds and leaves of
deciduous trees and shrub?
also fruits and insects. In
winter eats catkins. t\\ igs,

and deciduous tree and

shrub buds. Chicks eat
spiders, insects, and
caterpillars.
Rock Ptarmigan
Smaller, more slender
• Breeding Mostly body: finely barred
monogamous. In breeding brow nish gray plumage:
less rufous than
season male chooses open
Willow: smaller bill
area on ground. As his red • in winter male has
combs swell he struts and black lore and narrow
black postocular
barks, then flies up and flutters down line.

• NESTING Incubation days by female. Precocial young

leave nest upon hatching. First
flight at7-12 days. Tended by
Flight Pattern
both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• Population Cycles from
abundant to scarce.Generally
common over northern range.
Strong swift rapid but relativ
flights. Alternates rapid stiff
• Conservation
with short glides. Harvested as game bird.

Nest Identification
Lined with grasses and feathers • at base of log, in bunch of grass, bush, or
hammock on tundra, beach, or near marsh • built by female • 5-17 yellowish
Shape eggs splotched with brown; oval, 1.7 inches long.

Plumage Sexes diffcr Habitat Migration Weight

Most do nQt migrate 1
3 pound

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 199

Family Species
pj-jASIANIDAE lag0pus mutu

Rock Ptarmigan
This bird is perhaps the hardiest of the
ptarmigans. Itlives year-round in the eold
northern mountain regions of Greenland
and aretie North America. These birds have
been seen flying directly into snowbanks
to sleep. As do other species of ptarmigans,
the Rock Ptarmigan develops two different
plumages to match the predominant colors
of the season: white in winter and brown
in summer. Winter males retain their red
combs and show a black line running from
the bill through the eye. Birds experience
great and varying amounts of white
patches in individual plumages
during the sequence of the molt.
• SONG Low growls and
croaks and noisy cackles.
mottled, barred
• Behavior in
blackish-brown
summer eats spiders, on brownish-
insects, leaves, buds, buff plumage

fruits, seeds, and

mosses. In winter
finds food on top of
snow such as twigs,
buds, and seeds.
Unusually resilient
for a grouse in flight,
it can travel up to a Similar Birds
mile before alighting.
Willow Ptarmigan
• Breeding Darker; less gray-brown
feathers c
summer plumage
Monogamous. Colonial. entire leg • male has rufous-brown
Male defends small to toe plumage; larger bill.
territory on breeding
White -tailed
ground; displays with
Female Ptarmigan
swollen red combs to attract White tail; smaller
females and drive away rival males. • western range.

• NESTING Incubation 21-24 days by female. Precocial young

remain in nest 10-16 days, fed
Flight Pattern
by female. 1 brood per year.
• Population Common on
tundra. Casual in winter south
x^x , x^x
into taiga. Accidental elsewhere

Strong swift takeoff; n flight alternates

• Conservation
several quick wing beats with glides on Harvested as a game bird.
down-bowed wings.

Nest Identification
Lined with grass, moss, and a few feathers • built by female • 6—13 buff
orcinnamon eggs marked with dark browns and blacks; subelliptical,
Shape 1.6 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexes differ Nonmj gratory 149

DATE TIME LOCATION

200 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Length Wingspan
Species
21 _ 25 inches
Family
p HASIANIDAE Tympanuchus phasianellus 16-19 inches

Sharp-tailed Grouse
This gregarious bird performs fascinating extravagant
mating rituals in spring at communal leks where
the male "dances," with tail spread,
purple neck sac exposed, and
quills rattling; and fights
with other males. Often
seen on prairies in
summer, the Sharp-
tailed Grouse gets its
name from its narrow
pointed tail. There is

a small stiff crest on

the top of the head.
In flight adults can
be distinguished
from female Ring-
necked Pheasants
by the white
feathers on the
side of the tail.

• Song
Chattering noises
and a soft coo-oo. Litters bold
booming notes during breeding season.
• BEHAVIOR Eats grasshoppers, other large
insects, rose hips, berries, corn, wheat, other grains,
Similar Birds
buds, leaves, and flowers; vegetable materials make up more
than 90 percent of diet. Inhabits open grasslands in summer, Ring-necked
Pheasan t 9
where the lek is located; retreats to brushy shrub-scrub country Much longer pointed
afterbreeding season. Strong flier, occasionally traveling tail with white barring;
2-3 miles in a single flight. no white tail feathers;
lacks barring or scaling
• BREEDING Promiscuous. on underparts.
• NESTING Incubation 21-24 days by female. Young leave

4
GREATER
nest shortly after hatching. Tended by female. First flight at PRAIRIE-CHICKEN
7-14 days. 1 brood per year. Barred underparts;
shorter, squared tail.
• POPULATION Uncommon to fairly common over most of
range. Has increased in some areas because of timbering practices.
but declining in others. Has
Flight Pattern disappeared from Nevada, New
Mexico, and Oregon.
• Conservation Managed
as a game bird species with
Rises on rapidly beating wings when regulated hunting seasons and
flushed; then alternates between series
rapid stiff wing beats and glides on some habitat improvement.
slightly drooping wings.

Nest Identification Lined with grasses, leaves, and feathers • on ground concealed in grass or undc
shrub, about a half-mile from dancing ground • built by female • 5-17 light
brown eggs dotted with reddish brown and lavender, occasionally unmarked;
Shape Location
ovate, 1.7 inches Ion".

Plumage Sexes simi ar j

Habitat^ fif
Migration
Nonmigratory We 'S nt 2.1 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 201

Family species Len £ th Win S s P an

p H ASIANIDAE Tympanuchus cupido 1 7-1 S inches 28 inches

Greater Prairie-Ghicken
Although both sexes of this
chickenlike bird have
elongated dark neck
feathers, the male has
longer ones, which he
erects during courtship
display. The yellowish
fleshy yelled
orange sacs on the sides ange eye at nibs
of the male's throat,
called tympani, are
inflated during courtship.
Females have barred tails
and also have neck sacs, straw-
brown bill
but they are very small
and lack color. Both
elongated dark
sexes have feathered
neck feathers
feet. Once common
over most of its bare yellowish orange sacs
prairie grassland range (visible onlyduring display)

is now
this bird
brown overall

uncommon, declining, heavily barred nude/parts

and local. Some races,

like Attwater's prairie- ilar Birds
chicken in southeastern iSSER
Texas, are threatened with PRAIRIE-CHICKEN
extinction.The Heath Hen, Smaller; paler; less
heavily barred
which lived along the Atlantic-
underparts • male
seaboard, became extinct in 1932. makes higher-pitched
• SONG Fargely silent except during courtship. Male produces courting notes; reddish
orange air sac • limited
booming sound, whhoo-doo-doooohh, zooooo ... wooooo ... youoo.
western range.
• BEHAVIOR In summer eats insects, especially grasshoppers;
Sharp-tailed
also eats leaves, fruit flowers, shoots, grain seeds, and rose hips. Grouse
Makes short flights.
In winter eats acorns, oats, rye, and wheat. Spotted, scaled
underparts; lacks
• BREEDING Promiscuous. Males use leks. Dominant males
elongated blackish neck
mate with majority of females attracted to booming dances. feathers; long pointed

• NESTING Incubation 23-24 days by female. Precocial young tail with white borders.

leave nest soon after hatching. First flight at 7-14 days. Tended
by female. 1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Uncommon
to rare; local. Decreasing.
• Conservation
Endangered. Vulnerable to
habitat loss caused by the
Strong rapid flight w th series i f rapid stiff
wing beats alternatin s; between glides on
agricultural plowing of the
drooping wings. native grasslands it inhabits.

Nest Identification
Lined with grasses, dead lea /es, and feathers • in hayfields, woods, or
clearings • built by emale • 7-17 olive eggs spotted with dark brown; ovate,
Shape 1.8 inches long.

Plumage
g e \cs similar Habitat Migration
Most do not m ; grate Wei S ht
2.2 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

202 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len §th Wingspan 4,5
p HA SIANIDAE Meleagris gallopavo 37-46 inches fcet

Wild Turkey
The la rgest game bird in North
America, the Wild Turkey once
was so widespread it was
considered for the US
iridescent
national emblem. Male body glistens
turkeys gobble year round, \thgreens and
but in spring they are easily bronzes

startledand will gobble at

any abrupt noise. Today this
unmistakable symbol of a US
national holiday is becoming red wattles
common again due to
conservation efforts and its
Male
own adjustments to changes in
its original woodland habitat.
• SONG Gobbling may be heard
up to a mile away and is easily
imitated, with bird often respondin
to it. Several different clucking call

given by both sexes: cluk, duck, cut,

putt, and others.
• BEHAVIOR Powerful muscular
gizzard can grind hardest foods. Ea
nuts, seeds, large insects, frogs,
lizards, wild fruits, and grapes. Flie
to tree roosts for the night. Male
displays by strutting with tail

spread, wings drooped to ground,

bare skin of head intensified in
color, and frequent gobbling.
• BREEDING Polygamous.
• NESTING Incubation 27-28 days mailer than male
by female. First flight in about 14 days.
Tended by female. 1 brood per year.
medium-length
• POPULATION Rare to common.
fairly broad tail
Wild birds unlikely in areas of human
habitation, though widely domesticated. Increasing.
• CONSERVATION Trap and
Flight Pattern transfer programs have helped
reestablish some populations.
Increased comeback of blocks of
forest interspersed with
Swift powerful flight for short agricultural areas, as well as
distances with rapid wing beats and
deep strokes; often glides after sevei
wildlife management programs,
series of wing beats. have helped increase populations.

Nest Identification
Lined with a few dead leaves and grass • on ground concealed under shrub or in
grass • built by female • 8-20 white to cream or buff eggs, sometimes blotched
Shape or spotted with brown or red, 2.5 inches long.

Plumage Sexes differ Habitat

«W A ^ Migration
Nonmigratory We 'g nt 16.3 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 203

Family Species Len ^th 10 inches Wingspan 13 _ ]4

QDONTOPHORIDAE Callipepla squamata nches ;

Scaled Quail
This native of the
called "cotton top" because of
Southw est
conspicuous
white-tipped crest. When alarmed, flocks of
is

its
sometimes white-tipped
crest %[ i

these birds run into bushes for cover. The

female resembles the male but has a smaller dark edges on
huffier crest. Even at a distance the bird's mantle, neck, breast,
and belly leathers
bluish gray breast and mantle and white-
give a sealed
tipped crest make it easy to identify. A appea ranee
close view reveals the body feathers'
tiny dark edging that gives the
grayish
scaled appearance, upon which
overall bluish gray
the common and scientific
names are based. Juveniles
are more rufous and appear
more mottled than scaly.
In southern Texas the
male has a dark chestnut
patch on the belly.
• SONG Most common
is a low nasal dip-CHURR white- streaked *
or pe-COS or wait- UP with sides

accent on second syllable.

Also, other clucking notes.
• BEHAVIOR Eats insects; seeds from
desert shrubs, cacti, weeds, grasses, and flowers;
Similar Birds
flower blossoms; and tender shoots. Found in pairs or small
groups in spring and summer; at other times forms coveys of Northern
7 to more than 100. Makes daily trips to waterholes or cattle BOBWHITK Cf
Rufous overall; short
tanks. Spends heat of day under shade of a shrub. Would rather
crest lacks white tip;
walk or run than fly. white or buff pattern
• BREEDING Monogamous. Breeding success correlates to on face.

amount of rain; may not nest when rainfall is scarce. Gambkl's Quail cf
Short dark head plume
• NESTING Incubation 22-23 days mostly by female. Young
that tilts forw ard; lacks
leave nest soon after hatching. Tended by both sexes. First scaly feathers • inhabits
flight at 14-16 days. 1 brood per year. desert scrublands of the
Southwest.
• POPULATION common
semidesert scrubland east
F airly in
to Texas. Local populations fluctuate. Adversely affected by drought
years and exceedingly heavy rain.
Flight Pattern • FEEDERS Uses stations
where small seed is placed on
%' ground. Attracted to permanent
man-made water sources.

Takes off on rapidly seating w ings, then

• Conservation Moderate
alternates between series of ra pid stiff grazing improves habitat.
wing beats and short glides. Hunted as a game bird.

Nest Identification Lined with dry grasses and feathers • shelterd by shrub or grassy tussock
• sometimes in open field • built by female • 9-16 dull white to cream-

white eggs, some thickly speckled with small spots or dots of light brown,
Shape
1.3 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes simi i ar
Habitat^ _^± Migration
NJonmigratory Weight
6j

DATE TIME LOCATION

204 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
ODONTOPHORIDAK Species
Qolinus virginianu 9-10 inches Wingspan
H_ 16 jnches

Northern Bobwhite
This familiar eastern quail, named for the male's loud call
inhabits farmlands, fields, lightly grazed pastures, and
grasslands. The "Masked Bobwhite," a southwestern race
with black face and cinnamon-rufous underparts,
a
formerly of Mexico and southeast Arizona, has
been reintroduced into Arizona grasslands.
• SONG Rising clear whistle, bob-
WHITE! or bob-bob-WHITEf, given
most often by males in spring and
summer. Also whistles hoy.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in
pairs in spring; family groups
in summer; coveys of 8-15 in
fall and winter. Roosts on

ground in groups of up to 30,

tails pushed together and

heads facing out of a tight

wagon wheel-shaped Male
circle. Eats seeds, insects,
• cinnamon-rufous
worms, and spiders. flanks with broad
• Breeding buff stripe over eyes white stripes

Monogamous; some
evidence of polygamy. Similar Birds
• NESTING S(.ALKl) OlAlL C?
Incubation 23-24 Pale gray-brown head;
days by both sexes. scaly body; prominent
white tufted crest;
Young leave nest
prefers more arid
soon after hatching; habitat.
whitish underpart.
tended by both
with coarse black i
ctnnamon- Gambel's Quail d*
sexes. First flight at fous flanks Prominent crest
scalloping ii

12-14 days. 1 brood vith broad plume; uniformly pale

per year.
Female
vhite stripes
i gray overall; sandy-buff
underparts; rufous
• POPULATION Uncommon flanks with white
to common brushlands and open woodland. Introduced into
in streaks • inhabits
desert scrublands of
northwestern US. Significantly declining over much of range.
the Southwest.
• FEEDERS Scattered grains on ground or man-made
permanent sources of water.
Flight Pattern • Conservation Hunted
as a game bird; highly managed
in some states. Decline may be
due to habitat loss and changes
Rises swiftly with w hirring rapid wi
in farming practices. Sensitive
beats then sails away, wings curved
downward. Alternates series of stiff to cold winter weather; entire
wing beats with short glides on populations may be wiped out
drooping wing tips. bv hard freezes.

Nest Identification
Lined with grasses • leaves small openings in sides • on ground • built by both
sexes• 14—16 white or cream-white eggs; subpyriform and sometimes quite

Shape pointed. 1.2 inches long.

Plumage Scxcs diff Habitat

^ jf.
Migration
Nonmigratory Wei £ ht 6.3 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 205

Fami| v Species Cotnmicops Len Sth 6-7.25 inches Wingspan

Rallidae noveboracensis 1{M3 nchcs;

Yellow Rail
The sparrow-sized Yellow Rail is one of the least-known rails. It is so
reluctant to fly that trained dogs can catch it. If flushed it fliesweakly
with its feet dangling, showing a white patch on the trailing edge of
the inner wing before dropping back into cover. Its narrow body,

strong toes, and flexible wings help it survive in

dense marsh grasses. Adults have olive- broad dark
smudge
gray legs, a buff chest, dark brown
dark brown through eyt
flanks with white bars, white- dark brown
crown
upperparts with
spotted wing coverts, and
broad buff stripes
cinnamon undertail coverts. and narrow white
Juveniles are darker gray- crossbai

black above with slight buffy

striping;more white spotting
on head, neck, breast, and
sides; and more black
barring on the flanks.
• SONG Like pebbles
tapping, tick -tick, tick -tick-

tick. Usually at night.

• BEHAVIOR short
Secretive; difficult yellowish
to greenish
to see in
gray bill
the open;
sticks to
thick grasses
and marsh
vegetation.
Prefers to walk or
run if disturbed.
Flutters in air when flushed,
then quickly drops and runs on the ground to escape. Averse to Similar Birds

flying yet able to migrate great distances. Eats insects, small SORA
snails, seeds, tender leaves of clover, and grasses. Juveniles are twice as
large; bright yellow bill;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. lack buff stripes on
• NESTING Incubation 6—18 days by female. 1 Precocial young upperparts; lacks white
wing patch in flight.
leave nest shortly after hatching. Probably tended by female.
May be independent of parents at 55 days. 1 brood per year.
• Population Uncommon
Flight Pattern to rare and poorly known.

T Declining due
• Conservation
to loss of habitat.

Draining
and development of wetlands
negatively impacting
Flutters weakly on fl ppy wings for
short low flights. Direct flight when populations. Considered a game
traveling longer dista nces. bird in some states.

Canopy of vegetation pulled to cover mat of fine dead grass • above damp soil
Nest Identification
on bare ground or flattened vegetation • a little above water of marsh or meadow
and screened by small blades of grass • built by both sexes • 7-10 creamy buff
Shape eggs occasionally spotted with reddish brown and capped; ovate but often
markedly elongated, 1.1 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes similar
I
Habitat
, = _ Migration
Migratory Wei e ht 1 .8 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

206 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Fami| y
Rallidae Species
lsterolIus jamaicensis
Length
6 inche « Wingspan
10 .5-11.5 inches

Black Rail
The smallest and perhaps most secretive member of the rail family, this bird
was recorded on the island of Jamaica and is extremely difficult to find.
first

Its range is not well known, and small populations and individual records

scattered widely across the United States provide

our only information. If glimpsed.
chestnut-brown blat kish upperpa its
it appears like a rodent
slate-gray nape and extensively flet kt d
scampering. Its flight is head upper mantle • with white
faint and shaky with
legs dangling,

red eyes

low above
black bill
vegetation
narrow white
and of short slate-gray chest barring on flank
duration, with and upper belly
the bird quickly
darker gray
dropping back into dark gray underparts
dense cover. underparts

• SONG Most often

given at night beginning a
couple of hours after sunset. dusky greenish
Repeated kik-kee-do or kik-kee-derr, gray legs
sometimes gives 4 notes, kik-kik-kee-do
• BEHAVIOR Remains in cover of
vegetation; rarely stays exposed for long. Rarely flies. Lives in freshwater marshes and wet

meadows or in shallow margins of saltwater marshes above the beach line. Sometimes found in
grain fields and dry hay fields. Eats seeds of aquatic plants, grasses and grains, insects, and
isopods (small marine crustaceans).
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. Similar Birds
• NESTING Incubation 16-20 days by both sexes. Young leave Yellow Rail
nest soon after hatching. Tended by both parents. Possibly Larger; buff; white wing
patches visible in flight.
2 bioods per year.
• POPULATION Generally uncommon to rare; although
locally common in some places
Flight Pattern Declining most parts of
in
North American range due to
loss of habitat, especially coastal
marshes. Population stable in
protected habitat.
Weak fluttering floppy flight with legj • Conservation Wetland
dangling.
conservation important.

Nest Identification Woven coil of soft grass blades, sedge, or other vegetation • in grass
18—24 inches tall on edge of marsh • built by both sexes • 4-13 white, pinkish
white, or creamy white eggs dotted with brown; short subelliptical or elliptical.
Shape Location
1 inch long.

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat

fe ^ Migration
Most migrate Weight
12

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 207

Fami| y
Rallidae Species
Crgx m x
Len eth
10.5 inches
Wingspan i 7 _ 18inches

Corn Crake
The crek-crek sound made by rubbing
fingernails across the teeth of a comb
often entices this timid bird to leave its

hiding place. A native of Eurasia, rare

vagrants have found their way to the
farmlands of Canada and New buff-yellow
upperparts
England. Unlike most other raih
with black
the Corn Crake does not live in spotting on
marshes but rather in meadows
and other grasslands. When light buff underparts
flushed, the chestnut wings
with darker flight feathers are
distinctive. Juveniles are
brownish red flanks
similar to adults but have ith brown barring

lighter barring on sides,

flanks, and on undertail
coverts.
• SONG Abrasive, brownish red wings with
large chestnut patch
crek-crek or crake-crake,
from which it gets its

name, often heard at

night. Also makes a
soft mewing note.
• Behavior
Solitary. More
heard than seen.
When frightened
runs instead of
flies. Eats Birds
earthworms, insects,
SORA
snails, slugs, and
Juvenile is slightly
sometimes seeds and grains. smaller; rich chestnut-

• BREEDING Monogamous. brown back lacks

distinctive mottling;
• NESTING Incubation 16-19 days by female. Precocial young white undertail coverts
leave nest on day of hatching. Usually tended by female, but lack barring; lacks
chestnut wing patch.
sometimes by both sexes. Young independent and flying in
60 days. 1-2 broods per year.
• Population Rare or
Flight Pattern accidental on northeast coast
from Newfoundland south to
Maryland. Formerly casual
vagrant, but few records in
recent years. Western European
Weak flight with legs dangling, dropping populations have declined.
back into vegetation after short distance.

Nest Identification
Made of grass, twigs, and leaves • built by female • on ground sheltered by th
grasses • 8-12 ocherish or greenish eggs spotted with reddish brown and gray;
Shape Location ovate, 1.5 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
^ ± Migration
Migratory Weight
^ q ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

208 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Fami| y Species
RALLIDAE Ra//us longirostr

Clapper Rail
As with most rails the Clapper Rail
is more often heard than seen. It
is named for its noisy rattling
call which is said to sound
like old-time clappers.
Abrupt noises cause
these birds to cry in
unison; noisiest at
night. This large rail

is locally known as
"marsh hen" and
often leaves the
cover of the salt
marshes it

inhabits to work
the muddy flats at

low tide. As it walks

it bobs its head and

flips its short tail exposing

white undertail coverts.
• SONG A series of grating
kek-kek-kek notes, accelerating then dropping
off.Given most often at dusk on moonlit nights or when
Similar Birds
suddenly disturbed by loud noise. One call stimulates another;
the calls travel like a wave through the marsh. King Rail
Favors freshwater
• BEHAVIOR Feeds mostly in the open at low tide on marshes; bolder black-
mudflats. At other times forages concealed in salt marsh and-white bars on
flanks; bright rufous-
vegetation. Eats crabs and other crustaceans, worms,
brown neck and chest;
amphibians, reptiles, mollusks, small fish, and aquatic insects. tawny-buff cheeks;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. buff-edged back
feathers; brown wing
• NESTING Incubation 20-23 days by both sexes. Precocial coverts; voice differs.
young abandon nest soon after hatching. Tended by both sexes.
Virginia Rail
Independent after 35-42 days. First flight at 63-70 days. One-third the size;
Possibly 2 broods per year. darker overall; blue-gra 1

auriculars; bright rufous

• POPULATION Common in coastal salt marshes but
upperwing coverts.
declining on West Coast and in some places in the East. Casual
on Atlantic Coast to the Maritimes.
• Conservation The
Flight Pattern inland freshwater race on the
lower Colorado River is
considered endangered. Also
endangered on the West Coast
due to habitat loss and perhaps
Low fluttering flight over short distances introduced predators.
with legs dangling-

Nest Identification Basket of aquatic vegetation and tide-deposited materials • elevated on firm
bank or under small bush • built by both sexes, but male does more • 5-12 buf
or olive-buff eggs marked with brown; subelliptical to long subelliptical to ovati
Shape
1.7 inches long.

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat

:
Migration \j
lgratory
Weight
n _ 4 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 209

Species Length Wingspan

Fami| y
rallidae 15 _ 19 inches 2 ,_ 25 jnchcs
I

Ra//us ekgans I

King Rail
This large freshw ater rail migrates through the Mississippi
Valley and along the Atlantie Coast. Oddly, this birds
population seems tied to that of the muskrat, which
createsopen spaces in the marsh providing
olive-brown
feeding and drinking areas for upperparts with btiff-
the rail. Widely dged back feathers olive-brown head
a iid hindneck

distributed in
the East in
summer, it is

found both
in
freshwater and
brackish marshes.
Some consider it
an inland freshwater
race of the smaller
Clapper Rail, but the
1 \ HMI,H
King Rail is more rufous and
has buff edging on the baek Similar Birds
feathers and brown to rufous wing coverts.
Virginia r \ii
• SONG Series of less than 10 notes of kek-kek-kek or
|^ Much smaller; darker
deeper than those of Clapper Rail and not
jupe-jiipe-jupe overall; blue-gray
auriculars; bright rufous
descending. Various other clucking and grunting notes.
upperwing coverts.
• BEHAVIOR Sometimes feeds in open, mostly in shallow
CLAPPER RAIL
water or mudflats exposed at low tide. Variable diet of aquatic
^\ Slightly smaller; duller
and semiaquatic foods includes plant parts, invertebrates, and coloring; less barring on
vertebrates. Terrestrial, yet migrates long distances. flanks; variable
plumage, but grayish
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. edge on brown-centered
• NESTING Incubation 21-24 days by both sexes. Young back feathers and olive-

abandon nest soon about brown wing coverts;

after hatching; stay with parents
frequents salt marshes.
63 days. Possibly 2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Fairly common to common in freshwater and
brackish habitat near the Gulf >

Flight Pattern Coast. Declined or disappeared

in some areas due to loss of
and/or contamination of habitat.
• CONSERVATION
Considered a game bird in some
Slow floppy flight, often low above states. Wetland management
vegetation with feet dangling.
crucial inland and on coast.

Nest Identification
Dry aquatic vegetation • 6-8 inches above water amid aqua ic vegetation • built
by both sexes, but male does more • 6-15 buff eggs spotted with brown; ovate.
Shape Location 1.6 inches long.

Plumage
Scxes similar Habitat , Migration
Miffatory
Weight
^^
DATE TIME LOCATION
210 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
RaLLIDAE

Virginia Rail
Like all rails, the Virginia Rail generally
does not fly when it is being
pursued but will run swiftly
through the marsh
grasses. Note its gray
cheeks and the
reddish bill and legs.
Flanks, lower belly,
and undertail coverts
are barred with black
and white. In flight the
wings show chestnut in
the leading edge.
Although this bird
prefers freshwater and
brackish marshes, it reddish legs
often inhabits salt a nd feet
marshes in winter.
Juveniles have dark
blackish brown
upperparts and black,
gray, and white mottling
and barring on underparts
• SONG Resembles the
Similar Birds
clicking of keys on an old
typewriter, kid-ick, kid-ick, kid-irk or King Rail
tic-tic-tic. Also makes kik, kik, kik, ki-queea "kicker" call and About twice the size •

descending series of piglike grunts and other odd calls. olive-brown head;
brown to gray cheeks;
• BEHAVIOR Somewhat secretive and terrestrial. Feeds cinnamon-rufous
primarily on insects but also takes aquatic animals, including underparts; black-and-
white barring on flanks.
worms, spiders, crustaceans, and small fish. Diet is varied,
especially in winter, with duckweed and seeds of marsh grasses, . Clapper Rail
Larger; grayish body;
rushes, and sedges.
cinnamon to gray
• BREEDING Monogamous. underparts; black-and-

• NESTING Incubation 18-20 days by both sexes. Young leave white barring on flanks;
prefers salt marshes.
nest soon after hatching. Tended by both parents. First flight at
about 25 days. Possibly 2 broods per year.
Population Fairly
Flight Pattern common to uncommon.
Declining but still widespread
despite loss of wetland habitat.
• Conservation Still

hunted as a game bird in some

Weak brief fluttering flight with 1 ang states. Wetland protection and
legs dangling.
management is crucial.

Nest Identification
Pile ofmatted reeds and layers of coarse aquatic vegetation and grass • in
tussock or clumped vegetation • built by both sexes • 5-13 off-white or buff
Shape Location eggs spotted with brown and often wreathed; oval to short oval, 1.3 inches long.

Plumage Sexes sjmilar Habitat

te _ Migration
Migratory
Weight
3>1 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 211

Family
r a1 ,U)AF.
Species
Porzmm Carolina
Len Sth 8-10 inches Wingspan , 2_ R5 inchcs

SORA
In late summer large numbers of these birds gather in
marshes to feed and build up fat reserves before migrating;
they seem especially fond of smartweed seeds and wild black-and-buff spots
on mini's and back
rice. Like all rails, the Sora migrates at night, and

for a group that hardly distinguishes

itself in the air, this species /,/,„/• patch on face
may cover almost 3,000
miles between wintering
and breeding grounds.
It is identifiable by its

short yellow bill

framed with black

feathers around its
irregular barring of
base, black throat,
thin white lines on gray
and black center in on underparts
i short chicken like
the upper breast.
vellow bill
Small and plump, it green legs

is one of the most

common North American rails.
Juveniles lack the black on the
face and underparts and, with
their buff coloration, sometimes Juvenile Winter
Plumage
are confused with the much
smaller Yellow Rail. Similar Birds
• SONG
Descending melodious
long toe: Virginia Rail
whinny and abrasive high-pitched keek. Long, slender, slightly
Makes froglike whistle of ker-w/ieer on breeding ground. down-curved reddish
gray face; rusty-red
• BEHAVIOR Small bill prevents it from probing into marsh
hill;

throat and breast.

mud animals like the long-billed rails. Eats mainly plant life
for
such as seeds, wild rice, and algae. Also feeds on insects, Yellow Rail
Much smaller;
spiders, small crustaceans, and snails. Often found in the open checkered pattern of
where walks slowly with head down and short tail cocked and
it buff stripes and white
flicked above white undertail coverts. Can show up in almost bars on a blackish back
on upperparts; lacks
any moist habitat, especially in migration.
black on chin and
• BREEDING Monogamous. throat; shows white
wing patch in flight.
• NESTING Incubation 9— 20 days. 1 Precocial young abandon
nest soon after hatching. 2 broods per year.

and widespread despite loss of

Flight Pattern
wetland habitat.
5&
• Conservation Recent "n ^1_aSK
-1 f v loss of habitatdue to draining
and development of marshes;
Weak labored floppy flight for short
distances and low over vegetation with also due to loss of wintering
legs dangling. coastal habitat.

Nest Identification A bowl of cattails, dry leaves, grasses, and reeds • about 6 inches in diameter
• connected to stems of marsh vegetation a few inches above water • in reeds,
Shape Location ^^ cattails, or grasses over deeper water • 10-12 rich buff eggs irregularly spotted

with browns and grays; ovate, 1.2 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexes simUar I

Migratory 2. 6 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

212 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Fami| y Species Length Wingspan
RALLIDAE Neofrex erythrops 7 _g inch( i 2 _l 3 inches

Paint-billed Crake
Individuals of this widespread inhabitant of eastern and
central South American marshlands have made
their way to Texas and Virginia. This crake,
which is a little smaller than a Sora, is

gray-breasted with
colored bill and
a strikingly
legs, j
^
upperparts

bright
red eyes

and it has barred

flanks and
undertail coverts.
Generally remaining
in thick vegetation, it is

stealthy and difficult to

Similar Birds
observe and flush.
Sora
• SONG Utters loud, guttural, buzzing froglike croaking
Larger in size; black
qur'r'r'r'rk, singly or in series. face, chin, and throat;

• BEHAVIOR Secretive, generally staying within cover of yellow bill; brown

crown; white barring on
vegetation in wetlands, but at sunrise and sunset may forage in
flanks and belly; white
more open areas near dense vegetation. Will fly if disturbed but undertail coverts;
lands in first available cover. F'eeds on invertebrates, including greenish yellow legs.

insects, and seeds.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester.
• Nesting incubation 19-20
Flight Pattern
days by both sexes. Precocial
young leave nest soon after
•4L ^ hatching; tended by both sexes.
Possibly 2 broods per year.
Weak labored flight low over vegetation • Population Accidental in
with feet and legs dangling beneath both
Texas and Virginia.

Nest Identification
Grasses or reeds • about 6 inches in diameter • attached to stems of vegetation
near or over w ater • 5-7 cream eggs heavily blotched with red-brown, ovate,

Shape 1.1 inches long.

Plumage § exes Migration

M igratory Weight ? ?
i. ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AM K RICA • 213

Family Species Length _ n inches Wingspan 3_ 5

r al )AK Pardirallus maculatus 1() j 1

Spotted Rail
The Spotted Rail is widespread in Central America, the Greater Antilles
and South America, but has only been found twice in North America. It
has a dark body with heavy white spotting and streaking on the
upperparts and underparts; it should not be confused with
any rail normally found north of Mexico.
Juvenile plumage varies from a dark broadh edged olive-
brown upperparts with large chunky
brown morph with whitish hold white spotting body
bold while spotting

11) iiii straight bright

yellow-green bill with
• white
orange-red spot at base • undertail
rove its

dark gray-
brown remise

throat and slight white

flecking on back and
1 bright pinkish
underparts to a barred rd legs
morph that is darker with
less distinct spotting and
barring.
• SONG Coarse repeated groaning
screech that may be preceded by a short grunt,
kr'krreih kr'krreih. Repeated grrroi kehrr with deep gruff Similar Birds
pumping accelerating effect toward the end, pitm-KREEP, pum- Virginia Rail
KREEP. Vocal at dawn, dusk, and night. Juvenile has gray-brown
• BEHAVIOR Not shy but rarely ventures into open, staying in eyes; duller yellow-
brown bill lacks red
dense vegetation. Skulks in cattails, reeds, rushes, or tall grasses basal spor; blackerhead
in freshwater marshes. Often nocturnal. Feeds on vegetable and upperparts; whitish
matter, aquatic insects, and other invertebrates. Makes short underparts with black
barring on neck and
flights then drops back into marsh.
breast; broad black bars
• BREEDING Monogamous. Territorial in breeding season. on belly, sides, flanks,
and undertail coverts.
• NESTING Sequence of nesting activity unknown but mainly
in wet season. Young precocial.
• POPULATION Fairly

Flight Pattern common to uncommon

but local
inbreeding range. Accidental in
Pennsylvania and Texas.
4. * • Conservation Possible
decline due to loss of wetlands
Weak flight low over vegetation to agriculture, mosquito control,
feet dangling.
and development.

Nest Identification
Clipped platform of grasses • low in marshy vegetation • often over water
• 3-7 brownish buff eggs with brown spots; oval or short oval, 1.3 inches long.
Shape
lilt

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexes simUar te Migratory 6 () Qunces

DATE TIME LOCATION

214 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
R ALLIDAK Species
Porphyrula martinica Length
13 _ 14 inches Wingspan
zz inches

Purple Gallinule
This beautiful brightly colored member of the rail family
can be seen walking gracefully on lily pads on extremely
long yellow feet or swimming in open water with its head
pumping back and forth. Most often, seen in
protected areas in the south, such as the glossy brownish

Everglades National Park,

individuals have
wandered as
far north as
New England.
Gaudy in
color, thehues
blend with the
greens of
marsh vegetation
and the reflections
of blue sky on water,
sometimes making the
bird difficult to see if not for
the flicking tail revealing white
undertail coverts. Juveniles have
chocolate-brown to bluish olive
upperparts and paler underparts.
• SONG Various abrasive shrieking
calls and hoarse chatters: sharp krlik" or
kee-k\ gruff kruk kruk-kruk-kruk, screaming whiehrrr or w'heehrr, Similar Birds
series of rapid clucking kahw cohw-cohw-cohw or keh-keh-keh. Common Moorhen
• BEHAVIOR Feeds on seeds, fruits, and other parts of wild White line separates
flanks from upperparts
rice; grasses; fruit of water lily; grains; insects; crustaceans;
in juveniles and adults
snails; eggs and sometimes nestlings of marsh birds; amphibians; • adults have red frontal
and small fish. Pumps and bobs head. Flicks short cocked tail shield; gray underparts;
brownish upperparts.
when walking. Climbs well in vegetation.
• BREEDING Cooperative. American Coot
Gray body; blackish
• NESTING Incubation 22-25 days by both sexes. Precocial head and neck; white
young abandon nest soon after hatching and drying off. Tended bill and reddish brown

frontal shield.
and fed by both sexes, often with help from other birds. First
flight at about 63 days. Possibly 2 broods per year.

• Population Fairly

Flight Pattern common southern and coastal

in
freshwater marshes, vegetated
lakes,overgrown swamps, and

W
4L lagoons. Decline due to loss of
wetlands habitat.
Labored slow flight with legs dangling just • Conservation Wetland
above w« ter.
conservation critical.

Nest Identification
Green and dry stems with leaves • floating island of vegetation • built by both
sexes • 5-10 cinnamon-pink or buff eggs marked with brown, 1.5 inches long.
Shape Location

Plumage Sexes simihir Habitat

4
Migration
m j gratory
Weight
9 j ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NOR TH AMERICA • 215

Family Species Length Wingspan

RaLLIDAE Qallinula chloropus 14 inchcs 2 o_ 2 3 inches

Common Moorhen
This is a fairly tame
chickenlike bird of
freshwater marshes,
ponds, and lakes
with heavy
stands of cattails,
rushes, sedges,
and other
aquatic vegetation.
• SONG No
musical sounds
are produced.
Vocalizations range
from explosive,
froglike hups to loud,
chickenlike grunts, clucks,
and squeaks along with
drawn-out whines and rapid
thicket-thicket-thicket calls.

• Behavior This noisy

bird of the wetlands, unlike
most of the rail family, is often
seen in the open walking over
or climbing through aquatic Juvenile
vegetation. It swims with a
ellow feet
pumping back-and-forth motion of
its head and neck. When walking it

often flicks its tail up and down, flashing

the white undertail coverts with their dark
center. Usually found in medium to large groups Winter
in which individuals can be aggressive toward other members in
plumage
disputes over food, mates, or nesting areas. Feeds on aquatic Similar Birds
vegetation, snails, grasshoppers, and other invertebrates.
American Coot
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary to semicolonial, some White bill; slate-gray

cooperative breeding. back; no white band

mi Hanks.
• NESTING Incubation 18-22 days by both sexes. Precocial
young stay in nest 40-50 days, fed by both parents and extra
birds. 1-3 broods per year.

Flight Pattern
• POPULATION Common,
but loss of wetlands has
resulted in decline, especially
in northern range. Still
widespread; may be common
Swift and strong direct flight when
moving long distance. Weak and fluttering
in good marsh habitat.
flight when moving vers' short distance.

Nest Identification Often with ramp of vegetation • made of bleached aquatic vegetation lined
with grass • on ground near water or low shrub over water • built by both sexes
• 2-13 cinnamon or buff eggs spotted with reddish brown or olive and overlaid
Shape
with scattered fine dots, 1.7 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
te _ Migration
Some migrate We 'g ht 12.0 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

216 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Species Len Sth Wingspan
Fami| y
RALLIDAE Fulica atra 15.5 inches 23 _ 2 8 inches

Eurasian Coot
On very rare occasions this European and Asiatic bird
has wandered off course and been recorded as an
accidental straggler to Labrador and Newfoundland in
eastern North America, as well as do the Pribilof Islands
in Alaskan waters. Dumpy and round, the Eurasian Coot
is the only entirely grayish black waterbird with a white

slate-black overall

forehead and bill. Unlike the American Coot,

slate-black undertail
this species has entirely black undertail coverts; its
coverts
white frontal shield is broad, rounded, and covers the
front of the head; and a narrow white border shows on the
trailing edge of the inner wings in flight.
• SONG Loud high-pitched kowk, kewk, and cut or sharp pen!
• BEHAVIOR More than 75 percent of diet made up of leaves,
Similar Birds
fronds, seeds, and roots of aquatic remainder made up of
plants;
insects, small fish, mollusks, crustaceans, and amphibians. Dives American Coot
Lighter slate-gray;
for food, picks it from surface of water, or grazes on land. Runs
white sides on undertai
across water flapping wings to gain flight. Quarrelsome; often
coverts; reddish black
drives and chases other birds. band on bill; small red

• BREEDING Monogamous. Gregarious. patch on forehead.

• NESTING Incubation 21-25 days by both sexes. Young swim

soon after hatching and follow
parents for feeding. First flight
Flight Pattern
atabout 55-60 days. 1-2 broods
per year.
• POPULATION Accidental
Newfoundland,
straggler to
Rapid direct flight with somewhat stiff Labrador, and the Pribilofs.
wing beats; feet protrude beyond tail. Common in Europe and Asia.

Nest Identification
Dead and bulrushes • lined with finer materials • anchored to standing
cattails
plants among tall marsh vegetation in shallow waters • built by both sexes

Shape ^ Location
£g, Jj^
• 2-12 buff to grayish eggs with white spots.

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat _ := Migration

Migra ,
Weight l! n(Jetermined

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 217

Fami| y Species Length 15 Wingspan

rallidae Fu ftca americana 2 3-28 inches

American Coot
This close relative of the gallinules ami moorhens lives
on open water and is often mistaken for a duck. It
pumps its small head back and forth like a chicken when
walking or swimming and usually travels and feeds in
flocks. A common and widely distributed species over
much of North America, the American Coot is easily
distinguished by its ov erall slate-gray plumage, which is

Juvenile

Similar Birds
blacker on the head and neck, its white bill, and small reddish
brown frontal shield. Juveniles are similar to adults but paler, Common Moorhen
Red shield; yellow-
particularly on the underparts, with a darker bill.
tipped red bill; brown
• SONG Grunts, grating quacks, and hoarse chatters of ke-yik back; white-tipped
flank feathers form line
and k-rrkl or krekl Drawling k-yew-r and laughing wah walik or
between flank and back
kuk-kuk-kuk-kuk-kuk. • juvenile paler with
• BEHAVIOR Feeds by immersing head and neck in shallows white flank stripe.

with body and tail tipped up. May also pick food off surface. 'URPLE GALLINULE
Dives 10-25 feet deep for fronds, leaves, seeds, and roots of Dark bluish purple
head, neck, and
aquatic plants, which make up most of diet. Also eats insects,
underparts; greenish
amphibians, mollusks, and small fish. Runs with wings flapping brown back; yellow-
rapidly to gain flight from water. Often aggressive toward other tipped red bill; pale

waterbirds, chasing them nosily from its vicinity. lue shield • juvenile
has olive-brown
• BREEDING Monogamous. Pairs display in front of each upperparts; pale brown
other on water in courtship. Male also chases female across underparts; dull
yellowish bill.
surface of water.
• NESTING Incubation 21-25 days by both sexes. Precocial
young abandon nest shortly
after hatching and drying off.
Flight Pattern
'Fended by both sexes. First
flight at 49-56 days. 1-2 broods
per year.
• Population Common to
Fairly swift direct flight with rapid wing abundant. Has decreased in the
beats and feet protruding beyond tail.
East in recent years.

Nest Identification
Made of dead stems • lined with finer material • floating and anchored to
vegetation • built by both sexes • 2-12 pinkish buff eggs marked with blackish
Shape £q Location ^ brown, 1.9 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei S ht

Sexes simj , ar Migratory 1.6 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

218 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
\RAMIDAK Species
Aramus guarauna Length ?6 _? 8 inchcs Wingspan
| 42 inches

LlMPKIN
Named odd limping gait, this bird appears
for its bold white streaking
similar to the smaller ibis. With its long neck and on head and neck

legs, the Limpkin walks with twitching tail and a

bit of a hunch like a rail. No other n\arsh species
looks quite like it with its chocolate plumage
washed with a green metallic sheen and liberally
long, slender
sprinkled with white streaks on the head, neck,
slightly decurced hill
and back. Its loud wailing scream, mostly
heard at night, sounds like a crazed
banshee in the swamp and was one of
the "jungle sounds" Hollywood left
• bold white streaking on
in the soundtracks of early Tarzan back and wine, coverts
movies shot in Florida.

• SONG Wailing ker-r-ee-oww, ker- brown feathers with

r-ee-oww, ker-r-ee-oww, k-eow, k-eow. metallic green sheen

• BEHAVIOR Stays near cover long broad wings

but sometimes perches high in
open; heard more than seen.
Similar Birds
Skulks along edges of
marshes and swamps, White Ibis
enile has whitish
jerking head to look
head and neck with
around; lifts feet high
dusky streaks: dark
when walking. Probes brow n crown and
long bill into mud or upperparts: white
underparts; white rump
water to catch food by
and uppertail coverts
sight or touch w ith usually noticeable in
sensitive bill. Favorite flight: pink legs:

food is the large apple decurved pinkish red

bill with black tip.
snail, Pomacea, but also eats
other freshwater snails, mussels, Glossy Ibis
Decurved gray-white
frogs, crustaceans, and insects.
bill with black tip;
Very tame. In flight legs protrude grayish legs; gray-
beyond short tail; neck extends cranelike. brown head and neck
with white streaks;
• BREEDING Monogamous. gray-brown underparts;
• NESTING Incubation by both sexes. Precocial young tended dull metallic olive-
green upperparts.
and fed by i or both sexes. 2-3 broods per year.
• POPULATION Locally common in swamps and wetlands; rare to
fairly common in Florida; casual

Flight Pattern in southern Georgia; accidental

north to Maryland.
• Conservation Neariy
hunted to extinction in early
1900s until federal laws and
Distinctive direct flight like hurried
crane is heavy with quick upstrokes sanctuaries protected them, and
and slow dow nstrokes. their numbers slowlv increased.

Xest Identification
Reeds and grass • lined with fine materials • built by both sexes • 3-8 olive or
buff eggs marked with brown; oval or short oval. 2.3 inches long.
Shape

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat Migration Wei ^ ht 2.4

pounds
Nonmigratory

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 219

Family Species Length Wingspan 73 _ 9(}

G RIJIDAE Gms canadensis 34_4 8 inches inchc!j

Sandhill Crane
The North American subspecies of this crane (plus one
five in
Cuba) and intensity of coloration. The small
differ in size
southern sedentary populations are the most threatened. On
the ground cranes look stately with long necks, heavy
drooping over
straight bills, long legs, "bustle" of tertials
the and upright stance. In flight they are
tail,

distinguished from herons because the neck and head

are extended and the slow downward wing beat is
jerked quickly upward. This bird may probe for
food in mud that contains iron, which deposits
on the bill and stains the feathers rusty-
brown when the bird preens.
• SONG Noisy trumpetlike
garoo-oo-a-a-a-a\ can carry
more than a mile.

• Behavior Roosts
communally at night in winter,
standing on damp low land or
in shallow water. Courtship
dances in late winter and
spring involve bounding
6-8 feet into air with wings
half spread and calling loudly. Juvenile
Eats variety of plants and
animals. In summer feeds in Similar Birds
breeding marshes or nearby Whooping Crane
meadows. Walks great distances Rare; larger; white;

for food. May soar on thermals and reddish black mustache;

black primaries visible
migrate so high it is invisible from the ground.
in flight.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Thought to mate for life. GREAT BLUE HERON
• NESTING Incubation 28-32 days by both sexes. Precocial Lacks "bustle"; gray
young leave nest soon after hatching. First flight at 65 days. upperparts; yellow bill;

dullyellow-brown legs;
1 brood per year.
white head; elongated
• POPULATION Common to fairly common and local. Stable black supercilium; flies

or increasing, though vulnerable to habitat loss. with neck pulled back

in S-curve on body.
• CONSERVATION Killing and habitat loss to agriculture
depleted southern numbers in the last two centuries. Degradation of
habitat at major migration
Flight Pattern stopping points seriously
impacting species. Mississippi
Sandhill Crane National
WildlifeRefuge houses most
remaining Mississippi Sandhill
Heavy, labored, steady wing beats with
slow downstroke and rapid jerky upstroke. Cranes, and there is an active
Flies in V or straight line formation. propagation program.

Nest Identification
Dead sticks, moss, reeds, and grass • built by both sexes • 2 buff eggs
marked with olive or 2 olive eggs marked with brown; subelliptical to long
Shape
—a oval, 3.7-3.8 x 2.3 inches.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexes sjmilar 4 Soms migrate j 4 pound

DATE TIME LOCATION

220 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length
44_ 51 inches Wingspan ?9 _ 91
QRUIDAE Gruserui I

inches

Common Crane
This Eurasian bird has occurred in Pf** of red In,
XT , . . . , , sktn on crown
North America as an accidental
vagrant to central Alaska, western
Canada, the Great Plains, and the , long straight
Midwest. These appearances almost broad white dull yellow bill
postocular stripe
always have been in the company of
extends from eye to
Sandhill Cranes. It is believed that back of long neck
Sandhills breeding in eastern Russia blackface, chin,
may be accompanied in migration throat, and neck
by Common Cranes breeding in
the same area. In flight note the
black flight feathers and short
Juvenile has brown
tail.

mottled gray plumage with

o verall gray
a brown head and neck.

• SONG Bold piercing

trumpeting or at times a
low mellow warble.
• BEHAVIOR Very wary.
If threatened usually will
leave nest quietly and not
take flight until a distance
long black
away. Flies with head and
gs andfeet
legs outstretched. May
allow close approach. Feeds
in dry places, preferring seeds, Similar Birds
berries, grain,and young shoots.
Sandhill Crane
Frequently eats insects and mollusks, Gray body; red bare
occasionally small mammals, fish, and frogs. skin also on forehead
and lores; lacks black-
• BREEDING Monogamous. Precocial. During breeding and-white pattern on
season several birds gather and take turns performing head and neck; only
characteristic displays such as squatting, hopping, and calling, primary feathers on
wing are black
with half-opened wings.
• juveniles very similai
• NESTING Nest sometimes used several years consecutively. but Common Crane ha
Incubation 30 days by both sexes in turn; female incubates at black in entire trailing

edge of wing.
night. Precocial young leave nest soon after hatching; tended by
both parents. First flight at 65-70 days. 1 brood per year.
• Population Accidental
Flight Pattern vagrant to Midwest, Great
Plains, western Canada, and
central Alaska. Uncommon to
fairly common, local in Eurasia.

Straight flight with deep even wing beats,

• Conservation Not
slow downstroke. and quick upstroke. threatened; some concern due
Flies in V formation during migration. to loss of wetland habitat.

Nest Identificatio n
Matted grasses • in shallow water or set on reeds or in a thicket • I browni
or olive eggs with red-brown spots; elongated ovoid, 3.8 x 2.3 inches.
Shape Location jjjj,

Plumage Sexcs simi ar ,

Habitat
A =, ^ Migration
Migratory Wei § ht 12.1 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 221

Family Species Length Wingspan 8? inches

GRUIDAE ( ; r//
.

a men can a 52 inch<

Whooping Crane bright red ban

The statclv Whooping Crane is the skin on crown i
}
ong heavy dull
tallest bird inNorth America and one yellow bill
vhite
of the most endangered. By 1941
only fifteen individuals wintering on
the Texas eoast were left in the w ild.
The breeding grounds of these birds long neck blackish red mustache-like
were unknown nntil 1954 when they vedge extends from bill beloz
were discovered in Wood Buffalo ye to back offace
National Park in Alberta in central
Canada. Intensive conservation and
management programs have slowly
increased this flock to more than one
white overall
hundred fifty individuals. The juvenile
is white with a rusty red head and neck

and has rusty red feathers scattered

over rest of its body.
• SONG Piercing trumpetlike ker-loo black wing tips
can be heard for more
ker-lee-loo that
than 2 miles. This volume is achieved
by the 5-foot-long trachea coiled within
the keel of the breast bone. Similar Birds
long black
• BEHAVIOR Eats fish, frogs, small
legs and feet Sandhill Crane
mammals, mollusks, crustaceans, corn, Smaller; Kicks

other grains, and roots of water plants. mustache; bare red skin
alsoon forehead and
• BREEDING Monogamous; mates for lores; pale gray overall;
life. In courtship dance, one of pair begins black bill and legs;
by lowering head and flapping wings. Bird shows black primaries
in flight.
leaps 3 feet in air with head back, bill pointed
skyward, neck arched over back, legs stiff, and w ings flapping. AMERICAN
>^t{f^ S WWW K I'KI.K \\
Mate runs forward a few steps, pumping head up and down and "* Larger; white with
flapping wings. Then both leap into air and bounce up and black outer secondaries.
dow n. The silent dance ends as suddenly as it begins. On primaries, and upper
primary co\ erts; short
wintering grounds do not form flocks but maintain family
legs; flies with neck
groups of 3—4 birds and hold winter territory. folded and long yellow-
• NESTINGIncubation 29-35 days by both sexes. Precocial orange bill resting
on breast.
young abandon nest soon after hatching; tended by both
parents. First flight at approximately 80-90 days. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Increasing.
Flight Pattern Populations introduced in Ida
and Florida.
• CONSERVATION
Endangered, but public
education as well as intensive
Typical crane flight of slow downward
wing beat with powerful flick or jerk on management and protection
upbeat. Flies in V formation in migration. programs, slowly succeeding.

Nest Identification
mound by both sexes
Soft or coarse grass, reeds, or sod • built on a
• 1-3 cream-olive buff eggs marked with brown; ovate or elliptical ovate,
Shape Location Ml 3.9 x 2.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat ,

= Migration
Migratory Weight
U 8 pounds
DATE TIME. LOCATION
222 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Burhinus bistriatus Length
18 _ 20 inch( Wingspan
•URHINIDAE 35 _3 6 inches

Double-striped Thick-kxee
This crow-sized ploverlike bird is native to
grasslands from southern
America but has strayed
some places it is kept as a
is named for its large knee
Mexico
to
northern South
to
southern Texas. In
pet and a sentinel. It
joints. The Ion
large huffy
head i
LX
yellow eyes
legs are well adapted for running, which it P and eye/ids
does in short sprints like a plover with its black stripe on
side of crown
head pulled back on its shoulders. Mostly
a nocturnal bird, it has large eyes for broad vhite i

night vision. In flight it has a supercilium

conspicuous black-and-white- i black bill

banded tail and a broken white xitli z ariable
dull greenish
wing stripe.
yelloxc- base
• SONG Loud clipped

barking or clucking, kah- \ buffy neck

kah-kah or kyeh-kyeh-kyeh. and breast
streaked
Sometimes sounds like
zi ith brown
frogs. Also shrilled
kwehr-kwehr and
kreh-ehr.
fairly large wing? vith
• B EH AMOR black trailing edge and
Nocturnal. Resting white wing strip broken
and preening by on inner primaries

day. Inconspicuous
despite large size:
often rests in shade
of shrub, screened by
vegetation. Prefers to
run rather than fly

when disturbed. Feeds

mostly at night on
insects, small reptiles,
amphibians, mollusks.
crustaceans, and seeds.
• BREEDING Monogamous.
• NESTING Incubation 25-27 days
by female, usually assisted by male. May move eggs to new location
when threatened. Young are

Flight Pattern
precocial and may leave nest
within 1 day after hatching, but
still are tended by both parents.
\ / f
V jCCj
1-2 broods per year.
• Population Fairly

Swift short direct flight.

common to comm n in
breeding: range.

Xest Identification
Eggs laid directly on ground, usually in shallow unlined depression near
scattered brush and trees • 1 eggs, white to buff and heavily spattered
Shape with grays or browns: 1.1 x 1.5 inches.

Plumage Sexc> similar Habitat

± Migration
Nonmigratory We '£ ht 1.7 pounds

DATE TIME uk :ation

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 223

Wingspan
Family
CHARADRIIDAE Species
Vane//us vanellus I
Length
12 _i3 inches I 21 _ 2 4 inches

Northern Lapwing a'7.v/>y bill

Easily identified by its erest, the Northern
Lapwing fits a niche in Eurasia similar to
that of the Killdeer in North America. It is
the only crested plover to occur in North

America, usually in winter when the sides

of itshead and crest are buff-colored. On
rare occasions winter storms have blown
numbers of this bird across the Atlantic.
The Northern Lapwing often feeds at
night, especially during a full moon. Its
broad rounded wings have black tips
on all but the outer 3-4 primary
which have white tips.
feathers,
When is in flight it shows
bird
white underwing linings and a
white tail with a broad black
subterminal band.
• SONG A whistled wee-ip or
pee-wit. A territorial song of
coo-wee-ip and wee-willtu/i-
white
coo-wee-ip. In flight, often
tilde/parts
calls pee-wit repeatedly.

• Behavior On
breeding grounds in
Greenland, Europe, and
Asia, stays in large flocks
when not breeding. Noisy
and obvious in flight. Often
chases larger birds, including
raptors, from territory. Feeds
chiefly on wide variety of
invertebrates, taking some plant
materials and their seeds.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Rather noisy
when breeding. Male has bowing display, revealing its

tawny undertail coverts and accompanied by wheezing sounds.

• NESTING Incubation 24-28 days by both sexes. Young precocial.
First flight at 35-40 days.
1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Casual in fail
and winter in northeastern
states and provinces; accidental
elsewhere in the the eastern US
Strong direct flight o as far south as Florida. Common
beating wings.
in Eurasia.

Nest Identification
Lined with grasses • usually on slightly raised ground • built by male • 4-5 pah

Shape brown eggs, blotched with black, 1.85 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
^ Migration
Migratory Weight
7A ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

ZZ4 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
CHARADRIIDAE Species
piuvialis squatarola Length 1.5-13 inches Wingspan ?7_?5
] inches

Black-bellied Plover
The largest of the North American plovers, this white snipe
ryes extends
stocky bird has a cautious nature and tends to
,

sides of neck
travel in flocks, which helped it survive
during a period when many plovers were
destroyed by market hunters. This is
the grayest of all the New World
plovers in both breeding and gray-spotted
winter plumages. In flight it black upperparts
shows a bold white wing
stripe, white uppertail
coverts, and black
axillars. Seen on

mudflats in winter, this

bird is distinguished by its

larger size, stout black bill,

and gray plumage. American

Golden-Ploykr
• SONG Long melancholy Winter adults unci
triple-note whistle, tlee-oo-eee juveniles are smaller;
or pee-oo-ee, with second note long primary projection

lower-pitched. beyond tertials and tail;

dusk\ underwings and
• BEHAVIOR Feeds along axillars; in flight show
seacoasts on broad tidal sand, uniform upperparts with
indistinct, narrow
mudflats, or in salt marshes. Eats marine
w hitish wing stripe.
worms, insects, small mollusks, and crustaceans.
Pacific
• BREEDING Monogamous. Golden-Plover
• NESTING Incubation 26-27 days by both sexes. Young Winter adults and
juveniles are smaller;
precocial; leave nest soon after hatching. Tended by both sexes
smallei black bill; buff
for 14 days, then by male only. First flight at 23-35 days. cast toplumage; buff
1 brood per year. spots and bars on
underparts.
• POPULATION Uncommon to common migrant on both
coasts and in Great Lakes; uncommon to rare elsewhere in interior.
On tundra breeding grounds
Flight Pattern cycles between uncommon,
common, and rare. Difficult to
detect population trends.
• Conservation Stopover
staging areas for foraging
Strong direct flight with rapid wing beat* migrants important to
population stability.

Nest Identification
Tundra muss • lined with dried grasses, moss, and lichens • on dry ground with
good visibility • male begins scrape; lined by female • 3-5 gray, green, whitish,
Shape or blown c-gs spotted and scrawled with dark brown and black. 2 inches long.

Plumage Scxcs similar Habitat

^ te _ Migration
Mj gratory Weight
y g Qunces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NOR'FI I AMKRK : A • 225

Family
CHARADRIIDAE Species
piuviaiis apricaria
Len ^th 1 1 inches
Wingspan
u jnches

European Goldbn-Plovhr
Named for its golden color, this medium- blackish crown
sized bulky plover is the southernmost with small bright
gold spotting
nestcr and shortest-distance migrant of any
vhite band on
bird in its genus. In North America it is an
forehead runs across
irregular spring visitor to Newfoundland supercilium and down
when in migration it overshoots southern sidesof neck and
Greenland, where it breeds. It is larger blackish along flanks

and plumper than the American upperparts with

Golden-Plover, with a shorter bill and small bright
gold spotting
extensive w hite on the sides of the
neck that almost meets on the breast
and extends along the sides and
flanks to the undertail coverts. In
extends
flight the whitish stripe
as a baron the base of the upper
primaries and the
underwings are w hite.
Males and

American
females are Golden-Plover
similar but some females have Gray underwings and
axillaris; white on sides
w hite-tipped feathers on the blackish of neck docs not extend
face. Winter adults show dull golden brown onto sides; completely
upperparts and underparts and a white belly. black iinderparrs.

• SONG Melancholy drawn-out whistle, tooee. Pacific

Golden-Plover
• BEHAVIOR Shy and alert. Wary. Will leave nest long before
Smaller; more brightly
approached and around closely or watch from a distance
fly colored; gray
calling anxiously. Eats mainly earthworms but also consumes underwings and
axillaries; sides framed
wide range of invertebrates, including mollusks, slugs, snails,
with white; black-
insects, and their larvae; eats some vegetable matter. barred flanks and
• BREEDING Monogamous. Performs high circling display. undertail.

• NESTING Incubation 28-3 days by 1 both sexes. Young

precocial; leave nest day of
Flight Pattern
hatching. Tended by both
sexes. First flight at 25-33 days.
1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Casual
straggler to Newfoundland in

Swift direct flight with rapid wing beats.

Uncommon to fairly
spring.
common on breeding grounds.

Nest Identification
Lined with stems, leaves, and lichens • on raised
• 4 yellowish eggs with thick blotches; pyriform, t
Shape

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
^ ^ M Migration
Migratory Weight
y 5

DATE TIME LOCATION

226 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length _ n jnches Wingspan
CHARADRIIDAE p/uvja/js dominica 1() 18_ 22 .5 inches

American Golden-Plover
This expert long-distance migrant flies

at a rate of sixty miles per hour and

short thin
covers thousands of miles per year
black bill
between Arctic tundra nesting
broad white stripe over
grounds and winter quarters as
dark brown eyes andforehead extends
far away as Argentina. Once upperparts dappled dozen sides of neck
an abundant bird, the profusely with
golden spots black face
American Golden-Plover and foreneck
'

was almost eradicted by

market hunters during
the late 1800s.
Winter adults and

black breast

Winter
Pi i \ia<;i
juveniles are brown
overall with darker black underparts,
including undertail Similar Birds
upperparts than
underparts and lack the
distinctive black-and-white
markings. In flight in
plumages the uppertail coverts
and back are the same color, the
all
coverts

V Pacific Golden-
Pl< >ver
Longer tertials;
shorter primary
projection • juveniles
and winter birds
appear golden yellow
underwings are gray throughout, overall with spangling

and there is an indistinct pale wing and spotting on

upperparts; less
stripe. Primaries of standing birds extend well past the tail.
contrasting crown.
• SONG Shrieking ku-wheep or quee-dle. Moi ntain Plover
• BEHAVIOR Often flies in small swiftly Holds moving flocks. Plainer overall

wings above back after alighting; often bobs head. Feeds on without markings on
low cr breast or belly;
insects (mostly grasshoppers, crickets, and larvae), small
pale legs.
mollusks, and crustaceans. On tundra often gorges on crowberry
Bl \( ;k-bellied
in preparation for autumn migration. Plover
• BREEDING Monogamous.
J
In winter plumage
has black axillaries;
• NESTING Incubation 26-27 days by both sexes in turn; male white rump.
by day, female at night. Precocial young abandon nest soon after
hatching. Tended by both sexes. First flight at 21-24 days.
1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern • Population Uncommon.
May be limited because of
habitat loss on SouthAmerican
winter range; perhaps never
fully recovered from 19th-
Swift strong direct flight on steady rapid
wins beats. Flies in tight flocks that
century market hunting.
constantly change shape.

Nest Identification
Lined with lichens, moss, grass, and leaves • on ground in tundra • built by male
• 3—4 cinnamon to light buff or cream eggs marked w ith black and brown spots
Shape and blotches, 1.9 inches long.

Plumage Sexes simi ar |

Habitat _ Migration
Migratory
Weight
5 |

DATE TIME UOGATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 227

Family Species Length Wingspan 18inchcs

CHARADRIIDAE piuvialisfulva 9>75 nches
i

Pacific Golden-Plover white line extends from

The smallest of the Golden-Plovers forehead over eye and
behind far; along side of
is most be seen in the
likely to
and flanks: and v L
neck, sides,
Pacific ("oast states ofNorth onto undertad coverts
America in winter. It breeds on
the coast and river valleys of
northwestern Alaska and bright golden
spangling and spotting
winters in southern Asia
on upperparts
and on many Pacific-
islands, including the
I lawaiian Islands - a Mali
feat requiring pinpoint
navigational skills. If

grassland or coastal roosting

sites are unavailable, these
plovers may roost on flat roofs

of buildings. In winter plumage

bird has mottled tawny-buff
and brown upperparts, and
whitish buff underparts
with spots and bars.
• SONG Repeated,
plaintive teee-chewee;
also loud chu-wheet.
dusky-black
• Behavior postocular Similar Birds
Eats variety of stripe and
invertebrates, rear edge of American
ear coverts Golden-Plover
seeds, and berries.
In winter dark streaking
Feeds in small and tipping on breast
face, chin Jf

flocks, often feathers is broader and

throat, and
forms mottled or barred
associating with upper neck
more extensive pattern; duller in color;
other shorebirds. white with tin\
white leathering on primaries extend well
black flecking
Makes short runs sides, flanks, and beyond tail when
and stops and quickly stabs undertad coverts standing; shorter bill

and legs • in breeding

at ground during feeding.
plumage white stripe
• BREEDING Monogamous. stops on side of neck;
black undertail coverts.
• NESTING Incubation 25 days by both sexes. Precocial young
abandon nest shortly after hatching. Tended by both sexes but
find own food. First flight at
26-28 days.
Flight Patter
• Population Uncommon
to casual along Pacific Coast in
winter. Common to fairly
common on breeding grounds
Swift direct flight with rapid stc in western Alaska and Siberia
wing beats.

Nest Identification
Lined with lichens, moss, grass, and dead leaves • built by male • 4 whitish to
cinnamon-buff, creamy buff, greenish buff, or ivory-yellow eggs heavily
buff,
Shape marked with dark black or brown; ovate pyriform, 1.9 inches long.

Plumage Migration Weight

g exes djffer Migratory 5 4 Qunces

DATE TIME LOCATION

228 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length
6 _ 7 inches Wingspan
CHARADRIIDAE Charadrius alexandrinus 13 5 inches
.

Snowy Plover
The smallest and whitest of the
North American plovers inhabits
barren sandy beaches. Unlike
all other "ringed" plovers
inNorth America, breast
band is never complete.
Females and juveniles
resemble males
except for

l- I.M \I

their smaller
lighter breast
bands. Adults have a
blackish forehead with a dark
patch behind the eye. less

• SONG Soft krut and a mellow Juvenile

kuwheet or pee-e-et.

• BEHAVIOR Feeds like Sanderlings, Similar Birds

chasing waves in and out to glean small
Piping Plover
crustaceans and soft invertebrates from the wet
Breeding plumage has
sand. Inland foraging birds add small insects to their f complete breast band,
diets. Gathers in flocks in nonbreeding season. Tends to yellow bill with black

run away rapidly when approached on open flats. tip; yellow legs and
feet; no dark ear patch
• BREEDING Monogamous; some individuals polygamous. •in winter has dark
• NESTING Incubation 24-32 days by both sexes. Young fed
by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year.
X t

bill, but larger; legs and

feet dark but not black;

lacks dark car patch.
• POPULATION Rare. Declining in some areas, especially
Gulf Coast and parts of Pacific Coast.
• Conservation Human
Flight Pattern disturbance on beaches often
causes failed nesting attempts.
Considered threatened in parts
of range. Declining populations
have prompted management by
Direct flight with swift. d wing ben state and federal agencies.

Nest Identification Lined with bits of shell, grass, and pebbles by female • marked with twigs and
debris • built by male • very often on edge of Least Tern colonies, whose eggs
look remarkably similar • 2-3 pale, buff eggs dotted, spotted, and scrawled with
Shape
black or gray; conical to elliptical, 1.2 inches long.

Plumage Sexes diffcr Habitat ^_ Migration

Some m i grare
Weight
1.4 ounces

DATE TIME. LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 229

Family Species Len 6 th 7-8 inches Wingspan 4 _, 6 )nehc

CHARADRIIDAE Charadrius wilsonia ,

Wilson's Plover
Like other plovers, if a human intrudes upon its nest, tin
female will dash around, pretending to scrape various
may have cinnamon-
nests, to distract the trespasser. Both sexes perform
buff ear patch in
the "crippled bird" act to lure predators a\va\ breeding, season

from the nest. This coastal species Hies

presented with danger dark sandy
effortlessly, vet if
brown crown
on land it usually runs down the
dark sandy
beach instead of flying. The brown nape and
duller-colored female is similar upperparts
to the male but has a brown
neck band, forecrown, and
lores. Juveniles resemble
females, but have
scalier upperparts.

• SONG Abrasive whistle,

wheet or whip.
• Behavior Feeds on
s fa 1 1
1
'. \i a i y ii)
i

small crustaceans, marine

Plo\ er
worms, insects, sma Smaller; shorter, stubby
mollusks, and aquatic bill; orange legs; shorter,
narrower eve stripe;
larvae.Lives primarily
narrow er breast band.
on beaches, shores, and
KILLDEER
mudflats and nests above
Larger; red eye ring;
high-tide line. Often found near river mouths and inlets. slender black bill;

• BREEDING Monogamous. Scrape making is part of males 2 black bands across

chest; gray-brow n
courtship performance. He scrapes a hollow and invites female
upperparts; bright
to join him. rufous-orange rump and
• NESTING Incubation 23-25 days by both sexes. Young leave uppertail coverts; long
rounded tail u ith black
nest soon after hatching. First flight at 21 days. Young feed
subterminal band.
themselves, but tended by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Fairly common to uncommon. Declining
because of habitat loss and
Flight Pattern increased human disturbances
during nesting season.
• Conservation Some
efforts are being made to
restrict public access to beach
Sw ift direct flight with rapid w
beats. Flocks fly in circles low nesting areas.
beach and water.

Nest Identification
Sparse lining of pebbles, shell pieces, grass ind debris •on ground • male
makes sev eral scrapes; female chooses one 2-3 buff eggs blotched with brown
Shape and black, 1.4 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
^ Migration
M gratory
j
Wei S nt 1 .9 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 '

230 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA

Family Species Len §th Wingspan 15 inches
CHARADRIIDAE Charadrius hiaticula 7.5 inches

Common Ringed Plover

Small, bulky, and sporting a single band across its well-defined white
breast, the Common Ringed Plover is almost superciliary stt ipt

indistinguishable from the Semipalmated

Plover. Morphologically, there is no easy

way two species'unless

to distinguish the
you have them in hand (this species
has little or no webbing
between the toes),
but they have
very different
• orange-
yellow bill
with black tip

single da rk
breast band
voices. Female is

similar tomale but has

brownish ear coverts and a vhite underparts
blackish brown breast band
year-round. In North America
the Common Ringed Plover
orange-yellow legs and feet
is normally found only in the

extreme northeastern Arctic.

In the fall these birds return
Similar Birds
viaGreenland to the Old
World to winter in Africa. Semipalmated
Plover
• SONG A soft fluted disyllabic Shorter bill; webbing
tu-lee or too-ie. between toes; thinner
breast band; smaller
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Frequents coastal mudflats and
auricular patch; shorter
sandy, pebbly seashores. Eats worms, aquatic insects, superciliary line.
crustaceans, and mollusks. Normally wary and alert but
Little Ringed
sometimes allows fairly close approach. Performs vigorous Plover
distraction display with "crippled bird" act to lead intruders Smaller; lacks clear
wing bar; thick bright
away from nest. In winter may occur inland on lakesbores and
yellow eye ring; dull
river banks, or in cultivated fields and meadows pink legs; narrower
• BREEDING Monogamous. Gregarious. breast band.

• NESTING Incubation 23-25 days by both sexes. Precocial

Flight Pattern
hatching. Tended by both
sexes. First flight at 24 days.
1-2 broods per year.
-\ • POPULATION Breeds in
eastern Arctic. Casual to rare
spring migrant on western
Direct flight with rapid wing beats.
Alaskan islands.

Nest Identification
Depression in beach sand • lined with bits of shells and driftwood, small
pebbles, and rabbit droppings • above high-water mark on seashore • 3—4 buff
Shape Location eggs lightly spotted with brown or black, elliptical, 1.3 inches long.

Plumage Migration Weight

Sexes simi j ar MigratorY j _ () Qunc

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMKRICA • 231

Family Species Len ^th 7 inches Wingspan i4_i s

CHARADRIIDAE Charadrius semipalmatus 35 nchcs ;

Semipalmated Plover short white

Migrating throughout the continent, flocks of these wpercilium (may be
plovers often assemble near the water at sundown reduced or absent
heads tucked into their
to roost with their when breeding)
feathers. This small shorebird migrates by day or
night, and some are killed during night migration
when they strike lighthouses. Note the short
black-tipped orange bill, single breast
band, yellow-orange legs, and
upperparts the color of wet sand.
In winter the bill is entirely black,
and the breast band turns gray-
brown. In flight this plover
shows a white wing
stripe and white

Piping Plover
outer tail corners. Pale silvery sandy
upperparts; stubbier bill;
Juveniles are similar to
whitish lores; broader
the winter adult but white wing stripe; more
w ith darker, duller contrasting distal band

colored legs. on tail.

• SONG Clear whistled partial webbing

bePween toes
Wilson's Plover
Larger; larger black bill;
chee-wee, chur-wee, c/iu-weet,
(visible only at single broad black or
or tyoo-eep. very close range) gray-brown breast band;
• BEHAVIOR Runs on sand fleshy pink legs and feet.

with head erect, then suddenly Common

probes ground. Along seashore eats small Ringkd Plover
Larger; visible webbing
mollusks, marine worms, small crustaceans, and eggs of marine
between outer and
animals. In migration often feeds in mixed flocks with other middle toes but not
shorebirds, usually in wet sand or mud near water's edge. betw ecu inner and
middle toes; broader
• BREEDING Monogamous. Loosely colonial. breast band; longer white
• NESTING Incubation 23-25 days by both sexes. Precocial superciliary stripe;
different call.
young leave nest soon after hatching. First flight at 23-31 days.
Young feed themselves but tended by both sexes. Has 1 brood
per year.

Flight Pattern
• Population Common in

migration and on breeding

grounds. Numbers seriously
depleted by unrestricted
shooting in late 19th century
Strong direct flight with ipid wing
but has recovered well.
beats. Sometimes flies ir small fast-
wheeling flocks.

Nest Identification
Lined with shell fragments or grasses • on ground • built by male
• 3—1 olive-buff to olive-brown eggs marked with dark brown or black;
Shape pyriform, 1.3 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
^ Migration
Migratory Weight
j 7

DATE TIME LOCATION

232 • BIRDS OP^ NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len Stn Wingspan 14,15
CHARADRIIDAE charadrius melodus 7.25 inches I
5 inche

Piping Plover
This plover is difficult to spot until it moves, as its
plumage blends in with the dry summer sand
along the Atlantic Coast and south shores of the
Great Lakes region. Endemic to central and
white forehead
eastern North America, and once common and /ores
on beaches, this bird is now endangered sandy buff
because of human activ ity and overall

disturbance during nesting season.

Note the dry sand color of the
upperparts, the yellow legs, and
in flight the white wing stripe
and white rump with
contrasting black tail narrow blackish
tip.Winter plumaged £ breast band (may
be incomplete in
birds have a t*******
females and East
blackish orange m0ZZ- Coast birds)
bill, darker duller
lute
orange legs, and
underparts
the sandy breast yellow-orange
legs, a iid feet
band may be broken.
Juveniles are similar to
winter adults. V
• SONG Clear peep-lo.
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious in post-breeding seasons, but Winter
territorial when nesting. Sprints, then stops to inspect sand with Plumage
head cocked to one side; picks food off ground. Eats fly larvae,
Similar Birds
and marine worms. Often feeds higher on
beetles, crustaceans,
the beach (where upperparts more closely match sand) than Semipalmated
Plover
other small plovers. In migration feeds in mixed flocks with
Dark-brown upperparts
other shorebirds. the color of w et sand;

• BREEDING Monogamous. Loosely colonial. Territorial dark rump in flight.

during breeding season. Snowy Plover

Smaller; long dark legs;
• NESTING Incubation 26-28 days by both sexes. Precocial
slim dark bill; lateral
young
per year.
stay in nest 20-35 days. Fed by both sexes. Has 1 brood ^ dark breast patches;
lacks w hite rump pateh
in Hi sfh t.
•, POPULATION Uncommon and declining in many
to rare
parts of range, especially in Midwest and Great Lakes. Uncommon
migrant inland.
Flight Pattern • Conservation
Endangered; almost eliminated
as a breeder in Great Lakes
region due to human activity on
beaches. Irregular pattern of
W ild direct flight w ith tw i ind tt

and rapid steady wing bea )ften water release from dams affects
small tlocks. nesting on interior rivers.

Nest Identification Lined w ith broken shells, small stones, or driftwood • on sandy shore of lake
or ocean well above high-water mark • built by both sexes • 3^ pale buff
eggs blotched with black and dark brown; short oval to short pyriform.
Shape Location
1.2 inches long.

P'^age Sexes similar Habitat^ _

Migration
M gratory
j
Weight , u ounces

DATE IME LOCATION

 BIRDS OK NORTH AMERICA • 233

Length Wingspan 9 _ 21 inchcs

Family
ChARADRIIDAE fP&stesCharadrius vociferus 9_ 10 5 inchcs ,

KILLDEER
Named for its distinctive call, this bird is the
largest of the ringed ploversand the only double
banded plover within its range. Perhaps the
T
most familiar shorebird in North
America, in summer it is gray-brown
long rounded tail with,
found across almost the upperparts
black subterminal
entire continent south baud and white tip •
of the tundra. In
flight note the long
pointed wings with
long white stripe and
the rufous-gold rump
and long tail with
subterminal black tail
bright rufous-
band. Juveniles are orange rump and
similar inappearance but uppertail coverts

have only one black band white underparts •

with 2 black
across the chest.
bands a doss dust
• SONG Loud cry, kill-dee
or kill-deear or kill-deeah-dee-
dee. And ascending dee-ee.
-• creamy pink
legs and feet
Also long trilled trrrrrrrr
during display or when
young are threatened.
• BEHAVIOR Alternately runs,
then stands still as though to look or
Similar Birds
listen, then dabs suddenly with bill at
ground. More than 98 percent of food consists of insects from semipalmated
Plover
riverbanks, golf courses, fields, and even lawns. Runs well.
.Smaller: single breast
Leads intruders away from nest and young with "broken wing" band; rump and tail

act, rapid calls, one or both wings dragging, tail spread, and same color as back;

often limping or listing to one side. Once lured far enough from yellow-orange legs.

the nest/young, the "crippled" bird suddenly "heals" and flies Wilson's Plover
away, calling Smaller; single breast
all the while.
band; brown back,
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. Often returns to rump, and tail; large

same mate and breeding site. black bill.

• NESTING Incubation 24-28 days by both sexes. Young leave

nest soon after hatching and
feed themselves, but tended by
Flight Pattern
parents. First flight at 25 days.
2 broods per year.
• Population Abundant to
common in the northernmost
Flics m wavering erratic manner on regions of the range,
territory. Capable of direct swift flight.

Nest Identification
Unlined or lined with pebbles, grass, and twigs • on ground with good visibility
• built b\ male • 3—5 butt eggs with black and brown blotches; oval to pyriform,
Shape '1* typically quite pointed; 1.4 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat —^ ^ Migration
Migra Weight
3 2

DATE TIME LOCATION

234 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
GHARADRIIDAK Charadrius montanus 9inches 17i5 _ l9>5inchcs

Mountain Plover
This fast-running pale brown plover is one of few shorebirds
that lives in dry regions away from water. Its sand-colored
back and buffy white tinderparts and breast help k frontal
vn bar
distinguish this large plover and also blend it perfectly
black forecrown lias white
into the arid grasslands it home. In flight note
calls forehead stripe over eyes
the black-tipped tail, thin white wing stripe, and
the white undersides of the wings. In winter black lores
the sandy buff breast is more extensive.
• SONG Variable. Slightly rasping dry
krehrr, a clipped dry kep, and a slightly
blackish or
reedy krrip or krreek. brownish bill

• BEHAVIOR Eats grasshoppers,

beetles, flies, crickets, and other
insects. Protective of its eggs. sandy buff
Will fly up into the face of breast

cattle or other intruder

them
or try to lure
away with the
crippled-bird

fairly long pale

brownish yellow legs

black tail band «f

with white bordei

Similar Birds

display. Forms small flocks on the American Golden

Plover
wintering grounds. Winter adult and
• BREEDING Mostly monogamous; juvenile • slightly
larger; darker legs;
some polygamous.
darker gray plumage
• NESTING Incubation 28-31 days by both sexes. After laying conspicuously spotted
first set of eggs, which are incubated by male, female lays and and notched on
upperparts; dull
incubates second set. First flight at 33-34 days. Precocial young
brownish gray
feed themselves, tended by both sexes. 2 broods per year. underwings and
• POPULATION Uncommon to casual. auxiliaries; lacks black
and white on tail.
• CONSERVATION Has disappeared from much of former
breeding range due to the land's conversion to farmland and range
land for cattle that often
Flight Pattern overgraze it. Decline also linked
to decline of prairie dog
population, because plovers use
the mounds around the
Short flights on breeding grounds with few
entrances to old prairie dog
rapid wing flutters between short glides.
Direct flight with rapid steady wing beats
burrows for nests.
tor longer distances or in migration.

Nest Identification Scant lining of rootlets and dried grass, often added during incubation • flat

open ground between hummocks, occasionally amid cacti or scattered shrubs

• built by male • 2-4 olive-buff eggs, with many black marks and wreathed;
Shape
blunt pyriform. 1.5 inches long.

Plumage c;
simnlar Habitat
Jt Migration
Mj gratory Weight
3 6 ounces
e:xes

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NOR TH AMERICA • 235

Family Species Len Sth 16-1 Wingspan 30.34

HAEMATOPODIDAE Uaematopus ostralegus 7 inches inches

Eurasian Oystergatgher
Though very widespread and migratory in the
black head
Old World, the Eurasian Oystercatcher has
only been found once in North America.
Also known also as the European
Oystercatcher, this large thickset bird
black
identified by its long straight bright upperparts
red-orange bill; pink legs;
contrasting coloration of a
black head, breast, and
upperparts and white
underparts; and
pinkish eyes. In
flight it shows
white uppertail
coverts, rump, and
lower back; and a
long, broad white
wing stripe
extending into
the primaries.
• SONG Calls include a
loud high sharp kee-pit, kee-pit and
a soft weep. When disturbed gives
sharp repetitive kip or pick.
• BEHAVIOR Pairs or small groups
Wary; often first to give alarm on
beaches. Generally found on the coast or
along large rivers when not breeding. Juvenile
Often wades in water 3^-1 inches deep
searching for mussels; also eats crabs and marine worms. Turns Similar Birds
over pebbles and stones to find food. During mating season has Amkrican
butterfly-like display flight with deep wing beats. A noisy Oystercatcher
piping display, in which birds run parallel with a downward- Brown upperparts;
yellow eyes; shorter
pointed bill, is heard all year. Adults will defend nest by flying
wing bar; narrow white
straight at an intruder. band on uppertail
• BREEDING Monogamous. S olitary. coverts.

• NESTING Incubation 24-27 days by both sexes. Precocial

young leave nest soon after
hatching; tended by both sexes
Flight Pattern
but feed themselves. First flight
at35-42 days. 1 brood per year.
• Population Accidental in
North America; 1 record in
Strong direct fli Newfoundland. Common in
wing beats.
Eurasian range.
1
Nest Identification
Open depression lined with pebbles, shells, or vegetation • built by both sexes
• on rocky or sandy spits, beaches, and islands • Z-A yellowish or grayish buff
Shape eggs with dark spots and streaks; oval to long oval, 2.2 x 1.5 inches.

Pluma §e
Sexes similar Habitat n» rs= Migration
jyj lgratory
Weight
u pounds
DATE TIME LOCATION
236 • BIRDS OF NOR TH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
HAEMATOPDIDAE Haematopus palliatus 18-20 inches 30_36 jnchcs

American Oystergatgher
Like all oystercatchers, this bird uses its three- to four-
inch, laterallycompressed, sharp chisel-tipped bill to pry
open shells for food, but it sometimes hammers
black head
and chips them open as well. The largest
<

oystercatcher is coastal in all

brownish back yellow eyes

seasons; only vagrants are
seen inland.
long red-
orange bill
dark brown
tail end *

black neck

white wing
kite underparts
pan lies

In flight it shows large

white patches on the wings
« pink legs
and base of the upper tail. and feet
Juveniles have a black-tipped
dark red bill, brown head and
II \ I Mi l

neck, and scaly brown underparts.

• SONG K/eep, wheep, or peep. Makes loud crik, crik, Similar Birds
crik when it takes flight.
Eurasian
• BEHAVIOR Wary; usually does not allow close approach. ovste rcatc h k r
Eats oysters, clams, and other bivalves; also small sea urchins, Longer white wing
patches; black
marine worms, and starfish. Usually solitary or in pairs or family
upperparts; white
groups; never in large flocks. Often feeds with other birds. back, rump, and tail;

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. black tail band;

• ju\ enile has w hite
• NESTING Incubation 24-29 days by both sexes. Precocial patch on foreneck.
young leave nest shortly after hatching. First flight at about
5 weeks. Tended by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Uncommon or rare resident in most of coastal
North America from southern California to Pacific Coast of
Mexico and from Gulf Coast of Mexico to Maryland. In summer
4 Black
(>YS1 ERCATCHER
Smaller; entirely
dark body; no white
on wings.

expanding breeding range in the Northeast to Cape Cod.

• Conservation Declined
Flight Pattern in late 19th century principally
because of overshooting;
however, protection by law
helped population recover and
species currently is expanding
Rapid strong swift direct flight. back into some of its former
range in the Northeast.

Nest Identification
Rimmed with shells • usually unlined • small hills of sand on dry flat beaches
• abov e high-water line • built by both sexes • 1— \ buff-gray eggs often with
Shape dark brown speckles; ovoid, 2.2 inches long.

Plumage §exes simj ar ,

Habitat
^ Migration
Most do not m grate
j
Weight
j 4 pouncis

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 237

Family Species Length Wingspan _ 27 nches

RECURVIROSTRIDAE fji^antopus mexicanus i4_i5.5 nc lcs
i |
?s ;

Black-necked Stilt
Extremely protective of its nest, this stilt will try
to attack an intruder or will splash water with its
breast as a distraction. This bird's reddish legs,
which are eight to ten inches long, may be the
longest, in proportion to its body among
size,

all birds. The female is duller and has

more brown on its back. In flight the lightly upenrved
needlelike black bill
black tipperparts and wings contrast
strongly with the white underparts, kite forehead

rump, and tail, and the long and cheeks

lees trail far behind. white sides of
long slender neck

white underparts

Similar Birds

American Avocet
Black-and-whire pattern
• SONG Loud kek-kek-kek or on back and wings;
white underparts and
yip-yip-yip, sometimes with upper back; long,
barking yelps. long pink ai-
slender upturned bill

• Behavior Actively
feeds by walking, often
rapidly, and picking up
red legs

T • rusty cinnamon head

and neck in breeding

plumage • grayish buff
head and neck in winter.
insects in shallow water along Black-winged S tilt
shores. Sometimes wades up Face entirely white;
to its belly. Prefers freshwater. base of hind neck and
shoulders white • male
Also eats small crustaceans, 4*» lias black crown and
worms, small fish, and some hind neck in breeding
seeds. Solitary, in pairs, or in plumage • female head
small flocks. and neck entirely white
• male like female in
• BREEDING Monogamous. winter • juveniles have
Loosely colonial. brown upperparts
• accidental on Aleutian
• Nesting incubation Islands.
22-25 days by both sexes; done
by female at night, by male during day. Precocial young leave nest
after hatching and feed
themselves, but are tended by
$0
Flight Pattern
both sexes. First flight at
4-5 weeks. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Fairly
common to uncommon. Casual
Stront i ft direct flight with somewhat north of breeding range. May
shalkr wing beats.
be increasing as range expands.

Nest Identification Lined with stems, weeds, sticks, grasses, fragments of shells, small rocks, fish
bones, and rubbish • on ground • sometimes hidden by grasses • built by both

sexes • 3-5 yellow or buff eggs heavily blotched with black or brown; pyriform,
Shape
1.7 inches long.

Pluma § e We 'g ht
Sexes similar Habitat
te _ _ Migration
Most m grate
i 5.9 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

238 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
ReCURVIROSTIDAE ReCurvirostra americana i8-?0 inches 27 _ 38 inches

American Avoget
The tallest in its family, this graceful long-legged bird is

the worlds only avocet with distinct basic and

alternate plumages. Winter (basic) plumage shows rusty cinnamon
a gray head and neck, while breeding adults head and neck
show rusty cinnamon on the head and
neck. Females are similar to males
but have a shorter and more black-and-white

upward-curved bill. In
flight both sexes show a
bold black-and-white
whitish scapulai
pattern on the
upperparts and
black wing tips,
primary
coverts, and
scapular bars.
• SONG Loud
wheet or pleeet.
• Behavior Eats
primarily insects, long blue-
gray legs
shrimp, and other
crustaceans but also takes
other aquatic invertebrates

>
Prefers to feed in flocks,
sometimes with more than 100 birds
walking shoulder to shoulder. Sometimes feeds in
water up to its belly with bill in water. In shallow water brings food
to surface by sweeping its open bill back and forth in the water. In deep
water may feed like a dabbling duck by tipping over. Winter
plumage
• BREEDING Monogamous. Loosely colonial. Pairs perform
elaborate courtship display and group rituals.
Similar Birds
• NESTING Incubation 22-29 days by both sexes. Precocial
young leave nest soon after hatching. Tended by both sexes but Black-necked Stilt
Slightly upcurved black
feed themselves. First flight at 28-35 days. 1 brood per year. bill; black upperparts;
• POPULATION The American Avocet is fairly common; white underparts; long
reddish lees and feet.
stable and possibly increasing west of the Great Plains;
uncommon and local in the East, where it is an uncommon transient
in summer and a coastal species

Flight Pattern in winter.

• Conservation
Protected by law and currently
making a comeback after
overhunting in the 19th and
Strong direct flight with neck extended
slightly forward and long legs trailing earlv 20th centuries.
behind tail.

Nest Identification
Lined with dry grasses and mud chips • on flat ground or marsh near water
• built by both sexes • 3—1 olive-buff eggs blotched with brown and black;
Shape pyriform to long pyriform, 2 inches long.

Plumage Sexes simi ar ,

Habitat
^ to
Migration
Migratory Weight
u i

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 239

Family Species Length 9 inchcs Win e s P an 7-18

JacANIDAE Jacana spinosa I
I l inches

Northern Jacana leaf-shaped

An extremely and aggressive bird, this
territorial \rllo-u- cattle

jacana prefers freshwater ponds and marshes with on forehead

heavy vegetation, a habitat for which it is well

suited as it has extremely long toes with long
nails to support it on the soft mud and
delicate aquatic vegetation. During courtship
display both sexes lift their wings and
flaunt the green-yellow wing patches ploverlike yellow,
bill with blue edgi
beneath them, revealing an unusual long
around base
yellowish spur at the bend of the wing.
The female jacana is similar to the male,
but larger. In flight the yellow flight
rit h i hestnut-maroon
feathers contrast with the dark brownish
upperpart:
body, and the long legs trail or dangle
behind. Juveniles have brown
upperparts and white underparts with
a black postocular stripe extending
along the side of the neck.
• SONG Noisy with loud shrills and a

clicking chatter that resembles an old-

fashioned telegraph or typewriter.
• BEHAVIOR Often walks over
floating aquatic vegetation. Swims
well. Dives to avoid enemies. Eats
insects and seeds picked from
vegetation in marsh or pond, or off wet
ground. Often raises wings over back to
reveal yellow flight feathers; also
momentarily raises wings upon landing.
• BREEDING Polyandrous. Female
may by 1^4 mates; each
lay eggs fertilized
male will incubate eggs alone and tend chicks.
• NESTING Incubation 22-24 days by male, which defends
offspring from intruders. Precocialyoung leave nest 1-2 days Similar Birds
after hatching; find own food but tended by male. First flight at None in North Americ:
35 days. Multiple broods per year.
• POPULATION Very common in proper habitat in Mexico
and Central America. Rare to
Flight Pattern casual and irregular visitor to
southern Arizona and southern
and central Texas.
• Conservation Some
declines in breeding ranges due
Weak fluttering mothlike flight, often low to habitat loss.
over vegetation.

Nest Identification
Cattail leaves and other green leaves and grasses • on small floating pile of
vegetation or leaves • built by male • 3-5 brown eggs with black lines; almost
Shape «_, Location £a. round, 1.2 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes Habitat d « igration
Nonmigratory We 'g nt 2.8

DATE TIME LOCATION

240 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length ,3 Wingspan _ 26 inches
SCOLOPACIDAE TrUmi >ll/arm
ll(,/ I
jnches I

2?)

Common Greenshank
This shy pigeon-sized bird is the largest
whitish crown and
of the Palearctic shanks. Vagrants have hindneck with
wandered to St. Lawrence Island, brown streaking
the Pribilof and Aleutian
pale brownish gray
Islands, and to northeastern upperpa its st allopt d
Canada. It is most often with white brown streaks on

seen feeding alone. sides of head

gray-brown i'

In flight note the co verts with

uniformly gray whitish frinM

upperwings, white
extending up the
back, white rump,
long slightly
barred white tail,
up tn rued bill

• streaking and
spotting mi neck
and sides
white tail with
dark brown
barring
white
and greenish legs and nn da parts
feet extending beyond
the tail.

• SONG Bold melodic whistle • long olive-green

of ti-^-tew-tew similar to that of or yellowish legs

Greater Yellowlegs. When

breeding makes musical too-hoo,
too-hoo.
• BEHAVIOR Wary. Distinctive
large wader with nervous character Similar Birds
and strident calls. Feeds by running
Greai er
into shallow water or sometimes by Yellowlegs
wading belly-deep. Eats small fish, insects, and larvae. Darker with more gray

• BREEDING Monogamous. Small colonies. Male displays I brown plumage; more

heavily barred white
with high switchback flight. tail; dark back; brightei
• NESTING Incubation 24 days by both sexes. Precocial young yellow legs.

leave nest soon after hatching; feed themselves but tended by

one or both sexes, although
1 parent usually leaves shortly
Flight Pattern
after hatching. First flight at
25-31 days. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Casual in
Newfoundland and on St.
Swift direct flight with clipped Lawrence Island. Rare in
wing beats.
Aleutians and Pribilofs.

Nest Identification
Lined with moss • on ground close to fallen log, stump, or hummock • 4 pearl-

gray to buff eggs w ith reddish brown spots; pyriform, 2 inches long.
Shape

Plumage Sexes Habitat Migration

Mj sratory Weight
hA ounccs
sim J laf

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OK NORTH AM K RICA • 241

Family Species Length Wingspan 23 _

SCOLOPACIDAE jyinga melanoleuca , 4 inches 26 jnch(

Greater Yellowlegs ; :

The largest of the North American Tringa, this common

sandpiper is almost a third larger than the very similar
Lesser Yellowlegs. It is closely related to the Old
World "shanks," but from them by differs
having a squarish white rump patch and , , ,
|
'
t i
• i long slender
a dark back. Its large size and long
| i i

m^
bright yellow legs distinguish dark gray-brown
this gray shorebird from back with white
most others. Paler winter speck/,

plumage shows fainter long slightly

streaking, spotting, upturned hill

and barring on the

white underparts speckled

* and barred brown

white lad
Similar Birds

Lesser Yellowlegs
Smaller; shorter thinner
straight black bill; calls
neck, breast, sides, tew or tea- -tea!'.

and flanks. In flight

Wili.lt
the dark wings and Larger and stockier;
mantle contrast with straight dark bill; lacks

the white rump and tail. white spotting on

upperparts; grayish legs;
• SONG Loud repeated striking black-and-white
descending teu-teu-teu in series wing pattern in flight.

of 3 or more. Also territorial song of too-whee. ( :< )\i\k >n

• BEHAVIOR Occurs either alone or

Wary; in small flocks. Greenshank
Slightly smaller; more
known for its warns other
loud whistled alarm call that
distinctly upturned hill;

shorebirds of approaching danger. Feeds by pecking or less heavily streaked,

skimming water with its bill, not by probing. Sometimes dashes barred, and spotted;
greenish legs and feet;
in pursuit of small fish. Also eats insects and their larvae, crabs,
rump and lower
in flight
and snails. back show as large
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. white wedge.

• NESTING Incubation 23 days by both sexes. Precocial young

leave nest soon after hatching
and find own food but tended
Flight Pattern
by both sexes. First flight at
18-20 days. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Fairly
common even in migration.
Swift direct flight, sometimes at great
heights, with long legs extended
May be increasing.
beyond tail.

Nest Identification
small hummock usually near water • lined with grass and leaves
• ,i-4 buff eggs blotched w ith gra\ nd dark brown; ovate pyriform.
Shape 1 .9 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat _ Migration \|j<r .,
r
Weight
6o

DATE TIME LOCATION

242 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan 19_
SCOLOPACIDAE Tnnga fh(IVlpl l0>5 inches 22 inches

Lesser Yellowlegs
Often seen walking gracefully on mudflats or shores, this
sandpiper is tame and approachable. It is best distinguished
from the Greater Yellowlegs by its smaller size and its bill,

which is completely straight and only one-third the heavy brown

length of its cousin's bill, as well as by its different streaks on head
and neck
voice. Winter plumage is grayer and paler overall
with little or no streaking. In flight the
dark wings and back contrast
sharply
h ;
with the white ,
blackish grayish
,
long straight
tail and rump. scapulars and mantle thin bill
with white spots

blackish grayish
tertials with
white spots

Similar Birds
• SONG Harsh
short tew-tew or tew. Greater
Yellowlegs
Alarm call is sharp kip.
Larger; longer, often
Also makes musical pill-e-w slightly upturned bill;

more heavily barred

• BEHAVIOR Gregarious;
breast and flanks;
occurs in flocks, sometimes makes descending
large, inwinter and migration. whistled series of 3 or
Slowly picks food from surface more, teu-teu-teu.

of water. Feeds with a delicate Solitary Sandpiper

high-stepping gait. Eats insects, Slightly smaller; darker
brown upperparts;
small crustaceans, bloodworms,
heavier brownish
and small fish. streaking on neck and

• BREEDING Monogamous. breast; white eye ring;

dull greenish yellow
Loosely colonial. Noisy on nesti ng grounds. legs; dark rump; in
• Nesting incubation 22-23 days by both sexes. Precocial flight shows barred dark
dged with white.
young leave nest soon after hate hing and feed themselves, but
are,tended by both sexes for 18- -20 days. 1 brood per year.
• Population Common on
Flight Pattern breeding grounds. In migration,
common in the East and the
Midwest; uncommon in the far
West. Fairly common in winter
in Baja and on the Gulf Coast.
Stable or slightly increasing.
Swift direct flight with rapid wing beats

Nest Identification In grass marshes and bogs surrounded by black spruce trees • on raised pile of
leaves or vegetation near water • lined with small amount of grass and leaves
• built by female • 3-4 buff to yellow or gray eggs with brown blotches; ovate
Shape
pyriform, 1.7 x 1.2 inches.

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat

^ te _ Migration
Migra Wei § nt 2.9 oui

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMKRICA • 243

Fam,| V Species Length Wingspan

SCOLOPACIDAE Trifiga totanus , j inches 2 2 inches

Common Redshank
This native of Eurasia sometimes v isits gray and black
streaking on head,
Newfoundland. It is wary in the nonbreeding
nape, and baric
season, often hiding in tall grasses, and is quick
to utter a noisy alarm call. In flight, it shows
» whitish eye ring
a distinguishing black-and-white-barred
md supercilium
white rump, and trailing broad
tail,

white edges to its primaries and brown

secondaries. In migration and upperparts •
short reddish
winter, its usual haunts are
bill with black tip
shores, mudflats, and dark brown
estuaries. Basic-plumaged
birds have fine brown
streaking on their
underparts limited
whitish underparts with light
brownish streaking and barring

to the neck and breast.

Juveniles resemble adults but Similar Birds
have heavily streaked brown on
Spotted Redshank
their heads, necks, and breasts;
upperparts are spotted and
flecked buffy white.
• SONG Usual call is a musical
down-slurred tleu-hu-hu. Has calls
> T In
black
breeding plumage
\\ ith white
spotting on upperparts;
longer thinner blackish
bill droops
has red-based lower
at tip and
is

mandible; grayish
of a high-pitched repeated yelping
mottling on secondaries;
twek-twek and an alarm call of ti-you. white rump and \\ lute
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in small flocks. Nervous. Bobs head. w in-; linings show in
flight; longer dark red
Noisy.Sometimes feeds with other shorebirds. Walks on shore legs • basic plumage
and wades in shallow water to pick up food. Eats small fish, has paler gray-brow n
mollusks, small crustaceans, and insects. Perches on low objects upperparts; white
underparts with fine
Frequents mudflats, marshes, and grassy fields in summer.
streaking and barring on
• BREEDING Monogamous. Small colonies. Male displays face, neck, sides, and
with song flight in an undulating pattern with vibrating wings. breast; dusky eve line.

• NESTING Incubation 23-24 days by both sexes. Young

precocial; leave nest soon after
hatching; initially tended by
Flight Pattern
both sexes, later by male. First
flight at 25-35 days. Has
1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Accidental in
Swift direct flight with quick clipped North America; recorded from
wing beats.
Newfoundland.

Nest Identification
Lined with fine plant material • on ground in shallow hollow of grassy tussock
and hidden in vegetation • built by female • 4 buff eggs, marked with varying
Shape spots and blotches of black, brown, or purplish gray; pyriform, 1.78 x 1.24 inche

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexe§ simi , ar te Migratory 4 6 Qunces
_

DATE TIME LOCATION

244 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
SCOLOPADAE Species
Tringfl erytfiropus
Length
n 5 jnches Wingspan
2 3_?5 i nc h es

Spotted Redshank
This shy bird differs from other shorebirds in
its black coloring, scarlet-red legs, and red white
eye ring
mandible base. It is a native of Eurasia, but
stragglers occasionally have made their way
to the Aleutians and Pribilofs. In winter white-spotted long dark hill
upperpart. with slight
plumage changes from black to droop at tip
mostly white on the underparts
and gray on the upperparts,
and the base on its lower
mandible becomes
dull orange-red.
Molting birds
are blotched
black and white
beneath. In flight
the white wing
linings, rump, and
lower back contrast with J
Winter
the dark body, and the toes
Plumage
project toward the tail tip.
• SONG Sharp up-and-down
chy-weet and drawn-out tchwee.
Common Redshank
Alarm call is chip-chip.
Slightly smaller; shorter
• BEHAVIOR Feeds and forages neck; red bill with black
tip; brown upperparts;
by sweeping bill back and forth and
white underparts with
probing in mud. Also wades in water streaking on head, neck,
up to its belly. Eats adult and larval and upper breast; broad
insects, mollusks, small fish, and white trailing edge to
w ing in flight • casual
crayfish. Outside breeding season favors
to Newfoundland.
sheltered freshwater and brackish
Common
habitats but will also frequent quiet
Greenshank
muddy coastlines. Larger; long, slightly

• BREEDING Monogamous. upturned dark bill;

green legs; streaked
• NESTING Incubation 23-24 days by both sexes. Female blackish brown
often leaves nest before eggs hatch. Precocial young leave nest upperparts; white
underparts.
soon after hatching. Tended by male. First flight at 25-31 days.
1 brood per year.

• POPULATION Rare visitor

Flight Pattern to Aleutian and Pribilof Islands

during migration. Casual on
Atlantic and Pacific Coasts in
winter and during migration.
Accidental elsewhere. Ranges

Swift direct flight when flushed.

from uncommon to common in
native Eurasia.

Nest Identification
Lined with willc or dwarf birch leaves • built on mound • 4 greenish eggs with
large dark blackis brown splotches; pyriform, 1.9 inches long.
Shape

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat

1& te \*3 Migration
Migrator Weight
5 6

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 245

Family Species Len § th Wingspan 16 inch(

SCOLOPACIDAE Tringa glareola 8 inches

Wood Sandpiper
One of the most numerous and w idespread
Tringa sandpipers, this tall, lithe bird is also
champion long-distance flier. It is
white eye
a
stripe
fairly common spring vistor and
irregular breeder on the outer
Aleutian Islands and is rare to

white rump
patch

casual on other
Alaskan islands
to British
Columbia and in

the northeastern US
(New York). In flight it Solitary s \ndpiper
White spotting on
shows pale wing linings, a
upperparts; white eye
small white rump patch, and long ring; burred and spotted
yellowish legs extended beyond a heavily barred tail. underwing linings;
darker underwing; black
• SONG Loud piercing 3-note whistle rh iff-iff-iff. Song is
central tail feathers;
descending trill given on breeding grounds. heavily barred tail; lacks

• BEHAVIOR Feeds in scattered groups, picking food from w hite rump patch.

surface. Eats primarily insects but takes other invertebrates, Green Sandpiper
including worms and and
small crustaceans. A rather shy Darker; fainter-
patterned upperparts;
nervous wader. Bobs head and flicks tail. May perch on dead shorter supercilium;
branches. When flushed it typically zigzags high and gives clear darker undcrw ings;
loud calls. larger white rump patch;
less hea\ ily barred tail;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Loosely colonial. darker legs • accidental
• NESTING Incubation 22-23 days by both sexes. Precocial outside western Alaska.

young leave nest soon after hatching. Tended mostly by male.

First flight at about 28 days.
1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Rare to
casual in North America outside
outer Aleutians. Common on
Eurasian nesting grounds and
Fast twisting direct flight w ith clipped in migration.
w ing beats.

Nest Identification Abandoned nests • in small patch of moss • under dw arf birch or
hummock on dry ground, on open ground near water ii rn forested regii
and on tundra • lined with grass • built by female • 3—
Shape
white eggs marked with reddish brown, 1.5 inches lon£

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
^ , = Migration
Migratory We| g ht
5.6 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

246 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
SCOLOPACIDAE Species
Tringa solitaria Len §th 8-9 inches Wingspan 15 _
1? jnches

Solitary Sandpiper
As its name suggests, this sandpiper is often seen alone
or in small loose groups in its habitat of freshwater lakes,
ponds, marshes, and rivers. This shorebird is not wary
around humans and often exhibits an up-and-down
bobbing or jerking motion with its head and body similar dark brown
upperparts with dense
to a Spotted Sandpiper's bobbing. In flight the dark
whitish buff spotting
black rent rat

edging on tail

blackish brown hite underparts

streaks on lower
throat and breast

greenish ye/low legs

rump patch contrasts with the white outer tail feathers, which
have black bars. Also note the dark wings without a wing stripe,
dark underwings. Similar Birds
• SONG High shrill pit-peet-wheet or peet. Spotted Sandpiper
• BEHAVIOR Searches for food by stirring up water, especially Smaller; less upright
stance; teeters body;
in stagnant pools, with and feet. Picks food from surface or
bill
yellowish or creamy
probes with bill. Eats insects and insect larvae, small fish, small pink legs; pink bill with
crustaceans, and other invertebrates. Somewhat aggressive dark white
tip;

supercilium; white wing

toward other birds when feeding. Migrates singly or in small
stripe; shallow stiff wing
groups. Upon landing holds wings above back before folding. beats • spotted
• BREEDING Monogamous. underparts in summer.

• NESTING Incubation 23-24 days by female. Precocial young

leave nest soon after hatching
and are tended by female.
Flight Pattern
First flight at 17-20 days.
1 brood per year.
A V* V* V • Population Fairly
common on breeding grounds;
Often zigzags on takeoff; light buoyant fairly common and widespread
swallowlike direct flight.
in migration. Seems stable.

Nest Identification
Female strengthens abandoned nest with other material • most often in conifers,
—
A 10 feet above ground • 4-5 olive eggs marked with brown, usually in wreath
Shape shape; pyriform to oval, 1.5 x 1.1 inches.

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat

m ^ te — Migration
Migratory Weighty

DATE TIME. LOCATION

 BIRDS OK NORTH AM K RIGA • 247

Wingspan
Family
SCOLOPACIDAE Species
Catoptrophorus semipalmatus
Length
i3_i 6 inches 24_3 j mdlcs

WlLLET
This large gray sandpiper is named tor its song of pill-will-willet given
loudly and frequently on the breeding grounds. A rather nondescript
shorebird, the Willet may initially thwart your efforts at identification

as it sleeps standing on one leg withhead tucked in on its back

its

or probes in mud with its long gray-black bill. But the

moment it takes flight it is readily identified by variegated light
the mostly white tail, white rump, bold brownish gray to

black-and-white wing pattern, and

loud call of its name. In winter the
light upperparts lack the
variegated/barred pattern.
• SONG Alarm or scolding
call of kip or wiek. In flight
makes wee-wee-wee.
Well-known call of pill-
will-will, pill-o-will-o-
willet, or pill-will-willet.
• BEHAVIOR
Generalist. Wades,
probing for food with
bill. In water eats aquatic

insects, marine worms,

crabs, mollusks, and sma
fish. On land eats seeds, fresh
shoots, and rice. On breeding
grounds often perches high on rocks,
posts, shrubs, or other tall objects, from which it may scold
Similar Birds
intruders in its territory. Becomes noisy when alarmed. Mobs
will attack interlopers, especially at nesting time. Greater
Yellowlegs
• BREEDING Monogamous. Semicolonial. Nests are 200 or
Slimmer; graver;
more feet apart. thinner, more
• NESTING Incubation 22-29 days by both sexes (male at needlelike, often
slightly upturned bill;
night; female at other times). Precocial young leave nest soon yellow legs; in flight has
after hatching but tended by both sexes. Parents sometimes white rump and tail

abandon unhatched eggs after first young leaves nest even with distal tail bands;
no wing pattern.
though they have well-developed embryos. First flight at about
28 days. 1 brood per year.
• Population Common.
Flight Pattern Has recovered from hunting in
late 19th century and expanded

X^X , x^x into new or parts of ranges

where it had been extirpated.

Short low flight; series of rapid wing beats

• Conservation Habitat
alternates with glides. Over long distances disturbance is beginning to
direct flight with steady rapid wing beats. negatively affect population.

Nest Identification
Lined with dry grass • on sand away from shrubbery, tucked in cups of
vegetation or tall grasses • 4-5 grayish to olive-buff eggs blotched with brown;
Shape Location 2.1 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
^ te Migration
M ; gra tory Weight
7 6

DATE TIME LOCATION

248 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len Sth Wingspan
SCOLOPACIDAE \ rt jfjs nui , it Iaria 7.5 inches 13 _ 14inches

Spotted Sandpiper
Th e most widespread and best-known
sandpiper in North America is distinguishable
on the ground by the way it constantly
teeters its body as it stands with tail up
and head down. F emales are larger
than their male counterparts and
have more spotting. In flight it
shows a short white wing
stripe and the inner wing
has a narrow white

white superciliary
stripe
/lull yellow la
Winter
Plumage

short, straight bill

with pinkish to Similar Birds
orange bast and
Mat k up Solitary Sandpipkr
Similar on ground but
slightly larger and more
slender; darker greenish
legs; white eye ring;
barred tail with white
sides; greater eontrast
trailing edge. In white
between upperparts and
Spotted Sandpipers can deep wing beats.
belly;
be found as close as the
( :< )\i\io\ Sandpipkr
southern United States to Barred darker brown
large dark brown-black
as far away as southern upperparts provide
breast spots
South America. greater contrast with
white flanks and belly;
• SONG High shriekng/><?/?/-22^/. Chirps repeated meet in flight. duller gray ish or straw-
• BEHAVIOR In summer found almost anywhere near water. colored legs; dark bill

with pale base; longer

Feeds primarily on invertebrates, especially insects and their
tail extends well
larvae; sometimes takes small fish. When flushed its curious, beyond folded wings;
jerky flight and weet-weet notes are distinctive. streaked breast and
sides of head • juvenile
• BREEDING Monogamous but often sequentially
has tertials with strongly
polyandrous. Usually solitary nester; sometimes loosely colonial marked edges • rare in

Alaskan range.
• -NESTING Incubation 20-24 days mostly by male. F'emale
sometimes helps with final clutch of season. Young leave nest
soon after hatching. Young feed
themselves but tended solely
Flight Pattern
by male. First flight at
13-21 days. 1-2 broods per year.
• Population Widespread
and common but some decline
Direct flight low over water, wings
throughout range.
Happing in shallow arcs, producing
clipped, stiff beat on drooping wing

Nest Identification
Lined with moss, grass, feathers, and weeds sometimes elevated in grass •
<

builtby both sexes • 3-5 brownish, greenish, pinkish, or buff eggs blotched with
Shape brown; ovate to pyriform, 1.3 \ 0.9 inches.

Plumage
Sexcs SSSS ^ Jt Migration
M igratory
;
Weight j 4

DATE TIME UOGATION

 BIRDS OP NORTH AMKRICA • 249

Family Species Len 6th 12 inches Wingspan 7 _? () nchefj

SCOLOPACIDAE I
n (irtr(imia /()l^icaada , ;

Upland Sandpiper small dov

The distinctive silhouette of the Upland Sandpiper head <

is often seen perched on fences, utility poles, roc ks,

and stumps watching for intruders and predators in
the grasslands and prairies it inhabits in summer.
This large pale sandpiper has a long slender neck,
small dovelike head, large dark eyes, and long tail.
long slendei
In winter the Upland Sandpiper migrates long neck
thin short
distances to eastern South America. yellow-brown bill
SONG Trilling pu/ip pu/ip. dccurved
•
stiff-winged flight on breeding grounds,
In low circling
^Xd'^
upperparts
slightly
toward tip

emits wolflike whistle wheeloooooooo.

Usual flight call is piping quip-ip-ip-ip.
• BEHAVIOR Has ploverlike feeding buff neck and
breast with
patterns: runs, stops, then runs again. streaks. Inns,
Not a bird of shores and wetlands and chevrons
like most sandpipers, it frequents
hay fields, pastures, and
prairies and often • whitish belly
perches on poles. and nude /fad
coverts
Feeds on insects,
other invertebrates,
and seeds of weeds,
grasses, and grains.
Upon landing often vedge-shaped tail
holds wings above with white border
and thin black bars
body for 1-2 seconds
before folding them.
• BREEDING Monogamous.
Loose colonies. During courtship
flight spreads wings and circles high
Similar Birds
in sky, singing a melodious song that
can be heard up to a mile away. Bl -BREASTED
I I

Sandpiper
• NESTING Incubation 21-27 days. Young leave nest soon Smaller; black bill; short

after hatching. First flight at about 30-31 days. Young feed yellow leys; buff face
and underparts; wings
themselves but are tended and protected by both sexes.
project beyond tail.
1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Mostly recovered since large decline in late
1800s. Common in parts of the
Flight Pattern Great Plains; some decline has
been recorded in local
populations throughout much
of the East and the Northeast.

Swift direct flight when traveling some-

• Conservation Eastern
distance. In breeding display flies slowl' decline due to habitat loss and
with flickering wing beats. increased human disturbance.

Nest Identification
Lined with dry grass • built by both sexes • 4 creamy pale buff to pinkish buff
eggs speckled red-brown, pyriform, 1.8 inches long.
Shape

Plumage
Scxcs simHar Habitat
^ ^^ Migration
M ;
Weight
4 8 ounces
_

DATE TIME LOCATION

250 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
SCOLOPACIDAE Species
Numen us phaeopus
i
Length
17 _ J8 inch( Wingspan 31 _33
inches

Whimbrel
Easily identified by its large size, distinctive black-and-whiu
striped crown
head stripes, and decurved bill, this bird is
the most widespread of the curlews in
North America. During migration it makes
frequent stops at salt marshes, coastal
shores, and inland lakes and
can
rivers. In flight this bird gray back mottled
and edged with
easilybe distinguished from white and buff
long decurved
European and Asian races that blackishbrown bill
with palebrown or
occur on the East and West
creamy pink base
Coasts, respectively, by its
dark rump and underwings.

pale whitish to buff-

white nude/parts

• SONG Whistled
monotone of
5-7 notes bibibibibibib. Similar Birds
Also calls ker-lee-ou-ler-lee- Long-billed
<?//, frequently in flight. Curlew
Larger; longer, less
• Behavior Often coastal decurved bill;
nonbreeding seasons. Picks up cinnamon-buff cast
food with bill and probes more than overall; deep cinnamon
wing linings obvious in
other curlews. Eats insects and their
flight; lacks bold dark
larvae, worms, small mollusks, spiders, crustaceans, and wild head stripes.

berries. Often seen in tidal areas and mudflats, estuaries, grassy

farmlands, fields, and lake shores in migration.
• BREEDING
colonies.
Monogamous. Occasionally
Male has high circling song flight.
nests in loose 4 bristle- th1ghed
Curlew
Slightly thicker
more buff overall; in
flight shows bright
bill;

• NESTING Incubation 22-28 days by both sexes. Precocial cinnamon on rump and
tail • Alaskan range.
young leave nest soon after hatching. Young feed themselves
but tended by both sexes. First flight at 35-40 days. 1 brood

Flight Pattern
• POPUEATION Fairly
common on tundra in summer
and on coast in winter. 4A
• Conservation
Depleted in 19th century due
Direct flight with strong fast wing beats,
bill extended, and legs trailing behind, to hunting, but has somewhat
flics in V and straight line formation. recovered since then.

Nest Identification
Lined with lichen, moss, and grass • on ground on small pile of grass or moss
• built primarily by female • 3—5 olive to buff eggs blotched with shades of
Shape «^» Location mmm brown and lavender; rather pointed ovate pyriform, 2.3 x 1.6 inches.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
^ te Migration
M juratory Wei § ht 12.5 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 251

Species Length Wingspan

Family SCOLOPACIDAE ^ u iih ii ins tenutrostrti 15 _ 16 inche .
2 7_3i inches

Slender-billed Curlew
\ cry little is known about this nearly extinct bird,
w hich breeds in the taiga zone of Siberia. It was
recorded just once in Ontario in the 1920s;
there are no other recorded sightings of this
• light brown streaking
shorebird in North America. This is the on head
palest of the curlews. The tail is
I

barred brown. The uppertail and dark brown da ureal

bill with blackish
e mostly white with the
upper mandible

hitish breast streaked with

dark brown heart-shaped spots

whitish underparts
to tip of tail
primaries contrast sharply
w ith the paler flight feathers
of the inner wing. steel-blue to
slate-gray legs
Underwing linings and
auxiliaries are white. In
migration, these birds are
often found in damp
meadows along rivers.
• SONG Has distinctive Similar Birds
tremulous whistle call of cour-lee. Eurasian Curlew
Alarm call of ke-wee. Larger; buff-colored

• BEHAVIOR Feeding habits are not known. plumage; diffuse

streaking on breast and
• BREEDING Monogamous; small colonies. broad diffuse lore patch;
• NESTING Incubation 27-29 days by both sexes. no distinct supercilium.

Semiprecocial young leave nest soon after hatching, tended by

both parents. First flight at
32-38 days. 1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• POPULATION Accidental.
• Conservation
Considered to be near
extinction. Populations are
Direct flight with steady rapid wing beats. small and are believed to be
declining further.

Nest Identification
Lined with leaves or grasses • on mound or thicket in dry open area • 4 greenish
eggs with brownish markings; oval to short elliptical, 2.3 inches long.
Shape Location

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
te ^ Migration jyjj gratory Weight
109

DATE TIME LOCATION

252 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length
19 _? 4 inchcs Wingspan
SCOLOPACIDAE jVumenius arquata I
32 _4 () inchcs

Eurasian Curlew
Sometimes called the (Common Curlew, this
large shorebird is named for its far-carrying bu ff to whitish head
call of cour-loo. Widespread from Europe to streaked with brown
have made
Africa, vagrants that ,

their way
North America have
to
been spotted in New York and large decurved bill
Massachusetts. In flight its with black upper
mandible
pale brown upper back
and white lower
its

back, rump, and

underwings contrast with

dark wing tips and the
pale trailing edge of its

inner wings.
• S()NG Resounding cour-
loo or low-pitched waup.
Alarm call is tyuyuyuyu. In
winter sings long bubbly
trill and song that steadily
increases in pitch and speed. Long
Curlew
• BEHAVIOR Probes with
( linnamon underwings;
beak in soil for worms, crabs, and mollusks. Invertebrates make cinnamon overall,
up 75 percent of diet. Picks berries and rarely eats eggs. Male including rump; fine
streaking on neck and
glides over female during display flight. This primarily
underparts.
temperate zone curlew has adapted well to using agricultural Sis

areas for nesting and foraging sites. WHIMBRKL

Smaller; striped head;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. dark brown back, w ings,
• NESTING Incubation 27-30 days by both sexes. Precocial rump, and breast.

young feed themselves but are tended by both sexes. First

flight at 32-38 days. Typically
1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Casual to
accidental in the Northeast
from the Maritime provinces to
New York. Common and
Direct flight with rapid w ing beats on long widespread in Eurasia.
gull-like \\ ings.

Nest Identification
Lined with leaves and grasses • 4 dark olive or green eggs with brownish

Shape —m blotches; ov al to short elliptical, 1.1 inches long.

Plumage Sexes simi ar ,

Habitat Migration
M;„ ratory Weight ,
6 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 253

Family s P ecies Xi/mcuiiis tnnerianms Length 23 inches Wingspan 3f>A0 jnchcs

SCOLOPACIDAE I I

LONG-BILLED CURLEW
The North American member of the sandpiper family lias a very long,
largest
slender declin ed bill. The male claims and defends large territories with a

flapping gliding flight. After courtship and mating, these birds usually nest in dry
uplands often near rivers but sometimes rangelands or farmlands. As
with other curlews the female is larger than the indistinct eye line

male. It is distinguished in flight by the

long decurved bill and cinnamon
underwing linings.

decurved hill

buff-brown nude/parts
• SONG Solid melodic-
ascending cur-lee. On breeding
grounds gives bubbling
dull blue-gray legs
warbled curieeeeeeeeeeuuu.
• Behavior Feeds by
probing mud with bill or
Similar Birds
dunking head under
water. Eats adult WH1MBREL
Smaller; grayer overall;
insects, fly larvae,
gray-brown head with
aquatic insects, distinctive stripes; pale
mollusks, whitish gray underparts.
crustaceans, and Marbled Godwit
small amphibians. Often flies Smaller; straight or
in wedge-shaped flocks, especially in migration. slightly upturned bill;
4 V cinnamon secondaries;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial or semicolonial. brighter inner primaries
• NESTING Incubation 27-30 days by both sexes. Incubating w ith fewer brow n
markings.
bird sits motionless approached. Precocial young
on nest even if

leave nest soon after hatching. Tended by both sexes. First flight at
32-45 days. 1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Common
and widespread in nesting area.
Casual to rare on southeastern
Atlantic Coast in winter.
Steady, strong wing beats in direct flight. • Conservation
Gliding flight in display on breeding Overgrazing in nesting areas has
grounds.
caused some decline.

Nest Identification
Lined with a few bits of grass, weeds, and chips on ground in open prairie
• 3-5 pale to olive-buff eggs w ith brow n and oli spotting, 2.6 inches long.
Shape :

Plumage
Sexes simi]ar Habitat
^ igration
Migratory Weight j ? pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

254 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species
Umosa Len §th 16 Wingspan
SCOLOPACIDAE limosa inches I
3{) jnches

Black-tailed Godwit
The tallest of the four godwits is a rare but
regular spring migrant to the Aleutian Islands rusty red head
and is casual on the Pribilof Islands and the and neck
Atlantic Coast. In its native Eurasia it travels
in large flocks, often numbering more than
a thousand. In flight note thewhite
rump, black tail, white wing bar, mottled rusty
white underwing linings, and long brown upperparts •

legs extending well beyond • long, strai,

sometimes slightly
the tail. Winter plumage
upcurved
shows a gray head, hicolored bill
whitish underparts,
and gray-brown
upperparts.
• SONG Display
call is clear,
repetitious pee-
wit, pec-wit. Also
makes low,
throaty grutto and long dark
growling wee-eeh. gray legs
Contact call is
HUDSONIAN GODWI1
quiet, continuous Black axillaries and
tuck or keck. underwing coverts;
wide white narrower upperwing
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious.
long,
wing stripe slimmer tail;
stripe;
Feeds off dry land in warm narrower white
weather and moves closer to water in uppertail band.

autumn. Eats insects and their larvae Bar-tailed Godwit

and other invertebrates by probing with
bill. When its nesting ground is invaded, it

aggressively attacks intruder. 30-50 birds often perform

synchronized flights with elaborate twists and turns.
4 More barring on
upperparts; broad dark
brown streaking on
feathers; rufous-
chestnut underparts;
white rump; white-
• BREEDING Monogamous. Loosely colonial. Male has
barred tail; uniformly
switchback display flight that includes impressive aerial dark wings without
acrobatics with midair tumbling, and rolling and frolicking wing stripe; long,
slightly upturned bill.
on the ground.
• NESTING Incubation 22-24 days by both sexes. Precocial
young leave nest soon after
hatching. Tended by both sexes
Flight Pattern
but feed themselves. First flight
at 25-30 days. 1 brood per year.
• Population Rare but
consistent migrant on western
Swift, sometime: erratic flight often low Aleutians. Casual on Pribilofs
over water.
and along Atlantic Coast.

Nest Identification
On tussock hidden in tall grasses • lined with grass • built by female • 4 olive-
green eggs blotched with brown; oval to elliptical, 2.2 inches long.
Shape

Plumage Sexes simi ar Migration Weight

ounces
i Mifiratory

DATE TIMF LOCATION

 BIRDS OE NORTH AMERICA • 255

Family Species Len §th 15 inches Wingspan 2J inches

SCOLOPACIDAE Ijnwsahaemastira I
I

HlJDSONIAN GOD WIT

On the shores of James Bay in Canada,
thousands of these birds can be seen
migrating together in late August.
The male godwit is quiet during
migration but has a noisy,
complex display flight during
breeding. The female is
larger and duller with
less barring. Both sexes
are distinctive in
flight with a white
rump, a black
tail with white
base, a white
wing stripe,
and dusky black
wing linings and
axillaries. In
winter the bird has
a grayback and neck
and whitish underparts.
• SONG Sings a clear
high-pitched toe-wit, god-wit,
whit, or toe-whit-ta. Marblkd Gomvr
Larger; lacks black-and-
• BEHAVIOR Feeds by probing white wing and tail
rapidly in mud with bill. Sometimes pattern; grayish

wades deep enough to immerse bill and head in water. Eats cinnamon overall;
cinnamon wing linings;
mollusks, marine worms, crustaceans, and insects. Wary. Only
boldly spangled
shorebird with undulating flight pattern. Flies in long lines or V- upperparts.
formation in migration.
Black-tailed
• BREEDING Monogamous. Gregarious. Godwit
Broad wing bar on
• NESTING Incubation 22-25 days by female during day and
reaches to outer
tail

male at night. Precocial young leave nest soon after hatching primaries; bright white
and feed themselves. Tended by both sexes. First flight at and underwing
axillaries

30 days. Parents very aggressive in defense of young. 1 brood on

coverts; less white
rump and upperwing.
per year.
• POPULATION The Hudsonian Godwit is fairly common to
uncommon on breeding its

Flight Pattern grounds (but total breeding

range poorly known).
Uncommon to casual migrant
on the Great Plains in spring
and on the East Coast in
Swift powerful undulating flight. Flies in autumn migration. Casual on
straight lines or V-formation.
the Pacific Coast.

Nest Identification
Sparsely lined w ith dead leaves and fresh grass • on tussock hidden under marsh
grass or shrubs • built by both sexes • 3-4 olive-buff to olive-brown eggs
Shape sparsely marked with olive-brown, 2.2 inches long.
1 1 r Ul

Plumage
Sexes s; milar Habitat
^ M _^ Migration
Mjigratory Weight
7 ^

DATE TIME LOCATION

256 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan 28
SCOLOPACIDAE j jmosa lapponica 16inches inches

Bar-tailed Godwit
This bird was considered a delicacy in the
fifteenth century. It can be distinguished
from the similar curlews by its upturned
bill. These large shorebirds fly in big
and perform elaborate aerial
flocks
movements. The female is larger and long slightly upturned
paler overall with streaked light two-toned bill
chestnut or pinkish underparts.
In winter both sexes are gray.
-• solid red-chestnut
In flight toes extend
underparts
beyond the tip of the
tail, and the rump is

either whitish or

gray-brown or white or barred <

J
black ha mil" riiinp
dark gray legs
Winter
mi tail Plumage

barred, as are the wing Similar Birds

linings. The wings are dark Marbled Godw i i

and lack stripes, and the white Bright cinnamon \\ ings,

rump, and tail.
tail has dark brown to black bars.
• SONG Usually silent. On breeding grounds gives trilling
Black- i uled
Godvvh
song; slightly nasal dry kek; barking kak-kak; or keewick. i ,onger legs ami net k;

• BEHAVIOR Feeds by wading into water and picking from flatter forehead; slightly
more blunt, less up-
mud's surface and by probing with side-to-side motion. Eats
cur\ ed hill: \\ hire rump
insects, crustaceans, marine worms, and mollusks. Nests on and belly; hc.i\ \.

tundra and in swampy areas near lakes. Flocks in winter. irregular barring on
lower breast and belly;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. w ide black terminal tail
• NESTING Incubation 20-21 days by both sexes. Soon after band; bold w hite stripe
wing.
hatching precocial young are led to nearby marshes where they in

stay until they are able to fly. Young feed themselves but are
tended by both sexes. 1 brood
per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Uncommon
breeder in western Alaska.
Casual along Pacific Coast.
Very rare migrant along
Direct flight with strong steady Atlantic ( loast.
beats.

Nest Identification
I sualK on moist or mossy tundra hidden in grass on tussock • lined « irh moss,
lichen, birch leaves,and grasses • built by both sexes • 2—1 olive or pale brown
Shape eggs sparsely spotted with brown. 2.2 inches long.

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat

^ Migration
Mig rat0 ry Weight
10.8 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 257

Family Species Len §th Win S s P an

SCOLOPACIDAE Umosa fedoa 18-20 inches 32 inches

Marbled Godwit
Taking its name from its call of
godWHIT, godWHIT, this buff-brown
bird is distinguished by its long

upturned bicolored bill. Very

social and nesting in
blackish mottling
semicolonial groups, these
on upperparts long slightly
shorebirds have no clear upturned cream y pink
territorial boundaries. blackish wings bill withdusky tip,
Most spend winters on with red-brown 3-5.5 inches long

the coast and migrate on outer tips of

secondaries and m overall
in flocks. In flight
inner primaries
note the cinnamon
wing linings and
• finely barred
cinnamon-buff in
underparts
the primary and
secondary feathers.
• SONG Distinctive
bold grating cor-ack, Winter
J
terWHIT, or Plumage
godWHIT. Repetitive
barking rack-a or ilar Birds
raddica in display.
Hudsonian Godwit
• Behavior Often feeds Heavily barred reddish
by w ading into water. Probes chestnut underparts in

breeding plumage
with bill in tidal flats and mudflats
• gray and w hite
for crustaceans, mollusks, and worms. Also eats insects, underparts in winter
including grasshoppers, and vegetal materials, including seeds • black tail with white
and berries. Often flocks in nonbreeding seasons. Prefers high base; w hite rump;
dusky black wing
plains and rangelands, often nesting in grassy meadows near
linings in fight; dusky
water. In migration flocks fly in long lines with the front flight feathers; bold
changing irregularly. white wing stripe.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Loosely colonial. Generally noisy Long-billed

when breeding. Curlew
Long decurved bill;
• NESTING Incubation 21-23 days by both sexes. Precocial cinnamon flight feathers
young leave nest soon after hatching. Tended by both sexes. more heavily marked
with brown; larger.
First flight at about 21 days. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Common to fairly common on interior

Flight Pattern common on the West Coast and

fairly common on Texas coast
and in Florida. Rare but regular
on tidal flats in the East.
• CONSERVATION Declining

Strong swift direct flight. because of the conversion of

habitat to farmland.

Nest Identification
Lined with dry grasses • in grassy prairies not far from water on dry ground
in grasses • 3-5 greenish to olive-buff eggs lightly marked with brown,
Shape -^g,. Location 2.2 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes sjmilar Habitat
:= ^ ^ Migration
Mjg rat:or y Wei g ht 1 1 .3 ounces

DATE TIME .OCATION

258 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length
9_ 10 inches Wingspan
SCOLOPACIDAE ^ f enarta interpret 17 _ 18 inches

Ruddy Turnstone
The alarm cry of this stout little ploverlike
shorebird alerts other birds to possible danger. It
black-and-
often is seen probing the on beaches,
drift line
white fact short pointed
even cleaning up leftovers from beach picnics. dark bill tilts
Some will take bread from a human hand. In up at tip
flight the vividly patterned body and wings black, white, and rusty
are unmistakable in bold rusty reds, blacks, red harlequin-patterned
wings and back
and white. Winter plumage shows a brown-
and-white face, dull brown wings and
back, and a brown bib but retains
the striking white stripes on
the wings, back, and tail.

black bib
on breast
• Song Low guttural mm" f , <$r~^
vhite undeiparts
rattle. Alarm call is chick-ik or
kewk. Flight call is ket-ah-kek or kit-it-

it. While feeding gives contact call of tut. hort orange-red legs
• BEHAVIOR Roots through seaweed (duller in winter)

and tips over stones, shells, and other

things washed up onto shore. Feeds on
insects, mollusks, crustaceans and their
eggs, worms, and bird eggs.
Sometimes eats discards of birds such Winter
as oystercatchers, including carrion. plumage
May eat coconut meat as well. Forages alone or in small
flocks often mixed with other shorebirds. Other shorebirds Similar Birds

may nest near Turnstones to gain protection from predators. Black Turnstone
Dark
• BREEDING Monogamous. chin; lacks
chestnut or rust coloring;
• NESTING Incubation 21-24 days by both sexes, but female dark reddish brown legs
does more. Precocial young leave nest soon after hatching but • Alaskan and West
Coast range.
feed themselves. Tended by both sexes, but female leaves
before first flight at 19-21 days. 1 brood per year.
• Population Common
Flight Pattern and widespread on tundra
breeding grounds and on coasts
in winter. Casual to rare inland
in migration, except around the
Great Lakes where the species

Swift direct flight with rapid wing beats.

is more common.

Nest Identification
Lined with bits of dry plants, withered leaves, moss, grass, or seaweed • in open
tundra • built by female • 1-A olive-green to olive-buff eggs marked with
Shape browns and blacks, 1.6 inches long.

Plumage Sexes
similar
Habitat
^ Migration
Migratory Weight 3 r_)

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 259

Family Species Length _ n nches Wingspan

SCOLOPACIDAE Calidris innitus t 1() j 2 () inc h es

Red Knot
At one time the Red Knot was one of the most abundant
shorebirds in North America, but 19th-century market
hunters diminished its population by
buff-che
slaughteringit in both spring and
• face
dappled brown-
autumn migrations. It can be
distinguished by its
$$fC~'
/v
>
.
^ P black upperparts

chunky body, short bill,

and short greenish Winter

legs. Known as classic
Plumage
high-arctic breeders
and long-distance
migrants, Red Knots
s
winter mostly the
'

in

lower half of South

America and may
travel 19,000 miles per finely barred
year. Dappled brown- pale grayish
black upperparts and white rail and
hort rump
chestnut underparts turn greenish legs

to pale gray upperparts and

white underparts in winter.

• SONG Generally silent. Feeding Similar Birds

birdsand flocks in flight emit harsh monosyllabic knut.
Curlew Sandpiper
Males on breeding grounds whistle a melodious poor-me. Slim and small; longer
• BEHAVIOR Generally feeds on beaches, tidal flats, and curved bill; pale rump •

red underparts in
lagoons. Eats mollusks, crabs, and insects and their larvae.
breeding plumage.
When feeding in mud probes for food with bill. Often migrates
Great Knot
and winters in large flocks that wheel, bank, and roll together in Longer bill: large body;
tight, dashing formations. Breeding display flight involves high, lacks robin-red face,
circling flight on still or quivering wings, ending with a rapid, neck, and underparts;
heavily spotted white
tumbling fall, and landing with wings upraised.
underparts; heavy black
• BREEDING Monogamous. Gregarious. spotting on breast;
black streaking on neck
• NESTING Incubation 21-23 days by both sexes. Precocial
and head; more heavily
young leave nest soon after hatching. Tended by both sexes. barred pale rump and
First flight at 18-20 days. Female leaves before first flight. tail • spring migrant in

1 brood per year. western Alaska.

• POPULATION Uncommon to fairly common on breeding

grounds and in migration on
Flight Pattern Atlantic Coast. Uncommon
transient on Pacific Coast. A
rare transient inland.
• Conservation Federal
protection has helped increase
Swift direct flight with rapid wing beats. populations of this bird.
Flies in V or straight line formation.

Nest Identification Lined with leaves, lichen, and moss • hollow in clumps of lichens among
rocks and scant plant life by both sexes, but male does
near water • built

most • 3-4 olive-buff eggs marked with brown-black spot; pyriform,

Shape
1.6 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
^ Migration
Mj gratory Weight
44 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

260 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len §th 8 Wingspan
SCOLOPACIDAE Calidrh alba inches 15 inches

Sanderling
This sandpiper runs back and forth on the beach with the ebb
and flow of the water, chasing receding waves to snatch up
exposed invertebrates. It also stands on one leg for long periods.
The palest of the sandpipers, this^bird differs from others in its
family by its lack of a hind toe. Its light-colored winter
plumage blends in with dry sand. The
Sanderling nests in the arctic of
both hemispheres and
winters to the
southern end of
both, traveling
as far as eight
thousand miles
between its

summer and
winter homes. In
flight the wings
show broad white
a
stripe, black leading and
trailing edges, and white
underwings. Its white tail has Red Knot
black central tail feathers. Larger; in breeding
plumage rusty red
• SONG Harsh kree. Also gives a underparts extend
twick or kip while in flight. onto lower breast and
upper belly; barred
• BEHAVIOR Hunts
sand crabs and mollusks in the sand
for at
flanks and undertail
the water's edge. Also eats other crustaceans, marine worms, coverts; barred rump;
amphipods, isopods, and insects. On arctic breeding grounds in nonbreeding lacks
eats insects and insect larvae, some plants, leaves, and algae. In black in shoulders.

flight flocks oftenwheel and turn, changing direction with Dunlin

Slightly larger; stout
flashing wings and a change of color, first showing dark backs
bill droops at the tip
then light underparts. • in winter has gray-
• BREEDING Monogamous or polyandrous. Colonial. brown upperparts,
lores, and cheeks;
• NESTING Incubation 24-31 days usually by male, while grayish throat and
female often lays second clutch, incubating 1 while male upper breast with fine
incubates other. Some females take 2 mates, lay a clutch in each dusky streaking; lacks
black in bend of wing.
nest, then leave the males to tend the eggs and young in their
respective nests. Precocial young leave nest soon after hatching;
feed themselves but tended by
at least 1 parent; female leaves
Flight Pattern
if male is present. First flight at
17 days. 1-2 broods per year.
• Population Common.
• Conservation Decline
Swift direct flight with rapid wing beats. due to destruction of habitat.

Nest Identification
Lined with small leaves, grass, lichen, mosses, or willow leaves • on high, well-
drained, rocky tundra • built by both sexes, but male does more •3-4 dull olive-
Shape green or brown eggs sparsely spotted with brown and black, 1.4 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes simi j ar
Habitat ^~ Migration
Migratory Weight
4 7 Qunces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 261

Species Len Stn Win e s P an

Family SCOLOPACIDAE Calidris pusilla 6.5 inches ll-B inches

Semipalmated Sandpiper
This coastal inhabitant gets its name from tracewash of rufous
the partial webbing it has between its front on crown, auriculars
toes. This bird often mingles with other and scapulars
shorebirds such as sanderlings and dusk)
Semipalmated Plovers around the time acros.

of high tide. Like most shorebirds,

Semipalmated Sandpipers wi gray-brown
upperparts, black semi-straight
frequently sleep standing on one
blunt-tipped bill,
or both legs, with their bill deep at base
tucked into their back feathers.
Sometimes they will travel
along the beach hopping on
one leg. Grayer in all dusky dark-
plumages than most brown-streaked
chest side patches
peeps and have less
streaking on the
breast and no spotting thick short body

on the flanks.
• SONG Short churk black legs and feet
or churp. On
breeding
ground, song given in
flight is a monotonous kee-
kee-kee-kee.

• BEHAVIOR The bird is often

seen running along the beach, pecking Winter
and occasionally probing the sand, Plumage
searching for insects, worms, small mollusks, and small
crustaceans. Generally feeds farther from the water's edge
Svmilm Birds
than other peeps. Often gathers in large flocks in migration. Western Sandpiper
Bright rufous on
• BREEDING Monogamous. Gregarious. Aggressive during scapulars, back, ear
breeding season. patch, and crown; gray
• NESTING Incubation 18-22 days by both sexes. Precocial plumage, less

uniformly brown; larger

young leave nest on day of hatching and feed themselves, and lankier; longer
tended by both parents. Female abandons after few days. First legs; longer, slightly

flight at 14-19 days. 1 brood per year. decurved bill

(especially female).
• POPULATION Fairly common
breeding to common on
grounds. Common migrant from Atlantic Coast to central Great
Plains; rare migrant in the West,

Flight Pattern i
south of Canada. Casual to rare
in Florida in winter.

A V* V * V • Conservation Species
abundant but is being
still

Sw ift flight on rapidly beating wings. threatened due to diminishing

Flushed birds rise in zigzag pattern. stopover points.
Flocks twist and turn as precise unit.

Nest Identification Grass-lined with leaves and moss • nests generally built on grassy slope or
mound surrounded by short vegetation • built by both sexes • 2—1 whitish to
olive-buff eggs, blotched with brown, chestnut, or gray; ovate pyriform to
Shape
subpyriform, 0.8 \ 1.2 inches.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
^ Migration
Migratory Weight j 1
()unces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 ,

262 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA

Family Species Len Sth Wingspan
SCOLOPACIDAE Calidris mauri 6-7 inches i 2 _14 inches

Western Sandpiper
A long-distance migrant, the Western Sandpiper bright
flies southeast and remains on North and
South American coasts during the winter
months. It is the western relative of rufous base

the Semipalmated Sandpiper, »

which it closely resembles

except for a longer bill

that usually appears

slightly drooped at the
tip. In breeding plumage
it has arrow-shaped spots

on the sides and breast

and rufous on the crown,
ear patches, and scapulars.
In winter plumage it is one
Semipalmated
of the palest "peeps," with Sandpiper
almost no contrast in the Shorter bill without
drooped tip; duller in
faintly mottled upperparts.
color; less rufous; faint
• SONG High raspy jeet or cheet. or nonexistent mantle
• BEHAVIOR Often can be identified by a distinctive feeding and scapular
brown upperparts
lines;dark

pattern: while snatching invertebrates it occasionally eats with edged with buff;
its head immersed in the water. Feeds primarily on insects but makes harsh churk.
also takes small crustaceans, mollusks,and worms. In migration
Least Sandpiper
and on wintering grounds, often occurs in large flocks. Coastal Smaller; brown wash
outside breeding season, but fairly common inland in migration. on head, head, neck,
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Highly gregarious. and breast with dark
brown streaking;
• NESTING Incubation 18-21 days by both sexes. Precocial yellow-green legs
young leave nest few hours after hatching. Female departs,
a and feet.

but male tends young. Young feed themselves. First flight at

17-21 days. 1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• POPULATION Common to
abundant on breeding grounds;
common in migration and on
US coastal wintering grounds.

Swift direct flight with rapid w ing bea

• Conservation Abundant
Large tight flocks twist and turn in
but still vulnerable to habitat
coordinated movements. loss at stopover points.

Nest Identification Lined with and lichens • slightly elevated on moist or dry
leaves, grass,
tundra near water • male hollows out several sites; female chooses one and

Shape — 4£ lines nest • 3-5 whitish brown eggs marked with red-brown spots; pyriform,
0.87 x 1.2 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simikr Habitat
_ Migration
Migratory Weight
0 8 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AM RICA • 263

Family Species Length Wingspan

SCOLOPAGIDAE Calidris ruficollis 6 2 5 inches
_ H-.12 inches

Red-necked Stint
Previously called the Rufous-necked
Sandpiper, this native of Asia is a rare
breeder in the summer in western rufous head, neck,
and northern Alaska. It is one of the rufous Ixi eh with a ud throat i

easier "peeps" to identify in black mottling and

white-edgedfeathen
breeding plumage, with rufous
on the head, neck, and mantle.
Adults migrate before
juveniles and sometimes

traight
P black bill

white undertail covert

reach their
destinations still hitish chin

wearing their 1 nd base of bill

breeding plumage.
In flight shows dark streaks form
uppertail coverts with "necklace" around
a black center and white black legs breast and neck
margins. Winter plumage
shows gray wings and back and
darker gray streaks on the sides.
• SONG Coarse chit or prip. Also has squeaking call of week. Display
7
flight song oiwheet, wheet, whek, whek.
Winter
• BEHAVIOR Forages on shore by picking items off surface; sometimes Plumage
probes mud. Eats insects, crustaceans, and worms. Off breeding
grounds feeds in mixed flocks with other shorebirds. Mainly Similar Birds
coastal and highly gregarious when not breeding, preferring Western Sandpiper
mudflats. Prefers inland wetlands during migration, when it flies Semipalmated
in tight, highly maneuverable flocks. Sandpiper
nger bill; iger legs
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. darker forehead;
• NESTING Incubation 21-23 days by both sexes; if 2 broods webbed toes • in
breeding plumage lack
male incubates and female incubates second. Precocial
first,
rufous on breast.
young leave nest soon after hatching and feed themselves.
Tended by 1 parent. First flight at 15-18 days. 1-2 broods per year.
• Population Uncommon
Flight Pattern to rare on Alaskan breeding
grounds. Regular migrant to
west coast of Alaska and islands
in the Bering Sea. Casual to
accidental on both Pacific and
Atlantic Coasts in migration.
Swift direct flight with rapid
Accidental inland.

Nest Identification
Lined with willow leaves • small pile of grass or tundra moss • 4 yellow eggs
dotted with rufous-cinnamon at larger end; pyriform, 1.1 inches long.
Shape

Plumage Habitat^. Weight

Sexes simi , ar Migratory | 1

[DATE TIME LOCATION

264 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Wingspan
Family
SCOLOPACIDAE Species
Calidris minuta
Length
6 inches H _ 12 inches

Little Stint » brown and orange-rust

This sparrow-sized native of streaks on crown
the Arctic regions was first dusky ear
recognized in North Tverts and loirs
America in 1975. Since
that time it has been dark brown
found as a casual treakine on sides
s/io
migrant on both straight
coasts and as a rare black bill
creamy or white
visitor, usually in white edging on mantle forms
spring migration, to throat 1 or 2 Vs on hark
and chin
islands off western
Alaska. In breeding
plumage its small size;
short straight black bill;

black legs; and rusty red

head, upperparts, and breast
are good clues to its identity. Its
winter plumage shows dull grayish
brown upperparts, individual black
feathers with rusty and white
edgings, and a gray wash with dark
grayish brown streaks over its breast.
In all plumages the long primary
projection separates this species from
other similar "peeps."
Similar Birds
• SONG Call is stit. Also makes short
trill, chit, or see-seet call. Sings weak svee-svee-svee. Rkd-necked Stint
In breeding plumage
• BEHAVIOR Pecks quickly with
at surface and probes in mud has darker brick-red
bill. Eats various insect larvae and other invertebrates. Highly around head, neck,
gregarious, moving in flocks in migration and winter. Becomes throat, and breast
• larger; necklace of
aggressive and territorial when feeding. Often tame, allowing
dark brown streaks;
close approach. In flight, flocks often quickly wheel and dart in more elongated body;
migration and on wintering grounds. shorter tarsi; longer bill.

• BREEDING Serial polygamy. Colonial. Least Sandpiper

• NESTING Incubation 21-23 days: if 2 broods male and Yellow legs; grayer
upperparts.
female incubate separate clutches. Precocial young leave nest
day of hatching and feed themselves, but are tended by at least
1 parent. First flight at
15-18 days. 1-2 broods per year.
Flight Pattern
• POPULATION Accidental in
western Alaskan islands. Casual
on Pacific and Atlantic Coasts.
Common to abundant on
Eurasian breeding grounds and
Swift direct flight with rapid wing beats
wintering grounds.

Nest Fdenttfii ation

Lined with willow and dwarf birch leaves • on raised grassy or mossy areas
• 4 olive-green or yellow eggs with reddish brown mottling; pyriform,
Shape 1.1 inches long.

Plumage Sexe§ sim ;, ar Habitat Migration \j

grator}
Wei S ht
0.8 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 265

Family Species Length 6 Wingspan ii_i

SCOLOPACIDAE (jalidris temminckii inches 2 inches

Temminck's Stint
Frequenting marshes rather than variegated dark brown,
grayish brown, and chestnut
the mudflats where most stints crown
streaks on
gather, this bird is solitary except
during migration, when up to
two hundred gather in small mantle feathers
have dark centers
flocks in its native Eurasian
ith buff edges
range. During spring and fall
brown upperwings
vagrants have flown to St.
with random black
Lawrence Island and the scapular marks
Pribilof and Aleutian Islands.
Horizontal posture on short
dull yellow to yellow-green
legs gives the bird a crouched
look. The white outer tail
feathers distinguish this small long tail with
gray stint from all others. white outer
feathers
• SONG Rapid series of dry
tirrrr. In flight makes high-
pitched cricketlike
treeriririiirir.

• Behavior Eats various

small invertebrates, especially » dark brown
entral tail feathen
and their larvae. Will
insects
sometimes feeds slowly and
methodically in vegetation at the
edges of wetlands, picking prey from
ground and vegetation. When
approached often crouches. Usually
solitary or in pairs or small flocks. In
nonbreeding season prefers inland and Similar Birds
freshwater sites to coastal locations. In display flight male sings B mud's Sandpiper
for several minutes while circling and hovering. If flushed ' ^if- Shorter tail; wing tips

quickly flies to great height with rapid jerking flight. i jut beyond tail tip at

rest; darker brown

• BREEDING Polygamous. Solitary. upperparts; darkei
• NESTING Incubation 21-22 days. Male and female each buff wash on breast;
dark legs.
tend own nest if more than 1 clutch of eggs is laid. Precocial
young leave nest day of hatching but attended by 1 adult. First
flight at 15-18 days.
1 Z broods per year.
Flight Pattern
• POPULATION Rare spring
and autumn migrant on
Alaskan islands in Bering Sea.
Accidental occurence

Swift direct flight with rapid wing heats.

elsewhere in North America.

Nest Identification
,ined with sedge stems and willow leaves • on grass or under bush or small tree
ear water • 4 brownish eggs; pyriform, 1.1 inches long.
Shape

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei § ht 0.8

Sexe§ sim ;j ar Migratory ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

266 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Species Length Wingspan
Family
SCOLOPACIDAE Calidris minutilla 6 inches n _ 12 inches

Least Sandpiper
During migration sandpiper on the edge
a small
of an inland pool or wet area is likely to be this

species. The Least Sandpiper is the smallest

of the native North American streaked brown-gray
^ark neck upperparts
sandpipers and among -*

the smallest waders

slender slightI)
decurveddark bill

streaked i

dark /'/east

in the world. These

tame birds will walk
close to humans along
the shore. With a buff-
brown wash on its

streaked breast, it is one of the

brownest and darkest of the "peeps."

Similar Birds
The legs and feet are dull yellowish or greenish yellow rather
than black like those of most small North American sandpipers. Semipalmated
Sandpiper
• SONG High kneet or knee-eet. Slightly larger;
• BEHAVIOR Usually found in wet habitats where it obtains straighter bill; whiter
face, throat, and chest;
food by picking small animals from surface of mud and by
black legs.
probing mud for insects, insect larvae, and small crustaceans.
Gregarious, occurring in small to large flocks. Often mixes and Western Sandpiper
Larger; long bill is
forages with other species of shorebirds, especially in migration heavier at base and
and on wintering grounds. Relatively tame. Migrates at night. "Hi?" slightly downcurved at

When flushed often rises quickly in zigzag fashion. tip; rustier back, ear
patch, and crown; black
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Male announces legs • in breeding
territory by singing continuously, often for several minutes, in plumage has more
heavily streaked breast.
display flight.
• NESTING Incubation 19-23 days by both sexes (female at
night; male during day; male
does more). Precocial young
Flight Pattern
leave nest day of hatching and
feed themselves. Tended by
both sexes. First flight at
14-16 days. 1 brood per year.
Swift direct flight with rapid wing
beats. When flushed often rises
• Population Common.
quickly in zigzag fashion.

Nest Identification
Lined with grass and dry leaves • on small pile of grass or moss near water
• male begins building; female finishes • 3-4 olive, pinkish, or buff eggs

Shape Location with dark brown spots; ovate pyriform, 1.2 x 0.85 inches.

Plumage Sexes simUar Habitat^ te ^ Migration

Migratory We 'S nt 0.8 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 267

Family Species Len §th 7-8 inches Wingspan 14 _ 16 S

SCOLOPACIDAE Calklm fumcollh I
I
inchcs

White-rumped Sandpiper
The white rump, best seen in

flightycan sometimes be
glimpsed on a standing
bird when it spreads its
wings slightly. At rest
the wing tips extend
well beyond the tail.

In flight the rump is

a distinctive field
mark shared by
only one other yellow o
greenish
small sandpiper,
brown spot
the Curlew often at base
Sandpiper (a of lower
casual to rare mandible

Eurasian species).
A long-distance
champion flier, this
small streaks
bird migrates from on breast, sidi
the Canadian Arctic andflanks
to southern South
America, a distance of
more than eight
whitish
thousand miles. It appears underpart
larger in flight than it does on the
ground. Crown and back are rusty.
Baird's Sandpiper
• SONG High-pitched jeet described
insectlike, mouselike, or batlike.
as
J
Winter
More brown overall;
less-contrasting

• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Often wades plumage "9 supereilium; buff

edging on upperparts;
when foraging and may immerse head in water. Also
entire buff wash on face and
probes with bill in mud for food. Feeds on marine worms, across streaked breast;
lacks white uppertail
insects, weed seeds, snails, and crustaceans. Often forms single-
patch.
species flocks or mixes with other shorebirds.
Western Sandpiper
• BREEDING Polygamous. Male leaves breeding ground once ^qjjBBm^ Smaller; shortei wings
eggs are laid. "J^ Jo not extend past tail;

dark-centered uppertail.
• NESTING Incubation 21-22 days by female. Precocial young
leave nest soon after hatching and feed themselves. Tended by
female. First flight at
16-17 days. 1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• POPULATION Fairly

T common. Casual
• Conservation
Vulnerable to habitat
in the West.

Strong direct flight with rapid wing beats. destruction in staging areas.

Nest Identification
Made of lichens, moss, and leaves, especially dry willow • on pile of grass or
moss near water • built by female • 3-A olive-buff to light green eggs marked
Shape Location with brown; pyriform to ovate, 0.9 x 1.4 inches.

Plumage
Sexes sJmilar Habitat
^ Migration
Migratory Weight
j 2

DATE TIME LOCATION

268 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len Sth Wingspan
SCOLOPACIDAE calidris bairdii 7.5 inches 15 _ 16-5 inches

Baird's Sandpiper
In early autumn large flocks
of these thrush-sized birds
gather on the Great
Plains and fly to
South America.
Although they
often join other straight dark
small sandpipers bill slightly

during migration, drooped at tip

these birds will

separate from buff breast
those flocks with fine
streaks
and feed by
themselves. This
buff sandpiper has
black legs and long
wings that protrude
well beyond the tip
whih
of the tail when nude /parts
standing. Its rump and

uppertail are broadly

dark-centered with very
narrow whitish sides. Winter
plumage shows more gray and less
Similar Birds
streaking, but the combination of short
bill, short legs, and long wings distinguish it.
White-rumped

SONG Low raspy kreep or preeet. ^

^ Sandpiper
•

• BEHAVIOR Fairly tame. Essentially an inland species in

2 Brighter breeding and
juv enile plumage with
rusty wash on crown and
migration. On migration prefers to feed in higher and dryer back • grayer
areas than other small sandpipers. Runs across mud and through nonbreeding plumage
shallow water, picking up bits of food. Does not probe with bill. • streaking on
underparts to flanks;
Eats algae, amphipods, insects, and insect larvae. Sometimes
lac ks buff wash on head
flies in mixed flocks with other shorebirds. and breast; white tail base.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Less gregarious than most other pr* 1 \^ i

S UMDPIPER
birds in genus. \ Smaller; shorter, thinner
* dull yellow legs.
• NESTING Incubation 19-22 days by both sexes. Precocial
bill;

young leave nest soon after hatching. Tended by both sexes.

First flight at 16-20 days.
1 brood per year.
Flight Pat to
• Population Fairly
common inland; uncommon on
both coasts in migration.
• Conservation
Sw ift direct flight w ith rapid wing beats Vulnerable to habitat changes
on staging areas.

Nest Identification
No nest material • undc r low plants or moss-covered rocks or on small pile
of.grass • 4 pink to olivt -buff eggs marked w ith dark brow ns; pyriform.
Shape 0.9 x 1.4 inches.

Plumage Migration Wei ^ ht 1.4

ounces
§exes s ; mi!ar Migratory

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 269

Family Species Length 8 _ 9 inchcs Wingspan 5 _ ]6inchcs

SCOLOPACIDAE CaiiJris melanotos i
1
Pectoral Sandpiper vhite stripe over
This bird is named two saclike
for the an il eye

structures under the neck and breast of

the male. During courtship the male
inflates these sacs, thus enhancing the
appearance of the heavy streaking r/n//
-
„////(
l

on its breast. The streaking ends

abruptly in a sharp line, lender black bill
separating from the snow-
it with greenish yellow
white belly. During flight the base to lower
mandible
sacs pump up and down in
rhythm with the birds streaked
hooting calls. In flight brown breast
this bird shows a
blackish brown rump scapular, tertial, and
mantle feathers have
and tail. Males and blackish brown centers
females are similar with chestnut to buff
but the male has fringes

darker brown hitish underparts

streaking on the
throat and breast
Similar Birds
with white mottling.
Winter plumage is
Sharp-tailed
Sandpipkr
pale brown overall.
Lacks sharply defined
• SONG Low reedy churk or Male
churrrt. streaked breast; buff
wash across breast • in
has hooting courtship call; murmuring foghornlike Moor, Moor,
breeding plumage has
or loud coarse gr, gr, gr repeated several times per second. streaking on crissum,
• BEHAVIOR Forages in vegetation. Feeds by pecking and sides, and flanks
• juvenile has buff-
shallow probing. Eats insects and larvae, small crustaceans,
orange breast and rusty
spiders, seeds, and amphipods. In migration prefers meadows, crown.
marshes, pond edges, tidal flats, and mudflats. Usually in small
RUFF 9
flocks of 20-40 birds. Relatively tame. May fly short distance, Larger; longer neck;
then pitch back into grass. gray-brown breast with
heavy spotting and
• BREEDING Promiscuous. Males mate several times.
blotches; in flight shows
Females visit territories of other males. Males leave territories large white ovals on
prior to hatching of eggs. uppertail and stronger
wing bars.
• NESTING Incubation 19-23 days by female. Precocial young
leave nest soon after hatching and feed themselves, tended by
female. First flight at
18-21 days. 1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Fairly
common to common on
breeding grounds and in
migration on East Coast and in
Sv ift direct flight with rapid wing beats. Midwest; uncommon from
W hen flushed climbs with zigzag flight.
Great Plains to West Coast.

Nest Identification
Grass and leaves • on dry ground near water • built by female • whitish to olive-

Shape buff eggs splotched with dark browns; pyriform to oval, 1.5 x 1.0 inches.
Location

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexe§ similaf Migra , 3 5

DATE TIME LOCATION

_
270 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
SCOLOPACIDAE Species
Calidris acuminata
Length g_: Wingspan
17inches

Sharp-tailed Sandpiper
This native of Eurasian tundra regions is a casual to
uncommon spring migrant and common autumn bright
migrant in western Alaska, and is a rare autumn rufous
migrant along the Pacific Coast to California. These cap •
sandpipers usually travel in the company of other
white eyebrow
shorebirds. In flight it shows mostly white
broaden
underwing coverts and axillaries, white lateral behind eyes a
uppertail coverts with dark shaft streaks, and

vnish plumage

short, slightly decurved <

blackish brown bill with

hint of pale gray or
a wedge-shaped
el/owish brown at base
Juveniles have a
tail.

white supercilium,
reddish cap, and rufous
bu ff breast with
lores and auriculars. All
light spots and
plumages show streaked streaks
undertail coverts.
• SONG Soft clear pleep-pleep-trrt,
sometimes in a twittering sequence dull greenish
gray legs andfeet
reminiscent of a Barn Swallow's vocalizations.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs on breeding grounds.
Male performs song flight with short, low-level upward flights
followed by downward glides on upraised wings. Gregarious in
migration and on wintering grounds, often mixing with other
Similar Birds
shorebirds. Eats many small insects and other invertebrates,
including mollusks and crustaceans. On breeding grounds feeds Pectoral Sandpiper
Longer neck; longer
primarily on mosquito larvae. Often feeds in grasslands and drier
bill; dark cap; sharp
margins of wetlands similar to the Pectoral Sandpiper. contrast between
• BREEDING Polygynous; male mates with one or more brownish-streaked
breast and white belly;
females, each of which nests and incubates a set of eggs; solitary. yellow-green legs; white
• NESTING Incubation estimated at 19-23 days by female. undertail coverts.

Precocial young leave nest soon after hatching and feed

themselves. Tended by female
estimated at
First flight
Flight Pattern
18-21 days. 1 brood per year.
• Population Casual to
common migrant in Alaska.
Casual to rare across the rest of
Switt direct flight with rapid wing beats.
North America.

Nest Identification
Lined with willow leaves • on moist ground sheltered by tall grasses or a
bush • 4 brownish olive or greenish eggs speckled with browns, often more
Shape concentrated at one end; pyriform to oval, 1.5 x 1 inches.

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat

= n~ Migration
Migratory Weight
2.5 ounC es

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 271

Family Species Length Wingspan 14 _ ls>5inches

SCOLOPACIDAE Qaiidris maritima 9 inch(

Purple Sandpiper
This bird is named for a taint purplish gloss on the
back and scapular feathers, visible in bright light whitish buff »

in the hand but rarely in the field. It winters

eye stripe \
along rocky coasts, jetties, and
reefs. Flocks of these stocky mottled purplish gray
birds can be seen following upperparts with white
i ni /I chestnut fringe
the coast during migration.
Nonbreeding plumage
shows a dark slate-gray
long slightly
head, breast, flanks,
drooped
yellowish-
based bill
wings fall short
of tail tip
-• whitish underparts
with heavy brown
streaks on breast and
flanks

short yellow legs

andfeet
and upperparts, and a white
eye ring and underparts. It is
the darkest small shorebird on the
Atlantic Coast in winter. In flight it WINTER
shows a white wing stripe and white Plumage
sides on the uppertail.
Similar Birds
• SONG Brief tit, twit, whit, or tweet. When flocks feed and roost
Rock Sandpiper

4
together sounds like a low chattering. Various wheezing and
Western counterpart;
trilling calls when breeding.
slightly more white on
• BEHAVIOR Tame. In winter found on seaweed-covered outer webs of inner

rocks and jetties where it pulls crustaceans out of crevices or primaries; more
extensive white on
seaweed, or picks up tiny mollusks at edges of waves. On
inner secondaries • in
breeding grounds performs mouselike running display to lure breeding plumage has
intruders away from nest. If flushed flies low over water. black patch on belly •

paler in winter •
• BREEDING Monogamous. juvenile has buff-brown
• NESTING Incubation 21-22 days mostly by male. Young foreneck and upper
breast; brighter coloring.
leave nest hours after hatching and feed themselves, tended by
male. First flight at 28 days. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Fairly

Flight Pattern common on breeding grounds

and on the East Coast in winter;
rare to casual inland and as far
south as the Gulf Coast. Seem
to be increasing, perhaps due to
Swift direct flight on shallow clipped
wing beats (somewhat like that of a
numerous jetties constructed
Spotted Sandpiper). along Atlantic Coast.

Nest Identification
Lined with grass • on dry or damp tundra • lale makes several scrapes; female
chooses one • 3-4 olive-buff eggs blotched ith brown or black; pyriform,
Shape 1.5 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes sjmilar Habitat
^ Migration ]yi
igratory
Weight
2 7

DATE TIME LOCATION

272 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
SCOLOPACIDAE s P ecies Calidris alpina Len £th 7.5-8.5
inches Wingspan 14.5_15.75
inches

Dunlin
Impressive fliers, these small brown
sandpipers are able to migrate at
speeds of more
than a hundred long stout black
miles per hour hilldeal reed
and travel in toward tip
flocks that can be
so large they look
like a swarm of
insects. Once
white throat with
known as the Red- brown streaking
backed Sandpiper, that increases
the breeding bird is toward breast
unmistakable with its
long sturdy droop-tipped bill, rusty red
upperparts, and black belly patch.
Females are similar to males but have
brown napes. When feeding it often gives
the appearance of being hunchbacked.
• SONG Nasal slurred reedy call of c/ieezp, kreeep,

or treezp. Flocks make soft twittering noises at roost and on

feeding grounds. Alarm call on breeding grounds is quoi. Similar Birds
• BEHAVIOR Eats insects and larvae, marine worms, small Rock Sandpiper
crustaceans, snails, and small fish. and uses Wades in shallows Yellow-green base of

bill to probe and pick up food. Probes with rapid up-and-down bill, legs, and feet;
• in breeding plumage
stitching motion several times per second. Gregarious, often in
has black chest patch
large flocks in migration and winter. On tundra breeding • western range.
grounds male makes territorial display of lifting one wing over Curlew Sandpiper
its back when another male enters the breeding ground. Fly Long decurved bill • in

rapidly while performing synchronized maneuvers as a flock. breeding plumage has

bright rusty red
• BREEDING Monogamous. underparts, neck, and
• NESTING Incubation 20-23 days by both sexes. Precocial head; white belly,
undertail coverts, and
young leave nest day of hatching. Tended by both sexes, but
rump patch • in winter
primarily by male, for several days. P irst flight at 19-23 days. plumage has white
1 brood per year. rump without black
center
• POPULATION Common on breeding grounds, both coasts,
line.

and inland to the Great Plains in migration. Rare on the Great

Plains. Common on coastal

Flight Pattern wintering grounds. Has been

declining since the 1970s for
undetermined reasons.
• Conservation
Vulnerable to habitat loss in
Swift direct flight with rapid wing beats staging and wintering areas.

Nest Identification Leaves and grasses • hummock on wet, grass, or sedge

or raised dry area
tundra • both sexes make one and completes
scrapes, but female chooses
nest • 4 olive, bluish green, or buff eggs blotched with browns or gray;
Shape
pyriform, 1.4 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration

Migratory Wei § ht 1.9 ounces
Sexes simi , ar te

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS NOR Tl AMKRICA I • 273

Species Length Wingspan 14

Family SCOLOPACIDAK (jaiidris ferruginea y S _ (S s inchcs S_ U) s j nches

Curlew Sandpiper
This Eurasian species is a rare co casual, but regular,
visitor to North America, and in 1962 it was found (lark russet 01
nesting in Alaska for the first time. A long- chestii ut haul
distance flier, this bird migrates from the
and Australia
arctic regions to Africa
Adults breeding plumage are
in
conspicuous with rich
reddish chestnut head,
neck, and underparts,
and chestnut
upperparts mottled
black and white.
The long bill is
decurved, and the
white rump,
undertail coverts,
and underwings are
conspicuous in flight.
The Curlew
Sandpiper often
associates with the
Dunlin, w hich it
resembles, in migration.
In winter, this sandpiper displays a white chest
lightly streaked with brown, a white belly, and gray upperparts.
• SONG Call is a pleasant liquid chirrup or chimp in flight, or a Similar Birds
wick-wick-wick in alarm. The male sings while flying on its DUNLIN
breeding grounds. W inter plumage
• shorter legs; more
• BEHAVIOR On tundra breeding grounds, feeds on insects,
streaking on breast; lull
especially beetles. Outside breeding areas, also eats leeches, curved only at rip; dark
worms, crustaceans, and small mollusks. Probes rapidly with bill brow n center to rump.

in mud, usually working away from others into the shallows and red Knot
often wading belly deep —
a behavior that is useful in picking Breeding plumage
and chunkier;
• larger
them out of mixed feeding flocks.
shorter legs; shorter,
• BREEDING Monogamous; solitary nester. Male chases straight hill; finely

female in courtship by running and flying around her in zigzag harred w hire rump.

pattern, showing off his white rump. Male leaves after courtship
before eggs hatch.

Flight Pattern
• Nesting incubation
21 days by female. Precocial
young tended by female.
~% * V* V A V 1 brood per year.
• Population Rare to
Swift direct flight on rapidly beating
w
casual, but regularly appears in
in»s. Male's courtsh ip display includes
zigzag flight pattern. North America.

Nest Identification Reindeer moss, lined with moss, tender leases, lichen, and willow leaves
• dry,hummock or on ledge of moist tundra • built by both parents
• 4 cream, yellow, or olive-tinted eggs, w ith brow n or blackish spots; pyriform.
Shape
1.4 inches long.

Plumage
Sexe§ simibr Habitat
MS Migration
M igratory Weight ->
4

DATE TIME LOCATION

274 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family S P ecies Calidns himantopus Len §th 7.5-8.5 Wingspan 15.5_.17
SCOLOPACIDAE I I inches I inches

Stilt Sandpiper
This long-legged sandpiper can be seen during migration feeding
in dense flocks in shallow waters along the Atlantic coast. It is

unwary and approachable, attributes that were exploited by

early 19th-century market hunters to the point that it became
rufous patch
rare and irregular in New England, where it was once on cheeks
common. Today this slender, long-necked, long-legged
shorebird seems to be increasing in numbers and is once
again common. In flight it shows a white rump. In
winter, the Stilt Sandpiper displays gray upperparts
and white underparts.
• SONG Low hoarse whistled whu
or rattling trill querrp. Also brays,
whines, and utters guttural
trills on breeding ground.

• Behavior Eats
mostly insects and
their larvae, but also
takes small crustaceans
and mollusks and some
plant materials, including
seeds. May wade belly-deep
in water and feed by thrusting
head underwater while probing
mud with beak in a stitching
motion. Usually tame around
humans; however, this bird has
been known to attack when an
intruder approaches the nest.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Male
chases female in flight until he flies ahead, then male dives
downward singing and raising wings over back.
• NESTING Incubation 19-21 days by both parents; male by
day, female at night. Precocial young leave nest shortly after
hatching, tended by parents for about 14 days. First flight at
17-18 days. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Common on breeding grounds and in the
interior east of the Rockies during migration. Rare on West Coast,
primarily in fall. Uncommon on
Flight Pattern East Coast in spring; common
in fall. Rare in winter in coastal
southern US.
• Conservation
Populations seem to be slowly
Strong powerful direct flight on long, on t he increase,
rapidly beating wings.

Nest Identification On small piles of sedge or low well-drained rocky ledges • pair may return tc

former nest sitefrom year to year • male scrapes, but female decides which
nest to use • 4 pale green to olive-green or cream eggs with brown spots;
Shape
pyriform, 1.4 inches long.

Plumage Sexes simi ar ,

Habitat _ te Migration
Mj sratory Weight ?
j ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF^ NORTH AMERICA • 275

Family Species Len Sth 7.5-8.25 inches Wingspan 16_ 17 inchc

SCOLOPACIDAE Tryngites subruficollis

Buff-breasted Sandpiper
Birders can spot this shorebird
bu ff fare and head
during migration when it stops
with streaked and
to forage in the wet fields, jiiMiMMff
88*
spotted brown crown
turf farms, and rice prominent dark
strakht 1
short straig
fields of inland North ith light eye ring
dark brown bill
America; it also favors
freaked and spotted brown hindneck
yellow base of
golf courses and airports. lower mandibh
This species generally is • buff-edged bro wn

approachable, but when upperparts appear scaly

long buff
frightened it usually runs neck

from danger rather than

flying. It has a short buff-edged
brown tail
pigeonlike bill, and an upright
stance like a plover. In flight
the silvery white axillars and bu ff breast
underwing linings contrast with streaked
with the buff underparts and and spotted
brown sides
darker back. Juveniles have
more scaly upperparts.
yellowish orange
• SONG During migration a soft legs andfeet
hoarse call of pr-r-r-reet. During
display makes quick clucking
sounds. Otherwise mostly silent.

4
• BHHAVIOR Gregarious. Eats insects Upland Sandpiper
Larger; streaked brown
fly larvae and pupae, some spiders, and seeds. Prefers plumage w ith no
short dry grasslands in migration. Travels in small flocks, often conspicuous marks on
mixing with other species. Rarely forages beside water. upperparts; streaking on
breast, sides, and flanks;
• BREEDING Promiscuous. Males display together at a long, thin neck; small
communal area called a lek. During the display the male flash dovelike head; short
the silvery white undersides of its wings. Successful males may yellow bill with black tip.

mate with several females. Males leave shortly after breeding. Ruff
• NESTING Female incubates 19-21 days; precocial young Juvenile larger; smaller
head; shorter, droopy bill;
leave nest soon after hatching. First flight at about 21 days. long neck; deep-bellied,
1 brood per year. hump-backed body; U-
j shaped white rump band
• POPULATION Uncommon to fairly common on breeding • rare to casual.
grounds and during migration. Rare to casual or
in interior
uncommon in autumn migration on both coasts.
• Conservation Once
Flight Pattern abundant, but tameness and
flock density have made it
-\ * V* V* V vulnerable to slaughter by
market hunters. Protective laws
Swift direct flight with rapid wing beats.
have helped population recover
When flushed twists and turns like a snipe from near extinction.
as it climbs away.

Nest Identification
Lined with grasses or moss • on ground in pile of vegetation or in tree stump
• built by female • 4 white, buff, or olive eggs with brown blotches; pyriform,
Shape 1.3 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei £ nt 2.5

Sexe§ simjlar Migr atory ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

276 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len Sth 9-12.5 Win gspan
SCOLOPACIDAE Philomachus pugnax inches 16 _ 25 inches

Ruff
1 he male Ruff in breeding plumage is unique,

dressed in his frilly tufts and plumes that can variously adored
range from black to rufous to white to
speckled or barred. The much smaller
ruff, car tufts,
and neck plumes
small head
VI
red. greenish, yellowish,

female lacks the tufts and plumes, or orange facial warts

plump body ind wattles
and the breast is heavily blotched with humpback
with dark browns and blacks. In and potbelly
flight, females show a U-shaped
short slightly
white band on a dark brown rump; Male 11 a ureal bill
males show a white oval patch on
each side of the dark tail and chestnut to black
scapulars, mantle,
white underwings.
and tertials
• SONGUsually silent, except
during migration when birds in
flocks give cries of who-eeee.
Otherwise has a range of low
white undcrparts
grunting notes, koock or kuh-uck.
with multicolored
• Behavior Prefers
marshlands or wet meadows
yellow, orangt
or red legs
barring
J
Juvenile
where it probes in mud for food
or wades in water. Eats a variety
of terrestrial and aquatic insects,
crustaceans, and worms; some
plant materials.
grayishbrown
• BREEDING Polygamous upperpa its mottled black
Colonial. Male performs with buffy white edging
display at lek, in which it

raises ear tufts and ruffs, Similar Birds

then bows and begins Pectoral Sandpiper
kicking and pecking black-mottled* Smaller; shorter necked;
and blotched shorter yellow legs;
other males. Females
plumage on wide dark center to
visit the lek and are breast and flank rump with white sides.
chosen by one or several
Upland Sandpiper
males. Male leaves female
Long thin neck; small
shortly after courtship. head; dark barred tail

• Nesting incubation and rump.

20-23 davs by female. Precocial young leave nest day of

hatching and feed themselves
but tended by female. First
Flight Pattern
flight at 25-28 days. 1 brood per
year by female; several by male.
• Population Old World
species. Casual to rare on both
Has low but swift direct flight nth rapid West and East Coasts, around
wing beats. Great Lakes, and inland.

Nest Identification
Lined with grasses and leaves • on ground or in marsh on small pile of grass or
reeds, hidden in dense vegetation • built by female • 4 gray-green or buff eggs,
Shape — with brown spots; pyriform, 1.7 inches long.

Plumage Scxcs djffcr Habitat _ Migration

Migratory
Wei § ht
6.0 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 277

Family Species Len §th 10.5-12 inches

SCOLOPACIDAE Limnodromus griseus

Short-billed Dowitcher
This snipelike sandpiper is commonly seen in open
marshes and mudflats during migration. Dowitchers
are known by the long bill, a white wedge from
the barred tail to the back that is only visible
in flight, and a light belly. Although its
call differs from that of the Long-

billed Dowitcher, they are difficult

to distinguish in the field
because of the variety of

breeding plumages
in its three races and Winter
J
the overlap in bill length Plumage
between the two species. Juveniles are the easiest to separate
by plumage from August to October. Winter plumage is gray Similar Birds
overall. The female is similar to the male but larger. Long-billed
• SONG Generally silent. Utters clear mellow or abrasive chi-
Dowitcher
Slightly larger; longer
too-too or kee-you. Also sings tiddle-whee, especially in spring. legs; darker overall;
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious; feeds and roosts in large flocks and darker tail with w hire
bars narrower than dark
associates with other species. Eats mostly insects, also eggs of
liars; different voice
king or horseshoe crabs. Probes withfast up-and-down motion • females ma\ have
of Often submerges head in water. May freeze in standing
bill. longer bill than males
position when approached. Often flies at considerable heights. • in breeding plumage
lacks white underparts.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Male displays with a
hovering flight song over breeding territory.

• Nesting incubation

Flight Pattern
21 days by female, sometimes
by both sexes. Precocial young
leave nest soon after hatching.
Tended by male but feed
themselves. 1 brood per year.
Strong swift direct flight ith rapid • POPULATION Common.
wing beats.

Nest Identification
Sticks, leaves, and grasses * on ground in small pile of grass or moss • built by
both sexes • 4 buff-green or brownish eggs speckled and blotched with brown;
Shape pyriform, 1.6 x 1.1 inches.

Plumage
Scxcs similar Habitat — ^ te Migration
Migratory Wei § ht 3.8 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

278 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
SCOLOPACIDAE Species
Limnodromus scolopaceus Length
n _ 12 .5 i nc hes Wingspan 18 _
2 () inches

Long-billed Dowitcher
Despite its name, only the female has a slightly
longer bill than its cousin, the Short-billed
Dowitcher. The Long-billed prefers
freshwater habitats and migrates
south later in the season than
the Short-billed. Winter
plumage shows gray overall.
In breeding plum
birds show no wh
the underparts, ar
the tail is darker
than that of the
Short-billed,

pale chestnut to

buff supercilium

with smaller light bars and belly

than dark ones. Juveniles
greenish yellow
J
have darker upperparts and Winter
legs and feet
duller underparts than the juvenile Plumage
Short-billed. The scapulars have narrow
Similar Birds
dark rust edges, while the tertials have narrow, very even pale
edges. On the Short-billed these feathers are broadly edged Short-billkd
Dowitcher
with reddish buff, and many have internal markings. Slightly smaller; shorter
• SONG Fast high-pitched thin nasal keek or keek-keek-keek legs; paler upperparts;
some white in
usually uttered as a single or triple note. Also sings peter-wee-too.
underparts; paler tail
• BEHAVIOR When
feeding rapidly probes up
Gregarious. with white bars as wide
and down with long bill. Often puts entire head in water to or wider than dark bars;
different call.
probe for insects. Eats mostly insects and insect larvae but also
takes crustaceans, mollusks, and plant seeds. Favors freshwater Common Snipe
Long bill; boldly striped
mudflats in migration and winter. Often flies high in migration.
head; buff stripes on
• BREEDING Monogamous. Small colonies. Male sings while back; barred flanks;

performing hovering display rustv red tail.

flight.

• NESTING Incubation 20 days by both sexes in first week,

then just by male. Precocial

Flight Pattern
young leave nest day of
hatching, then tended by male
but feed themselves. 1 brood
per year.
• Population a bird that is

Swift direct flight with rapid w ng beats.

common to uncommon.

Nest Identification
Lined with leaves and grass • atop small pile of grasses or moss • built b\
female • 4 brown to olive eggs with brown and gray blotches; pyriform,
Shape Location 1.6 x 1.1 inches.

Plumage Sexes simjlar Habitat

_ _^ te Migration
Mligratory Weight
3 5

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 279

Family
SCOLOPAGIDAE Species
mnocryptes minimus
Length
12 S inches Wingspan
u ; nchc .

Jack Snipe
This native of Eurasia is the smallest snipe in the
world. Usually silent, the Jack Snipe can be noisy brown crown
when breeding, producing a rhythmical song bordered by buffy
split supercilium
that sounds like the thudding of a
4 golden buff
galloping horse, a surprisingly big stripes on back
and scapulars long straight
sound for such a tiny shorebird.
gray-yellow bill
Unless flushed, this shy blackish tipped
dark mantle
solitary bird rarely flies on outer third
and scapulars
during the day. It might with purple and
sit tightly in the green gloss \
marsh until it is

almost stepped on,

and only then will it

flutter slowly away,

staying close to the
vegetation and
quickly dropping back
into cover. Juveniles
brown si /raking
resemble adults but • short wedge-shaped on sides and flanks
have smaller and less dark brown tail

distinct brown streaking

on the undertail. hite underparts
• SONG Usually silent except during
pa/e „m7//s /, fegs
breeding, when it has a noisy muffled slurred
ogogog/K-ogog/K, which some say sounds like a horse's hoofs Male
also has a soft whistle.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary. Male gives display flight song on
territory insummer. Picks up food with probing jabs of long bill Similar Birds

into wet soil. Feeds with a repetitive up-and-down rocking Common Snipe
motion, as if on springs. Feeds along shore, in densely vegetated Larger in size; longer
bill; white in chestnut
shallow waters, and in wet boreal bogs. Eats mollusks, insects
wedge-shaped tail;
and their larvae, earthworms, and some seeds. Usually remains striped crown; streaked
still when approached rather than flushing. Well camouflaged and barred throat,

and difficult to see when motionless. breast, sides, and flanks:

(lushes with rapid
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. Male performs an aerial zigzag flight and gives
territorial display. sea-ape notes.

• NESTING Incubation 24 or more days by female. Young

precocial; tended by femal e; age
Flight Pattern
at first flight unknown. 2 broods
per year.

x •
as
Population Has occurred
an accidental spring migrant
in the Pribilofs and in the late
Weak fluttering direct flight w ith rapid
fall in California and Labrador.
shallow wing beats, usually of short
duration and low over marsh.

Nest Identification
Some grasses and stems • on grassy tussock, hidden by dense vegetation • built
by female • 4 pearl-gray or olive-brownish eggs, mottled with cinnamon-brown;
Shape pyriform, 1.5 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexes simjlar , j^jj ratory 1.9 ounC es

DATE TIME LOCATION

 .

280 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA

Family Species Len §th 10-1 Win gspan
SCOLOPACIDAE Gallinago gallinago 1 inches x 7 _ 20 inches

Common Snipe eyes set far back

Identified by extremely long, straight bill
its on haul

and longitudinal stripes on its head, this bird

typically can be found in freshwater marshes
and sw amps and in the vicinity of lakes and
rivers. It generally frequents open landscapes

• SONG On breeding grounds gives wheat-

wheat- wheat- wheat. N o n vocal, w n n o w n g, i i

territorial advertisement, whoo-whoo-

whoo-whoo, produced in flight by
rushing air vibrating two
outermost tail feathers that
are modified to produce
this sound.

• Behavior
Sits tight in wet boggy greenish
areas and blends into legs and feet Similar Birds
background, flushing
only when approached
AMERK w
WOOD< .< )( K
closely. When flushed, Chunkier; bars on
flies in zigzag pattern crow n, nor longitudina
srripes; no barring on
emitting sudden, rasping
flanks; cinnamon-buff
Feeds principally on insects, insect larvae,
skaipe vocalization. underparts, including
and earthworms taken from mud by probing with its long bill. wing linings.

• BREEDING Solitary nester. long-billki)

• NESTING Incubation 18-20 days by female. Precocial young dowitcher
Short-billed
leave nest within hours of hatching. First flight at 14-20 days. l)()\\ rCHER
I

1 brood per year. Lack head striping;

k
• POPULATION from 1980 to 1995.
Significant decline in US if barring or sporting on
longer neck.
Breeds in northern US, Canada, and Eurasia. Winters as far
south as northern South America and central Africa.
• CONSERVATION Lands
Flight Pattern have been managed primarily
increase populations for
hunting. It is highly
A V* V V
questionable whether the
Common Snipe should retain
Zigzag flight on takeoff followed by direct status as a game bird species.
Ili-lit with rapid wing beats.

Nest Identification
Scrape • 2—i olive-brown or pale oliv -brow n eggs co\ ere* ith mostly brow n

Shape Location — a* Ul and black dark spors and blotches, si ;hth eloss\ finish; 1 1.1 inches.

Plumage Scxcs simihu . Habitat Migration

^ lgraton We| g ht 4.5 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 n

BIROS OF NOR TH AMERICA • 281

Family Species Length Wingspan ??

SCOLOPACIDAE Scolopax rusticola 13>5 inches inches

Eurasian Woodcock
The plumage of this rare visitor to North America thick blackish ban
serves as camouflage in the European and Asian on bat h of crown

forests where it lives. Its long flexible bill

and nape
pale buffforehead
with a sensitiv e tip probe for food
helps it upperparts mottled andforecrown, with
in the cold ground. Females have been p brown streaks

reported to move chicks away from

dark narrow eye
intruders by carrying them in
from bill
stripe to
flight. The pale chestnut- behind eye
brown rump shows in flight.

• SONG Generally
except on
silent,
yellow-buff and
breeding territory. 1 liestnnt bro'^n

During breeding, barred coverts

and tertiah
male gives
accelerating series
of low, barely
audible grunts,
kwoor-kwoor-kwo-
pale hestnut-buff underparts,
i

ro or ook-ook-tsseee, /lark brown barred

blackish tail
followed by sharp with silvery white
loud pee-tzz, as he terminal band
performs courtship
broad pointed
flights at dawn and dusk wings
short gray-brown
low over the treetops. When legs a nel feet
flushed has grating repetitive call of shraaap.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary. Nocturnal. Probes for worms by
inserting bill deep in soil. Eats mostly earthworms but also
Similar Birds
slugs and insects; some plant materials. When feeding, walks
deliberately with constant rocking motion of body. UK \\
\Y( :ock
)()!)(
• BREP^DING Polygamous; loose colonies. Male performs Smaller in size; more
courtship display at dusk and in early morning. Males circle mm distincth e stripes clow
above treetops for 20 minutes at a time, calling to attract hack; more narrow outer
primaries; shorter and
females into territory for mating.
more rounded wings;
• NESTING Incubation 22 days by female. Precocial young laeks barring on

leave nest within 1-2 days of hatching to feed themselves, underparts and
underwings.
tended by female. First flight at 15-20 days. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Rare to accidental. Recorded in northeast
Canada, northeast United
Flight Pattern States, Virginia, and Alabama,
mostly in 19th century. No
recent records.
• Conservation Still

hunted throughout most of

Swift direct flight w ith rapid wing beats. native range in Eurasia.
When flushed, zigzags away.

Nest Identification
Lined with leaves and grasses • a grassy tussock, sheltered by bush, tree trunk
orstump • built by female • 4 ocherous eggs, spotted with brownish red; oval,
Shape 1.7 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
m^ Migration
Migratory Wei S ht 10.8
ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

282 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
SCOLOPACIDAE Species
Sro/opax minor Length
inches Wingspan
io.S-1 1 lg jnches

American Woodcock
The long bill of this upland shorebird is sensitive and flexible, allowing it

to feel for worms in deep soil. Woodcocks are rarely seen during the
day
unless flushed and escaping straightaway in flight on twittering rounded
wings. Chunky, short-necked, and short-legged, its plumage matches the
dead leaves of the forest floor and old fields where it roosts by day.
• SONG Generally silent. In spring, male on display ground
has nasal call of peeant, similar to that of the Common
Nighthawk. During display flights male produces a
musical twittering with wings and a liquid,
bubbling song from high overhead. short black tail
with silvery white
• BEHAVIOR Crepuscular terminal band
and nocturnal.

black and brown

barring on crown overall black
and bro wn
barring and
big eyes set
markings
high on head

long, thin
creamy pinkish
Similar Birds
bro wn bill •
Common Snipe
N More slender overall;
longer bill; striped head
pattern; pointed wings;
barred sides, flanks, and
Solitary. Eats mostly undertail coverts;

earthworms, but also takes streaked neck and

upper breast; buffy
slugs, insects, and some seeds and
white stripes on back;
berries. Before probing into soil with bill, often stamps foot on reddish tail with white
ground, causing earthworms to move. During feeding, walks terminal band; longer
greenish legs and feet.
slowly with a back and forth rocking motion.
BREEDING Polygamous; loose colonies. Male has complex Eurasian Woodcock

4
•
Accidental — no recent
courtship he flies from ground, circling as high as 300
flight:
records • much larger;
feet, hovers, chirps, and glides earthward in a series of zigzags. brown- and pale buff-
• NESTING Incubation 20-21 days by female. Precocial young barred underparts; more
pointed, longer wings.
leave nest 1-2 days after hatching to feed themselves, tended
by female. First flight at 14 days; independent at 42-56 days.
1 brood per year.

Flight Pattern
• Population Fairly
common. Casual to eastern
Colorado and eastern New
Mexico; accidental to
southeastern California.
Most often has swift flight; when flushed,
flies low for short distance before
• Conservation Hunted
dropping back into cover. and managed as a game bird.

Nest Identification
Lined with twigs and dried leaves • on ground, hidden in tall grasses, weeds
near stump of tree • built by female • 4 buff or cinnamon eggs, with gray,
Shape purple, and brown spots; oval, 1.5 x 1.1 inches.

Plumage Sexes
simiJar
Habitat
^ ^_ jf.
Migration
M igratory Weight
6 _?

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 283

Family Species Len 6th 8-9.5 inches Wingspan 4 .5_1 6 inches

SCOLOPAGIDAE phalaropus tricolor 1

Wilson's Phalarope
Phalaropes have devised a terrific way to get plankton and other food to
the water's surface for harvest. They spin like tops - as fast as 60 times
per minute - creating small whirlpools that pull food to the surface brownish black
where they can pick it up with their long slender bills. In flight, upperparts are duller

wings lack striping, and uppertail coverts are white.

This is the only
phalarope confined
to inland habitats
and restricted to
Male
the Western
white underparts
Hemisphere.
• SONG Generally silent.
Breeding call of nya sounds
like a toy whistle. Occasional
flight call a low croaking aangh.
dull yello w legs and •-
JUVENILE
J
feetwith narrow
• BEHAVIOR Tame. Solitary, la tend membranes
pairs, small flocks. Eats insects
larvae, crustaceans, marsh
plant seeds. Probes mud in pale gray crown lute mark
shallow water, sometimes broad black stripe above eye Winter
with head submerged. extends down neck, I'i i \i \<,i

Spins and dabbles. Seen fading to reddish

chestnut
following shoveler
ducks to pick stirred- Similar Birds

up prey from surface Lesser Yellowlegs

Sometimes snags 1 ,arger; darker
insects from air. upperparts; streaked
o range wash
breast and belly; lightly
Often walks in gray wing i
forms partial
barred tail; canary-
vegetation, picking prey coverts and necklace on
yellow legs.
pale gray neck
from ground and plants.
black cf J Red-necked
• BREEDING May be polyandrous. FEMALE leg:
i

Phalarope
and feet
Loose colonies. Female courts male by Smaller; shorter bill;

black ear patch even

swimming beside him and chasing off other females; eventually 9 in winter plumage;
male makes sexual advances. Male develops incubation patches. strongly streaked

• NESTING Incubation 1 8—2 1 days by male. Precocial young upperparts; dark gray
rump; white wing stripe.
leave nest day of hatching. Tended by male but feed
themselves. First flight at 16-18 days. 1 or more broods per year.
" POPULATION Abundant t

Flight Pattern common in the West, although

declining slightly. Uncommon

T to rare or casual in the P^ast.

• Conservation
of marshes has caused loss of
Drainage

Swift direct flight with rapid wing beats. nesting areas; protection of such
areas is needed.

Nest Identification
Lined with grass • female may start, but built mostly by male • 4 buff eggs with

Shape ^ Location —^ Jjji

brown blotches; pyriform, 1.3 inches long.

Plumage
Sexe§ differ Habitat
te _ Migration
jyj j gratory
Weight
2 4

DATE TIME LOCATION

284 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length
7 7S _ 8 jnches
Wingspan 14_
SCOLOPACIDAE piia iarop us lobatus 1

15 nches ;

Red-necked Phalarope
Formerly called the Northern Phalarope, this bird is the smallest
streaked gray
of the phalaropes, as well as the most abundant and widely torehead and
distributed. Like all birds in its genus, the male is the only
gender with brood patches with which to incubate the clutch.
Male and female have similar plumage, but male looks more
washed-out. White wing bars show in
dark gray back
flight. In winter plumage both sexes have
with striping buff
heavily streaked gray upperparts, whitish (iiid feather edgim
underparts, a black line through the eyes,
and dark legs and feet.

• SONG Flight call is soft clipp or twit,

tirric or twik. Utters various
insectlike alarm calls on
breeding grounds.
• BEHAVIOR Very tame.
Gregarious in migration and
winter; also pelagic in winter
Turns in circles while
feeding in shallow
water and picks up
zooplankton stirred
up to surface. Turns
over rocks, picks larvae
off water. Eats brine
shrimp, aquatic vegetation,
insect larvae, mollusks, and
plankton. Female initiates
courtship, selects scrape, and 'ay streaking on
ides and flanks Similar Birds
deserts male as soon as
incubation begins; sometimes mates with a second male. Red Phalarope
• BREEDING Monogamous,
least 10 percent). Solitary or in pairs.
• NESTING
or female serially

Incubation 17-21 days by male. Precocial young

leave nest soon after hatching and are able to
polyandrous

swim immediately
(at

4 Larger; longer wings

thicker yellowish
breeding season
winter has thicker
blackish bill; more
bill

• in

uniform pale gray

Tended by male but feed themselves. First flight at 20-21 days. upperparts without
whitish streaking.
1 brood by male and 1-2 broods by female per year.
• POPULATION Abundant. Common West Coast and inland in
off
the West during migration; rare
Flight Pattern inland in the Midwest and the
East; uncommon off Atlantic-
Coast; fairly common offshore
-1 * ~T in Maritimes and New England.
• Conservation
Swift swallowlike flight with rapid wing Vulnerable to marine pollution
beats and quick movements and turns.
and oil spills.

Nest Identification Lined with grasses, dried leaves, and stalks • in tussock of grasses or sunken in

mosses, often sheltered by vegetation • built by male, often in company of

female • 3—4 buff-olive cl;,hs spotted with brown; oval to pyriform,
Shape
1.2 \ ().<S inches.

Plumage Scxcs Habitat Migration Wei § ht ounces

differ :=. Migratory 1.2

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AM K RICA • 285

Species Len £th Wingspan

Family
SCOLOPACIDAE Phalaropus fulicaria 8-9 inches 14_ U) inchcs

Red Phalarope
Of all phalaropes, the Red is most pelagic, nests farthest north, and black

migrates farthest south. It breeds well north of the Arctic Circle and wing tips

winters at sea off both Atlantic and Pacific Coasts. Its bill is shorter
and thicker than that of other phalaropes. In flight it shows a
white wing stripe, a uniformly gray back (in
winter), and brownish legs and feet.
• SONG Bell-like clink-clink. Also a
shrieking shrill wit-wit and tink or tsik.

• BEHAVIOR 'lame. Solitary

or in small flocks; at sea black crown
occasionally in very large and forehead
flocks. Pelagic in winter.
Swims readily. Wades into
water to feed; finds food on
surface and in shallow water.
Swims and spins often,
picking up planktonic food
particles with its bill from
the surface. Eats small
insects, fish, and yellowish bill
aquatic invertebrates. with black rip

• Breeding Female
polyandrous; male promiscuous.
Semicolonial. Female selects
territory, leaves area shortly
and
after laying eggs;
chestnut-red underparts
Winter
sometimes mates again. Plumage
• Nesting incubation more brightly colored
18-20 days by male. Similar Birds

Precocial young leave FEMALE Rkd-nkckko

nest soon after hatching. Phalarope
Thinner, needlelike
Tended by male but smaller • in winter
bill;
feed themselves. First plumage is darker with
16-20 days.
flight at heavily striped back;
blacker crown; more
1 brood per year by
tnut-red underparts contrasting wing stripe.
male and 2 broods by female.
• POPLILATION Abundant on breeding grounds. In winter and
migration fairly common off the

Flight Pattern West Coast; uncommon off the

East Coast. Rare inland.
• CONSERVATION Accidents
occur during migration, such as
collisions with lighthouses.
Sw ift direct flight with rapid wing bt Storms at sea can blow birds
inland. Vulnerable to oil spills.

Nest Identification
Domed with grass • lined with grasses and other fine materials • on ground near
water • built by male • 3—1 olive-green eggs blotched with black or brown; oval
Shape Location to pyriform, 1.2 x 0.9 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat _ Migration
Mi gratory Weight
| ^

DATE TIME LOCATION

286 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
Laridae Species
Stercorals skua len ^ 20-22 inches Wingspan
54_59 inches

Great Skua
Sometimes called a sea hawk because its habits resemble those of
inland raptors, this skua is known to steal food from other

seabirds. A native of Iceland and northern Europe, it can be

seen dff the north Atlantic Coast year-round. About the size
of a stocky Herring Gull, this bird will attack gannets. It broad white
likes to tend large fishing boats w here it may take- markings on
upper primaries
scraps, throw backs, and garbage. A dark chunky
heavy-looking bird with wide wings that show dark brown
patches of w hite at the base of the primaries, it underwing <

looks somewhat hunchbacked in flight. It

displays pale and dark color phases, brownish overall,

streaked with gold and
heavy blackish
gray bill with
dark tip

• Song
Calls skooo-aa,
skoooo-aa. When
defending nest,
cries tuk-tuk-tuk.
• Behavior
Pomarine, Parasitic,
Spends much time at
and Long-tailed
sea. Eats fishes, small seabirds, Jaegers
ducks, small mammals, carrion, and refuse. Steals fish from Dark morphs • smaller:

not barrel chested; may

other birds by attacking them from the air and causing them to
have tail points (unless
release or disgorge prey. Usually initiates pursuit-chases with molted); narrower
low -level attack, harassing birds as large as gannets by chasing wings; less striking wing
patch.
them and grabbing their tail or w ing until they disgorge their
catch, which the skua often catches before it hits the water. South Polar Skua
Lacks reddish tones and
• BREEDING Usually monogamous, but have been know n to
streaking on upperparts
be polygamous; small colonies. Raises w ings in display flight. • "blond phase" much
• NESTING Incubation 26-29 days by both sexes, but mostly paler with less streaking
and much paler head.
by female. Semiprecocial young stay in nest 42-49 days, fed by
both parents. First flight at about 60 days, but young stay near nest
for 21-28 more days, tended by S
both parents. 1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Uncommon
of the north and middle Atlantic 4 \ /

Coast south to North Carolina

from November to March.
Strong purposeful direct flight with
shallow constant wing beats; hugs wave
contours or flies up to 150 feet high.

Nest Identification
Lined with leaves, moss, and grass • on rocky ground at base of bank or slope
by both sexes • 1-3 yellow to green or brown eggs, marked with purple
• built
Shape and brown splotches; short elliptical, 2.6 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

146
Sexes sj A [ja r atorv

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 287

Family Species Length Wingspan 52 inchcs

LARIDAE Stercorarius fnaccormicki 21 i nc h cs

South Polar Skua

Rarely seen from shore, this skua spends much of its time at sea,
scavenging around fishing boats and chasing gulls and shearwaters.
It nests along the coast of Antarctica but winters (our summer) in

northern oceans; vagrants have been spotted in the Aleutians

and once in North Dakota. They may be seen well off the
Atlantic and Pacific coasts from May to November. In flight,
the South Polar Skua looks stout-bodied and chunky, with a
"hunched shoulder" appearance. The smallest of the
skuas, this bird has a smaller head than the Great Skua;
both a light and dark morph with gradations in
between may range from almost white-bodied to
white base to
blackish. The intermediate morph has a medium- primaries forms
brown nape and underparts. bar on middle of
forming
• SONG Usually silent away from
breeding areas. Gull-like scoo-ah.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary outside
breeding season. Aggressive brown unstreaked
ninter. Eats fish, penguin eggs, mantle
lemmings, and carrion.
Shakes birds with its bill
hort broad tad

broad rounded wings

to make them let go of their prey then seizes it. Dives into Pale
water from air to catch fish. Tends fishing trawlers. Defensive morph
at nest; often flies straight at the head of a human intruder.
Similar Birds
• BREEDING Monogamous; small colonies. Male feeds female
during courtship. Great Skua
-arger; reddish
NESTING
I

• Incubation 24-34 days by both parents; female streaking on upperpam

does more. Young semiprecocial; one nestling may be forced lacks pale nape
by its sibling to leave nest shortly after hatching; usually dies. • eastern range.

The remaining one is fed by both parents by regurgitation.

First flight at 49-59 days.
Flight Pattern 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Casual May
to November well offshore on
both Pacific and Atlantic Coasts,
aspostbreeding birds disperse
Strong swift direct flight with constant
northward from Antarctica.
shallow wing beats.

Nest Identification
Moss or bare soil • on rocky slopes, bottom of hill • male begins nest, female
completes • 1-3 yellow to green or brown eggs marked with purples and
Shape
IL- browns; short elliptical, 2.4 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat^ ^ Migration
M jg ratory Weight ?
5 pound

DATE TIME LOCATION

288 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Fami| y Species Len §tn Win gspan 48
Laridae Stercorals pomarinus 20-23 inches nches ;

Pomarine Jaeger
The largest and strongest jaeger is about the size of a Ring-billed or Heermann's
Gull, with a bulky body, thick neck, and wide-based wings. Like many of the
skuas, its nesting is lemming populations on the Arctic tundra. When
related to
the brown lemming is numerous these seabirds nest, and when the rodent is not
abundant they may not breed at
ihot olate-brown hen k,
It has a light color morph yellowishwash uppt / "wing cot >erts,
and a more rare dark over nape and secondary flight feathers
morph. Adults • cheeks J and tailfeathers
2 long central tail
feathers twisted
90 degrees

have 2 blunt central

tail feathers with vanes

twisted vertically. In flight

this bird appears bulkier,
with a slower wing beat, than
other jaegers, and displays a
larger white patch at the base of
the primaries, often with a second
smaller and fainter patch nearby.
Similar Birds
• SONG Often silent, except on
breeding grounds. Sharp which-yew or yeew; Parasitic Jaeger

high-pitched week-week or yeew-eee.

•
small
Often
BEHAVIOR
mammals,
steals
Solitary or in pairs. Predatory. Eats
fish, birds, carrion, and refuse.
from other seabirds. Picks up prey Dark
4 Smaller; more slender;
two central tail feathers
extended and pointed
but not twisted; smaller
bill; less

of primaries.
white at base

with bill, never talons. Found at sea outside M( >KI'! I

soi i ii polar Skua

breeding season. Bulky, heavy body;
• BREEDING Monogamous; small colonies. golden streaking on
nape; hunchback
During courtship, male and female face one
appearance; short
another and vibrate wings while singing.
Jl VENILE wedge-shaped tail with
• NESTING Incubation 25-27 days by both central tail feathers not
extended.
sexes. Semiprecocial young leave nest after a few
da\s, but tended 42 days or more. First flight at 21 27 days after
fledging nest. Average less than
1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Uncommon
to fairlycommon on tundra
1 breeding grounds. Common to
uncommon far offshore on both
Strong steady flight with slow deep winj.
coasts outside breeding season.
beats like a large gull; may alternate
several wing beats with long glide.

Nest Identification
Lined with plant material • on ground • built by both parents • oh\ e to brown
eggs, with darkbrown blotches; short elliptical, 2.6 inches long.
Shape

Plumage Sexes s ; mi)ar

Habitat Migration Wei § ht
pounds
Migratory 1 .4

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 289

Length Wingspan 36 inches

Family
L ARIDAE Species
Stercorarius parasiticus 15 _ 21 inch(

Parasitic Jaeger
This skua can sometimes be seen from shore, intruding
upon migrating flocks of terns and stealing food from
other seabirds. It has two distinct color morphs,

light and dark, and many intermediates.

Falconlike in pursuit, it is about the size
of a Laughing or Mew Gull and normally
flies with quick wing beats broken by

short glides. It is not known to breed

until three to five years of age.
• SONG Usually silent when not
on breeding grounds. Yelping
notes and rising skooo-a
or ka-aaow.

2 pointed and
extended antml
tail feathei

• Behavior Solitary off

breeding grounds. Predatory.
Eats refuse, small birds
(feathers and all), bird eggs,
small mammals, insects, and
berries. Steals most of its food
from terns and other seabirds.
When ashore, may walk while
foraging. Winters closer to the POMARINE JAEGER
coast than other jaegers. ^arger; two central tail

feathers twisted toward

• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Paler morphs tip; larger and broader
usually breed at younger age than darker morphs. white wing patches;
heavier
• NESTING Incubation 25-28 days by both parents.
hill.

Young semiprecocial; first flight at 25-35 days, but tended

by both parents and fed by
regurgitation for 21 days or
Flight Pattern
more. 1 brood per year.
• Population Fairly
< common; stable. Casual inland
in fall migration; especially on
Fast wing beats compared to other jaegers;
often alternate s flap and glide like a
Great Lakes and Salton Sea.
falcon. Also h( vers.

Nest Identification
Lined with plant material • on ground near base of cliff or slope • male chooses
by both sexes, but female does more • 2 brown to green or sometimes
site; built
Shape blue eggs, with brown spots; short elliptical, 2.2 inches long.

Plumage
£e Sexes similar Habltat Migration Weight
Mj gratory 14 9 ounces
_

DATE TIME LOCATION

290 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
LARIDAE sterra /r/ri us longicaudus 20_?3 inches 30_33 jnches

Long-tailed Jaeger
Distinguished by its eight- to ten-inch central tail feathers,
this jaeger seen from land outside breeding season
is rarely
in the Arctic. These birds migrate in family groups to the
central Pacific and south Atlantic in winter, but their
route is unknown. The smallest of the jaegers, it is

the least likely to steal food from other seabirds

and is highly dependent on the tundra's
small rodent populations in summer. In -• dark brown flight
flight adults do not show a breast band, feathers contrast

as do other jaegers. They have light with gray coverts

grayish brown upperparts and long

slender wings without a white patch at
the base of the primaries (shafts of
three outer primaries are white) and a
slender body. Juveniles have a short
tail and a white patch at the base of
the primaries under the wing.
• SONG While flying, pheu-pheu-
pheu. When irritated utters kr-r-r-r,
kr-r- r-r, kir-kri-kri.

• BEHAVIOR In summer eats

mostly lemmings and other small
rodents, but also takes birds, eggs,
insects, carrion, and berries. In winter
eats fish, squid, carrion,and refuse. Uses
beak to pick up food. Catches insects
and other prey in flight. Often flies low
over land or water. Most pelagic jaeger in
postbreeding season.
Similar Birds
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial.
Does not breed until 3-4 years old. Courtship display features Parasitic Jaeger
During courtship, male feeds female from Larger; black legs;
zigzag chasing flight.
-jr larger white patch on
the ground. outer wings; grayish
• NESTING Incubation 23-25 days by both sexes. Young breast band; short,
pointed central tail
semiprecocial; 22-27 days, but both sexes tend and
first flight at
feathers.
feed by regurgitation for 7-21 days. 1 brood per year unless
lemmings are scarce, then birds will not breed at all.
• Population Common on
Flight Pattern tundra breeding grounds.
Trends stable. Disperses widely
at sea outside breeding season.
Fairly common to uncommon
offWest Coast; casual in Gulf of
Light floating buoyant ternlike flight is

graceful compared with other jaegers.

Mexico and on East Coast. Rare
Hovers before dipping to pick up prey. to accidental inland.

Nest Identification
Lined with grasses, moss, and leaves • on ground near edge of slope • built
mostly by female • 2 brown to olive eggs with dark brown and gray blotches
Shape short elliptical, 1.1 inches long.

Plumage Sexe§ simi ar ,

Habitat
^ Migration
Mi gratory Weight
99 QU

DATE TIME LOCATION

 —
BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 291

Wingspan 40 _ 42 inchcs
Family
p R NG ILLIDAE
i
Species
Lams atriciUa I
Length
15 _ 17 inches I

Laughing Gull
Named for its laughterlike call, this gull was
threatened by the feather trade in the early p black hood
20th century. Now this coastal inhabitant
forms colonies with thousands of nests.
A distinguishing habit is its outer
tendency to steal food from the tiaries •

Brown Pelican by
snatching
pelican's
after it

with a catch. This

it

pouch
surfaces

three-year gull passes

through two different
winter plumages prior to
out of the

w I white trailing
edge to
base to inner
wing from

prima ries
attaining adult plumage.
Adults have a white tail year gray wings
round. In winter adults the black
head is replaced by a gray smudge
on the nape, and the bill, legs, and
feet are dull blackish.
• SONG Throaty cheer-ahl cheer-ahl Or Jl VI Ml I

ka-ha, ka-ha and long, drawn-out, strident

-1
laugh of ha-ha-ha-hah-ha-ha, hah-hah-hah.
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Omnivorous; eats J
fish, crustaceans, insects, carrion, eggs, young birds, Second
earthworms, and refuse. Unlike some shoreline birds, does not Winter
swim underwater but snatches food from surface or ground,
Similar Birds
foraging while walking or wading. Occasionally plunges head
and neck underwater while searching for or catching food. KR Wkl.lVs Gl l.l

Partial black hood;

Excellent flier; ride updrafts from ships and ferries across bays, * white bar on primaries;
channels, or shipping lanes for miles, watching for food thrown white primary tips;
overboard into water. Will accept food tossed in the air and from broader w hite crescent
patches above and
human hand.
below eves; pale gray
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. central tail feathers;

• NESTING Incubation about 20 days by both sexes. Young paler bases to

underwing primaries.
leave nest to hide in nearby vegetation after a few days. Both
sexes feed first by regurgitation, solid food later. First flight at
35 days. 1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern • Population Common.
Probably stable over much of
range, but numbers have been

Pt
Slow flight with deep wing beats. May
increasing in the northeastern
US in recent years.

soar on updrafts and deflected wind ove

dunes, beaches, parking lots, and ships.

Nest Identification
Little lining in scrape; cup lined with grass, sticks, and debris • built by both
sexes • 3 olive to buff eggs with brownish marks; ovate to elliptical ovate or
Shape pyriform, 1.9-2.3 x 1.9-2.3 inches.

Plumage
Sexes similai Habitat
^ Migration
Migratory Wei S ht 11.5 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

292 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Fami 'y Species Length Win gspan
Laridae Larm pip txcan 1 3-1 5 inches 36 inchcs

Franklin's Gull
Often called the Prairie Dove, this three-year gull is
sometimes spotted on farmland, following plows to feed white crescents abo ve
and below ey
on grubs and other insects. The bird has a characteristic
black hood in summer, but in winter its head is white
with the reduced dusky hood covering its eye and
reaching from midcrown to nape, fn flight, it differs
from the similar Laughing Gull by a white bar and
large white tips on primaries and a paler
surface on the underwing primaries.
I red bill
• SONG A shrill kuk-kuk-kuk, with
weeh-ah, weeh-ah occasionally
interjected. white-tipped secondary
white-tipped blat k * flight faitIn- is
primary flight
fit 1 1 hers »

-m white underparts
with pinkish
highlights

white wing band

between /dad lips
red legs andfeet
and slate-gray bases

• Behavior .11 \ I \n I

Gregarious. Terrestrial
in summer; winters on
Pacific Ocean from Central America
southward. Forages for food while walking,
J
wading, or swimming, sometimes spotting prey while
First Second
Winter Winter
hovering over water. Eats insects, fish, leeches, earthworms,
crustaceans, and snails. Sometimes catches insects while
flying. Attends agricultural cultivating machinery, taking Similar Birds
exposed prey. Lai ghing (;i ll
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Fuller hood; smaller
crescent patches around
• NESTING Incubation 18-25 days by both sexes. eyes; lacks w hite w ing

Semiprecocial young fed by both sexes. First flight at bar; darker primary tips
above and below.
32-35 days. brood per year.
1

• POPULATION Common in breeding range, but local populations

often fluctuate due to rainfall or
Flight Pattern drought patterns. Rare in
migration on both coasts; rare in
winter on Gulf Coast and in
southern California.
• Conservation Some loss
Strong direct flight w ith deep wing heats. of nesting habitat due to
Soars on thermals and updrafts.
agricultural practices.

Nest Identification
Lined with bulrushes, cattails, anil other plant material • built by both sexes
• dull buff, olive, or brow n eggs blotched w ith brow n or black; ovate to

^ ^
.}

Shape Location elliptical ovate or pyriform, 2.1 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
Jt te ^ Migration
MiKratory Weight 9
9

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 293

Length Wingspan
Family
LARIDAE Species
[ arus minutui 12 inches 24 _ 26 nches
;

Little Gull
This E uropean native is rarely encountered in great
numbers in North America. The first Little Gull nest
in North America was discovered in 1962. The
white-tipped
smallest of all gulls, this shoreline inhabitant
flight feathers
sometimes is seen alongside Bonaparte's Gulls
and terns. In w inter months, the Little Gull
sports a gray cap. a gray spot behind both
eyes, and a black bill. Breeding adults
have a black cap. In flight, note the
rounded wing with dark gray to WINTER
black underwings, contrasting PLUMAGE
with the pale upperwing and
body and square tail.
Juveniles show a black bar dark red bill
with black tip
on the upperwings in
flight. This is a two- to
three-year gull.
• SONG Calls include
a kek-kek-kek with a
repeated kay-e.

• Behavior
Forages for food by
flying low over land
or the water's
surface, sometimes
Similar Birds
dipping down while
in flight to catch Bonaparte's. Gull
Larger; black w h ire
prey. Also forages while swimming and wading in shallow water, hill;

w edge on outer wing

Feeds primarily on insects summer; otherwise crustaceans,
in
(primaries); black-
mollusks, spiders, small fish, and marine worms. Feeding flight tipped primaries; pale
is hesitant, wavering, and ternlike as it dips down, legs trailing, underw ing surface.

to pick up food from water. BLAI k-HK \DKI) Gru.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Significantly larger, dark
brown-black head; red
• NESTING Incubation 23-25 days by both sexes. bill; white wedge on

Semiprecocial young remain in nest 21-24 days, fed by both onrer wing; black-
tipped primaries.
sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Rare to uncommon. North American populations
scattered and irregular.
Flight Pattern Common in Eurasian countries.
• Conservation North
American numbers probably not
large enough to be self-
sustaining, but birds migrating
Strong direct flight with deep wing beats
from Europe maintain a small
particularly on downstroke.
but steady population.

Nest Identification
Grass- and leaf-lined w ith weeds and reeds • on wet ground, sometimes built
higher • built by both sexes • 1-5 yellowish, olive-brown, greenish gray eggs,
Shape marked w ith reddish brow n and grav; ovate, 1.6 x 1.8 inches.

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei 6 ht

Sexes sim ;, ar Migratory 4.2 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

294 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
LARIDAE s P ecies Larus tidibundus Len §th 14-16 inches Win § s P an
40 inches

Black-headed Gull
Despite its name, the Black-headed Gull has a
chocolate-brown head during the breeding season
In its native Eurasian habitat it is usually found
in freshwater; however, while wintering in pale gray wings
vhite nape, neck,

North America it lives in coastal waters. In • and back and^underparts

flight this two-year gull shows

blackish primaries on the
underwing, a white
wedge on the

wing fore-edge, and black-

tipped primaries. Winter
adults lose the dark hood and
have a black ear spot. Juveniles
are similar to winter adults but
have a paler bill, legs, and feet; a
black tail tip; and a brown carpal bar.
• SONG Resembles laughter; harsh
nasal varied kraah. Remains very vocal
outside breeding season.
• BEHAVIOR Eats insects, crustaceans, earthworms, marine
worms, mollusks, small fish, carrion, seeds, and berries. Swoops
down while flying and picks up prey from water. Also steals Similar Birds
food from other birds. Follows plows to pick up exposed prey.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. BON VPARTE'S GULL
Smaller; pale
• NESTING Incubation 23-26 days by both sexes. underw ing, including
Semiprecocial young remain in nest for 10 days, fed by both primaries; black hood;
black bill.
sexes. First flight at 35 days. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Fairly common in winter in Newfoundland
where there are small breeding
Flight Pattern colonies. Rare in winter off the
coast of the Maritimes and
New England; accidental to
f western Alaska. Casual to
C~ t accidental elsewhere.
Light buoyant direct flight on long
pointed angled wings. Soars on
thermals and updrafts.

Nest Identification
Lined with leaves, moss, and grasses • on ground hidden by v egetation • built
by both sexes • 2-4 gray-green to tan or yellowish eggs marked with brown or
Shape — «* Uii
olive; oval to elliptical, 2 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei § ht 10.0

Sexes sim ; lar Migratory ou

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 295

Fami| y Species Len eth 2-14 inches Wingspan 33 _

laridae Larus pkUadelphia 1 36 inch

BONAPARTE'S GULL
This is one of the smallest gulls in North America
and the smallest native species. It is named for
blackish bond
French zoologist Charles Lucien Bonaparte, a
nephew of Napoleon. In winter plumage it
shows a plain white head without the
black hood, leaving only a distinctive gray back
and wings
black spot between the eye and ear.
black bill
In flight, note a white wedge on
the leading edge of the outer
wing, black tips on the
primaries, and pale
underwings. This is a
ggg
two-year gull.

black-tipped white wedge

primaries on wing white
underparts
orange legs

• SONG Shrieking J
whistles and a call of cheeer. '
- -M **— JUVENILE
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Eats
mostly insects on summer breeding ~ '
.

f k
grounds, where it sometimes hawks - rr-
flying insects. In winter eats fish,
J"
crustaceans, and marine worms. Catches fish Winter
by wading in water as well as by diving. Plumage
Forages on ground for insects and also catches Similar Birds
them in flight. Its habit of nesting in trees is most unusual
Black-hkaokd (iri.i.
among gulls.
Dark brown-black hood;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary or small colonial. red bill; dark underside
of primaries.
• NESTING Incubation 24 days by both sexes. Not known
when semiprecocial young first fly, but known to be fed by both
parents while in nest. 1 brood
I

per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Stable.
Common in migration and
winter on Great Lakes and on
Pacific, Atlantic, and Gulf
Light and buoyant direct flight i s ternlike. Coasts. Uncommon migrant
with rapid wing beats.
inland in the West.

Nest Identification
Sticks lined with moss and grasses; abandoned nests lined with hay and moss
• coniferous tree, 4-20 feet above ground • built by both sexes • 2-4 olive to
Shape Location
^ buff eggs, marked with brown blotches; ovate to elliptical-ovate, 2 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat ^ _^ Migration
Mi „ ratory Weight
y_ 5 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

296 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Fami| y
Laridae Species
Larus fcicheri Len Stn 20
inches Wingspan 48 _4 9
I I
jnches

Band-tailed Gull
Marked by its black back and distinctive tail band,
this stray gull from South America often harasses
cormorants, forcing them to regurgitate their
food. The Band-tailed Gull also preys on the
eggs and chicks of guano-producing birds
on the Pacific coast of its native South
America. Winter adults have a white In ad,
dark eves and yellot
dark smokv-b rown hood. black back and neck, breast,
orbital ring
and underparts
This is a three-year gull. upperwings •

yellow bill with red

tip and black
snbterminal band

white tail with

broad black
snbterminal band
and narrow white
terminal band

yellow legs
and feet

.0* ^
Second Third
winter winter
• SONG Not recorded. Similar Birds
• BEHAVIOR Coastal species B LACK-TAILED Gl'LL
of the Band-tailed Gull are found on beaches, on offshore Light yellow eyes;
islands, open waters. This bird eats insects, small fish,
and in shorter legs; thinner
bill; paler gray mantle
crustaceans, marine worms, carrion, and refuse. It picks up food
and upperwings
while Also forages while wading, walking, or
in flight. • winter adult has
swimming. Does not follow ships. grayish brown smudge
head and nape.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. oil

• NESTING Incubation time 28-30 days by both sexes. Both

sexes feed nestlings. Young
semiprecocial; first flight at
Flight Pattern
35-40 days. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION The Band-
tailed Gull is accidental in
Florida and California. It is

Direct flight with strong deep w ing beats.

common on the western coasts
of Chile and Peru.

Nest Identification
Lined with leaves, moss, and grasses • on gro„...
and It by both sc\cs

• 3brownish to olive-colored eggs, blotched w ith brown and gray ovate tc

Shape elliptical ovate, 2.8 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes simikr Habitat
^^ Migration
Migrator Wei g nt
1.3pound5

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AM P2 RICA • 297

Fami| y Species Len §th Wingspan

Laridae J J/nis dominicanus 23 inches 53 nch(
;

Kelp Gull
This is the only large gull with a black back
and white tail that breeds in the
Southern Hemisphere, where it
has a wide range. Occasionally
m -^-^ white head
strays are seen off North black upperwing with
America's Gulf Coast, and 0 white trailing edge,
black back narrow white tips, and
since the 1990s several pairs
white mirror in outer
have nested off the Louisiana primary only
coast on the Chandeleur Islands;
accidental in Maryland. A three-
year gull, the adult looks like a

Great Black-backed Gull or Western

Gull, but the white in the wing tips is
more restricted and the legs and feet
are greenish yellow instead of pink. In
flightit shows grayish white

underwings with dusky gray primaries

and white tips. Some breeding adults
greenish yellow
may have streaks on the head or legs and feet
neck, but winter adults do not.
• SONG A harsh kee-ooch, often repeated Lesser Black-
backed Gu
rapidly; other shrill and squawking calls.
Smaller; yellow legs and
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. In small groups, feet • breeding adult

larger flocks, or with other gulls with which it

has slate-gra}
upperwings and hack;
forages, rests,and roosts. Forages at sea near coast
darker gray underwings
and along shore, where it frequents estuaries, • winter adults
harbors, and outlying and offshore islands. Also additionally ha\ e du^
streaking on the head
frequents inland rivers and lakes. Not pelagic.
and neck.
Picks food from water and pursues terrestrial prey.
Eats small fish, crustaceans, rodents, insects, and Great
Black-b ^cked Gull
young of other birds. Also eats carrion and offal. Adults are much larger;

• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. May breed hea\ )

yellow bill with

with the Herring Gull. Second red gonys spot; black

W ni i i i< back and upperwings;
• NESTING Incubation 24-25 days by both extensive w hite in tips

sexes. Semiprecocial young brooded by female; tended by both and mirrors of wings;
pink legs and feet.
sexes for 35-40 days. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Casual in North America on Gulf Coast in
southeastern Texas and islands
Flight Pattern off southeastern Louisiana.
• CONSERVATION
Vulnerable to disturbance and
destruction of eggs and chicks
by humans and by domestic or
Direct flight with slow steady wing beats;
introduced predators at its
soars on thermals and updrafts.
nesting colonies.

Nest Identification Lining of grasses and weeds • hollow in grassy tussock or pile of grasses set
in reeds, or on rock stacks • built by both sexes • 2-3 eggs, green-blue or
Shape buff w ith purple or brow n spots and blotches; short oval to long oval,
2.55 x 1.7 inches.

Plumage
Sexcs simi , ar
Habitat >^ _ A Migration
Nonmigratory Wei ^ ht 1.3
pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

298 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Fami| V
LARIDAE Species
Lams Length
18 _ 19 inches Wingspan
crass irostris 47 _j 8 inches

Black-tailed Gull
Easily identified with its combination of yellow

billwith red tip and black subterminal band,

white head, nee/:,
yellow eyes with red orbital ring, and broad
breast, and
black tail band, this Asian straggler has been underparts
spotted on rare occasion in San Diego Bay,
California. It is also casual in coastal large yellow bill
Alaska and in northeastern North with black ring
• above red tip
America as far south as Virginia. n „ht charcoal-gray
wings, and bat k •

long wings

L
broad black subterminal •
band and white terminal JUVENILE
band on tail

white-based tail
with white hort yellow

Since these three-year

uppertail coverts legs and feet
X
Second
gulls are nomadic but WINTER
nonmigratory, it is difficult to I

understand how
they find their
way to North America. Winter adults
have a brownish gray-streaked head and nape Third
• SONG Very low kaoo-kaoo. WINTER
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Frequents seashores, where it feeds
Similar Birds
on small fish, especially smelt and greenlings. Also eats insects,
crustaceans, carrion, and refuse. Like most gulls, catches insects Band-tailed Gull
Darker blackish
and other food in flight. Often forages while wading, swimming, upperwings and mantle;
and walking. dark eyes with yellow
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. orbital ring; longer legs.

• NESTING Incubation 24-27 days by both sexes.

Semiprecocial young known to
be fed by both sexes, but it is
Flight Pattern
not known how long they stay
in nest. First flight at
30-40 days. 1 brood per year.
• Population Accidental to
casual in North America.
Strong direct flight with deep wing beats
Common in Asia.

Nest Identification
Dry grass • on ledges, slopes, and small cliffs hidden by vegetation • built by
both sexes • 2-3 greenish to ocherish eggs with dark spots; oval to elliptical oval,
Shape 2.6 inches long.

Plumage Sexes simi!ar Habitat

^ Migration
Nonmigratory/nomadic We '£ ht 1.3 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 299

Wingspan 43 inchcs
Species
16_ lg nches
Fami| v Length
Laridae J ants can us ;

Mew Gull
Heard from the tops of conifers with its catlike mee-you, the
Mew Gull is common along the Pacific coast. It breeds
white head, neck,
along the coast and on lakes in the interior of extreme
breast, and
northwestern North America. Separated from similar gulls underparts
by the short unmarked yellow bill and the white spots
large dark eyei
(mirrors) in the black-tipped primaries.
Winter adults have a white head
<'ray mantle
washed with brown and a

small yelloi
black-tipped bill with
flight feather. greenish tint

vhite band on
primary flight
feathers near wing tip
greenish yellow J"
legs and feet JUVENILE First
year
white tail with a black subterminal band.
This
• SONG
is a three-year gull.

Kee-ya, he-yet, kee-ya; mewing call

T
Second
J
Third
quee-you or mee-you. year year
• BEHAVIOR Omnivorous. Forages mostly on beaches,
Similar Birds
mudflats, garbage dumps, and pastures. Eats small fish, insects,
crustaceans, mollusks, earthworms, small rodents, grains, ring-billed (ii ll
Larger; black ring
berries, carrion, refuse, and small birds of other species. Catches around larger yellow
While flying, drops hard-shelled mollusks to
insects in flight. bill; more black on

break shells and eats the flesh inside. Follows plows to pick up primaries.

larvae and worms. California (. 1 1 1

• BREEDING Monogamous; small colonies or solitary pairs. Larger; less white on

primaries; larger heavier
• NESTING Incubation 22-28 days by both sexes. red spot on lower
bill;

Semiprecocial young stay around nest 32-40 days, fed by both mandible; greenish-
yellow legs and feet.
parents. First flight at 35 days. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Common; stable. Rare inland in western coastal
states; casual to Great Lakes.
Flight Pattern European race casual to
Newfoundland and
northeastern coast. Siberian race
rare on Aleutian Islands.

Graceful buoyant nonlabored flight.

• Conservation Species
Undulating, roller coaster-like flight with vulnerable to marine pollution
several rapid wing beats and a pause. and oil spills. w
Nest Identification
Scrape lined with grass and leaves; platform built of twigs and grass • built by
Shape jfc.
both sexes • 3 yellow-brown to green-brown or olive to buff eggs, marked with

Location _ ^ A> gj.

browns; oval to elliptical oval, 2.2 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes similar |
Habitat~ Migration
Migratory Wei § ht 15.2 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

300 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species
Larus delawarensis Length Wingspan 48
Laridae 18-19 inches inches

Ring-billed Gull
One of the most widespread
and familiar gulls in North
pale eyes with red
America, the Ring-billed orbital rine
Gull can be. distinguished
by the black subterminal
band on its yellow bill.
pale gray
upperwings Juvenile First
yellow bill • ? and back Winter
with black
subterminal
band

J J
This three-year
Second Third
Winter Winter
bird is like many
other gulls in that
it is energetic when black primaries
gathering food. It has with some white

been seen foraging window

• markings
through dumps and
parking lots near human
populations, as well as
wading and swimming white underparts
for prey in inland lakes. including
underwings
Winter adults have a
• yellow legs
brown-streaked head. and feet vhite tail

• SONG High-pitched
repeated hiyak, hiyak. Cg Similar Birds
sharp ky-ow.
• BEHAVIOR Omnivorous;
eats earthworms, insects and
insect larvae, fish, grain, rodents,
A
m
. California Gull
Larger; red spot near
tip of lower
mandible; yellow bill;
greenish yellow legs
and refuse. Very active in gathering food; follows plows, and feet.

scavenges through refuse, steals food from other birds, and Herring Gull
forages while walking, wading, and swimming. This ecologically Larger; red spot near
tip of lower
adaptable species has benefited by man's alteration of habitat.
mandible; flesh-
• BREEDING Monogamous; sometimes polygamous. Colonial. colored legs and feet.

• NESTING Incubation 21-28 days by both sexes.

Semiprecocial young stay
around nest 35 days. Fed by
Flight Pattern
both sexes. 1 brood per year.

Strong direct flight w ith

V
deep wing
t
beats.
• POPULATION
Increasing despite depletion
late 1800s.
3-4 million.
Estimated
Abundant.

at
i

Soars on thermals.

Nest Identification Made of w eeds, bits of debris, and grass • on ground, sometimes among rocks
by both sexes • 2—i olive-brown to brown
or occasionally in low tree • built
eggs with lavender, gray, and dark brow n blotches; ovate to short ovate,
Shape
2.3 inches long.

Plumage Sexcs simi]ar Migration

Migra We '§ ht 1.2 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMP: RICA • 301

Fami| v Species Length ?i Wingspan 48_ 54

Laridae L arus californicus inchc inth(

California Gull white head, neck,

The monument to the gull in Salt Lake and breast •

City was inspired by the California Gull,

because it saved the crops of the Mormon
settlers from the grasshopper plague of gray back and
bS4cS. Today, this four-year gull is the upperwings • yellow hill with
state bird of Utah. It builds its nests reel and black spot
on lower mandible
close to freshwater marshes and
lakes, but at other times, it is

frequently seen on inland

fields and nearby farms,
foraging through trash and
eating insects. In flight,
note that adults have

black-tipped
wings with
white windi

greenish yellow
to gray-green legs
and feet

adusky gray stripe on the trailing

edge of the underwing. Winter adults have
brownish streaking on the head and hindneck
Similar Birds
• SONG Has soft call of kow-kow-kow, kee-ou, or klee-ah. Ha:
Ring-billed Gull
alarm call of yowww; also a quiet repeated waaaaaaaah.
Smaller; black ring
• BEHAVIOR Primarily an inland species during summer || around beak; lighter
months. Feeds on a host of agricultural pests, from it eyes; lacks dusky
Mai.
edge
trailing to
grasshoppers and many other insects to rodents. Also takes
underwing.
fish, eggs and young from other birds, worms, spiders,
, Herring Gull
refuse, and carrion. Like most gulls it is an active forager.
Larger; red spot only on
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. low er mandible; yellow
eye; cream} pink legs
• NESTING Incubation 23-27 days by both sexes. {

and dusky
feet; lacks
Semiprecocial young tended by both sexes; it is not known edge to
trailing
how long they stay in nest. First flight at about 45 days. underwing; lighter gray
back and upperu ings.
1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Increasing. Abundant. Casual on Gulf
Coast and East Coast in winter.

Flight Pattern • Conservation

Vulnerable to human

V
Strong direct flight with deep wi
T
disturbance at nesting colonies
on large western lakes and
pollution of lakes and habitat
loss. Mono Lake has 50,000
Soars on thermals and updrafts.
seriously threatened pairs.

Nest Identification Twigs, dried feathers, bits of debris, grass, and weeds; 14-18 inches • on
ground • built by both sexes • 2-3 olive-buff eggs, often blotched with
Shape deep grays and browns; oval to short oval; if third egg is laid, shape is short,
subelliptical; 2.8 inches long.

Plumage
Sexe§ similar Habitat 'ration
M ; gratory
Weight
{ 4 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

302 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Fami| y
larid Species
Larus argentatus Length
22 _ 26 inches Wingspan 54 _
\F. 5 g inches

Herring Gull tight yelloz

heavy eyes
After facing decrease in population
a serious
yellow bill
in the 19th century, the Herring Gull has
recovered and is once again numerous
along the Atlantic Coast. Its range red spot on
continues to expand, making it the lower -• whitehead
most widespread and best-known* mandible and neck
gull in North America. This
gray •-
light
four-year gull usually nests
upperwings
on the ground, but when and back
humans intrude, it will Dark
Juvenile

black wing tip.

with white spot.

dun
breast Second
Winter

i while
kite tail underparts

creamy pinkish Third

choose trees or even
legs and feel
rooftops. Winter adults Winter
have a white head, neck, and
Similar Birds
upper breast streaked with pale
brown. Plumage is highly variable California Gull
Smaller; dark eye;
• SONG Noisy with various calls, including
red spot edged with
loud chew cleew, strident kyom\ or trumpetlike kee-ou, kee-ou. Also black on lower
has alarm call of kek-kek-kek or hyiah-hyak. mandible; darker
gray mantle and
• BEHAVIOR Opportunistic. Often follows ships in sea lanes wings; dusky trailing
to feed on refuse thrown overboard. Along seacoasts eats fish, edge on underwing;
wide variety of marine invertebrates, refuse, carrion, and algae. yellow-green legs
and feet.
On land eats worms, insects and insect larvae, berries, rodents,
and eggs and young of other birds. Active forager. Like other RING-BILLED GULL
Smaller yellow bill
gulls, carries hard-shelled mollusks into the air, then drops them
has black
on hard surface to break open shells. Sometimes steals food subterminal ring;

from other birds. Frequents garbage dumps. greenish yellow legs.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial.

• Nesting incubation
23-27 days by both sexes.
Flight Pattern
Semiprecocial young stay
around nest 24-49 days. Fed by
f
<y\ both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• Population Abundant.
Strong steady flight \ ith deep wing beats. Today all gulls are protected by
Soars on thermals and deflected updrafts. federal law.

Nest Identification
Lined with w eeds, grass, and seaw eed • on ground sheltered by shrubs or rock,
Shape in tree, or on roof • 2-3 gray, green, bluish, or brown eggs w ith brown, lavender,
pp
Location _ |^ 4& ^> and black streaks; ovoid. 2.6-3 x 1.8-2.2 inches.

Plumage Sexes simjlar Habitat Migration

Migratory Wei 6 ht 2.7
pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 303

Family Species Length ? Wingspan 54 _ 57

LARIDAE l an/s aiclliniunL, I
4 jnchcs I

jnches

Yellow-legged Gull
In North America birdwatchers occasionally spot
this tour-year gull w intering along the Northeast u
Coast from Newfoundland to mid-Atlantic
shores. This southern European native
was only recently recognized as a
separate species from the Herring
Gull. It differs from the Herring
Gull primarily inits yellow legs
red spot on lower
mandible may extend
and feet and squared head onto upper mandible

whiu spots on
last 2 outer
primarit > white breast
znd underparts
Juvenile

medium gray
upperwings

with a peaked rear

crown. Winter adults
have brownish
streaking on the head
Similar Birds
that is confined to the
nape and crown, making Herring Gull
More rounded head;
the head appear whiter.
longer thinner beak;
• SONG Kee-yom\ similar to that of the 1 lighter gray upperparts;

Herring Gull; also has wide range of other calls. more black on
outermost primaries;
• BEHAVIOR Eats small fish, crustaceans, mollusks, refuse, creamy pink legs and
carrion,and young and eggs of other birds. Wades into water or feet • winter adults

makes shallow dives while flying to catch food. Drops hard- have more extensive
brown streaking on the
shelled items in flight to break them open. Steals food from head, neck, and upper
other birds. Scavenger. Sometimes hovers.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial.
• NESTING Incubation 28-30
days by both sexes. Young stay
Flight Pattern
in nest 35-45 days, fed by both
< f *'a sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Casual
winter visitor on northern and
Strong direct flight with steady deep wing middle Atlantic Coast. Common
beats. Rides thermals and updrafts.
in western Europe and Africa.

Nest Identification
Various debris, grasses, and feathers • built by both sexes • 3 buff or olive eggs

Shape marked with brown, black, or darker olive; ovoid, 2.8 x 2 inches.

Plumage
Sexe§ similar Habitat ^_^ Migration
Migratory Weight ?. 8 poun ds

DATE TIME LOCATION

304 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Fami| y
Laridae Species Length
23 _25 jnches Wingspan
j thayt 55 inches

Thayer's Gull
This graceful dovelike bird is a little smaller than the reddish purple eye ring
Herring Gull, the species from which it was around gray to mottled
recently split and the one its behavior most brown eyes

resembles. Spending most of its time in the

white head
Canadian Arctic, this bird may nest in and neck •- smallish yellow
colonies with other gulls bill gently curved
tedium gray
but more often rings and bat k
on top

red spot on
restricted black
primary tips
lower mandible

• white breast
and underparts
.u \ i- \ 1 1 1

nests on cliff ledges.

Note the dark eye color and paler
Second Third
winter WINTER
wing tips, especially on underside of
the gray primaries. Winter adults have pale Similar Birds
brown streaking on the head, neck, and upper
Herring (ii ll
breast. A four-year bird, it is difficult to separate
Larger; yellow eyes
from the Herring Gull, and its taxonomy is still disputed: with orange orbital ring
Some still consider it a race of the Herring Gull, while others lighter gray mantle;
darker-tipped primaries
think it is a subspecies of the Iceland Gull.
on upperparts and
• SONG A familiar kee-yow; a loud kuc-kuc-kuc-kuc-kuckle-kuckle or underparts; paler legs
hiyak, hiyak, hiyak-hiyak. Mewing squeals. and feet; heavier bill.

• BEHAVIOR Eats small fish, mollusks, crustaceans, carrion, Iceland Gull

Lighter gray mantle;
refuse, berries, and young and eggs of other
diving in shallow water, plunging while flying, and foraging
while walking on shore.
birds. Finds food by
i usually yellow
(sometimes brown)
eyes; translucent pale
wing
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. tips.

• NESTING Incubation 23-27 days by both sexes.

Flight Pattern
Stn ing direct flight w
wing beats. Sometimes
or upd rafts.
Semiprecocial young stay
around nest 24-29 days. Fed by
both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Uncommon.
Winters primarily on West
Coast. Rare to casual on Great
ith steady deep
Lakes, East Coast, and in
soars on thermals
interior in winter.

Nest Identification
Lined with w eeds, grasses, and leaves • on bare ground sheltered by rock or
shrubbery • built by both sexes • 2-3 gray, green, or brow n eggs; ovate,
Shape 2.8 x 2.1 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat^ ^ Migratory Wei § ht
2.4 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 )

BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 305

Family Species Length Wingspan 54

LARIDAE i arus glaucoides 2 3_?5 i nc lcs
|

Iceland Gull
Restricted to the North Atlantic Ocean where it

isin the company of larger, more robust gulls, red eye ring
this highly variable four-year gull spends its

summers on the coasts of northeastern yellow eyes

Canada and Greenland. It has twt (sometimes brown
pale gray wings
morphs: the typical form, which
and upper hack
nests in Greenland and has white
wing-tips, and the Kumlien's,
which nests in Canada and yellow bill with
has gray wing-tips. The red spot on lower
mandible
pale primaries look
translucent in ^

white rail
Juvenile
white underparts

pink legs andfeet

gray-tinted or
white primaries
jr
Second
flight, especially Winter
from below. Winter adults
show pale brown streaking on Similar Birds
the head, neck, and upper breast.
K Thayer's Gull
• SONG Call of clew, clew, clew or kak- Darker mantle; brown
eyes with reddish
kak-kak, similar to that of the Herring Gull.
purple orbital ring;
• BEHAVIOR Eats small fish, crustaceans, berries, mollusks, darker wing tips,

carrion, refuse, seeds, and eggs and young of other birds. especially on
upperparts.
Catches fish by plunging into water while flying. Also finds food
while wading or walking on shore. Often feeds with Herring Glaucoi \s Gull
Proportionally larger
Gulls and nests in mixed colonies with other gulls.
bill; larger overall; pale
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. t eyes with yellow eye
ring; white wing
• NESTING Incubation 23-27 days by both sexes.
tips.

Semiprecocial young stay around nest 24-29 days; tended by

both sexes. 1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern • Population Uncommon
to rareon East Coast and Great
Lakes Casual to Gulf
in winter.
Coast and Pacific Coast in
winter. Rare inland. Breeding
Direct flight with strong steady deep wing
beats on long wings. Soars on thermals
populations stable and perhaps
and updrafts. are increasing.

Nest Identification
Grass, moss, and various rubbish • on hillock near shelter • 2-3 buff to oli

eggs with dark brown blotches; ovate, 2.7 inches long.

Shape

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
^ Migration
Migratory Weight
j g pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

306 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
Laridae Species
Larusfuscus Length 71-22 inches Wingspan 54
I jnches

Lesser Black-backed Gull

This European gull is wintering in increasing pale yellow
eyes with red
numbers in North America. It is similar to the orbital ring
Western Gull and the Great Black-backed Gull.
Smaller than either of those gulls, it has yellow,
not pink, feet and legs. Winter adults have a
brown streaked head and neck. This four-year white head i

and neck
gull's behavior and voice resembles other gulls.

• SONG A loud kyow and a wide

yellow bill with
range of other calls, including yuk- red spot on lower
yuk-yuk-yuckle-yuckle or hiyak, dark slate-gray mandible
'
or black mantle
hiyak, hiyak, hiyak-hiyak.

-• white chest, belly,

and it'tide '/parts

JUVENILE

yellow legs
dfeet

• Behavior Eats small

Similar Birds
fish, seaweed, wide variety of marine
invertebrates, insects, refuse, carrion, and eggs * Great Black-
and young of other birds. Finds food by wading, swimming, and backed Gull
plunging to ocean's surface while flying. Also steals food from ^ Larger; pink legs
and feet; darker
other birds. Scavenges. wings and mantle.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Western Gull
• NESTING Incubation 24-27 days by both sexes. Larger; pink legs
and feet.
Semiprecocial young climb out of nest after a few days and
explore surrounding area. Fed by both sexes. First flight at
30-40 days. 1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Rare to
uncommon in eastern North
America; casual in the interior
around the Great Lakes and on
the West Coast to Alaska.
Direct flight with strong steady, deep wing
beats on long wings. Sometimes soars on
Common to fairly common in

thermals and updrafts. western Europe and Eurasia.

Nest Identification Lined with dry lichens, dry vegetation, and feathers • built by both sexes • on
ground near grassy shore or hidden in grasses and rocks • .3 brown or olive to
blue-green eggs usually blotched with dark brown; size varies but most are
Shape Location
1* ovoid, 2.7 inches long.

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat ^_ Migration

lgratory
Wei § ht
1.7 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 307

Fami| y Species Len £th 24-27 inches Win S s P an 54-58 inches

laridae Larus occidentals

Western Gull
Rarely seen far inland from shore and residing almost
exclusively on the Pacific Coast, this four-year gull often
lives near nesting colonies of other birds and sea lions
since it includes in its diet various types of eggs,

small birds, and carrion. Two races exist: the

northern occidentalis and southern wymam;
occidentalis has a paler mantle and slightly
darker eyes. In flight shows a white
trailing edge on its wings, a dark
slate-gray mantle, and a white
tail, tail coverts, and rump.
Winter adults of the

northern form have moderate

brown streaking on their heads; southern
birds show faint streaking.
Third
Winter
• SONG Rapid call of quod, k/ik, kuk, kuk.
• BEHAVIOR Inhabits coastal areas. Eats fish, a great variety Similar Birds
of marine invertebrates, carrion, refuse, small mammals, and Glaucous-winged
eggs and young of other birds. Catches fish by diving from the Gull
air to the water's surface, or by wading in water. Harasses
cormorants and pelicans to force them to disgorge their catch.
J Lighter mantle; gray
primaries; yellow eyes
with red orbital ring.
Drops hard shellfish in flight to ground to break shell. Follows
ykl low-footed
fishing boats. Commonly found around seacoast towns and on
Gull
wharves, jetties, docks, pillions, buildings, and moored ships. Slightly larger; yellow

• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. On offshore islands. legsand feet; lighter

1» mantle • ventures
• NESTING Incubation 25-32 days by both sexes, mostly inland only to Salton
female. Semiprecocial young stay around nest 29-32 days. Fed Sea, California.

by both sexes. 1 brood per year.

• Population Common.
Flight Pattern Stable along Pacific Coast from
Baja to southern British

-\
V
Direct flight with strong, steady wing
beats. Often soars to great heights on
1
Columbia. Casual north to
southern Alaska. Rare inland.
• Conservation
Vulnerable to pollution of
updrafts along coastal sea cliffs. coastal marine environment.

Nest Identification
Moss, weeds, and grass • on ground near ridge of rock or sand • built by both
Shape «a
sexes • 1-6 buff to olive-gray eggs with dark brown blotches; ellipsoid to ovoid,
2.6-3 inches x 1.9-2 inches.
Location

Plumage
Sex£S simi , ar
Habitat
^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei ^ ht 2.2 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

308 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
LA RIDAK Species Length Wingspan 54-58
Larus glaucescens 2 4_27 nc hes
j inches

Glaucous-winged Gull
Its name is derived from the Greek word glaitkos, which
means blue-gray or bluish. This bird is the most
abundant and widespread gull in the northeastern
white head
Pacific Ocean. It often nests with other gulls and
and neck
sometimes produces hybrids. Falling somewhere
between the Herring Gull and the Glaucous
dark brown-black
Gull in appearance, this four-year gull is eyes with dull reM
rather chunky and robust. Its increasing
population and predatory habits make
it a major predator on other seabird
colonies in its range.

yellow bill with

red spot on lower
mandible

white tail, rump

uppertail covert

pale gray wings

with white
trailing edges

• SONG Low-pitched kak-kak-

kak or wow or high-pitched keer-keer.
• BEHAVIOR Marine and coastal. Eats refuse, small fish, Second
variety of marine invertebrates, carrion, small mammals, plant WINTER
material, and eggs and young of other birds. Like most gulls
wades in water to find food or dives into water while flying. Also Similar Birds
scavenges through refuse; steals food from other birds; and takes GLAI COl Gl LL
S
leftovers of seals, whales, and humans. Tends fishing trawlers. Larger; paler mantle;

• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. pale eyes.

• NESTING Incubation 26-29 days by both sexes. WES'] ERN Gl LL

Darker mantle; white-
Semiprecocial young may leave nest soon after hatching but
tipped black primaries.
remain in vicinity. Fed by both sexes. First flight at 37-53 days.
Young leave colony 2 weeks after flight. brood per year. 1

• Population Common
Flight Pattern and increasing in number. Rare
inland in Pacific states. Casual
f
S3 A in Great Lakes.
• Conservation
Vulnerable to pollution of
Powerful direct flight with slow measured marine environment, including
wins beats. Often soars on updrafts.
oil spills.

Nest Identification
Lined with seaweed, grasses, moss, and debris • hidden in grass or weeds;
sometimes sheltered by rock or cliff • built by both sexes • 1-4 olive to
Shape Location ||
^ yellow-green eggs marked with brown and gray; subelliptical. 2.8 x 2 inch<

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexcs simi , ar Most d() n()t migrate 1Z pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 309

Len §th Win gspan

Family
LARIDAE Species
Larus hyperboreus 26-30 inches 56_60 inehcs

Glaucous Gull
The palest of the large gulls, this bird is also the most
northerly breeder of the Larus gulls. It ean be found
nesting on the Arctic coasts of North America and
Greenland. A heavy-bodied, stocky, barrel-
chested gull, its short wings barely
extend beyond the tail when
standing. Winter adults show head
and neck lightly streaked pale
brown. This is a four-year gull.
• SONG Usually silent. While
flying, makes a prattling-like
quack. Also has various
shrieking cries, similar to
those of Herring Gull.
• Behavior yellow eyes with
Marine habits. yellow orbital
ring
Predatory and
aggressive, especially
in summer when it

feeds primarily on
eggs and young of
other birds, especially
ducks, alcids,
shorebirds, and gulls.
Also eats fish, marine Glaucous-wing
Gi L
invertebrates, refuse, insects, Smaller; gray marks on
and Major predator on
berries. primaries; slight red

lemmings and other small ring around dark eye;

bill more slender.
mammals during their peak population cycles.
Steals food from other seabirds. Also finds food by [( l l \\D (;

Smaller in size; pale

wading in water and diving to surface while flying.
gray primaries w ith
Catches smaller birds and insects in air. translucent w hite tips
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. (Kumlien's form has
darker gray tips to
• NESTING Incubation 27-28 days by both sexes translucent primaries);
Semiprecocial young leave nest within days of yellow eye with red
orbital
hatching, but remain in vicinity. Fed by both sexes. riiiy.

Independent soon after first flight at 45-50 days. Usually 1

brood per year.

Flight Pattern • Population Common on
breeding grounds. Closely tied
to lemming population near its
T nesting grounds. Uncommon to
fairly common winter on the
in
Lumbers along with slow steady wing
beats on short wings. Soars on thermals
north Atlantic and north Pacific
and npdrafts. Coasts. Rare south and inland.

Nest Identification Lined with seaweed, moss, feathers, and debris • on ground or set on ridges
of cliffs, often on small pile of grass or moss • built by both sexes • 2-3 eggs,
Shape light brown or olive-buff, with dark brown blotehes; subelliptical to ovate,
3.0 inches lone.

Plumage
Sexe§ simi j ar
Habitat ^_ 3. Migration
Mig ratory Weight
3 4 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

310 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
Laridae Species
Lar7/s mannus
, Length ; _
8 31 ; nches Wingspan 6Cj _66 inches

Great Black-backed Gull

This predatory and domineering bird is the largest
gull in North America. It is highly aggressive pale yellow eye
toward other birds but will nest harmoniously
in colonies with other gulls. A four-year gull,
it frequents the northern Atlantic Coast

of North America. The adult is snow-

white below with a black mantle black mantle and
and upperwings. Winter adults upper wings

have very little streaking on

the white head and nape. white primary

In all plumages it has

pink legs and feet. The
prevalence of garbage
dumps in coastal
areas has led to
an increase in
population of
this species.

• Song
Usually silent.
On breeding
grounds utters low
slow screeching keeeeeeee-
aaaahh. Also makes throaty
laughing call of hah-hah-hah or Juvenile
deep owk, owk.
• BEHAVIOR Pugnacious. Predatory and
opportunistic. Eats carrion, fish, refuse, eggs andyoung of
other birds, mollusks, crustaceans, rodents, berries, and insects.
May take prey as large as gulls, cormorants, and rabbits. Steals Second Third
food from other birds and scavenges on beaches. Wades in water Winter Winter
to feed. Dives to surface while flying to catch food.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial but occasionally solitary. Similar Birds

• NESTING Incubation 26-29 days by both sexes. Fed by both Lesser Black-
sexes. Semiprecocial young may wander from nest but stay close backed Gull
Smaller: yellow legs.
to parents. First flight at 49-56 days. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION F airly common; has increased in number since
1930s. Range expanding
Flight Pattern southward along Atlantic Coast.
Fairly common on the eastern
Great Lakes but rare on the
-\
western ones; casual inland in
the East in winter; accidental to
Heavy powerful direct flight with slow
casual elsewhere.
deep wing beats. Soars on thermals or
deflected updrafts.

Nest Identification
Made of grasses, seaweed, moss, feathers, debris, and sticks • on ground atop
cliff • built by both
small pile of grasses or seaweed, often sheltered in ridges of
Shape sexes • 2-3 buff, olive, or brown eggs with brown spots; ovoid, 3.1 inches long.

Plumage Sexes similaf Habitat

^ Migration
Most do m)t migrate Weight
4 q pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 311

Family Species Length Wingspan 33_36

LARIDAE Xema sabini i3_i4 nc hes
i inches

Sabine's Gull
This two-year summers near the Arctic coasts of North
gull
America, but after nesting season it is rarely spotted from shore
because it spends most of its time at sea. Nesting in the tundra,
parents are very protective of the nest and will attack
intruders or use silent distraction methods to lure them dark slate-gray
away. In flight birds have a striking black, white, and gray partial hood
black bill with
wing pattern; black primaries; and a gray mantle yellow tip
separated by a wide white triangle on the back of
the wing. It is the only North American
black ring separates
gray hoodfrom white
nec^
black primaries
nth white tips blackish bro wn
cvc with red
orbital ring

gullwith a distinctly forked tail. Winter adults have a white

head with dusky gray on the back of the crown and nape.
• SONG Short, harsh ternlike cry of creeeeee.
• BEHAVIOR Largely pelagic. Eats insects, fish, crustaceans, X
Winter
mollusks, and marine worms
breeding season; otherwise, eats
in JUVENILE
mostly fish. Runs along mudflats like a plover searching for
adult
food. Also feeds by dipping to waters surface from flight and
Similar Birds
foraging while swimming.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Small colonies. Often in company Bonaparte's Gull
Black bill; black hood;
of Arctic Terns.
orange legs and feet;
• NESTING Incubation 23-26 days by both sexes. white outer primaries
Semiprecocial young. Shortly after hatching, nestlings led to form triangle at wing
tip; square tail.
water by parents. Young feed themselves. First flight at about
35 days. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Common on
Flight Pattern breeding grounds. Winters at
sea mainly in Southern

< Hemisphere. Common migrant

well off West Coast; casual on
and off East Coast. Rare to
Ternlike airy flight with continuous wing
casual in migration in interior of
beats, a few glides, and numerous dives.
Also hovers. the West and on Great Lakes.

Nest Identification
Seaweed, and feathers • on ground atop pile of vegetation near
grasses, moss,
water • may be by both sexes • 1-3 olive-buff eggs spotted with darker
built
Shape olive-brown and occasionally wreathed; ovate to subelliptical, 1.8 inches long.

Plumage Habitat igration Weight

Sexes similar Migratory 7 2

DATE TIME LOCATION

312 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
LARIDAK Species
Rism trivia Length
16 _ 1? nche
;
I Wingspan 36 jnches

Black-legged Kittiwake
Named for its call of kittiwake, this pelagic black-tipped
three-year gull nests on high narrow cliffs outer primaries

on Arctic and sub-Arctic coasts. Unlike

most gulls it does not scavenge at garbage
dumps but spends most of its time at sea
and drinks only saltwater. Adults have a
white body, gray mantle and wings,
pale whitish underwings, a square to
slightly notched tail, and black legs light gray wings with
and feet. The black tips of the outer paler gray flight feathers
primaries lack white spotting and
produce a clean, straight-edged
dark tip. Winter adults show a
dark smudge across the nape.
? unmarked JUVENILE
Juveniles have a black collar \ thin pale
across the back of the neck, a yellow bill
black-tipped tail, and a black

W stretching from wing tip to

wing tip across the back. • whitehead Winter
and neck Adult
• SONG Series of piercing
kittiwakes. Also makes quieter
light gray
Similar Birds
ock-ock-ock.
back Sabine's Gull
• BEHAVIOR Pelagic outside
Winter plumage
breeding season. Eats primarily • notched white tail;
small fish but also takes crustaceans, wings black from
mollusks, squid, insects, and refuse "wrist" to tip, forming
black triangle; inner
from ships. Forages for food while
primaries and
swimming and dips while flying to snatch secondaries white; black
items from surface. Often hovers briefly half-collar over nape;

above water before dropping on prey at surface yellow-tipped black bill

• Pacific Coast range.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial.
• NESTING Incubation 25-32 days by both sexes. Red-legged
Kittiwake
First flight at 34-58 days. Young return to nest at Bright reddish coral
night after first flight and are fed by both sexes. legs; shorter broader
1 brood per year. bill; darker upperparts
• Pacific Coast range.
• POPULATION Abundant on breeding grounds. In migration
and winter common to uncommon on open ocean; usually not seen
from shore in the East, seen
Flight Pattern uncommonly in the West.
Casual to accidental
inland in winter.
• Conservation Large
nesting colonies vulnerable to
Buoyant graceful swift flight with rapid
wing beats and shallow strokes alternating human disturbance.
with several rapid wing beats and a glide.

Nest Identification
Mud, seaweed, moss, and sod • on cliff ledge, side of building, or in cave • built

by both sexes with materials brought by male • 1-3 buff to olive or pale blue
Shape eggs with brown or gray speckles; subelliptical, 2.2 x 1.6 inches.

Plumage Sexes simUar Habitat

^ s
_
Migration
Migratory Weight
14 9 ounces
_

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 313

Fami, y Species Len §th 13-14 Wingspan 33 inche

laridae Rhodostethia rosea inches

Ross's Gull
Sometimes called the Rosy Gull because of its pinkish
underparts. It is rarely seen by most birders as it spends white head
most of time confined in the Arctic Circle. The only
its and neck
known nesting area in North America is near Churchill,
Manitoba where the species has nested since 1980. In
winter plumage the black collar fades away to a {

small dark ear spot. In flight look for long collar

pointed wings, darker below than
above with white trailing edges p a ie pearl-gray* small
and the long wedge-shaped tail. upperparts
black bill
Juveniles have paler legs and J$
feet, a black ear spot, and a black JSpi
tail tip; a combination of dark

brown outer primaries and carpal

bar form a W
across the
wings and mantle. A pinkish-tinged
underparts

wedge-shaped
tad • red-orange
legs and feet

• SONG Sings musical ah-wo, ah-wo and clah, clah,

clah. In confrontation utters miaw, miaw.

• BEHAVIOR Finds food by wading in water,
swimming, or diving to surface while flying. Eats insects, JUVENILE
marine crustaceans, and small fish. A bird of high arctic-
regions, it is almost never seen far below the drift. Often feeds
along mudflats in sandpiper or phalarope fashion, walking and
picking up food. Defensive at nest; if approached will dive,
screech loudly at intruder, and fly toward nest. In flight often trails
Second
WINTER
legs below body like a storm-petrel. Has more ternlike flight
than most gulls.
Similar Birds
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. In courtship raise tails,
Little Gull
call softly,

• NESTING
and circle each other on breeding ground.
Incubation 21-22 days by both sexes. *4 Juveniles and first

winter birds are similar

but smaller; straight tail
Semiprecocial young stay around nest 3 weeks. Both sexes
desert nest shortly after nestlings hatch and return only to feed
young. 1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern • Population Rare. Stable.
Fairly common autumn migrant
-\
< along northern coast of Alaska;
casual to rare south to northern
US in winter.
Flight varies from pigeonlike with rapid
deep wing beats to ternlike with more • Conservation Has been
leisurely buoyant flight. Also hovers. listed as of some concern.

Nest Identification
Dry grasses, twigs, moss, and leaves • on small pile of grass or tussock near or in
water • built by both sexes • 3 brownish or greenish eggs spotted with brown;
Shape Location £6L ovate to subelliptical, 1.8 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes sjmilar Habitat
_^ Migration
Migratory Wei ^ ht 6.7

DATE TIME LOCATION

314 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len gth Wingspan
Laridae pagophila eburnea 1 5-1 7 inches 37 inches

Ivory Gull
This pigeon-sized pure white two-year gull blends
with the ice and snow surrounding its breeding black eves

grounds near the arctic seas. One of the hardiest

gulls in the world, it is almost never found far
from snow and ice and rarely winters farther
south than drifting ice and pack ice.

Juveniles are white with dark smudges

on the face, brownish to black
speckles on the back and wings, bold white
black tips on the primaries and overall
• yellow-tipped
a dark tail band. The all- dark bill

white adult plumage is

not acquired until its
second year.

• SONG Piercing keeer or shrill black k&

andfeet
krii-krii, resembling the call of a tern.

• BEHAVIOR Active scavenger. Eats refuse, carrion, dung of

large mammals, mollusks, crustaceans, insects, and lemmings.
Patters feet on water like a storm-petrel. Juvenile
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial.
• NESTING Incubation 24-26 days by both sexes. Similar Birds

Semiprecocial young stay in and around nest about 35 days. Fed All-white plumage is distinctive.

by both sexes. 1 brood per year.

• POPULATION Circumpolar. Uncommon on breeding grounds
and in arctic seas wintering
Flight Pattern areas and northern and western
Alaska. Casual along Atlantic
Coast to New York. Accidental
on the the Great Lakes and in
the interior to Tennessee. In
Buoyant light graceful flight for a long
the west accidental to rare south
broad-winged heavy-bodied gull. Often
flies with feet trailing and dangling below. of Alaska.

Nest Identification
Dry grass, moss, lichen, feathers, and debris; sometimes no nest • built by
both sexes • 1-3 ocherish white eggs blotched with dark olive, brown, or
Shape ^ black; subelliptical, 2.4 x 1.7 inches.

Plumage Sexes simi

ar ,
Habitat
^ x^ ». Migration
M gratory
i
Weight
j 4 pound

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 315

Family Species Sterna Length 13_14 inches Wingspan 33.34 inches

LARIDAE nilotica

Gull-billed Tern
The whitest of the North American tern species was almost
black crown
exterminated in the early 1900s due to the demand for their and nape
eggs as a delicacy and their feathers to adorn women's hats.
Gull-billed Terns are common summer
residents in California and along the
pale gray
Atlantic Coast. Some remain on
upperpart.
the Gulf Coast during winter
months. In summer
stout black bill
adults have a black
cap that
*****
extends below
the eyes and
down the nape
and pale gray
upperparts that are
darker at the wing
tips. At a distance it

appears white with rather

broad, rounded wings, a
heavy body, and a moderately
forked tail. In winter the head is
white with faint dusky streaking on
the nape. Juveniles have dusky streaking
Similar Birds
on the pale upperparts and a brownish bill.
• SONG Raspy sharp ge-rek or dry raspy kay-tih-DID or kay-DlD. Sandwich Tern
Slender black bill with
Young give faint high-pitched peep peep call.
yellow tip; deeper fork in
• BEHAVIOR Flies over farm fields or marshes to catch tail; longer, more- slender,

insects, its main diet. Over water sometimes swoops to surface more pointed wings with
darker outer primaries;
to catch small prey. Also eats earthworms, frogs, and crustaceans
more slender body.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial and/or solitary. Pairs
Forster's Tern
sometimes nest at edge of other tern species' colonies. White underparts; pale
• NESTING Incubation 22-Z3 days by both sexes. gray upperparts; more
slender body; slender,
Semiprecocial young may leave nest a few days after hatching more pointed wings;
and hide in dense plant cover. Fed by both sexes. First flight at deeply forked tail;

28-35 days. Young may remain with parents for 90 days or more mostly orange bill, legs,

and feet.
and migrate with them. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Fairly common but local. Less common on
Atlantic Coast. Casual to
Flight Pattern accidental in interior except in
Salton Sea.
• Conservation Species
has never recovered from near
extermination in early 1900s.
Direct flight with easy, graceful shallow
wing beats.

Nest Identification On open ground; often concealed in detritus among shells • lined with plant
material and debris; rimmed with sand, shells, sticks, and grass • built by both

Shape — mm &u sexes •1^4 pink-buff to yellowish eggs lightly spotted with dark brown; oval and
well-rounded at small end, 1.9 x 1.3 inches.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
_^ Migration
Migratory Weight g 7

DATE TIME LOCATION

316 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Sterna Length Wingspan 50_
Laridae caspia 19 _? 3 inches 55 nches ;

Caspian Tern
The largest and least sociable tern is black cap covers head
easily distinguished by its large from bill to nape and pale gray
extends below eye upperparts
size, stout red-orange bill, and
tail forked to a quarter of its

length. In flight the

underside of the outer
primaries are dark.
Caspian Terns are large thick red-
known for their orange bill o ften

ft
predatory feeding with black tip
(sometimes tip
habits, sometimes
is yellow or
\ forked tail
stealing catches from orange) white

other seabirds and underparts

black legs
eating eggs and young andfeet
of other terns and gulls.
Many Caspian Terns migrate dusky to dark
during winter
to coastal regions gray underside of
primaries
months, moving as far south as Winter
the West Indies and the northern plumage
regions of South America. Some
remain in coastal locales year-round. Similar Birds

Juveniles and winter adults have a Royal Tern

streaked dusky-and-white cap that Smaller; longer more
deeply forked tail; lacks
extends below the eye.
blackish w edge on
• SONG Call is harsh deep kaark and underwing tips; mostly
white forehead and
ka-arr. Young whistle a distinctive whee-you.
anterior crown except
• BEHAVIOR This common coastal inhabitant also visits early in breeding season,

inland wetlands in summer. Gull-like, it often feeds on water when entire crown is

black; black crest on

surfaces but sometimes dives into water for small fish, its
nape; less stout orange
principal food. When patrolling flies with bill pointed down. bill without black tip.

Often hovers before plunge diving into water for prey.

Elegant Tern
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Rarely solitary. Smaller; long thin red-
without
• NESTING Incubation 20-28 days by both sexes.
orange
black
bill

tip; black crest;

Semiprecocial young may leave nest for nearby shore a few days white underparts with
after hatching. First flight at 28-35 days. Young may remain pinkish tinge • western
with parents up to 8 months. 1 brood per year. range.

• POPULATION Stable range; some populations increasing.

Small colonies scattered over
Flight Pattern breeding range.
• CONSERVATION
< Vulnerable to disturbance of
coastal nesting colonies and
habitat loss on beaches and
Strong swift graceful flight. Bulk makes it

appear gull-like. Sometimes hovers briefly inland wetlands.

over prey before dipping down t<> seize it.

Nest Identification Lined with seaw eed, moss, grass, and occasional debris • sometimes concealed
among shells, driftwood, and rubbish • built by both sexes • 1-3, sometimes 4-
pinkish buff eggs w ith brown markings; ovate, elliptical ovate, or subelliptical,
Shape
2.5 \ 1.8 inches.

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat^ ^ i

Migration
Migratory We 'g ht 1.4 pounds

DATE TIME .OCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 317

Length Wingspan 42 _4 4
Family
LaRIDAE Species
Sfmifl lll(lxini(l I
]8 _ 21 inchcs I
nches j

Royal Tern pumpkin-orange

yellow-orange hill
to

The second-largest tern in

North America sometimes black head and crest
is seen snatching food

from the Brown

Pelican's pouch.
Briefly in spring and
early summer adults have
a shaggy black crown from
bill to nape; the rest of the
year the forehead and
forecrown are white. In
flight birds show a tail forked
to about half its length, pale
underwings to the tips of
dusky outermost primaries, and
an orange bill. Juveniles look like
winter adults but have more faint
streaking on the upperparts and IP
yellowish or orange feet and legs. Winter
• SONG Large repertoire of calls
Plumage
includes bleating ee-ah and melodic
trilled whistle, tourreee. In nesting Similar Birds
areas often squawks quak, kak, or kowk. Ki.i-.r; \\ 1 Ti k\
• BEHAVIOR Plunge dives, from a hover 40-60 feet above ^ Smaller body; more
slender reddish orange
ocean or inlets, and goes below surface for a catch. Eats mostly hill that appears
fish but also takes marine invertebrates, including shrimp and slightly drooped at tip;

squid. When not feeding often loafs on sandbars, beaches, or longer shaggy crest
extends dow n nape;
mudflats with other species of terns and gulls.
• western range.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Often nests in mixed
Caspi \\ Tern
colonies with other species of terns.
l>— Larger body; black cap
• NESTING Incubation 20-31 days by both sexes. Young extends below eyes;
lacks w hite forehead;
semiprecocial; upon leaving nest a few days after hatching, ; thicker bright red bill;
young often gather in creche, where they recognize parents by tail not as deeply
voice and beg for food. First flight at 28-35 days. May remain forked; dark underside

with parents up to 8 months or longer and migrate with them. and pale upperside
on primaries.
• POPULATION Declining. Has declined in California since
1950. Fairly common in breeding range; uncommon to rare north of
it summer on Atlantic
in late

Flight Pattern Coast. Fairly common in winter

in southern California; rare to

< accidental inland from coasts.

Direct flight with deep,more rangy,
continual slow wing beats. Hovers briefly
before plunge diving for prey.
• Conservation
Vulnerable to disturbance on
nesting beaches by humans and
wild and domestic predators.

Nest Identification
Sometimes sparsely lined with debris • built by both sexes • 1-2, sometimes
whitish buff to brown eggs with reddish brown markings, occasionally
Shape wreathed; ovate to elliptical ovate, 2.5 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes simUar Habitat
^ Migration
Migratory Weight
, () pound

DATE TIME LOCATION

318 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
Laridae Species
Sterna sandvicensis Len Sth 14-16 inches w n gspan
'

34 inches

Sandwich Tern
This medium-sized tern is the only one that has a
long slender black bill tipped with yellow. A coastal black crown

bird, it migrates short to medium distances from the

Atlantic Coast above Florida in winter, and many
disperse widely along the Gulf Coast. Generally seen
inland only after storms, it rarely visits freshwater
locales. In flight it is slender and shows dark
above on the three to four outer primaries,
a mostly white underwing, and a
deeply forked, short tail.
Winter adults (after
July) have a white
forehead and
forecrown, and
the tail is more
gray. Juveniles
are similar to
winter adults
but have
mottled dark
markings on the
black legs
back and upperwings ind feet
and may lack the yellow
tip on the bill.

• SONG Whistles abruptly;

makes grating gwit gwit and kir-rick notes.
• BEHAVIOR More than other
it prefers to feed at sea
terns,
and dives from great heights prey under water. Usually
to catch Winter
hovers before diving for fish. Eats variety of small fish, squid,
and shrimp. Often rests/roosts on beaches and bars with other Similar Birds
terns, especially in the company of Royal Terns. Gull-billed Tern
• BREEDING Monogamous. mixed colonies
Colonial. Often in Silver-gray upperparts,
and rump; paler
tail,
with other terns. Colony disturbance causes young to leave nest
wing tips above and
and gather in group. Young recognize parents by voice. below; heavy black bill;
• NESTING Incubation 21-29 days by both sexes. short forked tail • black

cap until early autumn.

Semiprecocial young fed by both sexes. First flight at
28-32 days. Remains with parents for 4 months after first flight.
1 brood per year.

Flight Pattern
• Population increasing
but stilluncommon. Casual
spring and summer visitor to
coastal southern California.

Powerful direct flight heavier and less

• Conservation
graceful than that of similar-sized terns. Vulnerable to disturbance and
Usually hovers before diving for fish. predation at nesting colonies.

Nest Identification
Lined with debris or unlined • on ground in open above tidemark • built by
both sexes • 1-3 pale cream to pinkish buff eggs with brown, black, and gray
Shape markings; subelliptical, 2 x 1.4 inches.

Plumage
§exes simi , ar
Habitat
^ Migration
Mj gratory Weight
7 3 Qunces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 319

Species Length
14_ 17 inches Wingspan 30 inchcs
Family
L ARIDAE Stmw ri0ll a (l //n
I
I

Roseate Tern
The Roseate Tern's pale pearl-gray
plumage helps distinguish it from
Common and Arctic Terns. Its
wing tips and tail are also paler
than in those species, and
glossy black cap
the tail is more deeply
and napi
forked. The pinkish tinge
on the underparts, which deeply forked
gives the bird its name, is white tail
rarely seen except under
favorable conditions.
When it is perched, the
long white outer tail white nude/parts
feathers extend well with a pinkish
tinge
beyond the tips of its
folded wings. It has a

mostly black bill, even in summer

when the base may be red. In fall it
leaves North America for South America

\
where it winters along the coast of eastern
Juvenile First
Winter adults have a black bill and white
Brazil. Summer
forehead and crown that extend past the eye.
• SONG Sings a gentle chi-weep. When alarmed issues ; a
Similar Birds
drawling zra-ap; rasping, low aaak\ and quiet chivy.

• BEHAVIOR Highly marine and coastal, coming ashore only Common Tkrn
Slightly smaller; black-
to breed. Often forms noisy active flocks when large predatory tipped red bill; dark
fish drive large schools of small fish to the water's surface. \vin« tips; shorter, less

Plunge dives for prey and often resumes hovering before deeply notched tail with
dark outer border;
making its next catch. Eats mainly small fish. Never seen in different voice.
large numbers except over waters surrounding nesting colonies.
ARCTIC TERN
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Grayer; gray mantle,
• NESTING Incubation 21-26 days by both sexes. wings, and nnderparrs;
white cheeks; dusky
Semiprecocial young may leave nest a few days after hatching. -A gray wing tips; long,
First flight at 27-30 days, but fed by both sexes for additional deeply forked tail with
2 months. 1 brood per year. gray on outer margins:
red bill: different voice.
• POPULATION Uncommon to rare off the Atlantic Coast,
coming ashore only to breed.
• Conservation
Flight Pattern Endangered in the Northeast
where Herring Gulls have

< overrun island colonies.

Vulnerable to human
disturbance as well as
Graceful flight with quick wing beats. domesticated and feral
Hovers prior to plunge diving for prey.
predators on nesting grounds.

Nest Identification Lined with bits of debris, dry grass, seaweed, and rubbish • on ground
under cover • built by both sexes • 1-3 cream to buff to pale eggs speckled
with reddish brown and gray, occasionally wreathed; subelliptical,
Shape
1.6-1.7 x 1.1-1.2 inches.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat >^ Migration
jyjj gratory
Weight
3_g

DATE TIME LOCATION

320 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length
13_ 16 inche{ Wingspan
Larii)ak Sterna hirundo 30 _3 1 nches
;

Common Tern
Often called the Mackerel Gull, the Common Tern is

seen tending areas where large fish, such as mackerel

and tuna, drive schools of smaller fish to the surface.
By following the Common Tern, fishermen often
find the best place to cast their nets! Although dusky-tipped
common throughout their range, today's wings
northeastern populations of this tern are
lower than previously recorded. Inland red legs and feet
populations are suspected to be on
the decline as well. The upperwings black rap
white rump and
and mantle are a darker gray than and napi
forked white tail with
most other similar-sized terns; the dark outer margins
wing tips are dark; and the short
tail is not as deeply forked.

Winter adults have white

foreheads and crowns past the
eye, and also have dark bills.
• SONG Low piercing drawn-
out kee-ar-r-r-r. Also rolling tee-

ar-r-r-r, and high slightly grating

kik-kik-kik.

• BEHAVIOR Coastal and

widespread inland in breeding Forster's TERN
red bill, usually J?^" Similar in size; paler
season. Hovering, it spots fish and
Mark-tipped Sp^ under- and upperparts;
plunges, knifing into water, earning the heavier orange, black-
name on the mid-Atlantic shore.
"striker" tipped bill; primaries

Principally eats small fish, generally between 3—4 often silver-white

above, producing frosty
inches, and some crustaceans.
wing-tips; long forked
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Often X tail, gray-edged on
inner side.
nests in mixed colonies with other terns. JUVENILE
• NESTING Incubation 21-27 days by both 0?^ ARCTIC TERN
Similar in size; shorter
sexes. Young leave nest after a few days, but neck; darker gray
remain nearby. First flight at 22-28 days, but may under- and upperparts;
remain with parents at least another 2 months. white cheeks; red bill
without black tip; paler
Fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year.
wing-tips.
• POPULATION Common on breeding grounds
and in migration on both coasts; rare in winter on
southern California coast and
Flight Pattern Gulf Coast.
• Conservation Almost
< completely extirpated in early
1900s by plume hunters for
fashion markets. Has largely
Flight is light, buoya nt and direct. Hovers
when feeding prior t > plunge-diving into recovered since full protection
water for prey. established in 1913:

Nest Identification Lined with vegetation and debris, including grass, shells, and seaweed • built by
both sexes • 1-3 buff to cinnamon-brown eggs, generally heavily spotted and

overlaid with shades of dark brown and black; generally wreathed; oval to
Shape
subelliptical, 1.6 inches long.

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat _^^ ^ Migration

Migr Weight
42

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NOR TH AMERICA • 321

Species Length Wingspan

Family
LARIDAE Sterna pam(j;saea 14 _, j inchcs 2 9_ 33 inchcs

Arctic Tern
Distinguishable from similar
terns by its short red bill, medium gray
\
upperparts, manth
neck and legs, the Arctic Tern \
uul wines
sometimes appears to huddle
on the ground. It is perhaps the
champion long-distance migrant
of the world, nesting in the Arctic
and wintering in Antarctica during
theirsummer, traveling an annual IUVENILE
distance of more than 25,000 miles.
In flight, note the translucent
flight feathers with a narrow
trailing black border on hitick rap
nd nape First
the primaries; gray
white rump and Sl MMKK
underparts; and deeply deeply forked tail
forked Winter
tail. with gray outer

adults have white m margins

foreheads and crowns to

the back of the eye, and somewhat
short, deep
dark bills and feet.
red bill
Juveniles have white
foreheads, and silvery white pale gray •
underparts- Similar Birds
secondaries and outer coverts.
• 1SONG Calls include a throaty • short ret
i'd legs Forster's Tern
tr-tee-ar and a shrieking kee-kee, and small fa t Similar in size; longer
black-tipped orange bill
similar to Common Tern, but higher and harsher, with emphasis
ami orange legs and
on second or third note. Alarm call sounds like a brief kee-kahr. feet; white underparts;

• BEHAVIOR Often observed hovering 30-40 feet above water frost} w ing-tips; forked
white tail with dusky
while searching for prey. Plunge dives to catch fish. Eats small inner margins: rarely
fish and marine invertebrates, including small crustaceans. Very seen w ell offshore.

defensive at nest, often flying out and striking intruder while common Tern
continuously vocalizing. Often follows fishing vessels. Slightly stockier; flatter

• BREEDING Monogamous. Pairs or colonial. crow n; longer neck and

long red, black-tipped
• NESTING Incubation 20-24 days by both sexes. bill; shorter notched

Semiprecocial young leave nest 1-3 days after hatching to hide tail; dusky gray wing-
tips above and below.
nearby. First flight at 21-28 days. Young remain with parents
additional 30 to 60 days, fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• Population Common to

Flight 1 p attern fairly common on breeding

grounds. Casual to uncommon

< well offshore during migration.

Steadily declining on southern
end of breeding range along
Buoyant graceful flight with nearly
constant wing beats. Hovers above prey Atlantic Coast.
before plunge diving or dipping to surface.

Nest Identification
Vegetation lined with debris, occasionally grass and shells • built by both sexes
• 1—3 buff to pale olive eggs, blotched with black and brow n markings; oval to
Shape subelliptical, 1.6 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes simjlar Habitat
^ Migration
Migratory Wei § ht 3.8
ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

322 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
Laridae Species
Sterna forsten Len ^th 14-15
inches Wingspan 30_31
jnches

Forster's Tern
Frequenting inland marshes as well as the black cap
ill/// Ihlpt
coast, thiswidespread tern feeds and
flocks with other terns. It can be
distingushed by its long tail and
orange-red bill. In flight note the pale gray • orange- red bill
upperparts with dark tip
pale frosty wing white tips,
rump, and deeply forked

-• snowy white
underparts

orange -red legs

andfeet
long deeply forked
gray tail with white-
trimmed outer margins

Similar Birds
gray tail with
Common Tkrn
white outer margins. Winter plumage shows dull Shorter tail; red bill;

yellow feet, a dark bill, and a white head with a dark wing tips; white
tail with dark outer
black patch through the eye and ear. Juveniles are
margins • winter adults
like winter adults but have a shorter tail, a ginger
and juveniles have
crown, and darker upperwings. white forehead and
• SONG Throaty nasal ki-arr, za-a-ap, or zrurrr,
forecrown; dark
shoulder; dark eye
with nighthawklike quality. Also gives piercing patch joins at nape;
kit, kit, kit cry. higher-pitched call.

• BEHAVIOR Catches insects in flight. Eats Arctic Tern

dragonflies and other insects. Hovers above water, Shorter red bill without
dark tip; shorter legs;
then plunge dives for small fish. Dips to water's
gray underparts; gray
surface to catch floating insects, keeping its Winter throat and chin contrast
feathers dry. plumage with white face; white
with dark outer
• BREEDING Monogamous. Loose colonies. tail

margins; pale
• NESTING Incubation 23-25 days by both sexes. underwing with black
trailing margins.
Semiprecocial young leave nest after a few days but tended by
both sexes until able to fly. 1 brood per year.
• Population Common.
Flight Pattern Declining in some areas
because of loss of marshlands.
• Conservation
< Vulnerable to habitat loss to
agriculture and development in
Shallow slow graceful strong flight with
body moving up and down. Hovers over draining of wetlands.
water prior to diving for prey-

Atop floating dried reeds and lined with grass and reeds; in mud or sand and
Nest Identification
lined with bits of shells and grass; sometimes uses old grebe nests or muskrat
houses • built by both sexes • 1—1 olive or buff eggs with brown or olive
Shape ^^r- Abi indoned nests
splotches and sometimes marked with dark brown lines; oval to short elliptical
Location jg. ^ 1.7 inches long.

Plumage Sexes similar I Habitat

te Migration
Migratory We 'g ht 5.6 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 323

Family t
ARIDAE Species
Sterna antillarum
Length on ;
u Wingspan 2() incht

Least Tern
black ap
The smallest North American tern has a graceful
and nape
t

airy flight.Like other terns, it is very protective of

its nest and will divebomb intruders, screeching

and releasing droppings. The female is similar to

the male but smaller. The small size; yellow-
orange bill, legs, and feet; black lores, crown,
and nape; and white forehead distinguish this
species. Winter adults show a dark bill and
dusky-streaked whitish crown. Juveniles are
similar to winter adults but have darker
outer wings and a dusky carpal bar on the
leading edge of
, • •
gray upper
11 parrs •
the inner wings. * 1

white underparts

deeply forked tad orange- yellow legs

black wedge on
outer primaries

• SONG Piercing kip, kip,

kip or rapid repeated kid-ik, kid-
jr
ik. Also makes a grating zr-e-e-e-ep.
Juvenile First
• BEHAVIOR Catches food in bill in flight by swooping down Summer
to surface orby diving. After catching prey often swallows it
while flying or brings it to nest. Eats small fish, crustaceans, and mill lar Birds
sand eels. Hovers prior to plunge diving.
Black Tern
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Occasionally solitary. Winter adults and
• NESTING Incubation 20-25 days by both sexes (female juveniles ha\ e dark
bill; dusky crown and
begins incubation; male finishes it). Semiprecocial young leave car patch; darker
nest a few days after hatching, hide nearby, and are fed and mantle; darker legs
tended by both sexes for 60-90 days after first flight. First flight and feet; larger; tail
not deeply forked.
at 19-20 days. 1-2 broods per year.

• POPULATION Fairly common but local in the East and on the

Gulf Coast. Some decline in
Flight Pattern interior, Mississippi Valley, and
on southern California coast.

Buoyant, graceful, fast,

<
smooth flight with
• Conservation Some
populations considered

rapid airy wing beats; more rapid wing

endangered due to human
beats than any other tern in range. Hovers disturbance of nesting areas.
briefly before dipping down to seize prey.
X f

Nest Identification
Sometimes lined with pebbles, grass, and debris • on ground in sand or
sometimes on roof • built by female • 1-3 buff to pale green eggs with black,
Shape ^ 1* gray, or brown markings; oval or subelliptical, x 1.4 inches.
1

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
^ Migration
Migratory Weight
1 5 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

324 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Fami| v Species Len §th win gspan
Laridae Stmm anaethetm 14-15 inches 30 inches

Bridled Tern
This shy tern seen from shore except after storms when it
is rarely
is blown North America it spends most of its time
off course. In
in the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico and the Gulf Stream
as far north as North Carolina. It often nests in colonies with
Sooty Terns and other seabirds. In flight, note the white black rap
collar separating the black crown from the grayish
brown back, the grayish band on the trailing white patch
from forehead
edge of the underwing, and the extensive to behind eye
white in the tail and underwing.

black bill

forked gray tad with •

much white on outside
margins and zips
black legs andfeet
Juveniles have smoky gray
upperparts with white mottling.
• SONG High-pitched harsh yapping
crowlike callof wep-wep-wep or wup-wup.
• BEHAVIOR Oceanic. Eats small fish, squid, crustaceans, and
insects. Hovers over water, then dips to grip food with bill. Feeds
day or night. Sometimes swims. Frequents inshore waters but Juvenile
usually returns to land to roost.
Similar Birds
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial.
So< )TY Tkrn
• NESTING Incubation 28-30 days by both sexes. Lacks white collar
Semiprecocial young stay in nest a couple of days after hatching, between eap and hack;
then move to nearby sheltered area. First flight at 55-63 days. white patch extends
from forehead to eye
Young are fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year. but not beyond it;
• POPULATION Common Caribbean species; nests locally off darker upperparts;

the Florida Keys (Pelican Shoals). Uncommon to fairly common deeply forked tail with
narrow white edging.
well offshore in the Gulf of Mexico and in the Gulf Stream to
North Carolina. Rare farther north to New England and inland
when blown in by the
it is

Flight Pattern occasional hurricane.

• CONSERVATION
-\
< Vulnerable to introduced
domestic predators and human
disturbance on nesting islands;
Buoyant strong direct flight with shallow
some humans collect this birds
wing beats. Sometimes hovers abov e w ater
before dipping to surface for prey. eggs for food.
1
Nest Identification
Lnlined • hides mattei plant material • built by both sexes

Shape • whitish to pa markt w ith various shades of brown; oval,

g
1

2 \ 1.4 inches.
Location
^ j^, _

Plumage Scxcs simi ar i

Habitat Migration
Migratory We| g ht
3.4 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 325

Species Length 16 _ Wingspan

Family r
ARIDA] Sterna fuscata I
17 inchcs 32 _34 jnches

Sooty Tern
For fishermen have followed feeding flocks of Sooty Terns to
years, tuna
locate schools of tuna. Sailors sometimes call this bird "wide-awake," because
of its loud night call from the nesting colony, which sounds like wide-a-wake.
These birds do not breed until they are at least four to eight years of age.
Adults have clean-cut black upperparts and white underparts, wing linings,
forehead, and short eye stripe.
Juvenile is sooty brown overall blackish
with white speckling on mantle brown cap , r i i
wntte forehead
and upperwings, white lower patch
belly and undertail coverts,
blackish brown
white underwing lining, upperparts
and forked tail.
• Song a high
nasal ker-wacky-
wack or wide-a-wake.
• Behavior
Highly gregarious. Eats
small fish and small
squid. It is believed these
birds sleep "on the wing,"
because they do not land on water
and return to shore only when nesting.
Banding in Dry Tortugas indicates adults are not highly
migratory but that juveniles migrate as far as west Africa and .11 \ I \II 1-

may be gone 2-6 years before returning to the Florida Keys.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Often nests in mixed
colonies with Bridled Terns.
Similar Birds
• NESTING Incubation 27-30 days by both sexes.
Bridled Tern
Semiprecocial young wander around nest shortly after hatching,
White patch on forehead
but remain close to parents. First flight at 56-63 days. May not extends beyond eye:
leave colony for another 14-21 days, fed by both sexes. 1 brood more pointed wings;
paler lead-gray
per year.
upperparts; white collar
• POPULATION Abundant. Widespread throughout tropical separates crown from
oceans. Large nesting colony on the Dry Tortugas; also nests on back; forked tail paler
with more w hite edging
islands off Texas and Louisiana and on barrier islands of North
on tip.
Carolina. Regular in summer in Gulf Stream to North Carolina;
casual to southern coastal California. Storm-blown birds to
Maritimes and Great Lakes.
Flight Pattern • Conservation Strict
protection laws on the Tortugas

< and some Hawaiian colonies.

Vulnerable to human
disturbance and introduced
Buoyant direct flight with strong, steady,
shallow w ing beats. Hovers above water predators on breeding islands.
before dipping to surface to pick up food.

Nest Identification
Lined with leaves • built by both sexes • 1 white to buff egg, with brown, gray,
lavender, or black markings; oval, 2.0 x 1.4 inches.
Shape

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat^ ^ Migration
N j Kratory
i
Weight
6 3 Qunces

DATE TIME LOCATION

326 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family i Species Len Sth Wingspan 34_ 36
A.RIDAE phaetusa simplex 14.5 inches inches

Large-billed Tern
Vagrants of this South American species have shown up in
Illinois, Ohio, and New Jersey. This tern is very territorial
and will attack other waterbirds. One report tells of a
highly aggressive Large-billed Tern attacking an Osprey.
In flight its wing pattern is similar to that of Sabine's
Gull, with black primaries to thebend of the wing,
white secondaries and coverts to the base
of the wing that form a white
triangle, and gray
innerwing coverts

large yellow bill

short dark »ray tail white chin,

cheeks, and throat

wh ite undertail
coverts

that form a wedge on the forewing. The gray tail is

slightly notched, and the yellow bill is long and stout.

Nonbreeding adults have white mottling on the crown.
Juveniles are similar but have mottled brownish upperparts.
• SONG Call resembles a goose call. Also makes quiet cluck-cluck.
• BEHAVIOR Eats fish and aquatic invertebrates. Hawks insects
Catches food by plunging into water while flying.
in air.
Frequents freshwater rivers and larger lakes but is also found
along the sea coasts. Usually alone or in pairs but gathers in small
flocks to rest or roost along rivers. Sometimes gathers in much JUVENILE
larger concentrations.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Often in mixed colonies Similar Birds
with other terns and skimmers. None in North America.
• NESTING Incubation 27-30 days by both sexes.
Semiprecocial young leave nest a few days after hatching but
linger near for 55-65 days; fed
by both sexes until first flight.
Flight Pattern
1 brood per year.
• Population Accidental in
North America. Fairly common
on large rivers and lakes in
Direct flight with strong South America.
wing beats.

Nest Identification
No-nest material • hidden in grasses and reeds • built by both sexes • 2 pale

gray to olive-brown eggs with brown blotches; oval, 1.8 x 1.3 inches.
Shape

Plumage Scxcs Habitat Migration

NJonmigratory Wei ^ ht 8.1 ounces
similar

DATE '
TIME LOCATION
 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 327

Length Wingspan
Family
LARIDAE Species
chlidonias leucopterus 9 _ 1() nc h e{
i 23 _ 26 inchcs

White-winged Tern
This Eurasian bird North America
is a rare visitor to
It closely resembles the Black Tern and is
sometimes called the White-winged Black Tern.
Breeding plumaged birds are distinguished
from Black "Ferns by their white tail, black
underwing linings and white upperwing
coverts. The bill, legs, and feet can be
either deep red or black. In late
summer the molt produces
adults with mottled black-
and-white heads and bodies
such as the bird pictured
here. The black wing
linings are gradually lost to
white. Winter plumage is
black bill
mostly white with a
speckled crown, dark legs
red legs and feet
and bill, and blackish
primaries. Juveniles are
similar to winter adult
birds but have brown
mottling on the back.
• SONG Call oikrip-krip
and kree-ah, kik-kik.
• Behavior Shows a
marked preference for deeper
bodies of water. It generally
feeds by picking up insects Juvenile Winter
with from the surface of
its bill plumage
the water. Primary diet consists of
insects, larvae, small fish, and Similar Birds

crustaceans. Gregarious in winter, when it can be seen Black Tern

frequenting inland wetlands, lakes, and rivers. Black tail; lighter winp
linings; dark
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. upperwings; longer bil

• NESTING Incubation 18-22 days. Semiprecocial young leave longer, more pointed
wings.
nest shortly after hatching but continue to be fed and tended by
both sexes. First flight at 24-28 days. 1 brood per year.
• Population Rare to
Flight Pattern accidental. Casual on the East
Coast and in the Great Lakes

< region. Individuals have

with Black Terns in
places. Accidental along the
some
mated

Fluttery uneven direct flight w ith slow,

Pacific Coast.
leisurely, shallow wing beats. Hovers
above w ater before dipping for prey.

Nest Identification
Reeds, grass, and leaves • on small pile of floating dried reeds or vegetation
• built by both sexes • 3 ocher or dark brownish eggs with blackish brown
Shape ^a= Location blotches; oval, 1.4 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexes simi , ar Migratory L9 ounces

DATE TEX IE LOCATION

328 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan 27
LARIDAE chlidonias hybridus 10 inches
I

mche

Whiskered Tern
A native of Eurasia, this tern nests and breeds near freshwater
lakes and rivers. Winter plumage shows pale gray upperparts;
white forehead; black-streaked white crown; black eye black cap extends
to below eye •
crescent; black postocular stripe that joins at the black
nape; and dark red bill, legs, and fe*et. Juveniles

have brownish back with black mottling and

a
a brown smudge on the breast. Z,/^./. nape
dark gray
upperpart.

slate-gray wings • white cheeks

slate-gray •
forked tad
white lower bell)
and undertail
coverts

dark red legs

• SONG High rasping kik-kik-ktk and feet
note similar to that of the Black Tern
but much louder and more abrasive. Similar Birds

• BEHAVIOR Frequents inland freshwater marshes. Patrols -a Black Tern

In winter lias blacker
marsh with steady wing beats and dips to water surface and
head; white collar; dark
vegetation to pick up prey with bill. More direct flight than that gray upperwings and
of other black terns. Rarely plunge dives. Swims. Eats insects, mantle; dark bar on
aquatic invertebrates, and small fish. sides of breast • voice
differs.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Very noisy on its
Win e-winged Tern
breeding grounds.
i

In winter has w hite

• NESTING Incubation 18-20 days by both sexes, but female rump and tail; light

does more. Precocial young leave nest at 2-3 days but stay in w ing linings; white
nape and collar.
nearby vegetation; tended by both sexes. May be fed by both
sexes for up to 14 days. First flight at 23 days. 1 brood per year.
• Population Accidental.
Flight Pattern In summer 1993 the same bird
was spotted in coastal New
Jersey and later in Delaware.
• Conservation
Buoyant direct flight with deep rapid wing
Vulnerable to habitat loss in its
beats. Often interrupts flight and hovers to
pick up prey, then resumes direct flight. native Eurasian breeding range.

Nest Identification
Dried reeds, grass, leaves, and stalks • atop floating, dried vegetation or small
pile of grass • built In both sc\cs • 3 greenish or light blue eggs w ith black
Shape £zl Location ^ spots; oval to long oval, 1.5 inches long.

Plumage Scxcs Habitat Migration Weight

simi ar i Migratory 3J ounces

DATE TIME .OCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 329

Wingspan
Fami| y
LARIDAE Species
Qhlidonias niger
Length
9_ 10 inches 2() _ 24 nches
;

Black Tern
A black-bodied tern that prefers to breed and nest in

the inland marshes of the North American prairie

country but winters at sea. It is distinguishable by
its overall black breeding plumage, gray upperparts,

and dark red legs and feet. Its head and underparts
turn white in winter and produce a strange-looking
pied bird in late summer as winter molt
begins. Winter adults have a black crown
with an attached ear patch, a white black head

collar, and a dusky black side

bar. Juveniles are similar
to winter adults
with brownish
mottling on
the back and a
dark carpal bar.

• Song
Drawn-out
squeaky ka-sheek
and abrasive kik-
kik-kik.

• Behavior
In summer
prefers inland
black
lakes and freshwater underparts
marshes. Hovers to spot
insects. Catches insects in air or
swoops down to water or ground to pick up with bill. Juvenile Winter
Plunge dives on occasion. Eats mostly large flying insects but
Plumage
also takes spiders, small fish, crayfish, and small mollusks. Similar Birds
Follows people tilling soil and feeds on disturbed insects.
White-winged Tern
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Dark red bill; black body
and underw ing linings;
• NESTING Incubation 17-22 days by both sexes.
Semiprecocial young leave nest after 2-3 days but remain in
nearby grasses. First flight at 19-25 days, but may be fed by
both sexes for up to 2 additional weeks. 1 brood per year in
f white upperwings and
underw in» flight feathers:
white rump; slightly
notched w hite tail.

most regions; 2 broods per year in the South.

• Population Common to

Flight Pattern common in the East;

fairly
common in middle and western
parts of range; uncommon to
rare on the West Coast.

Buoyant direct flight with deep rapid wing

• Conservation Has
beats. Hovers for insects. Uneven foraging declined inland and on the East
flight w ith much stopping and starting. Coast from wetlands drainage.

Nest Identification
Dried reeds, stalks, and grasses • on floating dried vegetation • built by both
sexes• 2-4 light buff to olive eggs with black, brown, and greenish buff
Shape <^ £g. Location (a. blotches, usually wreathed; oval to long oval, 1.7 x 1.2 inches.

Plumage Habitat N5£ £££ Migration

Sexes simi , ar hSS Migratory

DATE TIME LOCATION

330 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Fami| y Species Length Wingspan
Laridae j[ nous stolidus 16 inches 33 inches

Brown Noddy
The Brown Noddy is the only noddy that nests in
extremely light
North America. Like other gulls and terns, it usually grayish white cap
is tame but will become aggressive and attack any

intruder that threatens its young. Nests are reused

each year and become large as matefials are added
each breeding season. Long-winged, with a
long, wedge-shaped tail, this tern appears
dark overall from a distance. Adults have
a grayish white cap that blends into a long slender
brown nape. Juveniles are similar to black bill

adults but have only a white

line on the forehead. *A

wedge-shaped
tail with slight
dark grayish
notch in center
brown overall

dark brown legs

and feet

• SONG C rowlike karrk or arrowk or harsh eye-ak.

• BEHAVIOR Pelagic in warm oceans. Sometimes forages in
small flocks. Uses beak to scoop up small prey that is flushed to
surface or escaping bigger fish. Eats small fish and squid that it Similar Birds
picks from the surface or dives from the surface to catch. Does Soo n Tern
not plunge dive like other terns. Swims. Flies low over water ** Juvenile has forked tail;

somewhat like a shearwater. lacks distinct cap; white

underwing linings,
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Noisy on nesting lower belly, and
grounds, especially at night. undertail coverts.

• NESTING
bird fed by its
Incubation 35-38 days by both sexes. Incubating
mate. Young stay in nest 20 days; both sexes feed
^
m
Black Noddy
Smaller; darker; white
gi cap; longer bill.
by regurgitation. First flight at about 30 days. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Common on and around Dry Tortugas. Casual in
Gulf to Texas and Gulf Stream
Flight Pattern to Outer Banks of North
Carolina. Accidental elsewhere
when blown by storm.
T • Conservation Breeding
colony on Dry Tortugas off
Strong rapid flight w th steady wing
beats; often flies with erratic changes Florida coast is protected.
in direction.

Nest Identification Old tree branches and seaweed • lined with shells and bits of coral • in cacti and
bay cedar bushes about 12 feet above ground • built by both sexes • 1 pinkish
Shape buff egg marked with dark reddish brown; oval to short subelliptical,
Location ^ ^s-™ ^ 2.1 \ 1.4 inches.

Plumage
Sexes sim ;, ar Habitat ». Migration
Migratory We 'Sht 7.0 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 331
Fami| y Species Length Wingspan ?8 _3() inchcs
laridae j/oi/s in i nu tus X2-13.5 inches

Black Noddy white cap

Sometimes called the White-capped Noddy, this andforehead <

tropical tern is similar to the Brown Noddy but

smaller and darker, with a whiter cap and a
longer thinner bill. It often feeds farther out
on the open sea. Known to be very tame,
this bird sometimes will allow physical
human contact. Juveniles are
similar to adults, but the
white on their heads is more
sharply defined and does
not blend gradually into
the surrounding dark
plumage of the head.

short blackish
brown legs and feet

• SONG A chattering
crick-crick-crick and a
sustained kehrrrrrr.
• BEHAVIOR Feeds
far out at
scoop up prey from
sea, using its bill to
the water. Often feeds in flocks. Eats small
fish and squid that it picks from the surface of the
water; also swims in shallow water and dives beneath the Similar Birds
surface to catch food. Flies close to water. More sedentary than
Brown Noddy
Brown Noddy, with most populations roosting at breeding sites Lighter and more brown;
throughout the year, departing at dawn and returning at dusk. larger; longer legs;
shorrer, thicker
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. bill.

• NESTING Incubation 34-39 days by both sexes. Young stay

in nest 39-52 days, fed by both
parents. 1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Nonbreeding
individuals are uncommon to
rareon the Dry Tortugas off the
Florida coast with colony of
Strong, swift, and erratic, but more
fluttering than Brown Noddy. Typii
Brown Noddies. Casual to
flies close to the surface of the ocea Texas coast.

Nest Identification No nesting material if crevice is used; otherwise, dead tree branches and
seaweed, lined with shells, rock, and bits of coral • cactus and bay cedar bushes,
Shape ^ Location
^
l
about 12 feet above ground • built by both sexes • 1 white to light red egg,
tinted with buff; oval or short subelliptical, 1.7 x 1.2 inches.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat^ ^ Migration
Moratory Weight
4_ 2 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

332 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
L ARIDAE Rynchops n iger 18-19 inches 42 _ 50 inch(

Black Skimmer
1 his crow-sized bird's

Spanish name, rayador, is

derived from the word

rayar, for its habit of
making lines in the
ground by skimming sand
around the nest with its
long bill. The Black
Skimmer is the largest of the
world's three species and,
like them, has unique
compressed, knifelike
mandibles, with the lower one
one-third longer than the upper
one. This long-winged bird has
short forked white tail
black upperparts, white
with black central tail
underparts, a black rump feathers
and notched
a slightly
tail. Winter adults have

a white collar.
Juveniles are similar to
bright red bill
winter adults but they with black tip hart red feet
\ white underpays
have mottled brown and legs
long lower mandible
upperparts. Nestlings are
camouflaged by their buff
coloring, which blends with the seashore. The lower and upper
mandibles are similar in length until young are almost fully grown.
• SONG Low throaty bark of kak-kak-kak, kttk-kttk-kttk, ox yap-yap-yap. Pairs
Juvenile
sometimes sing together, kow-kow or keow-keow.
• BEHAVIOR Crepuscular and partially nocturnal. Often begins foraging in late evening when
waters are calmer and prey rises to surface. Flies low and skims water with lower mandible to
locate prey by touch, then snaps the bill shut. Grasps small fish and crustaceans with upper
mandible, tilts head, and swallows while still flying. Spends much of day loafing on beaches.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Small colonies.
• NESTING Incubation 21-23 days by both sexes. Semiprecocial young remain in nest area
23-25 days. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Common in coastal areas. Casual to accidental
inland; birds are often driven
Flight Pattern there by storms.
• Conservation
Vulnerable to disturbance of
nesting colonies. Eggs and
young often trampled by dogs
Graceful buoyant direct flight with
measured wing beats. In perfect or humans, especially runners
synchrony flocks wheel, tw ist, and glide. on beach.

Nest Identification
No ^materials added • on upper beach above high tidemark • built by both sexe>

• 4-5 bluish w hite or pinkish white eggs with brown, lilac, and gray blotches;
Shape round ovate to elongated ovate, 1.3 inches long.

Plumage Migration Weight 73 ounC es

Sexes simi , ar Some migrate j

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 333

Fami, y Species Len §th Wingspan 13 nchcs

ALCIDAE Mealfe 8.5 inches j

DOVEKIE
The smallest Atlantic alcid, this little auk, with its chubby
body and proportionally large head, nests and breeds
above the Arctic Circle but winters off the northern
black head
Atlantic ("oast. Although it is a food source for short neck
arctic foxes, gyrfalcons, some gulls, and even
large fish, it remains abundant in its black
habitat. It has black upperparts, upperparts

white underparts, a short black

bill, and waterproof plumage.

In Hight the underwings

show black.

black upper
breast and throat

kite on remaining
underparts

short blackish gray legs d

Winter plumage
, . , and feet set back on body
. .

shows completely white

underparts with a white stripe curving up toward the top of the head.
• SONG Silent at sea. Various shrill chatters and squeaks in nesting colony
• BEHAVIOR Dives for food and flies underwater using its wings. Eats
small saltwater crustaceans and small freshwater fish. Often found at sea in
Winter
huge flocks. Disperses widely at sea outside breeding season. plumage
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial.
• NESTING Incubation 24-28 days by both sexes. Similar Birds

Semiprecocial young stay in nest 26-31 days. Fed by both sexes Common Murre
1 brood per year. Much larger; longer bill;

longer neck.
• POPULATION Abundant on breeding grounds, where
colonies may number in the millions. Winters irregularly offshore to
North Carolina and rarely to

Flight Pattern Florida. Casual inland after

winter storms.
• Conservation ah auks
are protected by law, but young
and eggs are still harvested for
Rapid direct flight with 'ast whirring wing food. Vulnerable to oil spills.
heats low over water..

Nest Identification
Nothing added • on bare ground hidden in crannies of rocky cliffs • 1 bluish
white or green egg, usually unmarked; oval to long elliptical, 1.9 inches long.
Shape

Plumage
Scxes simikr Habitat^ ^ •Migration
N on migratory We 'g ht 5.7 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

334 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len §th Wingspan
Alcidae Uria aalge 17.5 inches I
28 _ 3 o nc hes
i

Common Murre brownish head long thin pointed

This large-bodied, crow-sized seabird is and throat p black bill
one of the most adept divers in the alcid
family and is capable of diving to depths
of more than 240 feet. Like all murres white eye ring
its pear-shaped egg is adapted to tifrn

in a circle rather than roll off the

precipitous where these birds
cliffs
thin stripe leads
nest. It has dark sooty brown from eye to cheek
upperparts, including the neck
and head; a long thin black
bill; and white underparts.
white underparts
Some Atlantic birds have a
narrow white eye ring and
stripe extending behind eye,
but most East Coast birds and
all Pacific Coast birds lack the

eye adornment. Winter and

juvenile birds show a white
throat and cheeks and a black
postocular stripe.
white-trimmed' Winter
• SONG Silent at sea. In trailing edge on
Plumage
flight makes
murrrr
soft innerwing
sound. On nesting ground Similar Birds
makes various low growling
Thick-billed Murre
sounds, armmrrrhh.
Shorter, thicker bill
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Forms arched at tip with

large rafts on water. Feeds in flocks, narrow white line along

gape; white of
diving and swimming for food. Can stay
underparts rises to sharp
underwater 60 seconds. Carries fish
for peak at throat • winter
lengthwise in mouth and sticks out tail while flying. Eats mostly birds have darker face
and neck; lack thin
various fish but also takes marine invertebrates, including
postocular stripe.
shrimp and squid. Droppings from huge colonies provide
important fertilizer to food chain of surrounding waters. Razorbill
Larger head; deeper
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. bill; more pointed tail;

• NESTING Incubation 28-33 days by both sexes. blacker upperparts

• Atlantic range.
Semiprecocial young stay in nest 19-21 days, then leave colony
and accompany adults in water while completing development. Fed
by both sexes. Typically 1 brood
per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Abundant off
West and East Coasts.
T "T ~t "t • Conservation ah aicids
protected by law, but still
Strong flight on rapidly whirring wings.
Low over water near colonies. High for vulnerable to marine oil spills.
long distances, often twisting and turning.

Nest Identification No nest materials • on bare ridge of cliff; sometimes placed against pebbles held
together by droppings to guard egg from rolling off ledge • 1 white, green, blue,
or brown egg with dark brown spots and blotches; spindle-shaped or elongated
Shape
pyriform, 3.2 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes simUar Habitat n~ ~a Migration
Nonmigratory Wei ^ ht 2.2 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 335
Family Species Length Wingspan
ALCIDAE Uria lomvia lg inch( 2 8_32 inches

Thick-billed Murre short thick black bill with

Although considered one of the most common white line on cutting edge
seabirds in the Northern Hemisphere, the Thick- of ///)/>(/ mandible •

billed Murre is threatened by fishing practices

and pollution. It is still much more numerous
than its close relatives, the Common Murre and
Razorbill. Its bill is shorter and broader than
that of the similar Common Murre, and
most birds sport a narrow white line
along its gape. In winter, white
chin and foreneck extends
onto the face to just under
the eye. Juveniles are
similar to winter
adults but have

browner upperparts.
Common Murrk
• SONG Silent at Longer, thinner bill;

sea. Noisy around lacks white gape line;

white of upper breast
breeding colonies.
meets throat in
Call sounds like arrr or ana in
inverted I ; occasional
adeep hoarse voice; similar to Common white eye ring; brown
Murre but harsher and lower. upperparts • in winter
shows more white on
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Forms
on water. Stands
large rafts face and dark
upright on rocks like a penguin. Forages while swimming, postocular line.

sometimes diving as deep as 200 feet and using wings to "fly" Razorbill
underwater. Eats fish, crustaceans, marine worms, and squid. Thicker, arching bill

with vertical white line

• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. across it near tip;
• NESTING Incubation 28-35 days by both sexes. longer tail • darker

Semiprecocial young stay in nest 16-30 days; leave colony when face in winter
• Atlantic range.
about a third grown, and remain with parents. Fed by both
sexes. 1 brood per year.
• Population Common to

Flight Pattern abundant on breeding grounds.

Casual, widely dispersed, off
coasts rest of year. Declining.
• Conservation Affected

Strong rapid flight low over water on short

by oil spills, marine pollution,
whirring wings, often with much twisting and entanglement or drowning
and turning of body. Groups fly in lines. in commercial fishing nets.

Nest Identification
No nest material • 1 whitish, tan, blue, or green egg with brown and black
markings; spindle-shaped or elongated pyriform, 3.2 inches long.
Shape

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei 6 ht 2.1

Sexe§ simUar Nonmigratory pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

336 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Fam '"y Species Length
16 _ 18 inches Wingspan
ALCIDAE Aka 25 _ 27 nches
I

{orda ;

Razorbill kite Fine fro in

While this heavy-headed, short base of bill to eye
necked alcid is the living species that
most closely resembles the extinct large arched
Great Auk, the Razorbill is smaller, Mafic hill with
vertical white
and it tilts its heavy, laterally
line near tip
compressed bill and long tail
upward when swimming.
black
Restricted to the North npperpart.
Atlantic, it is vulnerable to
environmental pollution. In
winter the white breast
vhite underparts ascend
extends up to the chin, and to point on throat
the thin white line running
from the base of the
upper mandible to the
eye is lost. Juveniles are
similar to winter adults
but have
• SONG Low
a smaller
long
bill.
white trailing edge
on innerwins \
Winter
Plumage
deep growling hey
al. Occasional
weak whistle.
• Behavior Similar Birds
Gregarious. Ashore
Thick-billed Murre
stands upright like
Smaller bill with white
a penguin. Dives line on cutting edge;
from surface for does not cock short tail

food, swimming at angle when

swimming; longer neck;
underwater with half-folded wings to depths of at least 60 feet. smaller head.
Eats fish, crustaceans, squid, and marine worms often taken
common Murre
close to the surface. Like other alcids, after young are fledged Smaller bill; does not
molts all flight feathers at once and is flightless on sea until cock short tail at angle
feathers are replaced. when swimming; longer
neck; small head • in
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. winter shows more
• NESTING Incubation 35-37 days by both sexes. Young stay white in face and black
postocular stripe.
in nest 14-25 days, then leave colony before they can fly and
mature at sea with parents. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Common on
Flight Pattern breeding grounds in North
Atlantic. Disperses widely after
breeding; in winter regularly
T T T found well offshore to North
Carolina; casual to Florida coast.
Rapid powerful flight low over water on
whirring w ings. Flies in straight lines
• Conservation Highly
when foraging or traveling long distances vulnerable to pollution.

Nest Identification
Pebbles, grass, and other vegetation • sometimes no nest material • built by
both sexes • 1-2 greenish, tan, or white eggs blotched with blackish brown;
Shape
W spindle-shaped or elongated pyriform, 3 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration

Nonmigratory Wei § ht 1.7
pounds
Sexes simi)ar

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 337

Fami, y Species Length ,?_ 14 inches Wingspan

alcidae Qepphus grylle

Black Guillemot
A shoreline inhabitant, the Black Guillemot is usually
observed closer to shore than most other alcids,
especially in the North Atlantic. While its population
is widely dispersed, it is not as gregarious as other
birds in its family. Black Guillemots sometimes can

be spotted coaxing their young to fly off cliffs,

dangling prey just beyond reach for encouragement.
In flight note the large white wing patch, white
axillaries, and white underwing linings. The
inside of this bird's mouth is bright coral
orange. Winter adults and juveniles are
white with mottled black upperparts.
• SONG Weak, high-pitched
whistle of peeee.
• Behavior Not
gregarious but may occur
small flocks; usually in
pairs or alone. Eats rock
eels, small fish, mollusks,
crustaceans, insects,
marine worms, and
some vegetation.
Often surface dives
30-100 feet
underwater to forage
for food under loose
stones while
swimming with wings.
In flight flashes white
patches and dangles red
feet behind tail.
Similar Birds
• BREEDING Monogamous. Semicolonial to
colonial (colonies of only a few pairs). Pigeon Guillemot
I )uskv wing linings and
• NESTING Incubation 23-39 days by both sexes. axillaries; black bar on
Semiprecocial young stay in nest 35 days. Fed by both sexes. white shoulder patch.
^^^^^ • Pacific Coast range.
1 brood per year.

• POPULATION Fairly common on breeding grounds; disperses

after breeding.

Flight Pattern • Conservation

Introduction of predators to
nesting areas poses danger,
but birds still numerous,
Geographically dispersed
Direct flight with rapid wing beats low
nesting areas help offset the
over water.
threat. Vulnerable to oil spills.

Nest Identification
Made of debris and small stones • often near driftwood • built by both sexes
• 1-2 w hite eggs, sometimes tinted with bluish green, with black, brown,
Shape and gray markings; long elliptical to pyriform, 2.3 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexe§ simi , ar Most d() n()t migrate 14 3 QU

DATE TIME LOCATION

338 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
Alcidae Species
Brachy rampints perdix Len etn
inches Wingspan
1 1.5 18 nches
;

Long-billed Murrelet
A close Asiatic relative
of the Marbled dark brown upperparts with
Murrelet, the darker brown barring

Long-billed was long straight

only recently hiark bill

determined to
be a separate
species; it is

larger, has a
longer wingspan,
longer bill, and
some small plumage lighter brown
underparts with
differences. Like Similar Birds
brown barring
other alcids, it is an
Marbled Murrelet
adept diver and is able Breeding plumage
to "fly" underwater by shows tawny cinnamon
underparts mottled and
using its wings as propelling
oars. Winter plumage shows white
Winter barred blackish; brown,
white, and sandy buff-
plumage
underparts, unbroken grayish black upperparts with marbled underparts;
a black cap extending below the eyes, a blackish nape with a dark gray underwings
• winter plumage shows
pair of small paler oval patches, and whitish underwing median
blackish partial breast
primary coverts. Juveniles are similar to winter adults. band; black cap
• SONG Repeated call of meet] meer in flight and on water. extending below eyes
onto cheeks; white half-
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious most of the year. Pairs in breeding collar extending up to
season. Oceanic. Nomadic. Most numerous on coastal waters sides of nape • western
range.
and bays. Dives underwater from surface to find food. Eats fish
and crustaceans. Nests far from water in coniferous forests in KITTLITZ'S
masses of lichen on tree branches. Winters on open seas near MlRRELET
Shorter bill • breeding
breeding grounds. Swims well. Runs to take off from water's plumage shows more
surface, flying low on whirring wings. Flies high when going marbled buffy speckling
between nesting and foraging sites. on upperparts; white
outer tail feathers;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. Little known whiter underparts
about the breeding biology of this species. • winter plumage shows
whiter face with white
• NESTING Incubation estimated at 27-30 days by both sexes. extending above eyes
Young semiprecocial; stay in nest estimated 27 days, fed by both to sides of crown
sexes. 1 brood per year. • western range.

• POPULATION Rare to casual throughout North America,

especially in fall and winter.
Flight Pattern • Conservation
Vulnerable to loss of nesting
habitat due to logging
operations as well as oil spills

and other pollution of the

Strong fast direct flight, often close to the
marine environment.
water, on rapidly whirring wings.

Nest Identification
Moss and lichen • far from ocean, on branch of coniferous tree, up to
23 feet above ground • built by both sexes • 1 bluish green egg, with
Shape Location dark spots; subelliptical, 2.4 x 1.5 inches.

P'umage
Sexes similar Habitat^ >^ m^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei £ ht Undetermined

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 339

Family Species Length Wingspan 16

ALCIDAE Synthliboramphus antiquum 10 inches inches

Ancient Murrelet
This little auk is named for the gray coloring on its back, thought to

resemble a shawl worn across the shoulders of an elderly person,

and for the white streaking on the sides of the crown in breeding
plumage, which adds to the "ancient look." In flight it crooks
its head upward and shows a black side bar contrasting with

the white wing linings and white underparts; legs and feet
black on head
are grayish. Juveniles are similar to winter adults but straw to whitish yelloz
extends to throat
have a whitish throat and chin and lack any bill with blackish tip

white streaking on the sides of the crown. and culmen

• SONG Soft whistles and chirps black-and-
during nesting. Shrill chirrup
half collar
while at sea. pale slate-gray
upperparts

underparts

„,.,:^ heavy hia dish

mottling on flanki

• BEHAVIOR Nomadic. Nocturnal on breeding grounds. Dives and

swims underwater using wings. Eats crustaceans and small fish
brought to surface by tides. Young raised at sea and recognize parents
through auditory means. Breeding
plumage
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial.
• NESTING Incubation 32-36 days by both sexes. Young Similar Birds
remain then are led to sea by parents. Not fed
in nest for 3 days,
Marbled Murrele'
in nest. Young are tended by both sexes at sea for 28 days. Smaller; black bill • in

1 brood per year. winter has black back

with white line
• POPULATION Uncommon to common on Aleutians and
bordering scapulars.
other islands in Bering Sea. Winters offshore to central
California and rarely to southern California. Casual to accidental
inland throughout continent.
Flight Pattern • Conservation Declining
because of accidental
introduction of rats on nesting
islands and introduction of
foxes and raccoons for fur
Swift direct flight on rapidly whirring
wings close to water; often stops midflight production. Is vulnerable to
and drops into water. offshore oil spills.

Nest Identification
Lined with dry grass, twigs,and leaves • built by both sexes • 1-2 light brown
Shape ^ p or olive-brown eggs, sometimes tinged with blue and brown evenly distributed
speckles; elongated, 2.3 x 1.5 inches.
Location

Plumage
Sexes simi ,
Habitat
Js« as Migration
Nonmigratory We 'g nt 7.3 ounces

DATE TIME. LOCATION

340 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
ALCIDAE Species
pratercu la airtlca Length
j 2 inches
Wingspan ? ^4 inches

Atlantic Puffin triangular black

line from eye to
Formerly called che Common Puffin, this is
below crown
narrow hlack line
the only puffin nesting on the Atlantic Coast
extends backward
Because the eggs are laid in burrows, from eye
incubating birds are able to take long breaks
and often walk around the nesting grounds large triangular

pale gray to bill has red-orange

socializing with other puffins. In flight it
vhitefat
tip and blue-gray
shows rounded grayish underwings and vase surrounded
and (lurk
white underparts separated by a black by yellow
collar. Winter birds have smaller black
yellow-edged bills and darker faces. upperparts
black offorehead,
Juveniles have even smaller bills.
crown, and nape
• SONG Usuallv silent at sea. Id extends around throat
makes to form black collar
flight soft purring sounds. At
breeding sites this bird gives a low
growl-like arrr.
• white
• BEHAVIOR Tame and underparts
trusting at colonies. Upright
posture. Eats crustaceans and
small fish. Searches
50-200 feet underwater.
Can carry 10 or
at once; arranges fish
more
for

fish
food

crosswise in
they are caught and transports them back to
bill as

/ * red-orange
legs andfeet
.11
\\ I All I

nest with heads and tails dangling out on

jib-
either side. Winters at sea far from land,
where prenuptial molt renders birds briefly
flightless just prior to breeding season. Often Winter
patters across water to become airborne. Plumage
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Males
fight each other on water during courtship. Similar Birds
• NESTING Incubation 39-45 days by both sexes. Razorbill
Semiprecocial young stay in nest 38-44 days. Fed by both sexes, Black bill; black hood;
lacks black collar;
then abandoned by parents who swim out to sea. Nestling fasts
black legs and feet;
in burrow about a week until able to swim out to sea, usually
for white trailing edge
departing colony at dark. First flight at about 49 days. 1 brood on w ing; white

per year. underwing linings.

• POPULATION Common but local in breeding season. In winter

casual at sea to North Carolina. i
Flight Pattern • Conservation Has
been declining since the 19th
Century due to hunting and
introduction of predators such
as rats, cats, dogs, and foxes to
Swift direct flight v nesting grounds. Vulnerable to
often close to watei
oil spills.

Nest Identification Burrow in loose soil w ith entrance hidden by rocks • lining, if present,
composed of grass, feathers, seaweed, and leaves • male does most of
Shape
fiBP Location
^^ excavating w ith some help from female • 1 white egg, sometimes with brown
in lavender blotches; round, 2.5 inches long.

Plumage Sexes s; mi , ar
Habitat n» Migration
Nonmigratory Wei § ht 13.4 ounces

DATE n.ME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 341

Family Spec\es Length Win S s P an 24-25

COLUMBIDAE Co/um fa Uvia I
13_14 inches inches

Rock Dove iiimii

Introduced into North America by Europeans in the

early 1600s, the Rock Dove is often called homing

pigeon or carrier pigeon. Early Romans are said to
have used the Rock Dove to carry the report of
Caesar's conquest of Gaul back to Rome, and
legend says the Rock Dove brought news of
Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo to England
days before messages sent via horses and blue-gray
overall *^
ships. Although native to wild rocky
• iridescent
habitats, today these birds are most
feathers on head
common in urban and rural settings, and neck reflect

and they are still raised in coops green, bronze,

and purple
or pigeon lofts. They can vary
in color from wildtype to
browns, grays, white-
.' thick broad bars
across each wing

gray, mosaics, or pure white, but they

always show a white rump pattern.
• SONG Sings a repetitive cooing coo-a-
roo, coo-roo-cooo or cock-a-war or coo-cuk-cuk. Similar Birds
• BEHAVIOR In wild eats grass, weed seeds, grains, clover, tt. Band-tailed Pigeon
and bread crumbs and garbage. Will take
berries. In cities eats West • w hite bar on
nape; broad gray tail
food from the hand, but when frightened claps wings over the
band; lacks white rump.
back while flying up. Has been known to fly faster than 85
Mourning Dove
miles per hour.
Much smaller; long
• BREEDING Male displays by turning in circles while cooing. pointed tail; lacks w hue
Monogamous. rump patch.

• NESTING Incubation 16-19 days by both sexes. Altricial

young remain in nest about
27-35 days. Fed by both
Flight Pattern
parents. Young thrust bills into
parents' mouths to eat
regurgitated food. 5 or more
broods per year.

Swift direct flight with rapid wing beats.

• POPULATION Common,
especially in urban settings.

Nest Identification
Unlined platform of sticks, twigs, leaves, grasses • building ledges, barn rafters,
Shape Location Jjjj] y??. ^ gutters, sheltered cliff edges, or rocks • built
by male • 2 white eggs, about
by female with materials gathered
1.6 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes simUar Habitat^ ^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei § ht 13.0
ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

342 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
COLUMBIDAE Species
Qolumba squamosa Len Sth 15
inches Wingspan 74.75
inches

SCALY-NAPED PIGEON
dark
Named chestnut and metallic purple
for the
feathers on neck that give it a scaly
its

appearance, this native of Antilles, West dark reddish

Indies, feeds in the treetops. In rare purple head
*
instances Scaly-naped Pigeon strays
have been sighted in the Florida
Keys. From a distance its dark
reddish purple head appears dark
gray. Females resemble males,
but the bare skin surrounding
the eye of a female is yellow k

rather than red. This treetop i I

Caribbean inhabitant is JH
difficult to observe.
£|
• SONG Graduated deep
resonant cru-cru'-crucu coo,
White-crowned
similar to
Pigeon but higher and
less guttural.

• Behavior a
gregarious and social bird.
Known to roost in flocks.
Generally it is arboreal.
The Scaly-naped Pigeon
prefers to inhabit well-
wooded hillsides and
fruit plantations. Its Rook Dove
Wild type has darker
primary diet consists of
head and neck than
large tree fruits, berries, body; gray upperparts;
grains, and snails. For white rump; black bars
on upperw ing.
water, it usually visits
waterholes and freshwater White-crowned
ponds in the early morning and also in the evening. Pigeon
Juveniles are dark
• BREEDING Monogamous. Stays with one mate for lite. grayish black overall
• NESTING Incubation 18-20 days by both sexes. Young leave with a grayish brown

nest in 27-30 days. Fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year.
• POPULATION The Scaly-naped Pigeon is accidental in the
Florida Keys. It is a bird that is

Flight Pattern fairly common Caribbean

in the
on the Greater and Lesser
Antilles islands.
• Conservation Some
populations of the Scaly-naped
Swift direct flight with rapid deep wing Pigeon suffer from habitat loss
beats and long neck protruding.
and also from shooting.

Nest Identification
Sticks and twigs • in tree, shrub, or cliff crevices • built by both sexes
• 1-2 white eggs; oval to elliptical, 1.6 x 1.1 inches.
Shape Location 0b

Plumage Sexes simijar Migration

Nonm lgratory We| g ht 8.8 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 343

Species Length Wingspan 25

Family
COLUMBIDAE Columba leucocephala 14 _ 15 inches mches

White-crowned Pigeon
Widespread in the West Indies this species
reaches the northern limit of its range in
shining white crown
South Florida. Travelers to Key West s

often see these dark birds perched at

iridescent collar
close range along the highway or may
visible in //right
spot large flocks flying overhead from sunlight
one feeding area to another. The
male has a shining white crown.
yellow hill
Females and juveniles are similar
with red base
in appearance, but the female's
crown is dull white, while young
birds have a gray or brownish
gray crown. late gray
• Song Owi-iike,
overall

tremulous wof, wof, woo,

cowoo or a loud, deep coo-
cura-cooo or coo-croo.
• Behavior Usually
lives in trees and shrubs.
Eats berries, seeds, and
some insects. Seldom visits
ground. Often seen in flight
above trees, especially in
earlymorning and when
returning to roosts at
evening.
• Breeding
Monogamous. Colonial.
• Nesting incubation
18-20 days by both
sexes. Altricial young
fed by both sexes;
Rock Dove
leave nest after
White rump patch in all
30-35 days. Up to plumages; generally not
3 broods per year. uniformly dark; lacks
white crown.
• POPULATION Fairly common. Stable in Florida; decreasing
in Caribbean.
• CONSERVATION Not a
Flight Pattern concern in US, where species is

protected. Population declines

in Caribbean due to habitat loss,

encroachment by growing
human populations, and
Swift direct flight with strong rapid wing
hunting (even in protected
areas and out of season).

Nest Identification
s, grass,and roots • lined with grasses and fine material • in low fork of tree
Shape ^ Location ijjfc
It by both sexes • 1-2 unmarked white eggs, 1.4 x 1 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simjlar Habitat
^ Migration
Mi gratory Weight c) ?

DATE TIME LOCATION

344 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan 74 nches
COLUMBIDAE Qolumba flavirostris 13 _ 14 jnches
I

Red-billed Pigeon
Appearing plain and dark at first glance, the
Red-billed Pigeon is unusually attractive dull purplish
when bright sunlight hits its iridescent head and neck
colors of purple, blue-gray, and olive-
brown, which contrast with its brilliant orange or red
red markings. In flight it shows a exes with bright
red eyelids
blue-gray rump. Small numbers of
this shy native of Mexico and
olive-brown
Central America nest in the dense mantle
woods of the lower Rio Grande
Valley. Being fond of water, the
purplish chest
Red-billed Pigeon makes
and scapulars
frequent visits to sandbars in
streams to drink and bathe.
• SONG Unique call uttered
blue-gray
most often in early spring or
ring coverts
summer. It gives a high-
pitched, drawn-out whoooo,
blue-gray belly
00 'koo-koo-koo.
and flanks
• Behavior Often seen
as solitary individuals or in
pairs. After breeding season
forages in flocks for seeds,
nuts, figs, and also small
fruits in trees.Generally
perches high in trees above
a brushy understory. In
Texas, it forages in stubble
fields with other doves and
pigeons, eating waste grain.
Although the species is

primarily nonmigratory, many

Texas birds retreat to Mexico in Similar Birds
late fall or winter.
Rock Don k
• BREEDING Monogamous. White rump patch in al
lumages.
Mating may begin in February.
• NESTING Incubation 18-20 davs bv both
young fed by
sexes. Altricial
both sexes. Young leave nest at
Flight Pattern
25-30 days. 1-2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Uncommon
in spring and summer. Rare in
winter. Declining in Texas.

Sw ift, strong, slightly floppy direct flight.

• CONSERVATION Hunted
in Mexico.

Nest Identification
Flimsy platform of tw igs • lined with grass, stems, and rootlets • in tree, shrub,
or vine8-30 feet above ground • built by both sexes • 1, rarely 2, glossy
Shape ^ unmarked w hite eggs; about 1.5 x 1 inches.

Plumage Sexes simi ar i

Habitat _^^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei § ht 1 1.4 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 345

Length Wingspan 25 inches

Family
COLUMBIDAE Species
Qolumba fasciata | 4 _ 15 nches
;

Band-tailed Pigeon
Reduced in numbers by overhunting, the Band-

tailed Pigeon has recovered as a result of bans on

hunting in several states. It is generally is found purplish head

in woods and wooded canyons in mountains,

where it perches for long periods of time in the
tops of leafless trees. Large flocks often gather
at water holes and salt licks.
narrow white band
on nape of neck
• SONG An owl-like repetitive oo-whoo or
whoo-oo-whoo. During nesting season male
utters deep smooth tremulous whoo-whoo-
hoo or two-syllable whoo-uh.
• BEHAVIOR Not as gregarious as
some other species of doves and
pigeons, these birds often perch
in small groups high in trees on
purplish
open branches. Small flocks
wings and
may fly together to water
holes or to forage. In
winter these flocks
may number several
hundred birds,
rarely thousands.
Flutters among
branches to
pick berries. *

yellow legs

«-
• conspicuous wide
dark gray terminal
band across tail
Also eats wild peas, grains,
seeds, nuts, and insects. Similar Birds
• BREEDING Male calls to female from open perch in tree.
Rock l)o\ E
Monogamous. Scattered pairs or occasionally small colonies. White rump; no
• NESTING Incubation 18-20 days by both sexes. Young stay contrasting gray
band at end of tail.
in nest 25-30 days. Tended by both parents. Young fed by
regurgitation of seeds, fruits, berries, and pigeons' milk.
2-3 broods per year.
Flight Pattern • Population Uncommon
to fairly common; local.

• Conservation Nearly
extirpated from overhunting,
but has recovered with
Swift strong direct flight. restraints on hunting.

Nest Identification
Flimsy platform of twigs • usually in tree branches or forks 8-40 feet above
ground • built by female with materials gathered by male • 1-2 unmarked white
Shape eggs, 1.6 x 1 inches.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
m A ^ Migration
Migratory Weight

DATE TIME LOCATION

346 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Fami !y
COLUMBIDAE Species
Streptopelia turtur
Length
8 .5_9_ 5 inches Wingspan
U-U inches

European Turtle-Dove
This Eurasian native has been seen once in North
America. In the Old World it is a gregarious dove
that is not shy around humans and feeds in
gardens, open fields, and along roads. It can
patch of diagonal
be identified by the checkered pattern of black-and-white
black and bronze on the wing coverts and stripes on neck i

the black-and-white-striped neck patch.

A patch of bare red skin surrounds the orange-brown back
with scaly pattern
eye. In flight the rounded black tail

fan -shaped black

tail with thin white
terminal band gray-pink
nnderparts

is broadly tipped with

white, juveniles are similar to
adults but lack the patch of diagonal stripes on the neck.
• SONG Distinctive bold turr-turr, turr-turr and soft melodic purring. The European Turtle-
Dove represents one of the distinctive bird voices of Europe in the summer, when the soft low
purring cooing fills the air.

• BEHAVIOR Gregarious; occurs in small groups or flocks after the breeding season. Feeds
primarily on various seeds, tender leaves, and buds in open areas, forests along roadsides, and
agricultural areas. Spends much time on the ground.
Similar Birds
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary.
• NESTING Incubation 13-14 days by both sexes. Altricial Similar to no other North American
species in the observed range.
young fledge nest at 20 days. Young are fed by both sexes.
2-3 broods per year.
• Population Common in

Flight Pattern Eurasia. Accidental in North

America with 1 record in 1990
in Florida Keys; some question
origin of this bird.
• FEEDERS Attends feeders
Graceful swift direct flight with rapid for small grains; also frequents
wing beats. Similar to that of a pigeon.
birdbaths and pools.

Nest Identification
Twigs, sticks, and leaves • flimsy built bv both sexes • in low tree or bus

Shape Location * • 2 white eggs, 1.2 inches long.

Plumage Sexes simjIar Habitat

m ^_ Migration
jyjj
Weight
47

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 347

Family s P ecies Streptopelia decaocto Len £ th Wingspan 8 _j 9 inches

QOLUMBIDAE 1 2.5 inches ,

Eurasian Collared-Dove
This large dove, a native of Eurasia, was introduced into the
Bahama Islands in 1974. By the end of the 1970s, it had found pale gray -pink
its wav to Florida, where it could be seen feeding in backyard head, neck, and
breast «
gardens, towns, and parks. By the beginning of the new
millennium this now established exotic had spread up the
black bill
Atlantic Coast to North Carolina, across the Gulf Coast
to Texas, and up the Mississippi River to
Tennessee, with records in Oklahoma very pale buff

and Pennsylvania. upperparts

Although similar to m
other doves

black "half-
moon" trim Died
with white on
nape

in its habits, this dove is

pink legs and feet
less shy around people and
prefers life in and around human
habitation. In flight, it shows a two- Similar Birds
toned tail, gray base, and white-tipped blackish primaries. Mourning Dove
• SONG Soft, continual cooing hoo-hoooo-hoo with emphasis on Smaller; pinkish taw n
head and underparts;
the second syllable; also a complaining mair.
pinkish iridescence on
• BEHAVIOR Solitary; pairs and family groups, but not in large neck; black spot on

flocks.Feeds close to houses; trusting of human contact. Eats auriculars; brownish gray
upperparts and unmarked
mostly grain and seeds. Feeds on lawns, roadsides, feed mills,
nape; long, pointed tail

farms, and agricultural areas. with white tips and black

• BREEDING Monogamous. Male gives displays and coos subteminal band on all

but two central feathers;

while perched in tree or roof.
black spots on upper
• NESTING Incubation 14-18 days by both sexes. Young stay inner wing • wings make
whistling sound in flight.
in nest 15-20 days, fed and tended by both parents for an
additional week. Up to 6 broods per year in Europe, possibly
same in Florida.

Flight Pattern • Population Fairly

common to common. Spreading
quickly in southeastern US
cities, villages, and gardens.
• FEEDERS Attracted to
Swift strong direct flight on rapi
feeding stations, bird feeders,
beating wings.
birdbaths, and garden pools.

Nest Identification
Twigs and dry stalks • in tree, shrub, and balconies or eves of houses, 6-7 feet
above ground • male collects materials, female builds • 2 pure white eggs; oval
Shape £q Location to elliptical, 1.2 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei § ht 5.4 ounces

Sexes simllar ^_ Nonmigratory

DATE TIME LOCATION

 —
348 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len Stn Win gspan
QOLUMBIDAE Zenaida asiatica 11-12 inches l7 _ l8 inche

White-winged Dove
Its distinctive white wing patches set this dove apart from
other doves and pigeons; when the bird perches the patch
orange-red eyes
shows only narrow white line outlining the bottom of
as a surrounded by
the folded wing. Often making its home in the desert, it bare blue skin %

will fly more than 20 miles for drinking water, making

use of both natural and man-made sources. The reddish purple
female is smaller than the male and duller in color. crown and nap,
• SONG A low-pitched cooing who-cooks-for-you
iridescent
who koo-koo-koo. greenish gold on
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Sometimes sides oj neck •

seen in flocks of thousands in the

West. Eats seeds, grains, and black mark
below ear coverts
fruits from trees, shrubs, and
cacti. Eeeds in flocks.
Obtains drinking water

rounded gray tail

with white
corners, black-
trim med inside •

large white wing

bars and dark gray
flight feathers

from streams and cacti, as

well as from various man-made
sources, such as reservoirs, irrigation
canals, windmill troughs, and cattle tanks.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Small colonies. In display flight,
Similar Birds
male climbs with clapping wing beats, then glides down on stiff,

slightly downward-bowed wings. Moi using Dove

Lacks white wing
• NESTING Incubation 13-14 days by both sexes. Young stay patch; longer, more

in nest 13-16 days, tended by both sexes. 2-3 broods per year. pointed tail; gray-browi
fli«ht feathers.
• POPULATION Common in the Southwest; locally fairly
common in southern Florida; Casual elsewhere.

Flight Pattern birdbaths, garden pools, and

bird feeders and feeding
-\ stations providing small seeds.
• Conservation
Fairly fast direct flight, but slower and Harvested and managed as a
usually higher and without the zigzagging game species in the western
of the Mourning Dove. United States.

Nest Identification
Sticks, grasses, and stems of weeds • cactus, shrub, or low in tree, 4-30 feet
above ground • built by both sexes; male gathers material, female builds
Shape ^ Location $b ^ • 1 creamy buff eggs; oval to elliptical. 1.2 inches long.

Plumage Sexes simi ar ,

Habitat ^±^ Migration
Migratory Weight
5A ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 349

Family Species Length Wingspan 15 inchcs

(;oL1MH | |)A| .
; Zenaida aurita 1() inche .

Zenaida Dove
James Audubon first saw this stocky dove in the
Florida Keys in 1832, where he recorded it as a
breeding species. Since the beginning of the 20th
century, this dove has been recorded only a few
cinnamon head
times in the Florida Keys and south Florida. A
and neck
native of the West Indies, this shy bird often
commutes between barrier islands alone or in dark violet-blue

pairs, but rarely in flocks. In flight the tail

streaks above and
below ear coverts
can be seen as tipped entirely white except
the two central tail feathers. The female purplish
resembles the male but is duller in color. brownish gray sides of neck
upperparts «
• SONG Coo-ah-coo and hooo-ah-ooo
similar to Mourning Dove.
black spot.

broad white
edges on outer
tailfeathers

• /eddish purple
underparts

squared tail with

pearl-gray tip

• BEHAVIOR Alone or in pairs;

rarely in small groups; not gregarious.
Feeds primarily on ground near water.
Similar Birds
Eats seeds, fruits, berries, and some insects.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Male displays by sitting on perch, Mourning Dove
Lacks white trailing
flying straight up about 100 feet, then flying in downward edge on secondaries;
circles back to perch. long, pointed tail; pak

• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days. Brooded and fed by both

gray ov erall.

sexes. Fledge nest at 14-15 days. 2 or more broods per year.

• Population Accidental
Flight Pattern on Florida Keys, mainland of
southernmost F lorida.
• Conservation Some
decreases due to habitat loss.

>t low direct flight w ith ra

iff beats.

Nest Identification
Twigs and sticks • in low tree or shrub or on ground • 2 white eggs; oval to

Shape —m elliptical, 1.1 x 0.8 inches.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat^ ^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei § ht 5.6 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

350 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family s P ecies Zenaida macroura Len £th Wingspan
QOLUMBIDAE 12 inches 17 _ 19 inches

-_ _- ..-^ small pinkish

Mourning Dove
A familiar sight across the continental United States
and much of southern Canada, this dove can be
distinguished from similar species by its long
pointed tail bordered by large white tips on all
feathers but the four innermost. Young have a
more scaly appearance to the upperparts and
more spots on the wings.
• SONG A melancholy ooah-woo-woo-woo black
pot on lower
by male throughout breeding season. lurk
• BEHAVIOR Males aggressively M
defend territories. After breeding pinkish fawn on
season, doves gather to roost in neck and underparts

sheltered groves. Like other

pigeons and doves, they drink
by sucking up water instead of brownish gray
lifting their heads to swallow.
• Breeding
Monogamous. According
to some research, may black spots on
upper inner wing
pair for life.

• Nesting
Incubation about
14 days by both
sexes. Altricial
young stay in nest
12-14 days, fed by .Tl'YKNILE
both sexes. long
"Pigeons milk" is pointed tail
produced in the Similar Birds
parent's crop and
white tipped Eurasian
regurgitated with outer tad feathers *
Collared Dove
seeds held in the Long rounded tail; black
collar.
same organ to feed /

young. 5-6 broods per year in the South; 2-3 elsewhere. White-winged Doyk
Large white wing
• POPULATION Common and increasing. Have adapted patches; square tail.

well to habitat changes by humans.

• FEEDERS Sunflower seeds, millet, milo, and cracked corn on the
ground or in platform feeders.
Flight i pattern • Conservation Managed
as a game species in 31 states in
* V*V * V the US and protected in the US
and Canada. More than 30 million
birds are legally harvested as
Strong swift direct flight. Often zigzags.
game every year.
Wings whistle during flight.

Nest Identification Flimsy platform or saucer • built by female • twigs and sticks gathered by
male • 6-50 feet off the ground in tree or shrub • some lay eggs in the
abandoned nests of songbirds • 2 white eggs; short subelliptical to elliptical,
Shape 1.1 inches long.

Plumage Sexes simi ar ,

Habitat^ J^ ^A Mi S ration
Some migrate Wei ^ ht 4.3
ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 351
Wingspan
Family
COLUMBIDAE Species
c0 /in?l / } j,hl i,1C(l I
Length
7 5 _8 inches I

12 _ 13 inches

INGA DOVE
During autumn large flocks of these small birds can be
seen huddled together for warmth on clotheslines or
fences. Choosing to make its home near human
habitation, this tame dove feeds in parks, barnyards,

gray-buff upperparts

long squart
ended tail

gardens, and
^^ra^jf?
birdbaths. Its \ v
-

f
feathering makes the ^\
body appear distinctively
scalloped, and the rufous
tohB
wings often make a
twittering noise while the
bird is flying. In flight its * \
long tail is brown centrally,
• scaly gray ish
black laterally with white white underpants
edges, and tipped white on the
outer tail feathers.
• SONG Monotonous fluted coe-coo
or whoo-oo-whoo, "no-hope" Also
conversational cut-cut-ca-doo-ca-doo.
• BEHAVIOR sometimes flocks and
Pairs or small flocks; Similar Birds
forages with other small doves. Huddles in tiers 2-3 high with
Common
birds standing on the back of other birds in a pyramid to keep Ground-Dove
warm on very cold days. A terrestrial species, it spends much Shorter, rounded
time walking on the ground picking up seeds and grain. black tail with white
only on corners; not
Sometimes feeds with chickens in barnyards. Prefers open as scaly; black spots
ground near water sources. and streaks on
• BREEDING Monogamous. folded wing.

• NESTING Incubation 12-15 days by both sexes. Altricial

young leave nest after 16 days
but tended by parent for
Flight Pattern
additional 7 days. Fed by both
sexes. 2-5 broods per year.
• Population Abundant.
Expanding to the North.
Direct flight with rapid wing beats • FEEDERS Birdbaths and
recorded as fast as 28 miles per hou
man-made feeders.

Nest Identification
Made of twigs, stems, and leaves • sometimes lined with grass • built by female
with material gathered by male • in tree or shrub 5-20 feet above ground
Shape • 2-7 white unmarked eggs, 0.9 inch long.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei § ht 1.7

DATE TIME LOCATION

352 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len § th Wingspan
COLUMBIDAE Columbina passerina 6-7 inches g.75-10 inches

Common Ground-Dove
The Common Ground-Dove is about the size of a

sparrow and often can be seen perched on fences, roofs

of buildings, and trees. Known as tame, this bird
sometimes will not fly away until almost stepped
upon. The female is grayer than the male and head «.
scaly
more uniformly colored. In flight this
small dove has flashing rufous-red brown bat k and
primaries and wing linings wings with
brown-black spots
and a black tail with
white corners.

rounded wings show red-

brown primaries mid
wing linings in flight • d

pinkish brown
underparts

pink or yellow
legs andfeet

• SONG Continual soft melancholy coo-oo or woo-oo, rising on

second syllable and often for hours at a time. Also soft wah-up. Similar Birds
• BEHAVIOR Terrestrial, walking on rapidly moving short legs [NCA DOVE
with head bobbing. Eats seeds of grasses and weeds, waste grain Much larger; longer
in fields, insects, and small berries off ground. Often frequents white-edged tail; scaly
upperparts and
quiet roadsides in early morning and late afternoon, where it
underparts.
may feed and pick up grit. Usually stays in pairs or small flocks.
Ruddy
• BREEDING Monogamous. Thought to mate for life. Ground-Dove cf
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by both sexes. Altricial Rufous on upperparts;
lacks scaling; dark bill.
young fed by both sexes. Young leave nest as soon as they can
fly at about 1 1-12 days. 2-4 broods per year.
• POPULATION Declining
Flight Pattern recent decades, especially in the
southeastern states and along
the Gulf Coast.
• Feeders Will feed on
seeds scattered on ground or on
Rapid direct flight ft wing beat!'
platform feeders.

Sometimes flimsy platform of twigs and plant fibers or slight depression on

Nest Identification
ground with little or no materials • on beach or floor of woods or fields; in low
Shape bush, stump, or vine; or on top of fence post or tree branch, 1-21 feet above
£q ground • sometimes uses abandoned nest of songbird or other dove species
Location • built by both sexes • 2-3 white eggs, 0.8 inch long.

Plumage Sexcs simi ar ,

Habitat
^ 9L. ± Migration
Nonmigratory [
We| g ht 1.1 ounces

DATE '
TIME LOCATION
 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 353

Family Species Length 6 _ Wingspan 9_ 1{) inches

COLUMBIDAE Columbina tajpaco ti ? inches

Ruddy Ground-Dove blue-gray crown

I his gregarious dove enjoys the company • and nape
of other birds. Often, as many as forty
doves w ill gather facing the same _ rufous
jt upperparts
direction and pick up seeds
from the ground, moving in
grayish
step with one another. hill with scattered black
Although primarily a dark tip spots diid bars on
lower scapulars
Mexican and Central and ruddy wine-
^» and wing coverts
South American native, in coloredface
diid neck
recent years it has strayed
into Texas, Arizona, and
California. In flight, note
the rufous or brown upperparts,
wine-color
black outer tailandfeathers, underpart.
rusty red primaries (compare with
Common Ground-Dove).
• SONG A wooh or woop.
dark gray-brown
Sometimes, a soft
crown, nape, and
per-woop, per-woop. m upperparts
long tail with i
black outer
grayish face, neck, tail feathers
and underparts •

• Behavior
Feeds from ground, I T. \ I A I I

eating seeds; also takes

berries. Often seen on Similar Birds
roads, possibly gathering grit Common
Often groups of 10-20. Sometimes in large flocks
in pairs or GROI ND-DOVE
with other species, including Inca Dove and Common Ground- ISp Scaled appearance
cm head and breast;
Dove. Roosts gregariously in dense foliage. black bill w ith pink
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. base; brow n
upperparts; pinkish
• NESTING Incubation 12-13 days by both sexes; female at
brow n underparts;
night, male during day. Altricial young stay in nest 12-14 days, outermost tail

fed by both sexes. 2 or more broods per year. feathers narrowly

tipped white.
• POPULATION Casual in the US
from southern California to
southeastern Texas close to Mexican border. Common throughout
most of its semitropical and
Flight Pattern tropical breeding range.
• FEEDERS Attracted to

T feeding stations with small

grain, especially if scattered
the ground. Also attracted to
on

Fast low direct flight on flashing

birdbaths and garden pools.
rufous-red wings.

Nest Identification
Twigs and grass • tree or bush, 3-35 feet above ground • built by both sexes
• 1 w hite eggs; oval to elliptical, 0.9 x 0.7 inches.
Shape

Plumage Migration Weight

Sexes differ Nonmigratory j 7 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

354 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
COLUMBIDAE Species
UptotUa verreauxi ler) &h 1 1-12 inches Wingspan
j 7 _ 18 inches

White-tipped Dove
Sometimes called the White-fronted Dove or Wood
Pigeon, this primarily Latin American bird lives in North
America in the lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas. Its
wings make a whistling sound sirn^ar to the wings of
a woodcock when it flies straight up in the air. vhite
About the size of a Mourning Dove but lacking forehead
its pointed tail, a flying White-tipped Dove brown
shows a white throat, forehead, belly, upperwings
undertail coverts, and corners on the
rounded tail. Wing linings and
axillars are chestnut in color.
hiark bill

rounded tail

purple-redfeet • Mix rning Dove

and legs Pinkish gray forehead
and throat; gray
• SONG Resembling a small deep-sounding foghorn in the underparts; long

thicket, oo-whooooo or hu woo wooooo. pointed tail with white

tips on all but central
• BEHAVIOR Feeds mainly from ground. Eats fallen tree tail feathers.
seeds, prickly pear cacti, grasses, some cultivated grains such as
White-winged Dove
corn and sorghum, and large insects such as grasshoppers and Gray tail with white-
crickets. Prefers towalk on the ground in dense understory. tipped feathers (except
2 sandy brown central
Walks quickly away from intruders unless pressed into flight on
tail feathers); white
whistling wings. Solitary or in pairs; never in flocks. crescents across wings
• NESTING Incubation 14 days by both sexes. Young brooded form white edge on
folded wing.
and fed by both sexes. Young fledge nest at 14-15 days. 2 or
more broods per year.
• Population Stable.

Flight Pattern
Permanent resident of lower
Rio Grande Valley of Texas.
• FEEDERS Comes to seeds
scattered on ground or to
platform feeders positioned
Ver\ swift direct flight with rapid near thick COVer.
wing beats.

Nest Identification
Sticks and twigs or grass, fibers, and weed stems • in low branch or fork of tree,

shrub, or tangle of vines; sometimes on ground • built by both sexes • 2 cream

Shape ^ Location or buff unmarked eggs; elliptical to oval, 1.2 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
^^ Migration
No nmigratory We 'g ht 5.4

DATE TIME. LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 355

Family Species Len Sth 10-11 Win g s P an 15-17

COLUMBIDAE Geotrygon chrysia inches inche

Key West Quail-Dove

James Audubon first spotted this chunky vagrant from the West
Indies in the Florida Keys in 1832. Formally reported to breed in
Key West and occur on the south Florida mainland, in the last half

of the 20th century it has been recorded there only as a casual iridescent green and
visitor. It lives and feeds on the ground, similar to the habits of purple gloss on cro&rn;
hindneck, and back
a quail. The male bird is stunningly iridescent, but
the female is duller, with brown upperparts chestnut-red
and a less distinct facial pattern. If upperparts

seen in flight, the rufous-red Ilk red hill with

of the upperparts is • M<«* tip

\ white streak
below cadi eye from
bill to hack of head

immediately noticeable, and the

general pigeon shape, like an grayish white
underparts
oversized Ground-Dove, are
excellent aids to identification.
• SONG A groanlike sound or a reamy pinkish
legs and feet
loud whoe-whoe-oh-oh-oh or
mournful oooooooooou, repeated a
number of times; reminiscent of the
sound made by blowing in an empty
bottle. Sounds similar to Ruddy Quail-Dove.
• BEHAVIOR Terrestrial. Solitary or in pairs. Eats
food from ground, including fallen fruit, seeds, insects, and
small snails. Bathes and drinks in sheltered ponds, creeks, and
other secluded bodies of water. Elusive bird that lives on the Similar Birds
floors of impenetrable thickets and tracts of thick woody Ruddy Quail-Dove
vegetation. Sometimes feeds in the open on paths or roads Smaller; rich rufous or
through tangled wall of trees providing a view. Usually walks or brown upperparts
without iridescence;
runs away from intruders, then flies when reaches safe distance.
cinnamon underparts;
• BREEDING Monogamous. buffy line beneath eye;

• NESTING Incubation 11-12 days by both sexes. Nestlings

shorter tail.

fed by both parents. Altricial young leave nest at 12-14 days.

1-2 broods per year.

Flight Pattern • POPULATION Casual in

Florida Keys and southernmost
Florida. Rare to fairly common
inCaribbean range. Numbers
may be decreasing because of
Direct flight low on rapidly beating wings habitat loss.
often flies between islands.

Nest Identification
Leaves and sticks • on ground or in low tree or shrub • built by both sexes
Shape —£ • 1-2 buffy cream eggs; oval to elliptical, 1.2 x 0.9 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
^^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei S ht 6.0
ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

356 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
COLUMBIDAE Species n
Georry\"'on montana Length
8 _ 1()inch( Wingspan
u _ 15 jnches

Ruddy Quail-Dove
Originally a native of Mexico and Central and reddish
orbital ring <

South America, this chunky quail-like dove

has strayed to Key West, Florida, and once rufous-brow
was seen insouthern Texas. A groiyid crown, nape,
dweller, it forages by walking the face, and
upperparts
grounds of humid forests and areas
near coffee and cacao plantations. bujfy streak below black-tipped
each eye from chin red bill
Although seemingly reluctant to
to a//' i overts
fly, when flushed it flies low

w ith a loud clattering of w ings. P" rp/

'
(
chestnut streak
T „. . . . man tie
.

from throat
In flight it show s cinnamon- to
sides of neck
rufous tinderwings.
Females are similar but

pinkish cinnamon-
buff underparts

have dark olive-

brown upperparts,
agrayish cinnamon
breast, buff underparts.
and duller cinnamon-
rufous underwings. * 9 \
• SONG Low melancholy
deep booming coo note; whooooooo Similar Birds

or oooooooooh resembling the lonely sound of a foghorn. $\ Key West

• BEHAVIOR Highly terrestrial; usually runs from danger. Quail-Dove
I arger; proportionally
Most active in early morning and late afternoon. Bill is angled longer tail; w hite chin
downward; forages on ground for fallen fruit, seeds, and small and throat; whitish

snails. Bathes and drinks in secluded, shaded pools. Often seen underparts; chestnut
upperparts glossed with
as individuals or in pairs but fairly difficult to observe.
greens and purples,
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. iridescent in males.

• NESTING Incubation an unusually is short 10-11 days.

Altricial young leave nest after
10 days. 1-2 broods per year.
Flight Pattern
• POPULATION This quail-
like dove is a rare vagrant to the
southern US. It is fairly

common in tropics south of the

Swift direct flight ipidly beating wings

US borders.

Nest Identification
Loose collection of leaves on ground, tree stump, or slight platform of
low tree branch, up to <S feet
sticks in • 1 buff eggs; oval to elliptical,
Shape ^ Location 1.1 x 0.85 inches.

Plumage Sexes simijar Habitat

m Migration
Nonrru gratorv We 'g nt 4. 1 ounces

DATE riMi LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 357

Family Species Length Wingspan

p SITTACIDAE Melopsittacus undulatus 6 _y finches

Budgerigar
Originally from Australia, the Budgerigar is perhaps the best-
known parrot in the world. The name originates from the native
Australian word betcherrygah, which means "good parrot." It has
gained popularity as a caged bird in the United States and
many other parts of the world. A breeding population of
escaped and released birds exists in Florida. Wild-type
black bars on
birds have a yellow face and upperparts, barring and
<

a it riai Ian,
scalloping on the back, and greenish underparts. Its crown, and
overall color can be blue, yellow, or white due to nape
breeding of captive birds for plumage. In flight
look for the long, pointed tail and yellow wing
stripe. Juveniles are similar to adults but
have less-distinct spotting on the throat. yellow back and

Breeding females are similar to males upperwing coverts

with black
but have a brown cere.
scalloping
• SONG Garrulous. Musical, mellow
chirrup is continuous when flocks
gather. Also gives sharp, rasping scolds.
When alarmed makes zizzing chatter.
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Eats
mainly small seeds, especially of
grass and weed, and some plant
materials such as new leaves,
buds, and blossoms. Walks on
ground searching for food.
Often gathers in flocks in
early morning and late
afternoon to drink at
waterholes, ponds,
streams, garden
pools, etc. Prefers suburbs with adjacent open, grassy areas.
Color variations
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary.
• NESTING Incubation 18 days by female. Male feeds female in nest hole Altricial voting
stay in nest 30-36 days. Fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Exotic. Introduced in southwestern Florida in 1960s; established populations
of thousands by 1980s. Serious decline since then; may be due to
competition for nesting cavities. Accidental anywhere as escapees
from captivity.
Flight Pattern • BlRDHOUSES Will n
man-made nest boxes.
T v • Conservation
Introduced by accidental escape
or release of caged birds.
Swift direct and slightly undulating flight
with rapid wing heats.

Nest Identification
No nest materials • in tree cavity or nest box • 4-8 white eggs; round,
Shape
E B 0.75 inches long.

±B
Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
^ Migration
Nonmigratory We 'g ht 1.0 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 -

358 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA

Family Species Len 2th Wingspan
PsiTTACIDAE i Myiopsittd monachus 11.5 incht 17 _ 18 inches

Monk Parakeet
Introduced as an escaped or intentionally released bird
gray fan and
in North America, this parakeet has established itself forehead «.
primarily in and around cities from New England to
the Midwest, southeast Texas, and Florida. The
green
most widespread breeding populations are found
overall <

in south Florida. Using sticks and twigs, Monk

Parakeets build large condominium nests in
trees and on man-made structures. The nests
contain separate compartments for as many
as twenty pairs. It is the only parrot in the
world to build large communal nests. In
its native South American temperate

habitat, flocks of Monk Parakeet

yellow-green belly
destroy crops, particularly corn and
sunflowers, and the species is
considered the foremost avian
threat to agriculture.
• SONG Garrulous.
Wide range of high
staccato shrieks and • long pointed gray legs and feet
screams. Makes high- zreen-and-blue tail

pitched chattering
when feeding.
^^
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Searches for food in flocks, often Similar Birds
tearing apart crops. Eats legumes, grains, seeds, fruits, and
N'one over most of North America
insects. Frequents areas near human habitation. Builds large
conspicuous domed nests of sticks with entrance on side. Pairs White-winged
Parakeet
roost throughout the year in their chambers within. In south Florida only
• BREEDING Monogamous. Loosely colonial, often communal • also similar to Yellow
lIic\ roned Parakeet
in a single large multichambered nest.
• smaller; yellow-green
• NESTING Incubation 25-31 days by both sexes. Fed by both overall; yellow edge on
sexes. Altricial young stay in nest 38-42 days. 2 broods per year. folded wing shows as
yellow patch at bend of
• POPULATION Exotic. Very popular and common caged wing in flight; dark
bird. Found in Florida, Texas, southeastern cities, the green flight feathers;

Northeast, and the Midwest. lacks gray on face,

crown, and breast.
• FEEDERS Groups attend feeders, especially in the winter,
and eat seeds, cracked corn, pine seeds, suet, acorns, grass seeds,
apples, cherries, grapes, raisins,
Flight Pattern and currants.
• CONSERVATION Attempts
to control and/or eliminate this
exotic species in many areas of

Swift direct flight with rapid wing beats,

the US are destroying both
often in flocks. Sometimes slight birds and nests.
undulating flight.

Nest Identification
Sticks and twigs • in highest branches of tree or leaning against tree or any tall

structure • built by both sexes, often with other birds in colony • 5-9 white eggs;
Shape short subelliptical ovate, 1.1 x 0.8 inches.
|g

Plumage Sexes
simiIar
Habitat^ _j _ Migration
Nonmigratory We '2 ht Undetermined

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 359

Family
p S iTTACIDAE Species
Afatiftcra holochlo
Length
12 _ U | nches Wingspan
17 „i9 inch<

Green Parakeet
This parakeet is a tropieal bird, but vagrants may find their way
to the southern tip of Texas and join the flocks that have
orange-red eyes
become established there. In its native habitat of Mexico,
with hare whitish
it frequents deciduous forests and plantations, but beige eye ring
these birds are most often spotted in Texas in

urban or suburban and agricultural areas,

where they feed on flowers, fruits, hooked pale pinkish
seeds, and berries. In flight the tail beige bill

appears long and pointed, and all

the flight feathers on the
scant red flecks on throat
underwing are bright metallic and neck o f some birds
yellow. Juveniles are similar to
adults but have a brown iris.
metallic yellow on underside of
• SONG Calls are high, primaries and secondaries
grating, and screaming.
In flight gives a shril paler and more
yellowish 11 neb rpai ts
metallic screech,
rapidly repeated. Also
gives much twittering
Similar Birds

long pointed tail Rkivcrowned

with yellowish Parrot
undertail feathers Stocky; green overall;
short fan-shaped tail

with yellow terminal

hand; green wings with
dark hlue-tipped
• BEHAVIOR In noisy flocks, except during nesting season primaries and
secondaries; red patch
when in pairs. Size of flocks may depend on food supply. Eats
in secondaries; pale
seeds, fruits, nuts, berries, blossoms, and buds taken from blue mottling on crown
canopy or outer branches of shrubs. Raids corn crops. and nape; red forehead
Sometimes uses feet to bring food to mouth. Uses bill and feet and crown (more
extensive in male); gray
to among branches and foliage.
climb
feet and legs; tan to
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. Often semicolonial. creamy pink bill • not
body
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Estimated
that similar since
shape differs, but the
incubation 23-28 days by female; male roosts in nesting cavity only other established
with female at night but not known to incubate. Young altricial; green parrot in range in

brooded by female; stay in nest estimated 42-56 days, fed by southern Texas.

both sexes. 1 brood per year.

• Population Casual in

Flight Pattern North America. Fairly common

to common in the lower Rio
Grande Valley of Texas.
• FEEDERS Seeds and fruits.
• Conservation Captured
Very sw ift direct flight on rapidly beating
wings, often high above the terrain.
as cage bird in native Mexico
and northern Central America.

Nest Identification
Adds only a few twigs • in natural tree hollow or abandoned hole or sometimes
in rock crevices • in native range, pairs sometimes excavate arboreal termite
Shape g2 j-j nests • 2-5 white eggs; nearly spherical, 1.17 x 0.97 inches.

Plumage
Sexes sjmilar Habitat^ ft,
Migration
Nonmigratory Wei S ht Undetermined

DATE TIME LOCATION

360 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
PsiTTACIDAE |
Species
f] ro ,oger;s vers ico/iirns I
Len gth 8-9 inches Wingspan 13 _
H mches

White-winged Parakeet
Sometimes called the Canary-winged Parakeet, this South American
native makes its home in the forest, including parklands. The
only noted established populations from released or escaped
^ ^
Shaped eye^ring
birds in North America peaked in Miami and in California
in the mid-20th century; they have'since
flight, note the long pointed green t;
wing pattern of a green wedge in the
yellow greater secondary and primar
coverts, white secondaries and inner
primaries, and blue-green outer
primaries. This bird is also easy to /looker/ pinkish

identify in flight from below by its yellow to yellow

tinged pale
translucent white flight feathers.
brown bill
• SONG Garrulous. While flying or
perched gives a rapid repetition of
shrieking metallic notes. When w-and-white
feeding has various chatters, on folded wing
chirps, and low muttering calls.
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious;
occurs in flocks of 8-10 birds,
sometimes up to 50. Flocks
break up into pairs during
breeding season. Eats seeds,
berries, fruit, blossoms, and
buds of fruit and other trees.
pointi
Presence difficult to overlook legs a ml feel
green ta il
because of its noisy vocalizations
but difficult to see when perched because the dark green plumage blends well with the foliage.
Frequents areas around human habitation in urban and suburban areas with tropical and
subtropical ornamental plantings.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary Similar Birds
• NESTING Incubation 26 days by female. Altricial young stay
An introduced species in south
in nest 56 days, fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year. Florida, the Yellow-chevroned
• POPULATION Exotic. Introduced into southern California Parakeet is growing in number; it

differs only in that lacks white

and southern Florida, where they are now established, but it

patches in the wing.

declining from peaks in the 1970s and 1980s. Being replaced by
Yellow-chevroned Parakeet, also introduced, which now outnumbers

Flight Pattern • FEEDERS Attends feeders

providing seeds and/or fruits.

Comes to birdbaths, pools, and

-x ponds to drink.
• CONSERVATION No efforts
Swift direct flight on rapidh
beating wings.
in US because it is not a native
species.

Nest Identification
No nesting materials • in tree • 5 dull w hite or pure white eggs; slightly ovate,

Shape
^
2
Location
^^ 0.9 \ 0.7 inches.

Plumage Sexes s; mi , ar
Habitat
^ _j Migration
Nonmigratory We '2 ht 1.9

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NOR TH AMERICA • 361

Family Species Len Sth 12-13 inches Wingspan 19 jnchcs

p S iTTACIDAE AlllaZ()ll(l v jridi-eiia/is I
I

RED-CROWNED PARROT
Small groups of these birds, w hich are most likely
descended from escaped caged birds, have established
themselves in Texas, California, and Florida. In its
red forehead,
native habitats in northeastern Mexico, it spends its crown, and Ion
time in the pine-oak ridges and tropical forests of
canyons, often traveling in conspicuous highly
vocal flocks between the treetops. In flight,
note the stocky appearance, dark blue-tipped
flight feathers, red patch in secondaries, and
/due sides of head «^
yellowish-tipped tail. The male has an
above eyes and on
entirely red crown, while the female and sides of nape

juvenile have only a red forehead.

• SONG Noisy. Has a squawking harsh
kee-crah-crah-crah and a smooth rreeoo
or heeeyo.
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious.
Usually in flocks of 10-20 or first 5 outer secondarit
more, except during breeding red with violet-blue tips
(shows as red edge on
season when it occurs in pairs. folded wing)
Feeds on a variety of fruit,

seeds (including pine seeds),

nuts, berries, buds, and
flowers. Can be agricultural
pests locally. Often wasteful,
eating only a bite or two, then
dropping food to take another,
Holds food in feet and
manipulates it to the beak.
• BREEDING Monogamous.
Solitary. Courting males often
offer tidbits to their mates.
• Nesting incubation None in US range, although
(Uthern California, Texas, and smith
25-31 days by female.
Florida have main large green
Duration of nest and age at fledging undetermined. Altricial parrots flying about its cities and
young fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year. suburban areas, where this species
should be identified with care.
• POPULATION Exotic; escaped or released birds established
in southern Texas, southern California, and southern Florida. Some
Texas birds may be wild birds
Flight Pattei from Mexico.
• CONSERVATION
Populations declining in native
areas, probably threatened by
habitat destruction and capture
Swift direct flight on rapidly beating w ings
for cage trade
with shallow wing stroke:

Xest Identification
No materials used • nest in preformed cavity • 2-5 white eggs; elliptical,

Shape 1.4x1.1 inches.

Plumage
Scxcs S[mi , ar
Habitat
^^ Jt Migration
Nonmigratory Wei S ht 10.4
ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

362 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len ^th Wingspan 15_17
G UCULIDAE coccyzus erythropthalmus 11-12 inches inches

Black-billed Cuckoo
This shy bird spends most of its time
skulking in deep wooded forests. In rare
instances, instead of incubating its own narrow red eye ring
eggs it will lay its eggs in the nests of decurved
Yellow-billed Cuckoos, Gray Catbirds, black bill

Wood Thrushes, Yellow Warblers, or

Chipping Sparrows. In flight note the
long tail, which has small crescent- grayish brown •
shaped white spots on the tips of all upperparts
but the two central tail feathers,
and the uniformly grayish brown lute underparts

wings and back. Juveniles are

gray legs
similar to adults but have a
andfeet
buff eye ring, paler undertail,
and buff wash on the
underparts, especially the
undertail coverts.
• SONG Generally
Repeated
silent. long
monotone cu-cu-cu or graduated
brown tail
cu-cu-cu-cu in series
of 3—1 notes. Also
gives series of rapid
kowk-kowk-kowk
notes all on a single
pitch. Sometimes
sings at night.
• Behavior
Skulks through thick vegetation in shrubs and trees. Often sits Similar Birds
quietly on branch scanning in all directions before changing
Yellow-billed
perches. Eats primarily caterpillars, especially hairy tent
Cuckoo
caterpillars, and other insects; occasionally eats small mollusks, Yellow bill with dark
fish, and some wild fruits. Often found in damp thickets and tip; rufous primaries
contrast with wing
wet places. Engages in courtship feeding.
coverts and upperparts
• Breeding Monoga mous. larger white spots on
• NESTING Incubation 10-14 days by both sexes. Altricial
undertail.

young stay in nest 7-9 days; fed by both sexes. Young leave nest
before they can fly and climb
around on nest tree or shrub for
Flight Pattern
about 14 days. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Uncommon
to fairly common. Somewhat
dependant on caterpillar
Often flies low and makes short flights populations; larger clutches laid
from one tree to the next. when food is plentiful.

Nest Identification
Dried twigs • lined with fresh grass, leaves, pine needles, catkins, and
vegetation • in tree or shrub 2-20 feet above ground • 2-5 blue-green eggs
Shape with dark blotches, 1.1 x 0.8 inches.

Plumage Sexes
similaf Habitat
m ^ Migration
j^j lgratory
Weight
ounC es

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 363
Family Species Len ^th 11-13 inches 5-1 7 inches
CUCULIDAE Coccyzus americanus 1

Yellow-billed Cuckoo
Like most of the cuckoos, this bird prefers to perch
unobtrusively in thick forests or shrubs. Many decurved bill
with dark upper
rural people know this bird as the "Rain Crow."
mandible and tip
Sometimes it lays its eggs in nests of the
Black-billed Cuckoo but rarely in nests of grayish brown
upperparts •
other birds. It is often a casualty at "tower
kills" while migrating at night. In flight,

note the long and the contrast of

tail rufous wing
rufous primaries against gray-brown wing
coverts and upperparts. The juvenile
shows a paler undertail pattern, and the
A mandible

lower mandible may not be yellow. £

• SONG Often silent; song heard lute

more often in summer. A monotonous underpants

th roaty ka-ka-ka-ka-kow-kow-kow-kow-
kowlp —kowlp kowl, pru ni ng gray feet and legs
down and slowing at the end.
• BEHAVIOR Slips quietly and
somewhat through
stealthily
Similar Birds

tangles; flies easily from tree to Black-billed

tree. Often sits motionless on an Cuckoo
Entirely black bill; red
interior branch and slowly
eye no rufous in
ring;
surveys the surrounding wing; gray underside of
vegetation. Eats mostly hairy tail with smaller
crescent-shaped white
caterpillars; also insects, larvae
spots; voice differs.
and small fruits and berries.
Sometimes eats small frogs Mangrove Cuckoo
Gray-brown wings and
and and the eggs of
lizards
coverts; black mask
other birds. Engages in extends past eye;
courtship feeding in which the male lands by perched female, tawny-buff lower breast,
sides, belly, flanks, and
climbs on her shoulder, and places food in her bill.
undertail coverts;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. decurved black bill,

yellow at base of lower

• NESTING Incubation 9-1 days by both sexes. Altricial
1
mandible • limited
young stay in nest 7-9 days, fed by both sexes. Young leave nest range in F lorida;
before able to fly but remain in vicinity, climbing in branches; accidental on Gulf

fed by parent for about 14 more days. 1 brood per year. Coast.

• POPULATION Uncommon to common. Somewhat dependent

on caterpillar population;
Flight Pattern species produces greater
number of eggs when plentiful.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant that has
declined significantly over
Direct flight with slow light steady wing
beats; often flies low from tree to tree with much of its range.
flash of rufous in wings.

Small sticks, with lining of leaves, grasses, mosses, bits of fabric, and catkins
Nest Identification
from oaks and willow trees • so flimsy eggs can sometimes be seen from beneath
• in tree or shrub, 2-12 feet above ground • built by both sexes • 1-5 pale bluish
Shape f^L «» Location
4^ green eggs that fade to light greenish yellow, unmarked; elliptical to cylindrical,
1.2x0.9 inches.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat^ ^^ I Migration
Migratory I
Wei g ht 3.6 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

364 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
CuciJ J DAE Species
Coccyzus minor Len Sth
2.5 inches
Wingspan
1 16 jnches

Mangrove Cuckoo
A shy resident of the West Indies, this bird also decurved bill has
inhabits the black and red mangroves of the black upper mandible

central and southern Gulf Coast, southern

Florida Gulf Coast, Biscayne Bay, and the
black ear
Florida Keys. Birdwatchers may s^)ot this
patch »—
timid bird as it flies quickly from tree to \ yellow lower
brown
tree, but most often it prefers to hide in upperpart. mandible has
thick vegetation. Like other cuckoos it
dark tip

isheard more often than seen. Note

the combination of black ear patch, white throat
buff underparts, lack of rufous in /nd upper /'/'east

the wing, and long tail with large

white spots underneath. buff sides,
flanks, and belly
• SONG Often silent. Most
common call is thick throaty
squirrel-like gah-gah-gah or qua
qua-qua given in steady series
of 8-20 or more notes. brown t grayish feet
wings md legs
• Behavior Solitary.

Often sits motionless and

stays hidden in deep
vegetation. Eats spiders,
insects, fruit, wild
berries, small frogs,
buff undertail coverts
lizards, and caterpillars.
• Breeding
Monogamous.
Solitary nester or -• black undertail
small, loose colonies. feathers with large
white spots at tips Similar Birds
• Nesting incubation
9-11 days by both sexes. Yellow-billed
Ci CKOO
Young stay in nest 7-9 days White underparts;
Fed by both sexes. Young, rufous in wing on
which leave nest before flight primaries and primary
cov erts; lacks black
capable, skillfully climb about near nest; continue to b fed b\
ear patch.
pajents for 10-12 days. 1-2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Rare to uncommon in Florida, where it may be
slowly expanding range.
Flight Pattern Declining in Florida Keys.
• Conservation Decline
in Florida Keys may be caused
by development in mangrove
Rapid direct flight with quick wing
swamps and subtropical
beats. Flies low across roads and from hardwood forests, resulting in
tree to tree. habitat loss and fragmentation.

Nest Identification
Flimsy structure made with a few twigs and leaves in mangrove tree or shrub
8—10 feet above water level • built by both sexes « -3 light bluish eggs;
Shape elliptical to cylindrical, 1.2 x 0.9 inches.

Plumage Sexes simihir Habitat

^m te Migration
Nonmigratory Wei § ht 3.6
ounce

DATE TIME LOGATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 365

Species Length Wingspan

Family
QUCULIDAE Qeococcyx californianus 20_24 nc hes i 32 inchcs

Greater RoadRunner
Able to run up to 15 miles per hour, this bird generally
seems to prefer sprinting rather than flying. Because
this large slender member of the cuckoo family
habitually stays on the ground, it can be difficult to haggy crest

sec. Centuries ago, it was sometimes called the

Ground Cuckoo because it would run along paths in
front of horse-drawn carriages. This shy solitary
cinnamon , l>Ia< kish ,

and white streaks

bird is New
Mexico. Look for the
the state bird of overall
large streaked body, shaggy crest, and long tail
that shows white tips when it is spread. In flight,
the short, rounded wings reveal a white
crescent in the primaries. Sometimes visible
is a patch of bare skin around and behind
the eye that shades from blue
proximally to red to orange distally.

• SONG A series of throaty

descending dovelike coooos. Also
a low, rolling preeet-preeet. hort
• BEHAVIOR Terrestrial. Often rounded wines

solitary. Eats insects, snakes,

lizards, rodents, and small birds; % • white crescent
some fruits and seeds. Runs on on wings shows
ground in pursuit of prey. Seldom inflight

flies. Pairs hold territory all year.

Performs distraction display to long pale blue

lure intruders from nest.

legs, and feet

• BREEDING Monogamous.
Solitary. May mate for life
Has unusual courtship
display: male bows,
alternately lifting
and dropping its

wings, while
spreading its tail;

parades in front of female with head held high on ridged neck and with tail and wings drooped.
• NESTING Incubation about 20 days by both sexes, but male does more. Young stay in nest
17-18 days, fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Fairly
Flight Pattern common to common. Local
populations tend to decline
after a severe winter.
f * ' • Conservation Often
When persecuted based on belief that
flushed or crossing obstacles,
alternates several shallow rapid w ing beats they make serious inroads on
with long glides. quail populations.

Nest Identification
Twigs, with lining of grass, mesquite pods, leaves, feathers, snakeskin, and horse
or cattle droppings • in shrub, tree, or cactus, 2-12 feet above ground • 2 white
Shape to pale yellow eggs; elliptical to cylindrical, 1.5 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat _ ± Migration
N onm j gratory
Weight
{3 2 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

366 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
CUCULIDAE C-Qtoplwga ani ! ?_14.5 inches i 7 _i 8 inch(

Smooth-billed Ani
These West Indian natives are now established in
Florida apparently after storm winds blew some
of them there in 1937. The
breeding females lay high curved ridge of
ungrooved deep-based
their eggs in a large, communal nqst, holding black bill extends
.

up to twenty eggs. All members in the higher than crown

colony tend the nestlings. The Smooth-
billed Ani is a gracklelike bird with a large
flattened puffinlike bill and a long tail that
looks loosely attached to the body.
• SONG A whining high-pitched quee-lick
or weu-ick; weu-ick somewhat reminiscent
of the call of a female Wood Duck.
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Feeds ir

scrublands and fields; often

accompanies livestock to feed on
insects stirred up by them. Eats black
mainly insects, but also takes overall with

lizards, cattle parasites, snails,

shimmering
bronze
overtones

long tail

seeds,fruit, and berries. Often spreads wings and tail to bask in

morning sun. Individuals in the communal group sit side by side

on perch and mutually groom each other. Tail often dipped and Similar Birds
wagged side to side. Groove-Billed Ani
• BREEDING Communal; cooperative. Each breeding female Distinctive grooves on
high ridge of upper
contributes 2-4 (sometimes 6) eggs to clutch.
mandible; smaller bill
• NESTING Incubation 14 days by both sexes and extra birds. with culmen not
Altricial young are fed by all adults in group. Fledge the nest in extending above crown;
different call.
7-10 days after hatching. 1-2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Uncommon and local. Declining in Florida since
the 1970s, but increasing in the
Flight Pattern tropics. Rare to accidental
outside southern Florida.
• Conservation
Apparently declining as
Slow weak flight, alternating a series of
southern Florida continues to
rapid shallow stiff wing beats with short
glides. Often flies low to the ground from develop, and the brushland
one patch of vegetation to the next. shrub/scrub habitat is lost.

Nest Identification
Twigs and weeds lined with grasses • in dense shrub or tree, 5-30 feet above
ground • built b\ all adults in colony • nest holds up to 20 eggs • 3-6 pale blue
Shape eggs per female; oval to long oval, 1.4 x 1.0 inches.

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat^ ^ ^_ Migration

Nonmigratory Wei ^ ht 4.2 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 367

Species LeR gtn 12-14 inches Wingspan ]6 , 18 inchcs

Family CUCUUDAE Crotophaga su/rirostris \ |

Groove-billed Ani
Easily distinguished as an ani by its black plumage and its
parrotlikebill, this member of the cuckoo family often sleeps

at night in communal roosts in trees with as many as thirty

curved ridge on
to forty birds. During breeding season, three to four pairs
top of bill lower
of birds build and share one nest. The laterally than crown * parallel «robve$
compressed black bill has a series of three to four on upper
mandible
parallel grooves in the upper mandible that are
difficult to see except at close range. It shows
paler scalloping on the chest and back.
• SONG Sings a liquid TEE-hoe with black overall with
c ^ i i shimmering purple
first upslurred note
md \Zeriones

emphasized, repeated
10-12 times. The vocalization
has a flickerlike quality.
Similar Birds
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Follows livestock to pick ticks off
s\[o( itu-billkd Ani
their backs or eat insectsswarming around them. Eats mainly
Larger bill w ith higher
insects and spiders but also takes lizards, seeds, fruits, and arched culmen reaching
berries. Lives in groups of 1^4 monogamous pairs and several above level of crown; no
additional "helpers" on permanent territories. All group grooves in upper
mandible; voice differs
members contribute to territorial defense, nest building, and • only in the East.
rearing of young. Often dips and wags tail from side to side.
Common Grackij-;
Groups often fly 1 at a time from 1 spot to the next. Smaller long pointed
• BREEDING Monogamous. Communal. bill; pale eyes • male
has long keeled
• NESTING Incubation 13-14 days by both sexes and by alpha
tail.

male at night. Altricial young remain in nest 6-7 days, fed by all

adults. First flight at 10 days.

1-2 broods per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Common to
fairly common. Stable and
expanding in Gulf Coast range;
Flies low to the ground, alternating increasing in the tropics. Casual
between rapid shallow wing beats and to accidental elsewhere.
short glides.

Nest Identification Sticks lined with fresh vegetation • in low tree or shrub, 5-15 feet
above ground • built by both sexes and extra birds • nest may contain
Shape
^ up to 16-20 eggs • 3-4 pale blue eggs per female; oval to long oval,
1.3 x 1.0 inches.

P,uma6e Habitat Migration Wei § ht 3.1

Sexes similar _A_ ^1 is Migratory ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

368 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan 43.47
TYTONIDAE T tQ aWa 14_? () jnches I

nches ;

Barn Owl
Associating more closely with man than
any other owl, the nearly cosmopolitan
no ear tuft
Barn Owl often roosts and nests in
buildings and hunts in areas cleared
for agriculture, particularly meadows
heart-shapedface
and pastures, perhaps the most
It is

distinctive looking owl with its

long legs and heart-shaped
"monkey" face. The unexpected
gasping screech of this owl
nearby in the darkness can
raise the hair on the back of
one's head. Like other
species of owls it can locate
and capture its prey in total
darkness using its hearing
alone.This is
accomplished with •lute to an nam on
underfill rrs with spots
asymetrically positioned instead of streaks
ear openings, and the aid
of the facial disks.
• SONG Harsh hissing
screaming grating
whistling gasp, ceeeeeSEEek. long legs

• BEHAVIOR Nocturnal.
Feeds primarily on small
mammals such as rodents
and shrews, but occasionally
takes small birds. May nest
during any month of the year,
and pairs are believed to mate
Similar Birds
for life. Many farmers encourage luii rill';,

in tail
the presence of this excellent Short-eared owl
Yellow to orange eyes;
mouser in their barns.

•
BREEDING Monogamous.
NESTING Incubation 29-34 days
by female. Semialtricial
I short ear tufts; heavily
streaked underparts;
often diurnal.

young stay in nest 55-65 days. Fed by both sexes. 1-3 broods
per year.

Flight Pattern
• Population Rare to
uncommon. Stable in most
areas, but some declines noted

v in the East.

• BlRDHOUSES Nest boxes.

Slow light silent mothlike flight. • Conservation Listed as
threatened in some states.

Nest Identification
Debris arranged into crude depression • in tree cavity, barn loft, building, nest

Shape
g
2
p j
box, crevice,mine shaft, or cave •
short subelliptical, 1.7 inches long.
w hitish eggs, sometimes nest-stained;

Location^
fif§B^g1 ±%*>
Plumage Habitat Mi S ration Wei 6 ht
Sexes simi i ar fie Je *-* Some migrate 1.1 pounds

DATE TIM1 LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 369

Family Species Length 6 _ inchcs Wingspan mehcs

StRIGIDAE Otus jlammcolus I
7 j 3

Flammiilated Owl
One of the smallest: ow ls in North
America, the Flammiilated Owl is
also the only small owl with
dark, not yellow, eyes. Th reddish brown
owl's ear tufts are minute facial disk
and hardly noticeable. The
Flammiilated Owl has two
color phases, reddish and
gray, with the former more
common in the
southeastern part of the
bird's range. The natural
history of this diminutive
North American owl is

poorly known.
• Song Boo-boot with
emphasis on the second
note of the song. A series Northern
of single paired low Pygmy-Owl
Thinner; longer ta
hoarse hollow hoots is
white underparts with
given repeatedly at hea\ \ streaking; kicks
intervals of 2-3 seconds. ear tufts; yellow c\ es;
black nape patches;
• Behavior Little is
chiefly diurnal.
know n. The bird is
Wi s I ERN
nocturnal. It feeds primarily
SCREECH-OWL
on moths
insects, including Yellow eyes; lacks
taken and arachnids
in flight brow n bar in scapulars;
has different voice.
such as spiders and scorpions
gleaned from the ground or the Whiskered
foliage of trees in its habitat. Screech-Owl
Longer ear tufts; yello\
Sometimes will prey various small mammals or other
take as its
eyes; different voice.
birds. It frequents primarily open pine and oak forests and
spruce-fir forests in mountains as high that are 8,000 feet. NOTE: These are all permanent
residents of the woodlands in the
• BREEDING Monogamous. Sometimes has been observed
West. There are no similar birds
li\ ing in loose colonies. ranging in the East.
• NESTING Incubation 21-26 days by female. Semialtricial
young remain in nest about 25 days. Young are fed by both
sexes. 1 brood per year.

Flight Pattern • Population Widespread

and common in range, though
slight declines are possible.
Highly migratory; strays have
made it to Florida and the Gulf

Slow
Coast.
light steady wing beats.

Nest Identification
Old woodpecker hole • no lining • 15—10 feet above ground

Shape creamy white eggs; about oval, 1.1 inches long.

Plumage
Sexe§ sjmi , ar
Habitat
^« A Migration
Migratory Weight j 9 Qunces

DATE TIME LOCATION

370 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
~
Family Species Length Wingspan 18 _
STRIGIDAE otusasio 8 _ 1() inches | 24 inche

Eastern Sgreegh-Owl
Perhaps the best-known owl in eastern North
America, this small tufted bird is found in a
tufted head*
great variety of habitats, from wooded lots
to urban gardens. It is able to flatten its

ear tufts, which gives the head a rounded

appearance. There are two distinct color
phases, reddish brown and gray, plus
there are brown intermediates. Its

voice is not a screech but rather a

mournful whinny familiar to many. bright rusty
brown to
• SONG Series of melancholy gray body
tremulous whistles descending in
pitch; drawn-out trilling note.
Simple to imitate.
• BEHAVIOR Nocturnal;
becomes active at dusk. Feeds on
wide variety of small vertebrates
and invertebrates, including
insects, arachnids, crayfish,
mammals, amphibians,
reptiles, birds, and fish.
Brown
When using a cavity for a Inter.
day roost, often will sit in
Gray
the entrance. When morph
Similar Birds
approached on its roost,
Northern Saw-
will flatten its body, Whet Owl
erect its ear tufts, Smaller; lacks ear
white spots on
and close its eyes in tufts; blackish bill;
scapulars
large white spots on
an attempt to hide
upperparts; small
by blending into white streaking on
the background. forehead, crown, and
nape.
• Breeding
Monogamous. W s ERN
i I

SCREECH-OWL
• Nesting Gray to brown; dark
Incubation about bill; different voice
• western range.
26 days mostly by female.
Semialtricial young stay in nest about 28 days. Fed by both
sexes. 1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Widespread
and fairly common, but with
gradual decline.
• BlRDHOUSES Will roost
and nest in nesting boxes sized
$uoyant flight with silent wing beats. for wood ducks or flickers.

Nest Identification
Lined with feathers and debris from food • 10-30 feet above ground in tree
Stiape • 2-8 white eggs; round oval, 1.4 inches long.

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat^ ^ j£ Migration

Nonmigratory Wei £ ht 5.9 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 >
BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 371

Wingspan 36_6() inchcs

18_ 25 nc ies
Family Species Length
STRIGIDAE ft ufr0 virvinianm i j

Great Horned Owi

The most widespread owl in
North Ameriea and perhaps the
most pow erful, this owl often
attaeks animals much larger
and heavier than itself,
including domestic cats,
skunks, and porcupines. Its
color varies regionally from
pale arctic birds to dark
northwestern ones.
• SONG Series of 3-8 bold
deep hoots, with the second
and third hoots often
running together, Whool
Whoo-whoo-whoo! W/wo!
Whool Often described as
"You awake? Me too!"
Females hooting is higher
in pitch.

• BEHAVIOR Chiefly
nocturnal; becomes active
at dusk. Sometimes hunts
during the day. Takes wide
variety of vertebrates;
primarily feeds on
mammals, but also eats
birds, reptiles, and
amphibians. Often
aggressively defends nest
and young to the point of
striking humans who
venture too close.
• BREEDING Monogamous.
One of the earliest nesting
species, with eggs laid in winter.
• NESTING Incubation 28-35 days mostly by female. Young
stay in nest 35-45 days. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• Population Fairly
Flight Pattern common to common.
Widespread.
• BlRDHOUSES Accepts
artificial nesting platforms.
• Conservation Many are
Direct flap-and-glidt flight with strong
silent wing
killed by hunters and farmers.
beats.

Nest Identification
Abandoned nest of larger bird • large cavities, broken-off snags, buildings, ledges
Shape
p B^g} 2
• 20-60 feet above ground • 1-5 dull whitish eggs; elliptical, 2.7 inches long.

Location ggj jfc & 1ft-

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
m ^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei S ht 3.0 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

372 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len Sth Wingspan
STRIGIDAE Nyaga scandiaca 20-27 nches
i 54_ 66 jnches

Snowy Owl
A heavy-bodied, large-headed owl of open
breeds on Arctic tundra and
areas, this bird dlov
winters on grasslands, marshes, coastal
beaches, and dunes. Regional crashes of large head
Arctic lemming populations force these without car tu fts

owls far south in some winters. This is our

only all-white owl. Females and juveniles
all-white plumage
arc similar, and show more dusky barring
than males.
• SONG Piercing whistle and bold,
growling bark, krow-ow, which can carry
Male
for more than a mile. Usually silent
outside breeding season.
• BEHAVIOR Active in daylight and
darkness. Often perches on ground or close i
to it on posts, rocks, dunes, ice, hay bales, or
buildings. Eats primarily small mammals
(voles and lemmings on breeding
grounds), but takes some
birds and fish. Male
defends nest and
young fearlessly; will
give "crippled bird"
act to lure predators
away from nest. 2 C^<ipt
v ^
• Breeding
Monogamous. dusky spots
and bars on
• Nesting feather tips
Incubation 31-34 days Female
by both sexes or female
only. Young stay in nest «... a* W "
J&fpjtk
Similar Birds
14-21 days, fed by both
mff%.
Barn Owl
sexes. First flight at White to cinnamon-buff
43-57 days. brood per
1 underparts; golden-buff

year. Number of eggs depends upperparts; heart-

shaped face; dark eyes.
onjood supply; in poor lemming years, pairs may not breed.
• POPULATION Fairly common on breeding grounds; rare to
casual south of breeding range
Flight Pattern Stable because of remoteness
from human disturbance.
X^X „ x^x • Conservation No issues
reported, but many birds are
killedwhen wintering south of
Direct flap-and-glide flight with strong, normal range.
deep wing heats.

Nest Identification
Simple depression • unlined or minimally lined with moss, lichen, and plucked
grass • on raised site with good visibility • built h\ female • 3-1 1 whitish eggs
Shape that become nest-stained, short elliptical or subelliptical, 2.2 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexes differ _____ Irrcgu |.
ir 4 () pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 373

Length Wingspan 33 jnches

Family
STRIGIDAE Species
Sumia uMa I
, 4_ 17 indics I

Northern Hawk-Owl
This crow-sized haw klike ow of boreal l

forestsand northern muskegs often perches

conspicuously at the top of a conifer and
yellow eyes
slowly raises and lowers its long rounded
tail in the manner of a kestrel. It has
no ear tufts or "horns."

• SONG Rolling trilling, 2-syllable

killy-Bly-killy-killy. whitish facial
itle,
disks with wide
• BEHAVIOR Chiefly diurnal black borders or
but sometimes hunts at night. "sideburns"

Ycr\ tame, often allowing close

approach. Flies close to
ground with rapid flapping
and gliding when hunting;
sometimes hovers. Eats
small mammals up to the
whitish
size of young snowshoe underparts with
hares and birds as large heavy chocolate
as ptarmigans. barring

dark brownish
black upperparts
with heavy white
spotting
Similar Birds

Boreal owl
Northern
Saw-whet Owl
Smaller; short tail;

underparts are streaked,

not barred.

Long-eared Ow l
Great horned Owl
Ear tufts.

Flight Pattern
• BREEDING Monogamous.
• Nesting incubation
V , X^X
25-30 days by female. Young
stay in nest 25-35 days. Fed by
both sexes. 1 brood per year.
Sw ift low flight; often alternates several • Population Uncommon
rapid « ingbeats with short glides.
to rare. Remote from humans.

Nest Identification
LIses large cavities in trees and abandoned squirrel, crow, and hawk nests • no
added materials • 10—40 feet above ground • 3-13 white eggs: blunt elliptical to
Shape 2
Location oval to elongate oval, 1.6 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes simUar Habitat
^m Migration
Nonmieratory Wei § ht 1 0.5 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

374 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan 15
STRIGIDAE Qlaucidium brasiliamim 6 _ 7 inches inches

Ferruginous Pygmy-Owl
This very small long-tailed owl inhabits
cottonvvood riparian, mesquite thicket, and yellow eyes

saguaro desert habitats. A bold little

predator, it is often noisily mobbed by

*
other birds. Its streaked head lacks
ear tufts, and it often can be seen
nervously flicking its long barred
rufous tail. Like the Northern
Pygmy-Owl, two black spots
on the nape of its neck
resemble a pair of eyes.
• SONG Fluted notes,
puk-puk-puk\ rapid,
repeated took up to
50-60 times.

Elf Ow
Smaller; short tail; no eye
spots on nape; faint
streaking on underparts;
acial disk has black
• Behavior Diurnal, border.

but often most active at dusk NORTHERN PYGMY-OWL

and at dawn (crepuscular). Often Brown with white
tail

heavy blackish
barring;
dense cover. Frequently
roosts in
brown streaking on
gets mobbed by songbirds, which underparts • inhabits
attracts attention to the little owl. Feeds primarily on large denser forests at higher
elevations; not found in
insectsand arachnids, also taking some small vertebrates. Male
deserts; inhabits montane
feeds female and young in nest cavity. and foothill woodlands in
• BREEDING Monogamous. the West.

• NESTING Incubation about 28 days by female. Young

remain in nest 27-30 days. Fed
Flight Pattern
by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• Population Uncommon.
Endangered or threatened in
limited range in US.
Widespread in tropics.
Rapid direct flight with unmuffled • Conservation Concern
w ing beats.
over small populations.

Nest Identification
In tree cavity or cactus; usually in old woodpecker hole • no material added
• 10-30 feet above ground • 3-5 white eggs, 1.1 inches long.
Shape Location
B
Plumage Sexes simi ar ,
Habitat
± ^ Migration j^-
onmigratory Wei § nt
2.2 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NOR TH AMERICA • 375

Family Species Len § th 5-6 inches Wingspan inchc

STRIGIDAE Micrafhene whitneyi , s

Elf Owl
At about the size of a chunky
sparrow, this is the smallest owl in
no car
the world. It can be recognized by
tufts
its size, small round head, lack of
ear tufts, and short tail. This yellow eyes
species is perhaps more often
heard than seen.
• SONG Puppylike chuckling
and yips; erratic series of high
and chattering notes.
chirps, mottled grayish
Amazingly loud for such a brown body
small owl.
• BEHAVIOR Nocturnal;
white spotting
becomes active at dusk.
on scapulars
Roosts and nests in
woodpecker holes and
in natural cavities in
trees, saguaro, and
utility poles. Feeds
primarily on
insects, arachnids

Ferruginous
Pygmy-Owl
short tail Northern
Pygmy-Owl
Longer tails; black
eyespots on nape;
(including scorpions), and some heavily streaked
small vertebrates. Catches some insects in flight with its feet. underparts; diurnal
• Northern Pygmy-
• BREEDING Monogamous. Owl inhabits montane
• NESTING Incubation 24 days by female. Young stay in nest and foothill woodlands
in the West.
28 days. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Fairly common to common. Scarce along lower
Colorado River and in southern
Flight Pattern Texas; still abundant in
southern Arizona; almost
eliminated in California.
• BlRDHOUSES Will
occasionally roost and nest in
Mothlike flight with silent wing beats man-made boxes.
sometimes hovers and hawks.

Nest Identification
In oldwoodpecker hole in tree, utility pole, or cactus • no lining added •
15-50 feet above ground in sycamores or 10-30 feet above ground in saguaros
Shape
±9. B 1-5 white eggs, 1.1 inches long.

Plumage
g exes simjlar Habitat
± A ^_ Migration
Migratory Wei ^ ht 1 .4 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

376 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
STRIGIDAE Athme cun icu iaria 9_j j inchcs 2 0-24 inches

Burrowing Owl
T his long-legged, short-tailed little
owl inhabits grassland and prairies, white streakt
but in its range it also can be found on head
in similar habitats near humans such

as golf courses and airports. In the

West the Burrowing Owl often is brown
m yellow eyes

upperparts
associated with prairie dog towns, white chin
with white
and the historical poisoning of the spotting m- 2nd throat
prairie dogs also brought declines
in the owls populations. The owls
use an abandoned burrow for
their nest and daytime roost,
usually after some additional
potted
digging to enlarge and reshape it. white chest
• SONG High melancholy cry,

coo-coo-roo or co-hoo; twittering

series of chack notes. If
disturbed in nest, young give
alarm that mimics the buzzing white to buff
underparts with
of a rattlesnake.
brown barring
• BEHAVIOR Terrestrial.
Primarily nocturnal and
crepuscular. Perches on
ground, fence posts, utility
long legs
wires, rocks, or mounds near short tail
burrow during day. Inhabits
open country where it feeds
primarily on large insects, some
of which it catches in flight, and
small mammals.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Often colonial. Similar Birds
• NESTING Incubation 21-30 days by female. Semialtricial
Short-eared Owl
young remain in nest 28 days, fed by both sexes. Typically I larger; long tail; short
1-2 broods per year. legs; buff-brown; heavily
streaked upperparts and
• POPULATION Fairly common to common but local. underparts.
• BlRDHOUSES Will nest in artificial man-made burrows.
• CONSERVATION Endangered or threatened over much of its

range. Declining because of

Flight Pattern prairie dog and ground squirrel

* * v •< poison-control programs and

habitat loss.
automobiles.
Many killed by
Some attempts at

Buoyant, sometimes erratie flight, with

management being made due to
show silent wing beats; may hover briefly declining local populations.
above prey.

Nest Identification
l^ined with cow manure, horse dung, food debris, dry grass, weeds, pellets, and
feathers • built by both sexes, but male does more • 7-10 w hite nest-stained
Shape
3 8 eggs (4-6 in Florida); round to ovate, 1.2 inches long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

g exes simi , ar gome migrate 5 3

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OK NORTH AM K RICA • 377

Family
STR1GIDAE Species
Qiccaba virgata
Length
13 _ 15 inch<
Wingspan M^ {) ; nchcs

Mottled Owl
In 1983 a stray individual of this medium-
sized long-winged tropical owl was found
in southern Texas in the lower Rio

Grande Valley. A shy solitary bird, the

Mottled Owl most often remains
hidden among the thick foliage of
the trees on its daytime roost.
Upperparts are dark brown with
white to buff flecking and
dark brown-
barring. In flight it shows buff mottled sides
thighs and undertail coverts. It of chest
has both light and dark phases,
but the only US record has been
of the light morph. Juveniles are
ocher-buff to pale buff overall
kite or tawny
and have w hitish facial disks.
underparts with
• SONG Calls variable. heavy brown
1-3 low guttural grunts that
7
streaking

become successively louder,

whuh-whuh, followed by 3-5 or
more accelerating sharp hoots,
WHOO, WHOO, WHOO,
WHOO, WHOO. A long drawn-
out catlike wailing scream of dark brown
eeeihrrr-rrr-rrr, usually can be upper tail
heard shortly after dusk or with 3-4 thin
white bars *~ LIGHT
just before dawn.
MORPH
• Behavior Solitary.
Nocturnal. Roosts on low perch in
thickets by day. Calls and hunts at middle
levels or lower in trees. Hunts forest edges, clearings, and
semiopen areas. Catches prey with talons, often while in flight.
Similar Birds
Eats small reptiles, small rodents, spiders, and large insects; not
know n to take other birds. No other medium-sized owls in this
vagrant's North American range has
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. mottled brown overall plumage and
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Estimated dark brown eves.

incubation 23-28 days by female. Semialtricial young brooded

by female; stay in nest
Flight Pattern
estimated 26-35 days, fed by
both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Accidental in
North America in winter in
Strong silent flight with quick shallow lower Rio Grande Valley of
wing beats followed by short glides with southern Texas.
wings bent slightly downward at tips.

Nest Identification
No nest materials • in natural treehollow, broken tree stub, or abandoned holes
or nests of other birds, usually 20-25 feet above ground • 2 plain white eggs;
Shape round, 1.54 x 1.25 inches.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
m^ ^_ Migration
Nonmigratory Weight
Undetermined

DATE TIME LOCATION

378 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
STRIGIDAE Species
$m 17-24 inches Wingspan
5Q _ 6Q inche§

Barred Owl large,

The "hoot owl" of southern head
swamps, this puffy-headed owl
can also be found in woodlands
It lacks ear tufts, is stoutly
built, and is heavily streaked,
spotted, and variegated
brown, buff, and white.
This is one of only three
large owls with dark eyes
in North America.
• SONG Usually 8 or
more drawn-out notes,
"Who cooks for you; who
cooks for you-allP" Call is

drawn-out, descending
hoooAwllll.Group of 2 or
more owls make a loud,
excited caterwauling.
Often heard in daytime.
Responds readily to
imitations of its call by
coming closer and often
calling back.
• Behavior Mostly
nocturnal and crepuscular
but often active in daylight.
Prefers deep woods; inhabits
conifer, riparian, and swampy
habitats. Feeds on wide
variety of animals, including
small mammals, birds, frogs,
barred tail
salamanders, lizards, snakes, fish,
large insects, crabs, and crayfish.
• BREEDING Monogamous.
Thought to pair for life.
• NESTING. Incubation 28-33 days by
female. Young stay in nest 42 days. Fed by both sexes
1 brood per year.

Flight Pattern • Population Very

common to common and
widespread. Swamp habitat
population in the South has
diminished. Range increasing
Short flights with steady, shallow wing
beats, longer flights on silent rapid wing
now in the Northwest, where
strokes followed by short glide. hybridizes with Spotted Owl.

Nest Identification
In the East uses abandoned nests 15-80 feet above ground in tree • 2-3 white
Shape eggs, 2 inches long.

Plumage Sexes sjmilar Habitat

m^ te Migration
Nonmigratory Weight 1.4
pounds

DATE TIME. LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 379
Species Length Wingspan
Family
STRIGIDAE S;/yx nebulosa I
,
4 _ 33 inches I

5+_ 6() inchcs

Great Gray Owl largi facial disk,

1

with

Although this is the largest North heavy concentrit circles

circle.
j
American owl, the Great Horned Owl is . warn
heavier. Long-tailed and large-headed, the
Great Gray Owl has huge facial disks
crossed by a series of dark gray concentric- no ear tufts

circles that make the yellow eyes seem

small.It inhabits deep boreal forests and
yellow eyes
open muskeg bogs.
• SONG A bold, deep, booming
hoo-hoo-hooo\ also utters single-
note hoots.

barred, vermicu/ated,
martltd gray plumage

Spotted Owl
Smaller; brown overall
with heavy white
spotting on head,
• BEHAVIOR Nocturnal and upperparts, and
crepuscular; often active in daylight. Fearless and underparts; dark

often tame enough to allow close approach by humans. brown eyes; brown tail

barred with white and

Widespread winter food shortages in the North often cause dark brown; yellowish
south of normal wintering range. As in
large, irruptive flights far bill; whitish facial
other owls, male feeds brooding female and young in nest. disks w ith brown
concentric circles and
• BREEDING Monogamous. bordered dark brown
• NESTING Incubation 28-36 days by female. Young remain • western range.

in nest 21-28 days. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.

• Population Rare to
Flight Pattern uncommon. Most of this bird's
range is remote at present from

x^x ^ x^x human impact. Decline in

numbers being experienced in
southern parts of range probably
deep wing
Silent direct flight with quick,
is because of habitat loss.
strokes or with several powerful wing
beats followed by a glide.
Ik (

Nest Identification
Abandoned nests • 1-50 feet above ground on broken-off tops of snags and
stumps • 2-5 white eggs; short elliptical to short oval, 2.1 inches long.
Shape Location
^
Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
m Migration
Nonmigratory Wei e ht
1.7 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

380 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan 35,42
STRIGIDAE Asio otm 13 _ 16 jnches
I

inches

Long-eared Owl
The most slender and most nocturnal
of the large owls is perhaps the most long, close-set
blackish ear
overlooked. It is hard to detect because
tufts
of its cryptic coloration, shy habits, and
the ability to "freeze" against a perch yellow exes

with body flattened. This owl often

uses the same winter perch day after
day, resulting in a largeaccumulation
of pellets and droppings beneath it; mottled rusty facial disks

this telltale evidence can be used to

brown •

locate the roosting owl above.

Although the female is larger, both
sexes appear similar. Frequents a
wide range of habitats, from desert
motth d buffy-white
oases to riparian thickets to dense
nth heavy vertical
coniferous woodlands. freaking
• SONG Melodic low hoots, quoo-
quoo-quoo, and long hoos. Sometimes
sounds like a barking, whining
puppy. Virtually mute outside
breeding season.
• BEHAVIOR Nocturnal. Roosts
perched close to tree trunk in
thick cover during day. Hunts
over open fields and marshes.
Feeds primarily on mouse-size
mammals; sometimes takes Similar Birds
small birds. Often
Great Hornkd Owl
gregarious on roosts in
Much larger, stouter
winter. Accumulated build; ear tufts farther

pellet contents below apart on head;

horizontal barring
roost can reveal local diet,
beneath (not vertical
as the undigested bones, streaking).
teeth, and exoskeletons of its
SHORT-EARED OWL
prey are compacted within them. Chooses abandoned nest of Buffier below; shorter
squirrel, crow, hawk, or heron as its own nesting site. ear tufts; often diurnal.

• BREEDING Monogamous.
• Nesting incubation
26-28 days by female.
Flight Pattern
Semialtricial young stay in nest
23-26 days, fed by both sexes.
1 brood per year.

• Population Uncommon
Buoyan, silent wing beats. Ear tufts to locally common; may be
flattened back on head in flight.
more common than suspected.

Nest Identification
.Typically does not build nest • uses abandoned nests; sometimes tree cavity
• suspected of sometimes evicting crow • 4-30 feet above ground in a tree

Shape HdU Location ^ 4& • 2-10 white eggs: elliptical, 1.6 inches long.

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat

m _j ± Migration
Northcrn birds migrate Wei § ht 8.6

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 381

Species Length Wingspan 35,44

Family
STRIGIDAE j, 15 _ 17 jnchcs mdlcs

Stygian Owl It'..

A native of Mexico, Central and South

America, and the West Indies, this owl is long ear tufts

darker and larger than the Long-eared

Owl. Like that species it has two tall mottled whitish
car tufts or "horns," which are set patch on forehead
black upperparts
close toward the center of the with sprinkles oj
deep yellow eyes
forecrown. most often nests in
It buff or whitish
the tall pine trees of mountain mottling and
barrins.
forests, but by laying its eggs on dark facial disk>
the ground it has been quick to
adapt to areas where trees have
become less dense. It has been
found in North America twice,
in southern Texas in the winter.

It appears dark in flight,

all
• buff underparts
including underwings.
its with heavy dark
Juveniles are a pale buff brown streaking
or spotting
color overall, barred with
Juvenile
dark brown.
• SONG A single emphatic Similar Birds
bass wooof, repeated at 6- to LonG-eared Owl
10-second intervals. At a Lighter plumage
distance, sounds like a deep brown forehead
overall;
mottled blackish brown;
who or wfio-who.
tawny chestnut facial
• BEHAVIOR Solitary. Roosts disk; yellow eyes set in

and calls from middle level to high vertical dark patches

long blackish bordered inside by

in trees. Blends with surroundings in
bro wn tail with w hite; dark brown
daytime. Nocturnal hunter. Catches 4 thin bu ff bars crown, ear tufts, nape,
prey with talons. Eats small rodents, bats, upperparts, wings, ami
are mottled and
small birds, and snakes. The natural history of this bird is not tail

streaked whitish and

well known. buff: white-tipped outer
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. Male displays by scapulars; whitish
underparts with brown
clapping tips of wings together.
and buff streaking and
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Estimated barring; Hashes tawny

incubation by female is 24-30 days. Young altricial; brooded by cinnamon bars at base
of primaries in flight.
female; remain in nest estimated 23-35 days, fed by both sexes.
1 brood per year.

• Population Accidental in

Flight Partem North America in the area of

the lower Rio Grande Valley of
southern Texas.
• CONSERVATION
Vulnerable in Mexico to habitat
Erratic flight; buoyant with deep silent
loss due to logging operations,
wing beats.
land clearing, and hunting.

Nest Identification
fo nest materials • in abandoned nest of other bird or occasional on ground
2 w hite eggs; rounded, 1.6 x 1.3 inches.
Shape

Plumage
Sexes simUar m a Migration
Nonmigratory Wei e nt 1.5 pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

382 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
STRIGIDAE Species
Asio flammeus
Length
13 _ 1? jnches Wingspan
3^4 ; nches

Short-eared Owl dark facial disks that short ear

A big-headed, short-necked owl of become palerfarther
tufts

grasslands and marshes, this bird is often from the centei

seen quartering low over vegetation

during the day. With tawny to buff-brown
yellow to
plumage, it shows large buff wing patches orange eyes
on the upperwing and a dark "wrist"
mark on the underwing in flight. The
ear tufts are vers' small and difficult to
tawny to
see unless the bird is perched. It has a buff-brown
streaked buff to whitish belly and
white undertail coverts with faint
streaking. Its diurnal activities make
it frequently visible.
• SONG On breeding grounds this
owl gives a loud eeee-yerp; a high-
pitched grating waowk, waowk,
waowk, like the barking of a dog; or
a toot-toot-toot-toot-toot. When on its

wintering grounds, the Short-eared

Owl usually remains silent.
• BEHAVIOR Nocturnal and
crepuscular; may hunt in late
afternoons or on overcast days.
Flies back and forth low over the
ground, dropping feet first with
wings held high onto prey. May
perch on post or shrub to watch
for prey. Feeds primarily on small
rodents but also takes some small
birds of open habitats and large
insects. Uses crippled-bird display to Similar Birds
lure intruders away from the nest or young on the ground. Long-eared Owl
• BREEDING Monogamous. Sometimes forms small colonies Smaller buff upperwing
and black wrist patches;
• NESTING Incubation 24-37 days by female. Semialtricial hc.i\ il\ barred
young stay in nest 21-36 days. Fed by both sexes. Typically underparts; large ear
tufts; nocturnal.
1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Fairly common. It has disappeared in parts of its

southern range because of 'NX.

Flight Pattern habitat loss.
• CONSERVATION The main
conservation concern for this
owl is a degree of habitat loss to
agriculture and also loss due to
Buoyant erratic flight with flopping killing by shooting.
w in" beats.

Nest Identification
Shallow depression • lined with grass and feathers • on ground • built by female
• 3-11 white eggs that become nest-stained; short elliptical, 1.5 inches long.
Shape

Plumage Sexes similar nA

Habitat Migration
S()me m grate
j
Weight
ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIROS OF NORTH AMERICA • 383

Family Species Length 8 _ Wingspan 2() _? 6 nches

STRIGIDAE Aeeolius funereui 12 inch j

Boreal Owl flat-topped head

This small flat-headed owl is seldom
seen because it is strictly nocturnal
and sits concealed close to the
trunk of a thick conifer when on
its daytime perch. Its white whitish gray
fact a I disks \

facial disks are bordered

black horde/
with black. During irruptive
flight in winter, when this

owl comes far south of its deep In

normal winter range into the upperpai
middle and eastern US, most with l/ec/z

volute spot///,
individuals seem to be
females and many are found
vhitish
seeking shelter in buildings.
underparts with
Juveniles are similar to adults heavy chocolate
on the upperparts, but they are streaking
a rich chocolate brown below
with a dark brown facial disk,
whitish upturned mustache,
and a white wedge between
the eyes that spreads above
them on the forehead.
• SONG Resembles high-
pitched ringing ting, ting, ting,

ting. Brief series of tremulous

hoo notes. Juvenile
• BEHAVIOR Nocturnal.
Solitary. Prefers thick old
growth coniferous forests. Feeds imilar Birds
primarily on small rodents and
Northern
other small mammals, rarely on Saw-wiikt Owl
small birds. Males cease singing Smaller; dark bill; wl
streaked head, not
after they are mated.
spotted • juvenile h
• BREEDING Polygamous. tawny-cinnamon
• NESTING Incubation 26-37 days by both sexes. Semialtricial underparts without
streaking.
young stay in nest 28-36 days. Fed by female with food brought
by male. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Uncommon.
Flight Pattern Northern populations in no
danger; status of western
populations not well known, but
the Boreal Owl is vulnerable to
logging operations.
Short flights on rapidly beating wings;
longer ones more buoyant with shallow • BIRDHOUSES Will use
somewhat fluttering silent wing beats. man-made nest boxes.

Nest Identification
In tree cavity, usually a woodpecker hole • no lining added • 20-80 feet above
ground • 2-6 white eggs, 1.3 inches long.
Shape
5 S
Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
m , Migration
Irre gular
Wei 6 ht
3.6 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

384 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
STRIGIDAE Aego litis a (adieu s 7 _8 inches i 7 _ 20 inches

Northern Saw-whet Owl brown forehead and

crown with liberal
The incessant call of the male Northern white streakine.
Saw-whet Owl during breeding season
sounds like a saw being sharpened or
pale buff to
whetted. Some winters numbers of this brownish • whitish
little owl are found well south of the facial disks eyebrows
normal breeding range. This species
is one of the smallest owls. Note the
• white
pate/i
lack of ear tufts, dark bill, and
between * yes
white eyebrows. Females are
larger than males. Juveniles
have tawny-cinnamon chestnut-bro

underparts, chocolate-brown upperparts with

heavy white
upperparts with white buff spotting
spotting, and a bold white Y
from beak to eyebrows.
• SONG Repeated 1-note
whistle of too, too, too, too, too

or sch-whet, sch-whet,
sometimes for hours at a
-• white underparts with
reddishbrown and
time. Sings during breeding dark brown blotches
season only; singing and streaks
J
decreases after mate is

attracted. Voice may

carry 0.5 mile or more.
• Behavior Solitary
unmarked whitt
or in pairs. Eats small
undertail coverts
rodents, large insects, birds, and
bats. Hunts primarily Perches low, searching for
at night.
prey, then flies down and snatches
it with talons. Territorial bird
Juvenile
often respond to imitations of their call by speeding up the rate
of their calling; often attracted to playbacks of their call. Similar Birds

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. Boreal Owl

Larger; white face with
• NESTING Incubation 26-29 days by female. Semialtricial
blackish border; darker
young 27-34 days. Fed by both sexes: Male brings
stay in nest brown head with
food, then female feeds young for about first 18 days. 1 brood contrasting white spots;
pale bill.

• POPULATION Fairly common . Declining.

• BlRDHOUSES Uses nest
0
boxes about the size of Wood
•4$
Flight Pattern
Duck boxes.
• Conservation Declining
f in parts of range due to habitat
loss from logging, air pollution,
Silent buoyant direct flight with fluttering
and adelgid tree kills in high
wing beats'.
peaks of southern Appalachians.

Nest Identification
No nest materials • in tree cavity, abandoned woodpecker hole, or nesting box,
14-60 feet above ground • 4-7 white eggs; oval to ovate, 1.2 inches long.
Shape 2
0t j
g g Location .
$
jg

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat^ m <

Migration
Most do not m grate
j
Weight ?. 6 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIROS OL NORTH AMKRKIA • 385

Species Length Wingspan 2 ()_ 3 inches

Family
( JaPRIMULGII >AE Qhordeiles acutipennis 8 _ 9 inches 2

Lhsshr Nighthawk
Although it has a similar appearance to its larger
cousin, the Common Nighthawk, this bird

generally lias a much low er flight and the male-

does not power dive during its mating
display. The white primary bar, which is pale gray, black, buff,
buffy on females, is slightly nearer the tip a ntI cinnamon pattern
on crown, nape, and
of the shorter rounder wing. The male
upperparts
also has a white tail band and buffy
underparts with light barring. The
female has a buffy throat. This
cryptically colored bird of western
arid and semiarid lowlands
becomes torpid in cold weather
when food is lacking. Juveniles
are similar to females.
• SONG On breeding roll n (led

grounds the Lesser f wing tip.

Nighthawk utters a
quick low chuck chuck.
It also has a soft
froglike trill. In fact,
one former name of
this bird is the
Trilling Nighthawk.
• Behavior This
is a crepuscular and
nocturnal bird.
Insectivorous, it

forages for food by

Common Nighthawk
flying near to the ground, catching insects in the air. Longer, more pointed
Feeds morning, unlike most other nighthawks. It is
late into the wings; longer rail; white

attracted to bright outdoor lights for feeding on flying insects. hand on primaries;
darker overall; oice
W anders w ildly for food; not territorial. Males perform an aerial differs; power
\

dives.
courtship display.
Common PAURAQUE
• BREEDING Monogamous. Looselv colonial. Long rounded rail;

• NESTING Incubation 18-19 days, mostly or entirely by shorter rounder w ines.

female. Young semiprecocial; first flight at 21 days, fed by both

sexes. 1 brood per year.

Flight Pattern
• POPULATION The Lesser
Nighthawk is fairly common in

its While it is rare in

habitat.
migration on the Gulf Coast, it

is casual in winter in Florida,

Darting flight w ith quiek and erratic win Texas, and California.
beats; often changing direction; buoyant.

Nest Identificatio n
No nest • on bare ground, atop sand or pile of pebbles, occasionally on flat

gravel roofs • 2 white to pale gray eggs with small gray, brow n, and lavender
Shape ^ Location dots; oval to elliptical oval, 1.1 x 0.8 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat^ ± Migration
Migratory Weight t
g ourtces

DATE IMH LOCATION

386 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
QAPRIMULGIDAE chordeila 8 _ 10 jnches 21 _ 24inches

Common Nighthawk
Like all members of the nightjar family, the adult bird flutters its

gular pouch during intense heat to cool itself. The eggs and
nestlings are sometimes carried to another location if
temperatures become extreme. The female is similar to the
male, but has a buffy, rather than white, throat and lacks
the white tail band, Juveniles also lack this tail long dark
grayish brown pointed wings
band. Note the long pointed
wings with the white
bar through the
primaries, and the
mothlike flight of
the "bullbat,"
which is the
colloquial name
used for this
nighthawk in the
South. Although
predominantly grayish
distinctive white
brown overall, there is much color
bar across primaries
variation over the large North American range.
• SONG Has raspy nasal somewhat froglike call of
peea nt or beaut. Similar Birds
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in small groups. Sometimes migrates Lksskr Nighthawk
Crepuscular and nocturnal, but often feeds
in large flocks in fall. Shorter, more rounded
wings; whitish bar
day or night, catching insects in flight. Eats a wide range of
across primaries slightly
flying insects. Attracted to street lights and other outdoor lights closer to tip; paler
at night to scoop up swarming insects. Bird species seen by upperparts with more
uniform mottling;
many because of its habit of feeding over towns and cities.
generally flies closer to
Skims over lakes and streams to drink water from surface. ground; does not power-
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary Male displays with a dive; voice differs.

courtship power-dive, at the end of which the air rushes through antillean
his wings,making a loud sw-r-r-r-r-oonk sound like a rubber Nighthawk
Smaller; shorter wings;
band or banjo string being plucked.
more fluttery flight;
• NESTING Incubation 19-20 days, mostly by female. Young much more buffy

semiprecocial; first flight at 21 days, fed by both sexes. overall; voice differs
• rare in eastern range.
1-2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Common but declining in parts of continent.
• Conservation
Flight Pattern Neotropical migrant. Became
common in towns and cities
with the introduction of flat
graveled roofs in mid-1 800s as
well as increased use of outside
Darting flight on long pointed wings with
erratic twists and turns and changes of lighting, which attracts insects.
direction. Wing beats slow and steady.

Nest Identification Lays eggs on rocks, small pebbles, abandoned fields, stumps, fence rails, and
even on tarred or graveled roofs; 0-8 feet above ground • female chooses site
Shape j>» • 2 creamy white to pale olive-buff eggs, with brown and gray speckles; oval to

Location _ elliptical oval, 1.2 x 0.9 inches.

Plumage
Sexcs similar |
Habitat
^ Migration
Migratory |
Weight
z ? ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 387

Family Species Length Wingspan 2() _ 22

CAPRIMULGIDAE chordeiks wndlachii g inches ; nches

Antillean Nighthawk
This local nighthaw k of the West Indies
rather rare and
\ isits southern Florida and the Florida Keys
and nests in

every summer. The Antillean Nighthawk was formerly

considered a subspecies of the Common Nighthawk and
is extremely similar to that species. It is best
distinguished from Common Nighthawk by voice.
Females of the two species are probably
not distinguishable. Its biology is

not well known.

buff to pale
cinnamon
oven/// with
dark brown
long, pointed barring
slightly wings with white Female
forked tail primary bar

• SONG Has call of pity-pit-pit or kady-dit, kady-dit, kady-dit.

• BEHAVIOR Crepuscular and nocturnal. Like other nightjars,perches parallel to branch, rail,
Catches insects while in flight.
wire, or perch, not perpendicular like other perching species.
Similar to the Common Nighthawk, males perform a power-dive as part of their aerial courtship
display, but the booming sound produced at the bottom of the dive is higher pitched and does
not travel as far.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary.

• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known, but incubation estimated at 19-20 days, mostly
by female. Young semiprecocial; first flight takes place around
21 days. Fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year. Similar Birds

• POPULATION Rare to uncommon on Florida Keys and the COMMON NIGHTHAWK

/arger; longer w ings;
southeast Florida mainland. Accidental to Louisiana and the I

voice differs.
Outer Banks of North Carolina.
• CONSERVATION Has increased on the Florida Keys and in the
southern part of the state since
Flight Pattern the 1960s, possibly due to
changes in habitat. Human
development has opened up
larger patches in the woody
vegetation, creating favorable
Fluttery and darting mothlike flight with
erratic changes of direction; buoyant; habitat for this species.
slow measured wing beats.

Nest Identification
No nest • 1-2 white to olive eggs, blotched with oli\ heavily marked with large
dark spots; oval to elliptical oval, 1.2 inches long.
Shape

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
^^ Migration
jyj jg r
Weight
Undetermined

DATE TIME LOCATION

388 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
CAPRIMULGIDAE Nyctidromus albicollis 1{M] inches 21 _ 23 jnches

Common Pauraque
A primarily tropical nightjar that reaches the northern
limit of its range in south Texas, the Common Pauaque
is very busy at night when
can be heard singing for
it

hours. The name "pauraque" is an imitation of the

black-blotched
Spanish rendering of its call. It flies low to the scapulars, boldly
ground and sometimes feeds for insects in edged buff\
the beams of automobile headlights. In hestnut cat
i patch
flight, note the white bar crossing upperparts cryptically black-streaked
the primaries and the patterned with black, • grayish crown
bu ff, and pale gray

long ron iitled tail projecting

well beyond folded wing-tip*
'die ii pe relied

white tail stripes thick whit

run length of tail band on wing
midway between barred underparts,
outside and center l ern/ii /dated black,
short rounded wings 1
rusty, and buff

white tail patches on the long rounded tail. The female resembles the male but with a pale buff

to cinnamon bar on the primaries and huffy tail patches on just the outside tip of the tail. Easily
overlooked when not calling. On the daytime ground roost the camouflaged birds are almost
invisible against the dead leaf background until flushed.
• SONG Call is a slightly burry low pufrr ox a high wheer. Song
is a loud whistled puc, puc, par, puc p'weeEER, sounding like Similar Birds

who-who-who-are-you? Common Nighthawk

Lesser Nighthawk
• BEHAVIOR Crepuscular and nocturnal. Sings most
Solitary.
Long, pointed wings;
often on moonlit nights. Perches low or hunts from ground for long, notched tail;
insects, then catches in flight. Eats a variety of flying insects. voices differ.

Typically flies close to ground. Roosts on ground during day.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary.

Flight Pattern
• Nesting incubation
estimated at 19-20 days by both
sexes. Young semiprecocial; fed
V by both sexes. Age
unknown. 1-2 broods per
at first flight
year.

Flies low on slowly beating wings; darts • Population Common in

erratically, changing courses; buoyant. south Texas and the tropics.

Nest Identification
No nesting materials • on bare ground • 1 buff to pale pink eggs, marked with
fine reddish brown dots; elliptical-oval, 1.2 inches long.
Shape

Plumage Scxcs
simi u |.
- Habitat
^^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei S ht 1.8 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NOR TH AMERICA • 389

Len ^th 7-8 Wingspan

Family CAPRIMULGIDAE Species
phalaenoptilus nuttallii inches n _ ]3 ; nchcs

Common Poorwill
The smallest of the North American nightjars, this bird
is the western counterpart of the eastern W hip-poor-
will. It primarily feeds at night. Though all but its

southernmost population migrates, the Common

l'ooi will is the only bird known to hibernate
mixed mottled brownish
It sometimes returns to the same rock gray to pale gray plumag
ere\ iee each winter. In flight,
note its small size, short,
rounded w ings that

broad white
band over throat
and dark breast

-lute- tipped

black outer tail

feathers

lack white patches,

and the rounded tail w ith grayish underpat ts
white tail corners. Male and mottled dark gray
female are similar, but the male has a and black
larger bolder patch on its tail. This bird is more
often heard than seen.
• SONGHas cry of poor-will or poor-willy or poor- rillow, Similar Birds
repeated 30-40 times per minute. Whip-poor-will
• BEHAVIOR Nocturnal. During day, roosts hidden
Solitary.
Locally
• larger
in

longer
southwest
rail w irh
on ground in shrubs and grasses. Flies close to the ground at large \\ hire corners
night searching for food or on ground watching for prey.
sits (male) or buffy tips
Eats night-flying moths and other insects. Birds have been (female); voice differs.

found in a state of hibernation during extremely cold weather

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary.
• Nesting incubation
Flight Pattern
20-21 days by both sexes.
Young semiprecocial; fed by
both sexes; first flight at

20-23 days. 1-2 broods per year.

Flits on silent • Population Fairly
wine beats.
common; widespread, stable.

Nest Identification
On b ebbles, or amp small pile ot leaves, usually shaded In bush o
te to pinkish white eggs, sometimes spurred or mottled with
Shape ;lliptical oval, 1.0 \ 0.8 inches.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Scxcs simi , ar Migratory j 8 ()unccs

DATE TIME LOCATION

390 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len Sth Wingspan 24.5-25.5
CAPRIMULGIDAE Caprimulgus carolinensis 1 1-13 inches inches

Chuck-will's-widow
True to its name, can be heard singing chuck-will's-widow
this bird
continuously in summers night in the rural South.
the early evening on a
The largest North American nightjar is shy and will often flush at the
slightest disturbance, fluttering away on wings like a huge
silent
long grayish
brown moth. The female is similar to the male but has tan
upercilium
feathers on her throat and in her tail corners.
• SONG A bold chuck-will's-WID-ow in 4 parts, with
the chuck low-pitched (sometimes inaudible at a
distance) and the other 3 notes clearly brownish red
throat with white
whistled, with emphasis on the wid.
half-collar
While hunting, may give low
growl or croak in flight.

long rounded
tail

buff-tipped outer tall

leathershave white
inner webs
ou/e whitish feather
• BEHAVIOR Solitary. Nocturnal feeder. While in flight, form bar on tips of
catches numerous insects at a time with its cavernous mouth, lesser wins coverts

which has a 2-inch gap and rictal bristles in its corners to aid in
trapping prey. Eats mainly insects and an. occasional small bird, Similar Birds
which it swallows whole. Roosts like other nightjars, perched
Whip-poor-will
parallel to the limb or on the ground, where its cryptic plumage
makes it all but impossible to see unless it moves. Roosts on the
same perch daily.
j0 Smaller; grayer; rufous
bar on shoulder; voice
differs •
white
male has more
and white
in tail
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. crescent at lower edge

• NESTING Incubation 20-24 days by female, who will move of black throat • female
has dark brown throat,
eggs if nest is disturbed. Semiprecocial young brooded by buffy necklace, and
female; remain in nest approximately 17 days, fed by female. pale buff tips to outer

F'emale tends young until independent. 1 brood per year. tail feathers.

• POPULATION Fairly common in pine-oak and live-oak

woodlands, as well as in
Flight Pattern deciduous forests.

• CONSERVATION
Neotropical migrant. May be
declining due to habitat loss
from lack of proper forest
Kas\ biio\.mt silent flight with flicking management.
>ing beats.

Nest Identification
No nest materials • on ground atop dried leaves, shaded by dense trees or
ground cover • Z shiny pinkish cream or buff eggs, with brown, lavender, or gray
Shape markings; oval to elliptical, 1.4 \ 1.0 inches.

Plumage Sexes hi m Migration

Migratory Weight 4 7

DATE £_ TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 391

Wingspan
Family CAPRIMULGIDAE Species
Caprimulgus i wiferus
Length c>-
1 0 inchc 16_ 19 .5 inchcs

Whip-poor-will
The Whip-poor-w ill is best located and identified by its

distinctive calls. It is nearly impossible to see because it

tends to on the ground or lengthwise on a branch,

sit

and its pattern closely matches the leaf litter of the vhite 1
large
wklaa
wood lots it frequents. "Whips" have rounded wings
that when folded do not reach to the tip of the tail.
Males are similar to females but the throat is \

bordered with white and the tail has large

white patches.
• SONG A loud, clear whip-poor-will
dark throat
often repeated at night in eastern with a buff
birds; call is more coarse among border
southwestern birds.

long tail with buff tips

FK.MALH

Similar Birds

• BEHAVIOR Incubating or perched birds often allow a close

Cm ck—will's Widow
Lacks wing bars and
approach. They fly close to the ground at night and catch large black wing and tail
flying insects, especially medium to large moths. Their large • breeds throughout

eyes, like those of other creatures active at night, reflect light much of North,
Southwest.
with a red eye-shine. In rural areas, birds often sit along dirt or
gravel roads in the open at night. Common Nighthawk
Yellow undertail coverts
• BREEDING Monogamous. • ranges in Northwest,
• NESTING Incubation 19-20 days by female. Rockies, and much of
the Southwest.
Semiprecocial young stay in nest 20 days. Fed by both sexes.
1-2 broods per year.
• Population Uncommon.
Flight Pattern Has declined in the East in
recent decades because of
habitat loss caused by
forest fragmentation
and development.
Erratic mothlike flight. Male hovers • Conservation Species
during display, with slow smooth flight.
federally protected.

Nest Identification
Kggs laid on flat ground on leaf litter • 2 whitish eggs marked with brown and
gray overlaid with brown, olive, and lavender; 1.2 inches long.
Shape j>m

Plumage
Sexes simi]ar Habitat
^ A » Migration
M()St migrate Weight ?.()

DATE TIME LOCATION

392 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan ]9_
APODIDAE Streptoprocne zonaris 8 75 inches
_ 2] inches

White-collared Swift
This strong fast-flying bird soars in flocks over long
distances, frequently feeding high in the sky with
other swifts on swarms of insects just in front of
rainstorms. A tropical species native to Central
and South America, vagrants ha\*e visited
North America in Texas, Florida, Michigan
and California. The White-collared Swift
is a very large swift with a white collar
band that encircles the neck and a
slightly notched tail that appears
round or square when fully
spread. Legs and feet are
black. It soars with wings
arched downward (the
anhedral position). Juveniles
are duller and sootier overall
with a much reduced or
absent collar, grayish-edged
belly feathers, and a
reduced tail notch.
• SONG Loud screeching
chee-chee-chee. Also much
Often heard high
chattering.
overhead before it is seen.
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. imlirh forked tail

Catches food in flight; often

high in the air column. Eats
flying insects including ants,
beetles, wasps, and bees.
When foraging it circles and White-throated
Swift
dives,seeming to barely flap
Much smaller; dark
wings. Roosts and nests in flocks upperparts; white
of 50 or more, in caves or wet underparts w ith black

crevices in mountains, especially underwing linings and

iries and black
near waterfalls. Ranges many miles patch extending onto
daily to feed, returning to roost at dusk. sides; long forked tail.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial.

• Nesting incubation
16-28 days by both sexes
Flight Pattern
(periods of cold weather prolong
incubation). Altricial young stay
; in nest 45-60 days, fed by both
;. t sexes. 1 brood per year.
Strong powerful Alternates
fast
rapid shallow
flight.

wing beats with long glides

• POPULATION Accidental in

Soars on thermals and updrafts. North America.

Nest Identification
Mud. moss, and insect exoskeletons • in cases, on cliff ledges behind waterfalls
rarely on an exposed cliff ledge • built by both sexes • 2 w may be
hite eggs,
Shape nest-stained; oval to cylindrical, 1.3 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
^ A m^^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei g nt 3.5 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OK NORTH AMERICA • 393

Family
APODIDAE Species
Qhaetura pe/agica
Len gtn
5.5 inches
Wingspan
U -\2.75 inches

Chimney Swift
Often referred to as "a cigar with wings" bee; of
irs flight silhouette, this is the only swift
normally found in eastern North America
Named for its habit of building nests
inside chimneys or air shafts, it uses its

gluelike saliva to attach its nest to

the brick or concrete and to bind
together the individual sticks.
blackish
Adult birds feed their young
gray bill
until they are old enough to fly
out of the chimney. In fall
migration, hundreds may swirl
above a large chimney at dusk hort cigar-
before dropping into it to roost blackish liaped body
gray legs
for the night. This bird has
and feet sooty gray
become so adapted to life in
era if
man-made structures that it

now is a common summer

species sweeping the skies over
our towns, cities, and suburbs.
• SONGBold chattering; rapid
twittering calls cascade down from above.
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Eats flying
insects and ballooning spiders in the air column.
Catches food while flying. Roosted and nested in
hollow trees before Europeans settled North America;
now uses chimneys and air shafts. Almost always seen on
the wing. Aerial courtship and mating with courtship V-ing
display - pairs flying with wings held in extreme dihedral V
above their backs.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary or colonial. Sometimes Similar Birds
with helpers at the nest.
Vaux's Swii I

• NESTING Incubation 19-21 days by both sexes, sometimes Smaller; shorter wings
\\ ith the aid of helpers. Young altricial; stay in nest 30 days, fed paler underparts and
rump; voice differs;
by both sexes, but female feeds more. 1 brood per year.
soars less frequently.
• POPULATION Fairly common to common in range. Has
increased dramatically with the abundance of artificial nesting sites
created by European settlement
Flight Pattern of North America. Rare in
southern California.
• Conservation
t Neotropical migrant that

Rapid batlike flight on stiff swept-back

winters in South America's
wings alternates with long sweeping glidt Amazon Basin.
Darts erratically. Soars on thermal drafts.

Nest Identification Half saucer of sticks and saliva • hollow interior of tree, chimney, air shaft,

vertical pipe, silo. barn, open well or cistern, fruit cellar, or side of building
Shape Location • nest built by both sexes • 2-7 white eggs, may be nest stained; long oval i

cylindrical, 0.8 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simjlar Habitat^ m^ Migration
Migratory Weight
o g

DATE TIME LOCATION

394 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
APODIDAK Species
Chaetura vauxi Len Sth 4-4.5
inches Wingspan j , 5 inches

Vaux's Swift
This small swift of the forested regions of the Northwest is similar in
appearance and actions to the Chimney Swift, but their ranges do not
overlap. Furthermore, this little swift soars much less frequently. Its
sooty brown plumage is paler below, especially on the throat and
upper breast, as well as on the grayish to brownish gray
rump and uppertail coverts. This species has only
recently begun to adapt to nesting in chimneys
• SONG Often gives high thin chippering
and twittering calls. In courtship
flights it utters faint rapid twitter,
/,/ rfa./
l
c/iip-c/iip-c/iip-c/ieveet-r/ieweet. „ raY /,,//

• BEHAVIOR Gregarious.
Singles, pairs, or flocks of pale gray throat
20 or more birds. Aerial. and upper chest
Catches insects in flight.
Practices courtship and
copulation while flying.
Breaks off twigs for
nesting materials with
feet in midair. In the
beginning of the
breeding season courting
birds display by flying
with wings upraised in a V Chimney Swift
position. Frequently feeds Larger in size; longer
wings; darker overal
over water, flying close to the
broader darker rump;
surface, and often flies rapidly dark underparts extend
and fairly low over foothills and up to throat. Louder
highlands; may also fly at great heights. Frequents burned-over chattering call; greater
tendency to soar;
forest areas, where it nests in hollow snags. Like other swifts it
d i ffe ren t geograp h c a i 1

cannot perch but clings to vertical walls to roost at night. range.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Loosely colonial. Black sw if t

• NESTING Incubation about 18-20 days by both sexes. Larger; darker overall;
slightly notched tail;
Altricial young remain in nest 20-28 days, fed by both sexes. sil\er\ white forehead;
1 brood per year. soars frequently.

• POPULATION Fairly common in woodlands near water. It is

rare in winter in southern California. Casual along Gulf Coast.

• Conservation
Flight Pattern Neotropical migrant, wintering
from central Mexico to northern
X^X South America. Vulnerable to
old-growth timber harvesting
and the removal of large snags
Fast low flight with bursts of rapid flut

wing beats, alternating with glides for from forest.

short periods.

Nest Identification
Twigs and conifer pine needles held together with saliva to inside wall of hollow
tree, hollow snag, and occasionally a chimney • built by both sexes • 3-6 white
Shape eggs, may become nest stained; long oval to cylindrical, 0.7 x 0.4 inches.

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat

^^ ^_ Migration
Migratory Weight () _ 6 ounc(

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AM K RIGA • 395

Family Species Length Wingspan 13.14

APOD1DAE 1 t ronautes saxatalis 6 _y j nches inch(

White-throated Swift
Possibly the most rapid flying North American bird, the White-throated
Swift has been seen fleeing from Peregrine Falcons at estimated speeds of
more than 200 mph. This darting black-and-white swift is associated
with steep cliff faces in mountain canyons and on the coast; recently it

has started to nest under freeway overpasses and bridges. In flight

from below shows white underparts from the chin to midline
it at

the end of the belly, a large white oval patch on each flank that

is visible from above and below, and a long, forked tail that
often looks pointed in flight when not spread.
• SONG 2-3 birds flying together utter
piercing laughing he he he he. Distinctive upperparts black bill
high liquid to slightly screechy
twittering and trilling calls.

long narrow w

long forked tail

Violet-green
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Aerial. Eats wide variety of flying Swallow
insectsand ballooning spiders. Catches food while in flight with Shorter broader wings;
entirely w hire
the cavernous gaping mouth that is characteristic of all swifts.
underparts; solid white
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Courtship is performed flank patches extend

entirely in flight; birds copulate in with male and female

air, onto sides of rump;
metallic green
coming together from opposite directions, locking on, and
upperparts with purple
pinwheeling downward through the air, sometimes for more gloss; slightly notched
than 500 feet. tail; slower more
buoyant flight.
• NESTING Incubation 19-21 days by both sexes. Young
altricial; leave nest at approximately 30 days, fed by both sexes.
1 brood per year.

Flight Pattern
Swift flight, alternating rapid shallow
beats with long glides. Soars and glides at
high speeds. Darts, swoops, and abruptly
changes direction.
• Population Common in
mountainous country near
canyons, cliffs, and sea cliffs.
• Conservation
wing
Neotropical migrant that
winters from Mexico south into
Central America.

Nest Identification
Sometimes flimsy or well-rounded cup of feathers and grasses cemented
together with saliva and glued to wall of deep crack or crevice • built by both
Shape Location
V sexes • 3-6 white eggs; long-oval to cylindrical, 0.8 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexe§ similaf Habitat
A ± Migration
Migratory Weight
j j

DATE TIME LOCATION

396 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len Sth 4-4.5 Wingspan
A p ODIDAE Tachornis phoenicobia inch n . 5 inche5

Antillean Palm-Swift
This little swift, with its distinctive black-and-white markings,
is at home in the Caribbean, where
it hunts flying insects

with snaky spiraling batlike flight over lowland Cuba,

its

the Isle of Pines, Hispaniola, and Jamaica. In the

summer of 1972 birders in the Florida Keys
observed a pair of Antillean Palm-Swifts in
the skies over Key West. In flight this
birds white rump and white (,ia( ^

underparts contrast with its black

wings and black upperparts.
Juveniles resemble adults
but have buffy underparts.
• SONG A weak
twittering.
• Behavior
Gregarious. Forms
small groups to
medium-sized flocks.
Breeds year-round in
colonies in the dead
notdied black tail
fronds that hang
from Thatch Palms
and other palm
species. Diet
consists primarily of
insects that it takes
from the air columns
or from the surface of
Similar Birds
water. The first

indication of this bird's Bank Swallow

Dark brown upperparts;
presence may be the
white underparts
twittering vocalizations broken only by dusky
from high above human brow n breast band;

habitations, cane fields, dry swamps, and golf courses. slightlynotched dark
brown tail; lacks white
• BREEDING Colonial. Highly gregarious. rump; slower and more
• NESTING Nesting biology of this bird poorly known. graceful flight.

Estimated incubation period by both sexes is 18-21 days.

Altricial young are brooded by
female; remain in nest
Flight Pattern
estimated 20-28 days, fed by
both sexes. 1-2 broods per year.
• Population Fairly
common to common in native
Rapid batlike flight on stiff rapidly
range in Caribbean. Accidental
beating swept-back wings, alternating
w ith gliding flight. in the IIS in Florida Kevs.

Nest Identification Joft materials cemented together with saliva • situated in hollow palm spathe
ittachcd to the underside of a drooping frond, or in a crevice or man-made
structure entrance near bottom • built by both sexes • 3-5 w hite eggs; long
oval to cvlin il, 0.7 x 0.4 inches.

Plumage S cxcs similar Habltat Migration

Nonmigratory We 'g nt 0.3 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NOR TH AMERICA • 397

Species Length Wingspan 5 _6 nches

Family TROCHILIDAE CoWm thalassinus 4 nch<
; ;

Green Violet-ear
I Ins large dark hummingbird w ith shiny
dark green upperparts and bluish green
underparts is often noisy and first attracts
attention when it is perched and giving slightly decurved •
black bill
its loud chi-it, chi-I-it notes. It vocalizes
frequently and sometimes persistently.
Generally associated with mountain
forests, forest clearings, and the
forest edge, it is common from
Central Mexico southward into
northern South America. dark metallic
green body
However, vagrant individuals
may show up almost anywhere,
and there are numerous records
bluish green
from the eastern US and as far underparts
north as Alberta and Ontario,
Canada. The blue-violet ear
patch and large spot on the
chest are difficult to see in
some light, and often the
dark green of the body
appears black in shadow or qua red blue-green
strong backlighting. The tad with dark
subterminal baud
broad dark blue tail is often
fanned when the bird is

hovering, revealing a wide

subterminal black band.
Females and juveniles are similar
tomales but appear more faded in color.

• SONG Repeated, loud tsip-tsip. Jerky, dry rattle f-iiiiissk,

f-iiiissk, f-iiiissk. Similar Birds
• BEHAVIOR Feeds high to low in vegetation on
Solitary. Blue-throai ed
nectar and insects. Often aggressive toward other hummers at I[TJMMINGBIRD cT
Larger; blue throat;
feeding areas. Perches inside shrub or tree on exposed bare
white tips cm tail
twigs and often calls from perch. feathers; 2 white lines
• Breeding Solitary.
• NESTING Incubation 14-18 days by female. Altricial young
fledge at about 18-23 days.
1-2 broods per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Accidental to
common
< casual in US; fairly
common
• FEEDERS
in native Mexico.
Attracted to
to

I )irect and hovering light with ver\ rapid feeders with sugar water.
wing beats.

Nest Identification Down, dry grass blades, and mosses; bound with cobwebs • decorated with bits
of moss and lichen • on drooping twig or rootlet at forest edge, streamside, or on
overhanging road bank • built by female • 2 white eggs; elliptical with one end
Shape
more pointed, 0.5 x 0.33 inches.

Plumage Habitat^
Sexes simi , ar ^ f£ Migration
Nonmigratory Weight
()
?

DATE TIMH LOCATION

398 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
TROCHILIDAE Tspecies Anthracothorax prevostii Length
4 75 inches I Wingspan 5 _6
inches

Green-breasted Mango
This large glittery green hummingbird has a long,
slightly decur.ved black bill and purple coloring in
its tail. Juveniles and females show an unusual
striped effect on the underparts witfi long, slightly decurved
black bill

Male
glittery green
overall
a black chin line
extending into a green
median stripe with a lightlynotched
rufous-purple tail
white border running the
length of the breast and
belly. Juveniles may have 2 bronzy green
entral tailfeather
an additional cinnamon
border between the white
and the green of the sides
and flanks.
• SONG High thin tsi, si-
green median stripe with
si-si, si-si-si, and harsh white border runs from
chipping tcik, tcik, tcik. mustache down sides of
breast and belly
• BEHAVIOR Feeds at
<

Juvenile
high to low levels on
nectar and takes many Female Similar Birds
insects,sometimes Broad-billed
hawking. Often perches Hummingbird cf
bluish black
and sings from an exposed Red bill with black tip;
tail with
notched blue-black tail.
bare limb at or near the top purplish base

of a tree. Prefers open areas IE-THROATED

MMINGBIRD cT
with few trees, shrubs, >arger; 2 white stripes
plantations, and gardens. >n face; dark ear patch;
• Breeding Solitary. grayish underparts.

• NESTING Incubation 14 8 days by female. First flight at

18-23 days. 1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Casual to
Local vagrants in
rare.
southeastern Texas. Fairly
common in Mexico.
• FEEDERS Attracted to
Direct and hov< ring flight with very rapid feeders with sugar water.
wing beats.

Nest Identification
Pale plant down, sparsely decorated with bark and lichen on outside • placed
high near the tip of a bare branch on a leafless or sparsely leafed tree • built by
Shape * female • 2 white eggs.

Plumage
Scxes differ
Habitat^ f;? ^ Migration
Nonmigratory We 'S nt 0.2 ounc

DATE TIME LOCATION

 r

BIRDS OF NORTH AMP:RICA • 399

Family S P ecies Cynanthus latirostris Len ^th 3-4 inches Wingspan 5 _ 6 jnches
TROCHILIDAE I I
I

Broad-billed Hummingbird
The Broad-billed Hummingbird frequents
dry scrubby vegetation in the semidesert,
low and canyons of the Southwest.
foothills,
The male's blue-black and deeply
tail is glittery green
forked, while that of the female is square- upperparts
tipped to slightly forked with white-tipped
outer tail feathers.
• SONG Chattering je-dit call is very simik
Ruby-crowned Kinglet. In
to that of the
courtship male utters whining zing.
• BEHAVIOR Persistently wags and Male
spreads tail when feeding. Feeds on nectar
and insects taken high to low in
vegetation. Often very aggressive at
feeding stations toward other hummers, dark green
which it actively drives away with underparts

frequent power dives toward

interlopers. Like other hummingbirds
it is attracted to red and will often

come seemingly from nowhere

to inspect a person's red forked blue-
garments or red patterns black tail

and patches on clothing.

upperparts
Likewise, the red more washed
taillightsand red out than male
hite postocular stripe
reflectors on vehicles
parked in its territory are
also inspected as possible
Female
nectar sources.
ilar Bii
• Breeding Solitary.
• Nesting incubation White-eared
Hi mmingbird
about 2 weeks by female.
Broad \\ hite postocuU
young stay near
Altricial stripe • female has
nest for 15-20 days. Often quare to slightly notched streaked throat.

2 broods per year. dark tail with white-tipped

outer tail feathers
• Population Common
to fairly common in southeast Arizona, southwest New Mexico,

Flight Pattern elsewhere; casual in winter.

Sometimes very common in

— < limitedUS range and

Mexico. No evidence
in number.
parts of
of decline

Direct and hovering flight with very rapid

wing
• FEEDERS Attracted to
beats.
feeders with sugar water.

Nest Identification
Grasses • lined with plant down, parts of leaves, and bark; no lichen on outer
nest • on branch of small tree, stalk of vine, or shrub, usually 3-9 feet above
Shape
^^ Location ^^j ^ ground • built by female • 2 white eggs; elliptical, 0.5 x 0.3 inches.

Plumage
Sexes djffer Habitat
± m ,
Migration
Migratory Wei § ht 0.1 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

400 • BIROS OF NORT1 AMERICA I

Family Species Len & h Wingspan 4,5

TROCHILIDAE Hylocharis leucotis 3-4 inches inchcs

White-eared Hi immingbird
he onl\ small hummingbird occurring
1

somewhat regularly in North America

with a bold white postocular stripe
that contrasts sharply with its dart violet-purpli
hc.ui. The much larger Blue- crown and chin red bill with
black tip
throated Hummingbird
similar head markings.
also has
The
wh ite •—
postocular turquoise-green throat
npperparts are dark green, the stripe

underparts arc green and black ear patch

dark green
white, and the black-tipped nape
red bill is rather short. Ir is
green breast,

dark green back

ides, and flanks
principally a mountain
and rump
species; look for it near
low banks of flow ers in

clearings in open oak and

oak-pine woodlands.
M \1 I

• SONG Display call is series of

bell-like rink rink notes. Also gi\ es
bold, metallic twittering calls.
• Behavior Feeds and
perches low to midlevel. Hats
primarily nectar along with dark green tail fades to
black on outer tail
sonic small insects and spiders.
feathers and tips
1 /ittle is know n of the biology
of this small hummer in its

limited US range.
Similar Birds
• Breeding Solitary.
Broad-billed
• Nesting hite postocular Hi mmingbird
Incubation red bill with stripe
Male has forked blue-
blackish upp,
14-lo days b\ black ear patch black tail; blue gorget;
mandible
dark green underparts:
female. Young stay
green crow n; small, thin
in nest 23—26 days. postocular stripe
• POPULATION • female has uniformly
gray to grayish white
C lasual to rare in
underparts; no streaking
limited and local I S on chin or throat.

range. Widespread and

locally vers common
white I
underparts
Flight Pattern

south of I fS. Could be

vulnerable to major clearing of
forest in mountains.
Direct and hovering flight with very rapid • Feeders Attracted to
wins beats.
feeders with sugar w ater.

Nest Identification Plant down, moss, pine needles, and spiderwebs • lined with tine plant down
and covered in lichens and moss • 5-20 feet above ground in shrub or tree,
saddled on twig or in fork • built by female • 2 white eggs; elliptical,
Shape
0.05 \ 0.05 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ
Habitat
A ^^ Migration We 'g ht 0.1 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 r
BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 401

Family
TROCHIL1DAE Species
h maz ma yucatanensis Len Sth 4-.S inches Wingspan 5 5 nche5
_ j

Buff-bellied Hummingbird
Generally the only greenish hummingbird black-tipped bill
with buff underparts seen in the United hi if blackish upper
and reddish lower
States, this bird often visits gardens and
mandible
feeders in southeast Texas, where it „ mv ,

resides all year. The Buff-bellied is the

largest hummingbird normally seen in

the East and the only one with a red

bill. The bill is slightly decurved, and
the adult male's is red with a black tip,

while the adult female has a black-

green throat
tipped bill with a blackish upper and upper breast
mandible and a reddish lower
one. In flight the rufous base bronzy green
upperparts
and sides of the tail are often
very noticeable.
• SONG High-pitched
repeated siik; also gives
hard chip.

• Behavior Feeds cinnamon-buff

primarily on nectar but lower breast and bed) 1

takes some insects.

Inhabits open woodlands,
shrub-scrub areas, and
citrus groves.
Female
• Breeding Solitary.
• Nesting incubation
cinnamon-buff
about 14 days by female. under tad covert.
Fed by female only. Young
Similar Birds
fledge at 18-22 days.
Possibly 2 broods per year. RUFOUS
MMINGBIRD
• Population Vagrant in winter
Common to fairly common range • straight black
bill; lacks green head
in southeast Texas; rare to
and breast.
casual elsewhere in the
Southeast. US breeding
population confined to year-
bronzy chestnut tail'i
round residents in Texas.

Flight Pattern Decline in US in first half of

20th century due to conversion

— < of habitat to agriculture.

• FEEDERS Attracted to
feeders with sugar water.
Direct and hovering flight with very rapid
wing beats.
• Conservation Current
population seems stable.

Nest Identification Plant fibers, fine stems, shreds of bark, and spiderwebs • lined with plant
down; outside covered with lichens and flower petals • in large shrub or
Shape Location
^jj ^ small tree, saddled on horizontal or drooping branch • built by female
• 2 white eggs.

Plumage
Sexes simUar Habitat
m^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei § ht 0.1 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

402 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
TROCHIl Species
L amporn js Len §th 5-5.5 Wingspan
DAE demenciae inches 7 jnches

Blue-throated Hummingbird
One of the largest and most impressive
hummingbirds in the southern United
States found in wooded canyons and
is

mountains, especially along streams, in

southeastern Arizona, southwestern
New Mexico, and western Texas.
When hovering, it often fans its long, slightly

long, squared blue-black tail,

decurved black bill

which has large white tips.

• SONG Males call is bold, high-
pitched, repetitive seep given while
perched at mid-level in trees or in
This loud, monotonous
flight.
squeak is often the first evidence
of the bird's presence.
• BEHAVIOR Dominant at
feeders and feeding areas; easily
drives away other hummingbirds.
Is quick to investigate feeders;
often they can be attracted to a
campsite within hours by
hanging red feeders. Also
investigates anything red
in the campsite or on
hikers, including
clothing, gear, and
on vehicles.
reflectors
Feeds on nectar and
insects at low to mid-
level in vegetation. Similar Birds
• Breeding Solitary. Magnificent
Hi mmingbird
• Nesting gray underparts Black body; notched ta
Incubation 17-18 days lacks white-tipped
by female. Young stay in gray throat feathers; glittering

nest 24-29 days. Up green throat; lacks

3 broods per year.

to
JT9 white lines on face.

• POPULATION Very restricted range in southwestern US; most

birds found in Mexico. Fairly

Flight Pattern common in summer; rare to

casual in winter. Accidental in

< southeastern US.

•
•
FEEDERS Sugar water.
Conservation
Swift, rapid direct flight. Extremely rapid
Vulnerable to loss of habitat in
wins beats when hov ering.
Mexican range.

Nest Identification Plant down and moss; bound by spider's silk with outer covering of moss • on
stems of flowering plants and ferns; along streams; under eaves of houses,
Shape <jgr
bridges, water towers; and inside buildings • 1-30 feet abov e ground; often
sheltered from above • built by female • 2 white eggs.
Location 4^ gfe
Ay
~
Weight
Iuma § e Sexes differ
|
Habitat
A fsf 1^ |
Migration
S()me mi g ratc |
Q 3 ()unc

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OK NORTH AM KRICA • 403

Family Species Length 4.5_5 Wingspan y inches

TROCHILIDAE /, fu/gens >2 5 inches

Magnificent Hummingbird
Large tor a hummingbird, it appears
black but when the
at a distance,
male turns in sunlight the crown
flashes deep purple and the
chin and throat glitter
green. The bill is long
and black, and the
male's dark green tail is
deeply forked. It is often
found in deciduous woods
along streams or on pine-
oak mountain slopes.
• SONG Main call is grating
tcheep. Also has squeaky
scratchy twittering song.
• BEHAVIOR Aggressively
defends feeding areas. Feeds
on nectar, insects, and
spiders. Hawks insects in
flight and gleans them from
foliage. Often sits on
exposed, rather high
perches. Attracted to
the color red.
• Breeding Solitary.
• Nesting incubation
about 16 days by female. Similar Buds
Fed by female. Young grayish green
niiderparts Blue-throated
fledge at 20-24 days.
Hummingbird
Probably 1 brood per year. Male has blue throat; blue-

• Population Common gray underparts; 1 white

stripes on side of face;
to fairly common
southwest in bold white tips on tail

Texas, southwest Mexico, New Femai feathers • female has

and southeast Arizona in summer; rge white tail corners;

^ streaking on throat;
rare to casual elsewhere. Stable in
id white lines on face.
restricted US range. Some declines
in Mexico due to habitat loss.
squared tail with
gray-white corners
Flight Pattern
• KEEDERS Attracted to

< -
- nectar feeders with sugar water.
• Conservation May
vulnerable to loss of mountain
be

Direct and hovering flight with very rapid

wing beats.
forest habitat in Mexico and
Central America.

Nest Identification Silky plant fibers coated with spiderwebs outside • lined with soft plant down
and coated with lichens • on horizontal branch of alder near stream, 20-55 feet
Shape ^ Location
^ above ground • also in walnut, pine, maple, and sycamore trees, 10-60 feet high
• built by female • 2 white eggs.

Plumage
Sexes djffer Habitat
A Migration
Somc m i grate
Weight
03

DATE TIME LOCATION

404 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
TROCHILIDAE Species
Ca Hiphlox evelynae
Length
3 _4 nches Wingspan 4.5
; jnches

Bahama Woodstar pinkish red

slightly
black bill
decurved
This beautiful little hummingbird gorget
y

is endemic to the Bahama Islands,

where it is common. It is a very

rare, and perhaps overlooked upperparts
visitor to south Florida. The bird's
white collar encircles its head and
almost meets posteriorly at the
nape. On the male the collar
contrasts sharply with the pinkish vide white breast
bandforms incomplete
red gorget and mixed olive-buff fm§
collar reaching to nape
underparts. Males sometimes
have pinkish red foreheads.
Females have buff-tipped tail
Watch for this little
feathers.
mixed olive-buff
hummingbird in areas of underparts
scrubby and flowering low-
growth vegetation and
around gardens in the
south Florida area.
• SONG This birds common
call is a sharp, staccato tit, libit,

tit, tit, titit. Its chase call is

rapid, dry, and rattling. The
male's song jumble of is a
high squeaks and raspy notes
white throat and chest
much like the sound of a
fisherman winding his reel.
• BEHAVIOR Relatively
buff belly
tame; often allows close
ITmai.h
approach. Feeds on flowers
in gardens and low scrub. buff flanks and sides
Aggressively defends
feeding areas from other
hummers and even other long rounded green tail Similar Birds
species of birds. with rufous base to feathers
None in North Americi
and black subterminal baud
• BREEDING Promiscuous. Solitary.
• NESTING Incubation 15-18 days by female. Fed by female
Altricial young fledge at
approximately 20-23 days. 1-
Flight Pattern
broods per year.
• POPULATION Rare in
southern Florida; common in

the Bahamas.
I )irect ami In ering flight w ith very rapid • FEEDERS Attracted to
w ing beats.
feeders with sugar water.

Nest Identification
Made of plant dow n and covered outside w ith bits of bark bound w ith cobwebs
2-12 feet above ground in a fork in a bush or tree • built by female • 2 elliptiea

Shape white eggs.

Plumage Sexcs diffcr Habitat^ ^ Migration jsj

onmigratory Weight ()

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 405

Family Species Length Wingspan 4 _ 5 inche

TROCHILIDAE Calothorax lucifer 3 _4 inches

Lucifer Hummingbird glistening

The only small hummingbird in the West green crown
with a long strongly decurved bill, the white
Lucifer Hummingbird frequents arid postocular
st .ripe
slopes with agave and yucca, where it

is often attracted to the blooming

glistening green
flowers. Adult birds have greenish
upperpart.
upperparts and a buff wash on the
sides. Male birds have a brilliant
violet-purple to violet-red throat
and a long deeply forked tail that
looks spikelike when closed.
• SONG Can be heard emitting
high squeaky and twittering
chip sounds.
• BEHAVIOR This
hummingbird feeds
primarily on nectar but also
takes insects and spiders. It

often feeds at fairly low

deeply forked
levels. It is very aggressive greenish tail
atfeeding stations. In the
presence of a female the
male displays with a
buzzing flight that has a
wide pendulum motion.
Breeding

0
• Black-chinned
Promiscuous. Solitary. Hummingbird <$
Purple throat; black
• Nesting incubation face; no white
15 days by female. Female postocular stripe;
Altricial young stay in straight black bill; short
notched tail.
nest 19-24 days. Up to
Z broods per year. ( K >s I \'s

111 MMINGBIRD d"

• Population The Purple crow n, head, and
breeding population of the throat; straight bill;

Lucifer Hummingbird barely short rounded tail

rounded tail with • western range.
reaches the western US, where lute-tipped feathers
the birds are fairly common in the
Big Bend area of Texas. It is

Flight Pattern rare to casual in scrublands, arid

slopes,and canyons in

-r
< southwest New Mexico and
southeast Arizona. Accidental
elsewhere. Winters in Mexico.
1 )irect and hovering light \\ ith very rapid • Feeders Attracted to
wing beats.
feeders with sugar water.

Nest Identification Plant fibers, flowers, lichen, and seeds held together with spider's silk
inshrubs 4-6 feet above ground; sometimes in open cholla cactus, on

Shape stem of ocotillo, or on agave stalk 2-10 feet above ground • built by
female • 2 white eggs.

Plumage
§e Sexes differ Habitat
*_jk ± Migration
Migratory Weight q ,
()uncc

DATE TIME. LOCATION

406 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
TROCHILIDAE Species Len ^th 3-3.75
inches Wingspan
Archilochus colubris 4>2 5-4.5 inches

Ruby-throated Hummingbird
The only hummer known by most Easterners has a
range that covers most of eastern North America. This
is the hummingbird that frequents Eastern gardens

and feeders. Both sexes have glittering

green crown and upperparts, and
the underparts are grayish to
white. Males have black faces
and a deep red to orange-red
throat, or gorget. The humming
of its wings is clearly discernible
from some distance.
• SONG Series of rapid squeaky
(/lipping notes.
• BEHAVIOR Feeds primarily
on nectar but takes some insects
and spiders, also sap from sapsucker
drill wells. In courtship flight male

makes huge a 180-degree arc back

and forth, emitting a buzzing sound at
its lowest point. Males often arrive on

breeding grounds well ahead of

females. These birds are strongly
attracted to the color red, as are
many other hummers.
• Breeding Solitary.
• Nesting incubation n-16
days by female. Altricial young
stay in nest 20-22 days. Fed by
female. 1-3 broods per year.
• Population Common to
fairly common
breedingin rounded tail with
range. A few winter regularly in white-tipped
outer feather
south Florida. Rare elsewhere.
• FEEDERS Red columbine in spring;
saliva, trumpet or coral honeysuckle, and bee
balm later in year. Also jewelweed, phlox, petunias,
lilies, trumpet creeper, Siberian peatree, nasturtium, cone-shaped
red flowers (wild and
Flight Pattern domesticated), and sugar water.
• Conservation Red food

< dyes added

harm birds.
to sugar may
water
Sometimes attracted
to red supporting insulators on
Very rapid wing beats (up to 75 per second). electrical fences, then killed.

Nest Identification Soft plantdown, fireweed, milkweed thistles, and leaves; bound with spider
welis and cocoon material; trimmed with moss and lichens • looks like knot on a

Shape Location * branch • 5-20 feet above ground, often on downsloping branch over brook and
sheltered by leaves • built by female • 2 white eggs; elliptical, 0.5 x 0.3 inches.

Plumage Sexes
diff
Habitat ^ _j Migration
Migra)
Weight
q i

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 407

Family Species Length Wingspan 4 _ 5 inchcs

TROCHILIDAE Archilochus alexandri 3i 5_375 nc hes
i

Black-chinned Hummingbird
Like others in its genus, this western
greenish
hummingbird has a eomplex courtship
head
display. While flying in a pendulum
pattern, the male vibrates its wings to
make a buzzing noise when diving
downward past the perched female. greenish
upperparts
The black throat and distinctive
white collar set this bird apart
from its close cousin, the Ruby-
throated Hummingbird. In good
light the lower throat glistens
in a violetband. Juveniles
• whitish
resemble adult females, and underparts
juvenile males begin to show
some violet on the lower
throat in late summer. dusky green
ides (iiulflanh
• SONG Repetitive teew
or tchew. When defending
feeding territory or giving Male
chase, combines teew
note with high-pitched
Similar Birds
twitters and squeaks. notched greenish tail
with blackish outer ruby-throated
• Behavior tail feathers Hummingbird 9
Solitary. Eats nectar, Female twitches
Femali tail less

pollen,and insects. while feeding; shorter

Hovers by flowers bill; greener crown; buff
wash on sides; different
to gather nectar or
voice.
sallies from perch
whitish throat
to catch tiny Costa's
may show
insects in midair. iii mmingbird 9
faint greenish
Smaller; generally grayer
Often twitches streaking
upperparts and whiter
tail while whitish i
underparts; squared tail
uncle/part: rounded green
hovering. Prefers with white tips and
tail with while
black central tail
arid areas. Bathes in water corners (this
feathers; different voice
or by hovering against wet foliage. birds tail feather • docs not stray to the
arc spread out)
• BREEDING Polygamous. Solitary nester Southeast.

• NESTING Incubation 13-16 days by female. Young stay in

nest 13-21 days. Fed by female.
2-3 broods per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Neotropical

< migrant.
and mountain
in
Common in
foothills.
the Southeast in winter.
lowlands
Casual

Swift direct flight. Hovers with rapid wing

beats (approximately 75 times per second) • FEEDERS Visits feeders
to feed. Can fly backward. with sugar water.

Nest Identification Plant down and spider's silk • decorated outside with small leaves and flowers
• set infork of small branch 4-8 feet above ground (sometimes up to 30 feet)

Shape
• builtby female • 1-3 white eggs; elliptical, with 1 end slightly more
ft pointed, 0.5 x 0.3 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat^ ^^ ^ Migration
Mj gratory Weight
() ,

DATE TIME LOCATION

 ^

408 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA

Family Species Length Wingspan 4
TROCHILIDAE Calypte anna 3 5.4 inches
I

?3 jnches

Anna's Hummingbird
Able to adapt to suburban habitat, this
hummingbird is expanding geographically
and becoming more numerous. Although
predominantly nonmigratory, some have hort straight
been reported to migrate. It eats more insects black bill

and spiders than any other hummingbird. The

male, which often vocalizes while perched, is
the only North American hummingbird with rose- Mai 1

red crown and throat. Juveniles are similar to

females, but juvenile males have some red on the
crow n as well as the throat. grayish
underparts with
• SONG Sharp squeaky Chase calls
call, chick.
greenish tint to
are rapid, high-pitched rattles. Song is garbled sides, flanks,
mixture of coarse squeaky notes, usually and belly
delivered from a perch.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary. Eats nectar, slightly noti hi d.

insects, spiders,and sap from dark green tail

, straight black i
with blackish outer
sapsucker drill wells. Hovers tail feathers
to gather nectar from
flowers. Catches insects
in midair and plucks
red flecks or •—
spiders and insects spot 011 throat
from spider webs.
Often bathes by El .MALI-: Juvenile
hovering against min- male
or dew-covered foliage.
pale gray
Male displays for female
underparti
in a high arc, making
Similar Birds
explosive chirp at the bottom
Often found
after a rapid dive. Black-chinned
ingardens and attending
iii mmingbird 9
\\
ornamental plantings in yards. rounded green tail •— ( ;< >s 1

with white tips on

Hi MMINGBIRD 9
• BREEDING Polygamous. Solitary. outer thret leathers
Smaller; whitish
underparts; lack red
• NESTING Incubation 14-19 days by markings on throat
female. Altricial young stay in nest • ( losta's winters only as

18-23 days, fed by female. 2-3 broods per year. fai east as w est Texas.

• POPULATION Abundant; increasing. Vagrants get to coastal

Alaska in summer; casual to
Flight Pattern accidental in the East in winter.
• FEEDERS Sugar-water.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant wintering
Mies forward, backward, up, down, and
side to side on rapidly beating w ings as it
south to central Baja and
feeds. Swift darting flight from place to northwestern Mexico.
place. Wing beats a blur.

Nest Identification Plant down bound with spider silk and lined with plant down and feathers • on
small tree branch, on ledge of cliff, or sometimes on utility wire • 1.5-30 feet
above ground • built by female • 1-3 w hite eggs; elliptical oval or subelliptical,
Shape
with similar curvatures at each end, 0.5 x 0.3 inches.

Plumage Sexes
differ
Habitat ^^ ± ^^ Migration
Nonmig Weight ()
1

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 409

Family Species Length 2.75-3.25 inch* Wingspan 42 S

TROCHILIDAE stellula calliope inchc

Calliope Hummingbird
This is the smallest bird north of Mexico. As the
female incubates her eggs in the extreme
cold of the high mountains, she does
not become torpid but is able
to maintain her body heat from reddish z noli 't-stt v ak

the insulation in the nest and V-shaped gorget on a

background of throat
by remaining at rest. In addition
to the small size, note the short greenish

black bill and the short tail. upperparts

• SONG Relatively silent. High

shrill sharp chips, si tsi-tsi,

tsi-tsi, repeated. primaries •

extend beyond
^
• BEHAVIOR Solitary. Often
tad when perched
dominated by other hummingbirds • white
at flow ers. Hovers over low flowers underparts
with green
to feed and snatches insects in
speckling on
midair. Plucks insects and spiders sides
from web and also drinks sap from
holes drilled by sapsuckers. Hardy;
Male
inhabits open coniferous,
montane forests and mountain
meadows. Courting males fly
in huge U-shaped pattern in
front of the female, rising as
high as 65 feet before Similar Birds

darting back down to Rl FOUS

repeat the pattern. Gives Hummingbird 9
I <arger; more rufous
high-pitched bzzt note
sides; rufous .it base of
at bottom of dive. tail feathers; wings fall
• Breeding short of tail end w hen
bird is perched.
Polygamous. Solitary.
BROAD-TAILED
• Nesting buff underparts
Hummingbird V
ic-it/i light rufous
Incubation 15-16 days Larger; tail extends
tint to sides
by female. Young stay beyond primaries;
in nest 18-23 days, fed by Female rufous at base of tail

tthers.
female. brood per year,
1

although may possibly have 2 broods.

• Population Common
Flight Pattern Rare in the Southeast in fall and
in winter.

• Feeders will come to

feeders filled with sugar water.

Hovers on whirring wings when feeding;

• Conservation
moves up, down, back, and forw ard. Swift Neotropical migrant. Vulnerable
zipping direct flight from place to place.
to loss of habitat.

Shredded bark, bits of cones, and plant down, covered with lichen • bound with
Nest Identification
cocoon material and spider's silk, with lining of plant dow n • on dead or live tree
limbs or on conifer cone, protected by larger tree branches • sometimes built on
Shape pre\ ions year's nest • 2-70 feet above ground • built by female • Z white eggs;
elliptical to oval, 0.5 x 0.3 inches.

Plumage
Sexes diffef Habitat £j»
^ Migration
Migratory Weight q ,
Qunce

DATE TIME LOCATION

410 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len £th 4-4.5 Wingspan s inches
TROCHILIDAE Selasphorus platycercus inches

Broad-tailed Hummingbird
The male's wings produce a unique trilling sound
when is in flight. The buzzing whistle
the bird
sound produced by air rushing through the
is

slots created by the finely tapered tips of the rose-red

gorget
male's outer primaries. Dwelling in the Rocky
Mountains and outlying mountain ranges, it iridescent green

can be seen bathing in the shallow waters upperparts

of mountain streams or defending its

territory of flower patches from other
hummingbirds. When perched the gray
underparts
wings extend beyond the tail tip.
gradually
• SONG Fairly sharp but not hard, become white
repeated chip; chitter clutter chittei\ no near throat

song. In display makes high thin

slurred szzzzzziiuu.
Male
• BEHAVIOR Feeds and
Solitary.
perches at low to middle levels in open
pine and pine-oak woodlands and
edges. Eats nectar, insects, spiders, and
sap. Hovers with tail closed, rarely
flashed open or wagged, to feed on
nectar and catch insects in flight.
Plucks insects and spiders from
bronze dots
spider webs. Like other hummers, on throat
eats sap from holes drilled by green
upperparts
sapsuckers. In display flight buff underparts
male flies in U-shaped pattern
in front of female, diving Femal
30-50 feet; both sexes may Similar Birds
ascend together to
Calliope
90-100 feet, with one white-tipped Hummingbird
4-5 feet beneath the outer tail
m
W Female is smaller;
9
wing
feathers have extend beyond
other, before diving 1 tips
rufous base «
short tail; lighter rufous
back down again. rufous sides
tint on sides; no rufous
• BREF2DING Promiscuous. Solitary nester. in bases of tail feathers;
shorter
• NESTING Incubation 14-17 days by female. Young stay in
bill.

nest 21-26 days. Fed by female. 1-2 broods per year.

• Population Common in

Flight Pattern summer mountains. Casual

in in
autumn and winter in Gulf
Coast states.
• FEEDERS Sugar water.
Hovers when feeding, moving in all
directions in a blur of rapidly beating
• Conservation
wings. Swift dashing direct flight from Neotropical migrant.
point to point.

Nest Identification Plant-down and bound with spider webs; exterior made of lichens, bark shreds,
and leaves • on horizontal tree branch or occasionally in fork; often near or over
mountain streams; 4-15 feet above ground • built by female • 2 white eggs;
Shape
St elliptical-oval or subelliptical, 0.5 x 0.34 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat
^ A Migration
Migratory Weighty oui

DATE TIME LOCATION

 1

BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 41

Family Species Length 3.75 inches Wingspan

TR0CH1LIDAE Selasphorus rufus 4J5 jnchc

Rufous Hummingbird
This tenacious hummingbird aggressively
defends its territory and will attack not
only larger birds such as blackbirds and
thrushes, but also chipmunks. At
feeders it is intolerant of all other
would-be visitors and spends much of
itstime driving them away from the white chest, *
nectar. Like most hummingbirds, often extends as
central streak
highly attracted to the color red, it has
on belly
been known to examine human
clothing, magazine covers, and other
rufous wash
items showing this color. This is the
on underparts
only hummingbird in North America
with a rufous back, and the one most
likely to be seen in the East in the fall
and winter after the Ruby-throated
Hummingbirds have migrated south. white throat
The male has green markings on his speckled with
small spot.
rufous back, and his gorget sparkles
copper-red in good light; the female also
has small spots on her throat that appear red white breast and
in certain light. center o f belly

• SONG Call is sibilant chewp chewp\ in

defense chases, proclaims zeee-chuppp'ity-chup.
rufous-buff on
• BEHAVIOR Solitary. A hardy hummer that sides, flanks,
nests as far north as southern Alaska. Strongly and sides of belly
prefers red to any other color and hovers by I I.MAI K
red tubular flowers, such as columbine and tiger lilies,

to gather nectar. Feeds and perches at low to middle levels.

Catches insects in midair and eats sap from holes drilled by Similar Birds
sapsuckers. Plucks spiders and insects from webs. Wings make
Allen's
buzzy whistle in flight. Male displays for female in U-shaped or hummingbird
oval pattern; ascends with back to female, then dives, turning Male has green back;
toward her on whistling wings with orange-red gorget flashing. female indistinguishable
in the field; in the hand,
• BREEDING Polygamous. Solitary in small loose semicolonies. tail feathers more
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by female. Altricial young slender.

stay in nest 20 days, fed by female. 1-2 broods per year.

• Population Abundant to

Flight 1 Pattern common. Rare in the East in

fall and winter.

< •

•
FEEDERS Sugar water.
Conservation
Hovers while feeding; darts up and down, Neotropical migrant. Possible
in and out, and backwards; swift and decline in recent years; no
dashing flight on a blur of whirring wings. noted cause.

Nest Identification Plant down, covered with lichen, moss, bud scales, leaves, shredded bark, and
plant fibers; bound with spider and lined with plant down • most often on
silk

Shape
^ drooping limb; occasionally in fork of tree or shrub, 5-50 feet above ground
• built by female • 2 white eggs; elliptical oval or subelliptical, 0.5 x 0.33 inches

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat
^ Migration
Mi g ratory Weight
() t ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

412 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len Sth Wingspan
TROCHILIDAE Selasphorus sasin 3.75 inches 4J5 mchcs

Allen's Hummingbird
straight
When defending diminutive
its territory this
black bill
bird will attack many birds, including large Mali
hawks. Highly adaptable, it can be found in
suburban gardens and parks in itsYange. gretn crown

Males appear similar to the Rufous

Hummingbird but have a green back;
green
females and juveniles are inseparable
Hpperparti
from the Rufous in the field. Allen's is
often found in drier habitats, including
chaparral and thickets, than the Rufous.
• SONG Utters sharp chip or series of chip,
similar to voice of Rufous Hummingbird.
• BEHAVIOR Gathers nectar
Solitary.
from flowers and catches insects in
midair. Also plucks insects and spiders
from webs. Eats sap from sapsucker
holes. In courtship display male flies
in J-shaped pattern: He ascends
75-80 feet and dives on whistling
wings to the level of the perched
female, then ascends about
25 feet on the other side of the
arc and hovers, with his gorget
glittering in the sun. Begins
with pendulum-like, side-to
side display. Males may I I MAM
depart breeding areas a green
month or more before upperparts

females depart. Rl FOUS

HUMMINGBIRD
• BREEDING Promiscuous. Male has rufous back
Solitary nester. Semicolonial, • female and ju\ enile
with nests often clustered. have wider outer tai
feathers, which can
• Nesting incubation only be discerned in

15-22 days by female. Young che hand • breeding

range is more northern
stay in nest 22-25 days. Fed
and further inland.
by female. 2 broods per year.
• Population Common to

Flight Pattern fairly common. Casual to rare

vagrant in the East in autumn
migration and winter.
• FEEDERS Sugar water.
I [overs w hen feeding, moving in all
• Conservation Declining
directions in a blur of rapidly beating because of habitat loss.
\\ i ngs Swift darting direct
. flight.

Nest Identification
Moss, stems, weeds, and plant down; covered with lichens and bound with
spider's silk • lined w ith plant dow n • in shaded area on top of tree limb, shrub,
Shape or building • built b\ female • 2 white eggs. 0.5 \ ()..vi inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ
Habitat^ ^ Migration
Neotropical migrant Wei e ht 0.1 ounce

DATE TIME, LOCATION

 BIRDS OK NORTH AMERICA • 413

Family Species Length Wingspan 18 _?? jnchcs

TROGONIDAE Trogon elegans n-12/5 inches

Elegant Trogon red ring

More often heard than seen, this around eye
bird has a habit of sitting practically
deep glistening green
motionless for long periods of time in head, breast, and
or just below the canopy. Its posture upperparts
is w ith the long tail pointing
erect,
straight down. Plumage features a
unique combination of pink (female) kite band
to deep red (male) underparts and a separates breast

tail that is white below with narrow

from belly

black, vermiculations and black

terminal band.
• SONG Series of hoarse, throaty,
downslurred k'row'hr notes repeated deep red belly,

5-10 times, then a pause before sides, flanks, and

nndertail coverts
the next series.
• Behavior Often sits

quietly for long periods in

sycamores and oaks in
wooded mountain canyons, lute undertail
with blackish gray
particularly in the vicinity
vermiculations
of streams. Feeds on
insects, berries,and
fruits,which it often downward-
gathers by sallying or curved
white patch
by hovering beneath
behind eye
vegetation. Often black terminal bund
vocal in early morning, brown
with calls carrying long upper breast
Similar Birds
distances in mountain
canyons. Often allows white bai Eared Trogon
crosses breast I ,arger; dark bill; larger
fairly close approach.
patch of w hite on blue-
• Breeding black tail; no white
Monogamous. Solitary. band across breast
• no white patch behind
• NESTING Incubation 22-23 days car of female • does not
by both sexes. Altricial young stay in stray into southeast

nest 20-23 days. Fed by both Texas.

sexes.
• Population us population sma and local. Accidental to
casual in south Texas.
Flight Pattern • Conservation
Vulnerable to habitat loss by

< T v T \ Tv deforestation, as well as to

disturbance by observers while
nesting, especially if playback
Slow undulating flight, but ra| iid hen
\\
voice recordings are used to
bird is pressed.
attract territorial birds.

Nest Identification Hay, straw, trash, mosses, wool, feathers, and c down with little or no lining
• inside natural cavity of large streamside tre< :h as sycamores or in deserted

Shape woodpecker hole • 12-40 feet above ground white eggs; rounded ovate to
oval; 1.14x0.9 inches.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexes diffcr ^ Most J() nQt migrate 2 4 ()unces

DATE TIME .OCATION

414 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len Sth Wingspan
ALCEDINIDAE Ceryle torquata 16.5 inches 24_ 29 nches j

Ringed Kingfisher
This is the largest kingfisher in the
Western Hemisphere. A strikingly
colored bird, widely distributed
it is

in the Americas but barely reaches

north of the US border with
Mexico. Found along big rivers,
this bird flies and perches
high. The upperparts and
most of the head are blue-
gray, while the underparts
are chiefly bright rufous.
The black bill is large. In
males show white
flight,
underwing and
undertail coverts;
females show rufous.
• SONG Drawling
low-pitched harsh
loud clattering rattle.

In flight this bird blue-gray head

gives a loud cla-ak! with ragged crest

• Behavior
Largely solitary and
somewhat noisy. gray /avast
//ordered
Found along larger
below with
rivers, lakes, and white band
lagoons, where it

hunts from a perch

rufous
and dives for fish and
under'parti
sometimes frogs and
Belted Kingfisher
reptiles. Often wags or
mailer; white
bobs its tail. Often nderparts with gray
perches high on band across breast
• female
t_... has rufous
overhanging branches, poles,
JF band across belly, side
and utility wires. and
iii. flanks;
I 1 u
inks white
1 re 1 1 1

• BREEDING Monogamous and solitary. indertail cov<

• NESTING Incubation by both sexes. Altricial young remain

in nest 35 days, fed by both
sexes.
Flight Pattern
• Population Uncommon
and local but has gradually
increased its range in the

southeast Texas area since the

mid-1960s. Widespread in the
iigh direct flight with floppy wing beats
American tropics.

Nest Identification
Digs burrows in high bank • sometimes far from water • 5-8 feet deep
• 3-6 white eggs.
Shape Location

Plumage Sc xes differ Habitat Migration

Nonmigratory We 'S ht 11.1 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OK NORTH AMERICA • 415

Family Species Len §th Wingspan

ALCEDINIDAE Ceryle alcyon 1 1-14.5 inches 2 2_26 inches

Belted Kingfisher
Widely distributed and common along freshwater
shaggy crest
bodies of water as well as the coast, this is the
only kingfisher across most of its range, except
along the Mexican border. It is one of the few

North American birds which the female is

in
more colorful than the male. The male has Male
blue-gray upperparts with a blue-gray
band across the breast and appears big
headed with and ragged
its large bill
crest. In flightshows a white
it
blue-gray
patch on the upperwing at the upperpart.
base of the primaries.
• SONG Bold raspy rattle sounds
like a heavy fishing reel. blue-gray
band across
• BEHAVIOR Generally solitary.
breast
Plunges headfirst into water from
perch or a hover up to 20 feet or • white
underparts
more above water to catch
fish. Feeds primarily on

fish but also takes

amphibians, reptiles
insects, crustaceans,
and mollusks.
Frequents favorite
perches along
waterways for
Similar Birds
hunting. Pair digs
burrow in bank Bli k Jay
Smaller; brighter blues;
3-7 feet deep (can chestnut band « black band on breast
be up to 15 feet). across belly
forms collar.

• Breeding chestnut on Ringed Kingfisher

Monogamous; solitary nester. ides and flanks In southeast Texas only
• larger • male has
• Nesting incubation
FEMALE bright rufous-chestnut
23-24 days by both sexes. underparts with no
Altricial young stay in nest 27 29 days. white; female has
narrow white band.
Fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Slight decline in North America
• Conservation Often
Flight Pattern viewed as problem at fish
hatcheries; before regulation

< they were shot and killed at

hatcheries and along trout
streams. This may still occur at
Slow direct flight with somewhat erratic-
pattern. Hovers abo\ e water to search some hatcheries.
for prey.
1L1
Nest Identification Horizontal burrow, occasionally slanted upward, in bank beside fresh water
• usuallyno lining but debris and undigested fish bones and scales • may be far
from water • 3-7 feet long • built by both sexes • 5-8 white eggs, about
Shape
3. 1.3 x 1.0 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat _^ Migration
Some migrate Weight
5 2

DATE TIME, LOCATION

416 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
alckdinidak s P ecies Chloroceryle americana Len eth Wingspan
j
8.75 inches 1 1-13 inches

Green Kingfisher
Our smallest kingfisher has a very restricted
US range. It has dark green upperparts
with a white collar and a long black bill.

The white outer tail feathers are t

conspicuous in flight, when the bird
may call attention to itself with its

high-pitched cheep notes. Since it

hunts from low perches along quiet
waterways, it is difficult to see.
• SONG Faint but abrasive tick

tick, usually with a brief rattle

at the end. In flight, the
Green Kingfisher utters
squeaky cheep notes.
• Behavior This bird
prefers small clear streams,
quiet pools, and backwaters,
where it hunts from low

perches along the edge of the

water or from rocks in the
water. It does not hover
like larger kingfishers.
Feeds primarily on broken collar of
small fish taken in a green spots and
plunging dive and on streaks on upper
breast extends
aquatic insects and
onto sides
amphibians. Can be
easily overlooked except
for its sharp vocalizations.
• BREEDING Monogamous
and solitary. El MAI I
Similar Birds
• Nesting incubation Belte i) Kingfisher c?
19-21 days by both sexes. Altricial y oung remain in the nest RlNGE I > KlXCI-ISHKRcT
22-26 days, fed by both sexes. with blue-gra}
ipperp arts and head.'
• POPUEATION Uncommon and local in southern Texas; may
have declined in parts of Texas with loss of streamside habitat.
Rare to casual in southeastern Arizona; has recently begun nesting
locally in south Arizona,

Flight Pattern spreading north from Mexico

across the US border.
• CONSERVATION Water
pollution and loss of streamside
riparian habitatshave negative
Rapid buzzing direct flight.
impacts on the small
populations of this kingfisher.

Nest Identification
Horizontal burrow 2-3 feet deep in stream bank • built by both sexes
• 3-6 white eggs, 1 inch in diameter.
Shape

Plumage Scxes differ Habitat _ Migration

Nonmigratory We '£ ht 1.3 ounces

DATE TIME LOGATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 417

Species Len Sth 10-11 .5 inches wi "gspan

Family
pi CIDAE Melanerpes lewis 2{) _ 2 1 inch

Lewis's Woodpecker
Discovered by and named for Meriwether Lewis of the
Lewis and Clark expedition of 1803-1806, this bird
often is mistaken for a crow in flight because of its
overall blackish appearance and its direct flight
pattern, which is unlike most woodpeckers. It
is the only North American woodpecker tdt .,/.v)

collar •
that mostly black with iridescent green
is
black back and
highlights and a pinkish belly. In flight it upperparts with
shows a blackish green crissum. The glossy green sheen

female is male but

similar to the
smaller. Juveniles have a brownish
head and underparts and lack the
gray collar, red face, and pink belly.
• SONG Usually silent. Grating
repetitive call of churrr-churrr or
chea-er. Alarm call is yick-yick.
wide blackish
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in preen wings
pairs. May perch on wires to
catch insects in flight, which is m black legs
unusual for woodpeckers; also and feet
probes for insects in trees. Diet
also includes nuts and fruits.

Stores surplus food in crevice of

tree innonbreeding season,
modifying acorns and nuts to fit Nt pinkish
red belly
the hole by removing the shell
and shaping them. Defends cache
from would-be robbers. Frequents blackish
green tail
logged areas, burns, riparian
woodlands, and orchards.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Pairs may
mate for life. Solitary nester.

• NESTING Incubation 13-14 days by both sexes (male at night,

female during day). Altricial young stay in nest 28-34 days. Fed by both
sexes. 1 brood per year. Juvenile
• POPULATION Uncommon to fairly common. Declined in recent
years, especially on northwest coast. Some individuals are nomadic
Accidental in the East.
Flight Pattern • FEEDERS Visits feeders
with suet and other foods.
• CONSERVATION Listed as
a species of special concern by
( !row like flight with slow deliberate wing the National Audubon Society,
beats. Sallies from perch to take insects in but populations have appeared
flight, returning to same or nearby perch. stable in recent decades.

Nest Identification A few wood chips or pieces of bark • in trunks of dead or live trees or poles;
often in snag of living tree • 2- to .vinch entrance hole; 9- to 30-inch-deep

Shape
g
1
Location
^ cavity;
•
5-170 feet high •
4-9 white eggs; oval to
built by both sexes, but male docs most of excavating
elliptical, 1 inch in diameter.

Plumage
Sexes simHar Habitat
^ _f Migration
Somc migrate Weight
4 j ounccs

DATE TIME LOCATION

418 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len §th Wingspan \^_\^
p ICIDAE \[ei anerpes erythrocephalus 8.5-9.25 nches
i nc hes j

Red-headed Woodpecker
The ecological eastern counterpart of Lewis's red head, neck
Woodpecker, this is the only woodpecker in the ind throat

East with ah entirely red head. Unlike many

other woodpeckers, the Red-headed
Woodpecker catches most of its food in flight
from the ground, or by gleaning it from tree
trunks and limbs; it rarely bores holes in
trees to probe for insects. The male does,
however, vigorously drill its nest cavity
with the aid of its mate. In flight the
white underparts, white rump, and
large white secondary patches contrast
sharply with the black tail, wings, and
back. Juveniles have brownish black
upperparts and brown heads.
• SONG Fairly noisy. In breeding
season has bold grating queark or
queen queer, queer. Also sounds like a
chicken clucking, kerr-ncL\ kerr-urk.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs.
Eats various insects, spiders, millipedes,
and centipedes; sometimes takes eggs and
young of other birds, mice, corn, grains, various
nuts, and Often hunts from low perches,
berries.
flying toground to pick up prey or nut. Caches
acorns and nuts, removing shells and storing the
Juvenile
meat for winter.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester.
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by both sexes Similar Birds
Altricial young stay in nest 27-31 days. Fed by hiark tail
Red-bellied
both sexes. 1-2 broods per year. Woodpecker cf

• POPULATION Uncommon
Casual to
and declining.
accidental west of the Rocky Mountains.
f
V Red crown and nape
only; barred black-and-
white upperparts; w hite
• FEEDERS AND BlRDHOUSES Suet, sunflower seeds,
patches at bases of
primaries; grayish face
cracked corn, raisins, nuts, and bread. Some will nest in and underparts.
birdhouse built for woodpeckers.
• CONSERVATION Listed as species of special concern by
National Audubon Society.
Flight Pattern Decline century due to
in past
habitat loss, collisions with
automobiles, and competition
for nesting cavities with

Strong flight with slow steady shallow

European Starling. Creosote-
wing beats. Sallies for flying insects, then coated utility poles are lethal to
returns to same or nearby perch. eggs and young.

Nest Identification
In snag, limb of living tree, stump, or dead tree • 1.75-inch entrance; 8-24 inche;

Shape
jj^
1
Location «?t
^ deep; 8-80 feet above ground • drilled mostly by male • 4-7 white eggs; oval to
elliptical, 1 inch in diameter.

si
Plumage Sexes similar I Habitat
^ ^_ _j Migration
Some m grate
j
Weight 7.5
ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 419

Family Species Length 8.5-1 0 inches Wingspan 16 _

pj CIDAE Melanerpes aurifrons 18 nchc j

Golden-fronted Woodpecker
Working together for about 8 days, the male and
female drill 12-18 inches deep
their nest cavity
How feather, iv

in a snag, pole, ordead limb or top of a living base of upper

tree. The female looks similar to the male mandible bold red eap

but lacks the red cap on the gray crown.

black bill
Very similar in appearance and grayish
behavior to the eastern Red- grayish white underpart. 'hite face

bellied Woodpecker, it also with dull buff wash

shows a white rump patch

and white patches at the
golden yellow
bases of the primaries in orange nape
black legs
flight. Juveniles have a andfeet
streaked breast and lack
the golden patch at the
upper mandible base, the
golden yellow nape, and the
male's red cap. barred black-
and-white back
• SONG Noisy trill, churrrrrrr- and wings
churrrrrrrr, flickerlike kek-kek-
kek-kek-kek-kek or check, check.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs.
Prefers dry forests, mesquite
brushlands, and cottonwoods in
riparian edges. Often forages low
on tree and on ground. Eats insects,
spiders, wild berries, fruits, nuts,
acorns, corn, and grains. Caches
food for winter in bark crevices.
Similar Birds
• BREEDING Monogamous. unbarred
black tail Red-bellied
Solitary nester.
Woodpecker
• Nesting incubation Male has entirely red
crown and nape •
12-14 days by both sexes (male at
female has red on nape
night, female during day). Altricial young stay only • both have lightly
in nest 30 days. Fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year. barred rump; barred tail;

reddish wash on center

• POPULATION Common to fairly common. Stable. Common of lower belly.
inTexas towns. Accidental elsewhere. East Coast reports may
be Red-bellied Woodpeckers with abnormal amounts of yellow.
• FEEDERS Suet, corn, nuts,
Flight Pattern and sunflower seeds.
• Conservation Called a

<T v T \T^ "pole pest" by utility and

railroadcompanies, because it
Alternates series of shallow rapid wing found the pine of poles easier to
beats with short glides, producing a series excavate than native trees;
of undulations as it progresses. many were killed on sight.

Nest Identification Sometimes a few bark chips • in cavity of dead or live tree, stump, utility pole,
fence post, or man-made structure 3-25 feet above ground • often uses same
Shape
BB
1 2
Locatlon
£± fi^ cavity year after year • built by both sexes • 4-7 white eggs; oval to elliptical,
1 inch long.

Plumage
Sexes §imUar Habitat
^^ Migration
Nonmi gratory Wei § ht 3.0
ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

4Z0 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len Sth 9-10.5 Wingspan
p ICIDAE Melanerpes carolinus inches 15 _ lg inche§

Red-bellied Woodpecker
pale grayish tan
This noisy common woodpecker of
eastern US forests and forest edges
has adapted to different habitats,
from southern pine forests to
northern hardwoods, scattered red crow)
and nape
trees, and urban parks. The
bird's upperparts have black-
and-white barring in a zebra
pattern. The "red belly" that
gives the bird its name is a Male
reddish wash low on the belly and
between the legs that is actually
difficult to see in the field. In
flight it shows a white rump,
white patches at the base of the
primaries, and white-barred
central tail feathers. Juvenile pale gray ish
birds are similar to adults but tan underparts
have a gray-brown head.
red nap*
• SONG Quavering churr-
churr or querrr-querrr and
abrupt chuck, chuck, chuck, softer
than Golden-fronted Woodpecker.
• BEHAVIOR Conspicuous, with
noisy vocalizations and drumming in
breeding season. Nests and roosts
nightly in tree cavities. Eats wide
variety of fare, including insects,
Similar Birds
fruits, vegetables, seeds, and sap
from sapsucker drill wells.
(,< >I.I>l.\-FRONTED
WOODPFXKER
• BREEDING Monogamous. Black tail without white
Solitary nester. barring; golden-orange
nape; yellow patch at
• NESTING incubation 11-14 days by
base of upper mandible;
both sexes; male at night, female during indistinct yellowish

day. Young 22-27 days. Fed

stay in nest wash on belly • male
has red cap.
by' both sexes. brood per year in the
1

North; 2-3 broods per year in the South.

• Population Common to s
Flight Pattern fairly common. Expanding
northward in recent decades to

\ Tv T \T V southern border of Canada.

Seems stable overall; may be
increasing slightly.
Undulating flight w ith fairiy ri pid w
beats interspersed with period sof rc Her-
• FEEDERS Nuts, sunflower
coaster flight with wings folded. seeds, peanut butter, and suet.

Nest Identification
5-70 feet above ground • built by both sexes • sometimes uses
[n tree

ibandoned holes of other woodpeckers • 3-8 white eggs, inch in diamercr.

1
Shape Q<

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat^ m ^_ Migration
\ 0 nmigratory Wei S ht 2.4
ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NOR TH AMERICA • 421

Family Species Length Wingspan 17

p ICIDAE Sphyrapicus thyroideus 9 inch( inches

Williamson's Sapsugker
1he male and female plumages are so different
chat they once w ere thought to he of different
species. This shy bird makes its home among
the coniferous trees in the mountains of
western North America. In strong sunlight
the male's head, neck, back, breast, wings,
and tail shine with green iridescent
a

sheen. Males often appear entirely

in flight

black with a white rump and white

shoulder patches. Females in flight show
brown upperparts with whitish barring and
a white rump. Juveniles are similar to
adults, but the juvenile male has a white
throat, and the juvenile female lacks the
black breast patch.
• SONG Often quiet. Loud shrieking
cheeeeer is similar to Red-tailed Hawk's
call. Also makes trilling k-k-r-r-r-r-r and
soft nasal whang or wheather. Males
make staccato tapping sounds.
brown h ea(t
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in
pairs. Shy and wary. Bores
holes in trees to drink sap,
and picks insects off tree
bark. Eats various insects
and their larvae,
•
, , brown-ana-
spiders, berries,
white barring
and ca mb um i .
0 n bark
Courtship involves
mutual head bobbing,
wings
crest raising, holding
above back, and fluttering
mothlike flights. FHMAl
• BREEDING Monogamous.
Small, very loose colonies.
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days
by both sexes (male at night, female during day). Altricial young
stay in nest 21-35 days. Fed by
/
both sexes. 1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Fairly

A Tv
><
T
Tv common to uncommon
western mountains. Accidental
in

in eastern North America.

Alternates between several rapid shallow • FEEDERS Visits feeders
wing beats and periods of short glides.
filled with sugar water and suet.

Nest Identification No lining except a few bark chips • indead or live conifer or aspen 3-60 feet
above ground; excavation takes weeks; excavates new nest annually but
Shape
g^
1
Location
^ ^ @£ often uses same tree as previous year • built by male • 3-7 porcelain-white eggs;
oval to elliptical, 0.9 x 0.7 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat
m^ A Migration
M igratory Wei £ ht
1.7 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

422 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len Sth Wingspan
p ICIDAE Sphyrapkus varius 8-9 inches 16_ 18 inches

Yellow-bellied Sapsugker
Eastern counterpart to the Red-naped Sapsucker. this red forehead
is the most widespread of the four North American andforecrown
sapsuckers. In breeding season male and female
perform continual loud drumming duets, red throat
including ritual tapping at the nest entrance
The female is similar to the male but has a black bib
white throat. In flight birds show a white
bold black-
rump and white shoulder patches. and-white
Juveniles have brown mottling on the patternedface
chest, head, and upperparts, and a white
shoulder patch but lack the bright head white
houlder patch
and throat colors.
• SONG Often silent. Low, growling
nasal mew sounds somewhat catlike.
black-and-white
Alarm call oicheee-er, cheeee-er. barring on back
During courtship display pale yellow wash
cries hoih-hoih. Males make staccato on underparts

drumming sounds.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs.
Bores series of small holes, often in
horizontal rows, in trees to drink the
sap that collects. Eats insects attracted
to drill wells, plus fruits, berries, and tree Male
buds. Guards wells from other birds, includin
hummingbirds, and small mammals. Nests in
soft deciduous trees, often near water.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Small, very
loose colonies. black tail with wh ite
bars on
• NESTING Incubation 12-13 days by both central feathers

sexes (male at night, female during day). Altricial young

JUVENILE
stay in nest 25-29 days: fed mixture of sap and insects by both
sexes. Taught sapsucking by both sexes. 1 brood per year. Similar Birds
• POPULATION Common to fairly common deciduous
in Red-naped
and mixed forests. Accidental to rare in West during migration Sapsucker
and winter. 1 Red on nape.
• onlv in the West.

sweets, like jelly or doughnuts. Drinks sugar water from

hiitnminp-hird feeders
Flight Pattern • Conservation People
dislike the drill wells created in
their shade and fruit trees;
fearing the tree will be injured
^^^^^^
Alternates several rapid shallow wing
or diseased, they often kill
beats with short glides, producing sapsuckers. although the birds
undulating flight as the bird progresses. are protected by law.

Nest Identification Usually no materials except bark chips • in dead or live tree (prefers live tree);
6-60 feet above ground • built by both sexes in 7-10 days • 1.25 x 1.6-inch
entrance hole; 5 x 14-inch gourd-shaped cavity • 4-7 white eggs; oval to
Shape Location £fc
elliptical, 0.9 x 0.7 inches.

Plumage Sexes simi ar

,
Habitat
^ Migration
Migral Weighty oui

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 423
Family Species Length Wingspan u _ 12
p ICIDAE pi^es scald 7>25 inehcs jnchcs

Ladder-backed Woodpecker black forehead

This small bird the size of a Downy and nape

straig/ii
Woodpecker inhabits deserts, arid blurk bill
scrub, riparian woodlands, pinon- red crown
junipers, and pine-oaks - the arid
woodlands and scrublands of the hu ffy gray face
Southwest. It is the only small outlined with
woodpecker in most of its range, black triangle

and it is well adapted to smaller

black-and-white
and cacti, the
trees, shrubs, barred uppe/ parts,
dominant woody plants in the shoulders, and wim
rugged country it calls home. buffy gray, black-
spotted underpart.
Note the black-and-white
barred back, the profusion of Male
white spotting and barring on
the wings and shoulders, and
the buffy gray underparts. black rump
• SONG Gall note is a clear white-barred oute md tail
tail feathers
high-pitched pik, similar to
Hairy Woodpecker; Si nu la i Birds
descending whinny. Downy Woodpecker
whitish gra
• Behavior Solitary or face outlined
White back; white
underparts without
in pairs. Sexes forage with Ma,
spotting; w hite outer
triangk black forehead,
differently. Males tend to tail feathers u ith black
* ~~own, and nape
forage lower and on the spotting; black ear

ground, probing for patch • male has red

patch on back of head.
insects, especially ants; Female
females forage higher in nuttall's
Woodpecker
the vegetation and glean
Black face with narrow
insects from bark. Both white supercilium
huffy gray cun ing down behind
readily eat fruits of
underparts with auriculars and white
cactus.Often seen in black spotting mustache; white
towns and rural areas. black rump * on breast, sales, underparts; voice differs
and tail and flanks
• Breeding • male has red on back
of crown only • south
Monogamous. outer tail feathers
California range barely
'/red white
• Nesting incubation overlaps • limited range-

13 days by both sexes. Young in the West.

altricial; estimated to fledge nest at 20-25 days. Fed by both

sexes. 1 brood per year.

Flight Pattern • Population Common in

arid and semiarid brushlands.

\ Tv T A • FEEDERS Attracted to
birdbaths, pools, and other
water elements, and feeders
Series of rapid shallow wing b :ats with suet, peanut butter, corn,
altern tting with short glides.
and sunflower seeds.

Nest Identification Excavated cavity lined with chips • in upper part of agave, saguaro, or other
huge cactus; in dead trees or branches; in top of woody shrub, 3-30 feet above
Shape ground • unknown which sex digs cavity • 2-7 white eggs; oval to elliptical,
5' 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage
Sexes djffer Habitat ^ ^± ^ Migration
Nonmigratory Weight 1.1
ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

424 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
p ICIDAE prides pubescent 6 75 _ 7 mches U _ 12 inches

Downy Woodpecker
The smallest woodpecker in North America is
found across most of the continent, ranging white face

from coast to coast and from the northern

tree line south to the Gulf and the,deserts hort stubby black bill
shorter than depth of head
and dry grasslands just north of the
Mexican border. The combination red occipital
of small size, white back, and Patch black malar mark

small stubby bill distinguishes

wedge-shaped black
this common woodpecker. postoi ular stripe
The female differs from the black nape
male only in that it lacks the and shouldei
red occipital patch. In the
Pacific Northwest these
birds show pale brownish
gray underparts and back.
white back
• SONG Downslurred soft
high-pitched w hinny. Call is

flat pile or pick and not as high-

pitched as that given by the
black wings
Hairy Woodpecker. with white 'hitt underparts
• BEHAVIOR Both sexes drum spotting

on dead limbs or tree trunks with

good resonating qualities or on utility
poles, buildings, or other man-made
objects to advertise their presence and
proclaim territorial rights. Eats primarily
insects and their larvae and eggs, but also
3 outermost tail feathers
takes seeds, nuts, berries (including those of o f black tail are white
poison ivy), spiders, and snails. The agility that with dark spots or bars
comes with its small size allows it to feed on
smaller branches and farther out on their tips than Similar Birds
other woodpeckers. Roosts in cavities at night.
Hairy Woodpecker
• BREEDING Monogamous. Larger; longer bill:

white outer feathers of

• NsES'l IN( i incubation 12 days b\ both sexes (male at night).
black tail lack spots or
Young stay in nest 20-25 days. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per bars; call is peek.
ye'ar. possibly 2 in the South.
• POPULATION Widespread and common. Species can be found
almost anyw here there are trees.
Flight Pattern •Feeders and
BlRDHOUSES Will come to
V feeders for suet, peanut butter,
sunflower seeds, and bread. Will
nest in bird box designed for it.
Undulating flight w ith rapid wing beats
alternating with pauses on folded w ings,
which produces bouncing flight.

Nest Identification
Excavated in dead tree trunk or branch; pair usually leaves chips in bottom
•usually 12-30 feet above ground, sometimes 5-60 feet • built by both
2
Shape
B5 Location sexes • 3-7 white eggs. 0.8 inch in diameter.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
^m^ Migration
Nonmigratory Weight
L0

DATE II.Ml-. LOCATION

 BIRDS OK NORTH AMERICA • 425

Family Species Length Wingspan 5_ 17-5 inch

p ICIDAE ph ,)u/( s ,

vj//os/iS I
x.S-U).5 inches I 1

Hairy Woodpecker
The Hairy Woodpecker and the
Northern Flicker are the two most long black bill
widely distributed woodpeckers in is nearly as long
as head is deep
North America. This woodpecker
is found almost anywhere forests
red occipital
exist. Similar in appearance to the patch
smaller Downy Woodpecker, it is
noisier but less confiding in humans
and does not often allow a close
kite face with
approach before it flies away. a lac mark
black i) 1

Learning its high-pitched peek call and wedge-shaped

note will make this shy bird postocular stripe

Look for
easier to locate. a
white
white back when bird underparts hia / napt
1

is in flight. The only uid shoulders

difference between male
and female birds is that the
female lacks the red occipital
patch. Birds in the Pacific Northwest
black wings with
show pale brownish gray underparts. kite spottinglbarring
• SONG Loud downslurred whinny
reminiscent of Belted Kingfisher's
rattle. Call is bold, grating, sharp peek.
• BEHAVIOR Roosts in cavities at
night. Feeds primarily on wood-
Similar Birds
boring insects and their larvae, other
insects, nuts, seeds, and from the Downy Woodpecker
Smaller; shorter, stubby
drill wells of sapsuckers. Both
bill (length much less
sexes drum to advertise presence black tail with than depth of head):
and maintain territory.
3 entirely ~^'hitc
white outer tailfeathers
outermost feathers w ith dark spots/bars.
• BREEDING Monogamous. on each side
Some individuals known to Three-toed
1

Woodpecker
remain with same mate for at least 4 years. Black-and-white
• NESTING Incubation 11-15 days by both sexes (male at barring on back; dark
barred sides • male has
night). Altricial young remain in nest 28-30 days. Fed by both
yellow crown.
sexes. 1 brood per year unless nest is robbed or disturbed.
• POPULATION Fairly common, but sometimes local, over most
Sometimes more
of range.
Flight Pattern common in northern hardwood
and boreal forests; rare in the
Deep South and in Florida.
• FEEDERS Sometimes comes
for sunflower seeds, nuts, fruits,
1 Indulating flight with rapid wing beats
alternating with pauses on folded wings, peanut butter, and suet.
which produces bouncing flight.

Nest Identification
4-60 feet above ground built by both sexes • 3-6 white eggs, 1 inch in
diameter.
Shape 1
Location
g^

Piumage
Sexes djffer Habitat
^m Migration
Most d() not migrate Weight 7.5
ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

426 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len §th Wingspan
p ICIDAE pico ides borealis 8.5 inches 16 nches
;

Red-cockaded Woodpecker
The white cheeks of this woodpecker are a
more accurate field mark than the male's red
cockade, which is indistinct in the field. In
summer, the male begins drilling a^large
roosting and nesting cavity, which takes
more than a year to complete. These
cavities may be used for forty to fifty
years. The Red-cockaded is unique
among North American woodpeckers
because it requires a living pine tree for
whitish
its nesting cavity. When the cavity is
underpart.
drilled, sap and resins flow around the
entrance, serving as a predator guard.
Females lack the small red cockade.
• SONG Noisy. Call is yank, yank,
somewhat like White-breasted
Nuthatch. Also has hoarse sripp and
black tail with
high-pitched Isirk. blackspotted
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. In clans of white outer
feathe tail
3-7, consisting of mated pair, current
young, and unmated adult helper(s).
Forages and drills for insects on trunks of
pine trees, sometimes circling tree as it
climbs. In summer may feed on earworms in
corn. Also eats berries and nuts. Nesting and
Hairy Woodpecker
Black ear patch; white
roosting holes are marked by long strands of sap and back; unmarked white
resin oozingfrom inch-wide drill holes in rows above and underparts; unmarked
below them; drill holes are maintained by clan who may remove white outer tail

feathers; voice differs

bark from around hole. • male has red nuchal
• BREEDING Monogamous. Cooperative breeding in small patch.

colonies or clans. Mates for life. Downy woodpecker

• NESTING Incubation 10-15 days by both sexes. Young Smaller in size; black
ear patch; white back;
altricial; stay in nest 22-29 days, fed by both sexes and helpers.
unmarked white
1 brood per year. underparts; voice differs
male has red nuchal
• POPULATION Uncommon. Declined in 20th century. i
•

patch.
• FEEDERS AND BIRDHOUSES Comes to mixture of suet
and water. Will accept artificial nest cavities inserted into pine trees.
• Conservation Has been
Flight Pattern designated an endangered
species as a result of the over-
cutting of mature pine forests as
well as by fire suppression in

Alternates several rapid wing beats with the fire-maintained ecosystem

short glide with wings partially folded to of the Southeast.
sides, producing up-and-down flight.

Nest Identification
Dxied wood chips • in live mature pine tree, often infected with heart fungus,
12-70 feet above ground • built by male and extra birds with some help from
Shape female • 2-5 white eggs; ov al to elliptical, 1.0 x 0.75 inches.
tSi

Plumage Sexes sim ji ar hi Migration Wei S ht 1.6 ounces

Nonmigratory

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 427
Family Species Len ^th 8-9 inches Wingspan
pi CIDAE prides tridactylus 14 _, 6 inches

Three-toed Woodpecker
Formerly called Northern Three-toed
Woodpecker. Black-and-white barring on yelloi

sides and flanks, with black-and-white-

barred back, set it apart from black head, shoulders,
similar species. Barring and wings
on the back varies with whitish underpart.
thin white postocular
geography, with Rocky with heavy b/ackis
stripewidening on
barring on sidt
Mountain birds having back of neck
and flank.
almost white backs and
birds in the Northeast
having mostly black backs black-and-white
bars on center of back
with thin white bars. Not as
active as many birds in its

family; easily overlooked,

spending long periods of
time simply clinging to the
trunk of a tree. The female k rump
is similar to the male but

has a speckled crown,

rather than a yellow cap.
Juveniles are duller, with Similar Birds
yellow spotting on the black tail with
Black-backed
crown which later white outer tail
Woodpecker
disappears in females. feathers and some Solid black back
black spotting
• SONG Generally without white barring or
patch; short white
silent. Calls soft; has a timid
postocular stripe.
squeaking sound reminiscent of the mew
Hairy Woodpecker
of a Yellow-bellied Sapsucker; also a soft pik.
Unmarked white
• BEHAVIOR Tame. Slow and deliberate. Peels long strips of underparts; lacks barred
sides and flanks; white
bark off trees to find wood-boring insects. Eats various insects
back; black crown;
and their larvae, spiders, some berries, and cambium. Frequents unspotted white outer
coniferous forests, often in mountains. Attracted to burned tail feathers • male has
forests; often feeds on downed timber and rotting logs. Females red occipital patch
• rarely, juvenile may
tend to forage higher in trees than males.
have orange to yellow
• BREEDING Monogamous. Pair bond may last several years. crown but never has
barred sides and flanks.
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by both sexes; male
incubates at night. Young altricial; stay in nest22-26 days, fed
by both sexes. 1 brood per year.

Flight Pattern • Population Common to

fairly common, especially in
burned-over forest.

• Conservation
Vulnerable to habitat loss due to
Alternates several rapid wing beats with
short glide with wings partially folded logging operations.
to sides.
\\\

Nest Identification
Usually no materials except a few bark chips • in stump or tree, 5^45 feet above
Shape g^' Location
^ ground • built by both sexes • 3-6 white eggs; subelliptical, 0.9 x 0.75 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
f£ A Migration
Nonmigratory Wei S ht 2.5 ou

DATE TIME LOCATION

428 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
p ICIDAE Species
pieces amicus I
Len &h 9.5 inches I
Wingspan
17 jnches

Black-backed Woodpecker yellow cap on

Formerly called the Black-backed Three- black head
toed Woodpecker, this species shares the
anatomical distinction of three toes
with the Three-toed Woodpecker.,
It is closely related to the latter
species but is distinguished by its

black back, the lack of a long

white postocular stripe and the
male's more solidly yellow cap. solid black back
Both species often leave behind and wings
rows of bark-stripped conifers in
the boreal pine forests of North
America they frequent. Both are
attracted to burned-over forests, underparts
areas of windfall, and swampy areas
with standing dead trees. The female
has a solid black head, without the
yellow cap of the male.
• SONG Often silent and easily
overlooked. Call is a single-note, abrasive
sharp pick or chik, similar to Three-toed or
Hairy Woodpeckers, but lower in pitch.
Sometimes repeated rapidly in a series.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. 1REE-TOED

Tame; deliberate in its movements. Woodpecker
ack-and-white barring
Somewhat nomadic and may erupt in dow n center of back;
numbers where insect outbreaks much longer white
provide abundant food source. Peels postocular stripe.

large pieces of bark off trunk of tree to Hairy \v< >odpecker

blea k tail with
find wood-boring insects. Eats a variety White back; wider,
u u marked white
longer white postocular
of insects, including ants; also takes outer tailfeathers
stripe; unmarked white
spiders, cambium, wild fruits, and nuts. underparts, including
• BREEDING Monogamous. sides and flanks; white
spots and barring on
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by both sexes, but mostly wings and wing coverts;
by female. Young altricial; stay in nest 25 days, fed by both •male has red occipital
patch.
sexes. 1 brood per year.

• POPULATION Uncommon to fairly common; sometimes local.

In the East,may wander south
Flight Pattern of breeding range during the
winter.
• Conservation
Vulnerable to habitat loss due to
logging operations.
Alternates between several rapid w ing
beats and short glides with wings partial
folded to sides.

Nest Identification Cavity lined with chips • excavated in dead stubs or trunks of dead trees,

2-80 feet above ground, usually within opening in forest; sloped entry used as
doorstep •• built by both sexes, mostly by male • 2-6 w hite eggs; subelliptical,
Shape g* 1

0.9 x 0.75 inches.

Plumage Sexes simi]ar Habitat

m^ ^_ A Migration
Nonmigratory Wei § ht 2.5 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 429
Family Species Len £th 12.75-14 inches Wingspan 19 _ i
p ICIDAE Qolaptes auratus 2 j nc h e s
,

Northern Flicker
T his large woodpecker is often found in open

spaces where it spends considerable time on

the ground foraging for ants. Two distinct
geographical groups, which were
considered separate species until the
brown back and
early 1980s, occur: in the East and
upperwings with
Northwest, Yellow-shafted Flicker has black barring
yellow underwings and undertail, and a
black mustache; and, in the West, Red-
shafted Flicker has bright salmon-red
to red-orange underwings and
undertail, and a red mustache.
Although the two forms have
similar bodies, the Red-shafted YELLOW-SHAFTED
form shows a different pattern Male
on its head with colors that
are basically reversed from buff-white
those of the Yellow-shafted underparts with
heavy black
form: a gray face and
spotting
brown forehead, crown,
and nape with no red
crescent. Females are
similar to males, lacking
only the mustache. All birds have brown backs and wings with dark
barring, a black crescent bib, buff to grayish underparts with heavy
spotting, and a white rump patch. Red-shafted
• SONG In breeding season, long bold repeated wick-er, wick-er, Male
wick-er notes. Year-round, makes single loud k/ee-yer or clearrrr.
Similar Birds
• BEHAVIOR Most North American woodpecker.
terrestrial
An analysis of the contents of a single flicker stomach revealed Gilded Flicker
Limited range but
3,000 ants. Spring courtship displays are noisy and animated, as
overlaps with Red-
pair bonds are established and rivals are driven away. shafted form; like a

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. Mini I lei, more washed

out Red-shafted
• NESTING Incubation 11-16 days by both sexes. Altricial Flicker; yellow wash
young stay in nest 4 weeks, fed by both sexes. Usually 1 brood under wings and tail
• only in the West.
per year, sometimes 2 in the South.
• POPULATION Yellow-shafted form common. Red-shafted form

Flight Pattern Both thought to be declining.

• BlRDHOUSES Nests in

TA
houses and boxes.
• Conservation
Several rapid wing beats followed by a
Declining. Introduced
pause with wings folded at sides produces European Starlings successfully
up-and-down flight pattern. compete for nest sites.

Nest Identification In snag, poles, posts, buildings, nest boxes, and banks (sometimes driving out
the kingfisher or Bank Swallow tenants) • 6-20 feet above ground, sometimes
Shape gw 1
Location
^ <$*
j£
higher
•
• built by both sexes • sometimes uses same nest hole for second season
3-12 white eggs; oval to short-oval; 1.1 x 0.8 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat
^ fc^
Migration
Most do not migrate Weight
4 8 Qunces

DATE TIME LOCATION

430 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
p IeiDAE Dryocopus pileatus 16 .5_ 19-5 inches I

27 _ 30 inches

Pileated Woodpecker
These crow-sized woodpeckers drum on red crest exi

trees to claim territory and attract a mate;

fm m forehead to
nape
the loud heavy sound is as if the tree is
black bill
being hit with a wooden mallet. Each
member of a mated pair excavates several
roosting cavities and may retire for the
evening in one of them. The male roosts
white line from
in the current nesting cavity before the
base of bill crosses
eggs are laid and afterward incubates them face to back of
there at night. In flight both sexes show neck and extends
a largewhite patch at the base of do wn neck to side

the primaries and they also show solid black

white underwing linings.

• SONG Location call to mate is a
deliberate loud cuck, cuck, cuck. Both sexes
have a call of yucka, yacht, yucka, similar to a
flicker, that changes in pitch, loudness, and
in its cadence.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Loud
and often conspicuous. Bores deep into
trees and peels off large strips of bark
for food. Also digs on ground and on
fallen logs. Eats ants, beetles, and a Similar Birds
variety of other insects, especially Ivory- billed
tree-boring ones, acorns, Woodpecker
beechnuts, seeds of tree cones, Probably extinct
two white
• larger;
nuts, and various fruits.
stripeson back
• BREEDING Monogamous. extending from sides of
neck; white secondaries
• Nesting incubation make white patch on
15-18 days by both sexes, mostly back when wings fold;
male. Young altricial; brooded by black chin; ivory-white
bill; in flight, shows
female; stay in nest 26-28 days, fed
white secondaries and
by both sexes. 1 brood per year. tips of inner primaries;

• POPULATION Common to fairly white lining onedge of

underwing • female has
common in the Southeast; black crest.
uncommon and local elsewhere.
• FEEDERS Mixture of melted suet, pecans, and walnut meats.
• Conservation
Flight Pattern Vulnerable to habitat loss and
forest fragmentation. Sharp
decline in early 20th century
but has adapted to habitat
Strong powerful wing beats when traveling
distances; alternates rapid wing strokes changes. Competes for
with brief periods of wings folded to sides excavated nesting cavities with
on short flights beneath the canopy. European Starlings.

Nest Identification
Few wood chips • dead or live tree in shaded area, 15-85 feet above ground
• excavated by both sexes; female sometimes does more • 3-8 white eggs;
Shape g*' oval to elliptical, 1.3 x 1.0 inches.

Plumage Scxes differ Habitat

m^^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei S nt 10.9 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 431
Family Species Len Stn Wingspan j inches
TYRANNIDAE Camptostoma imberbe 4.5 inches

Northern Beardless-Tyrannulet
As it is difficult to spot, this bird
cro
is best located by its high, thin
bush
faint whitish
yebrow
voice. The male
tends to sing
from high perches in tall
trees. Once spotted, this • small slightly
curved bill with
little flycatcher can be
dusky tip and
somewhat difficult to creamy-pink base
identify, especially if
the crest is not raised
gray-olive
and apparent. In upperpart.
conjunction with its

voice, crest, and • dull white or pale

yellow underparts
small size, other
characteristics are two buff-
colored
the bird's fairly wing bar Similar Birds
upright posture and
wagging tail. ruby-cri iwned
Kinglet
• SONG Clear notes with Rounder head; lacking
a whistled, slightly nasal crest; bold white eye
peeert or pee-yerp. Also ring; two distinct
whitish wing bars; short
3-5 or more brief
notched tail; tiny dark
melancholy downslurred bill; nervous habit of

notes, dee-dee-dee-dee. flicking wings as it hops

through foliage.
• Behavior Solitary or
in pairs. Easily overlooked. Buff-breasted
Forages low to high. In Flycatcher
summer months, often seen
hawking insects in midair in
the manner of other flycatchers
A Slightly larger; pale
brownish upperparts
and head; cinnamon-
buff breast; belly and

In winter, forages for insects by gleaning from twigs and leaves undertail coverts
washed pale yellowish
like a kinglet, warbler, or vireo. Also feeds on small berries. white to buff-white; 2
• BREEDING Monogamous. whitish wingbars; white
eye ring forms
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Incubation time "teardrop"; white webs
undetermined, but known to be performed by female. Young on outer tail feathers
altricial; fed by both sexes. Age at first flight undetermined. • more limited
1-2 broods per year. Southwest range.

• POPULATION Uncommon in southeast Arizona and southern

Texas, although can be locally N ? \

Flight Pattern common within range.

• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Resident

Rather weak direct flight on rapidly

Wb from northern Mexico through
Central America. May have
beating wings. Often flies out from perch declined with the loss of
to take flying insect and returns. streamside habitat.
1
Size and shape of baseball, with high entrance on one side • grass- and weed-
Nest Identification
lined, with vegetation, down, and feathers • outer branches of deciduous tree,
4-50 feet above ground; often built in the stems of a clump of mistletoe • built
Shape by female • 1-3 white eggs, finely marked with brown, olive, or gray spots at
ft
larger end; oval to long oval, 0.6 inch long.

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei ^ ht 0.3 ounce

Sexes simjlar I

Migratory

DATE TIME LOCATION

432 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan 7 _ 8
TVRANNIDAE Myiopagjs viridicata 5 _5>7 inches 5 5 nches
_ _ ;

Greenish Elaenia small

A neotropical flycatcher normally crest,
rarely raised
found from central Mexico to central
short whitish
South America, the Greenish Elaenia
supercilium
is easily overlooked because it has»a

tendency to sit silently for lengthy olive head and

periods of time. It is best located upperparts, but
head may appear J§;
by its high thin voice. This sin;
more gray
brightly colored bird has a
relatively flat head with a yellow
crown stripe that is usually
concealed, and a small slender
blackish bill, which often has a
creamy pinkish base or — • yellow belly
underside. Perched birds have
a distinctive hunched-over
B^T~~~* blackish feet and legs
appearance to their posture.
Note the long tail, streaked
border between chest and
Similar Birds
belly,and the lack of any
conspicuous wing bars. Caribbean Elaei
Slightly larger; graver
• SONG High thin upperparts; pale gray
rolling notes that sound supercilium; dusky hire
stripe; pale gray throat
like speeeeerr or cheeerip,
and underparts; grayish-
with the quality olive chest; pale lemon
ranging from reedy belly and undertail
coverts; whitish to
to slurred, given in
lemon-buff wingbars
a descending scale.
with panel on
Calls also include a clearer tee-eeu or tsee-chu, as well as a secondaries; broad
plaintive cheee'eu. white edges to tertials.

• BEHAVIOR except during breeding season.

Solitary, yellow-bellied
Fly< vtcher
Frequents groves of medium-sized trees. Forages in upper to
Big-headed and short-
mid-level trees, taking insects and insect larvae in short sallies. white eye ring;
tailed;
Darts out from perch for flying, walking, or crawling insects; 2 white wing bars; olive

takes insects either in midair or off branches and foliage, and upperparts and yellow
underparts; dark upper
then returns to perch. Often sits quietly between hawking mandible; creamy pink-
flights. Diet also includes some fruit. orange lower mandible.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary.

• NESTING Young altricial.

1 brood per year. Further
Flight Pattern
breeding biology is essentially
unknown.
*' • Population Has occurre*
once in southeastern Texas.
Rather weak flight w th rapid and
someu bar shallow w ng beats. Sallies out
Fairly common to common
to take insects and returns to perch. across its native range.

Nest Identification Roots, tendrils, rachises of compound leaves, and spider's silk • in a fork at mid
to upper levels, 20-35 feet above ground • nest so frail that eggs can be seen
through bottom • 2 whitish eggs, streaked and blotched with chocolate and lilac
Shape
i. oval to long oval, 0.7 inch long.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
^ ±_ ^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei ^ ht 0.4 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 433

Wingspan
Family
TYRANNIDAt Species
pjm llul m/ ,tiniea
, I
Length
5 5 _ 6 jnchcs 8 _ 9 inchcs

Caribbean Elaenia
he elaenias of the Ameriean tropics
1 dusky lore
short pale gray
group to
are a notoriously difficult mpercilium
stripe

identify. The Caribbean Elaenia has

a chunky, rather uniformly grayish
body and a dark-colored bill with
• pale gray throat
pinkish orange lower mandible.
grayish olive head and underparts
The bushy crest with a whitish
a lid upperparts
base is seldom raised, keeping
the white crown streak
concealed. • grayish
olive eh est
• SONG Usually very
dark wings with whitish to lemon-
quiet. Repertoire
broad white edges buff wing bars with
includes clear cheerful panel on seen 11 da lies
to ratia Is
whee-u and peeu.
Sometimes short trilled
pirrr and grating che-eup,
pale lemon belly
followed by wi-wi-eup. and 11 11 derta il coverts
• Behavior
Solitary. Unobtrusive. dark tail
Frequents humid to
semihumid wo o d a n d s 1

and edges. Like most

elaenias, often keeps
well hidden high in Similar Birds
forest canopy, where it Greenish Elaeni \

may be difficult to see, Slightly smaller;- olive

head and upperparts;
but sometimes perches
short whitish
fairly conspicuously on low
supercilium; dark lures;
trees or shrubs. Eats insects that it gra^ ish throat and chest;
hawks in midair or gleans from foliage, but mostly feeds on whitish stic.iks on
throat; yellow belly,
small berries and on fruiting trees. When calling, often remains
flanks, and nndertail
motionless with crest erected. coverts; slender blackish

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. bill; yellow-edged flight

feathers on w in;; and
• NESTING Period of incubation and by which sex is tail; appears flat-headed
undetermined. Young altricial. Age at first flight unknown. but small crest raises

1-2 broods per year. when alarmed.

• POPULATION Accidental to northwestern Florida. Fairly

common to common on the
Flight Pattern eastern Yucatan Peninsula of
Mexico, and some islands
offshore(Cozumel and Cayo
Culebra); Belize; as well as in
the Caribbean.
Weak fluttering flight with rather shallow
w ing beats. Sometimes sallies out for
flying insects and returns to perch
1
Nest Identification Fine roots and grass stems, lined with finer rootlets and goat's hair; often in
open scrub • roughly built on horizontal branch about 10 feet above ground
• 2-3 whitish eggs, spotted with browns and grays; oval to long oval,
Shape Location
4^ <Jjh
0.9 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage
Sexcs simi jr
,.
Habitat
^ ^_ ^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei S ht 0.8 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

434 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Species
Family
TYRANNIDAE Contopus cooper, Len Sth
7.5 inches
Wingspan
u inche§

Olive-sided Flycatcher
This

7
is a stout large-headed flycatcher with

dark olive sides and flanks and distinctive

white rump side tufts, which are often
concealed or obscured by the folded
wings. The Olive-sided Flycatcher is
large mostly black
often observed perched high on an proportionally
bill with center and
short neck
exposed dead limb in a tree or on base of lover mandible
lookout in the tops of dead or a dull orange
brownish oli
living trees. Populations are on
upperparts
dull white throat,
the decline in many regions,
center breast strip, belly,
believed to be the result of and undertail coverts
disappearing winter habitats.
Migration begins in late
brownish olive sides of
spring and early fall; these
breast, streaked sides,
birds spend the winter as and flanks
far away as Central and largt
South America. body
• SONG Call sounds like
quick three beers with second
black legs
note higher. Other calls
and feet Similar Birds
include a trebled pip.
• Behavior Solitary.
Greater Pewee
Longer tail; tufted crest;
Reclusive. Often perched on more uniform gray
high exposed branches. Hawks plumage overall; white
a wide variety of flying insects in chin and throat; dark
upper mandible and
midair, often taking larger insects
bright orange lower
the size and including,
of, mandible; lacks rump
honeybees, beetles, and cicadas. tufts; voice differs
• casual in winter in
Characteristic tendency is to
Arizona and California.
vigorously defend nesting areas
against predators and humans. proportional/) K \s HERN
short tail Wood-Pewee
Frequents open montane and boreal Smaller, sparrow-sized
coniferous forests, burns, bogs, swamps, and areas around body; pale whitish to

mountain lakes; uses dead trees for hunting perches. olive-gray underparts;
lacks rump tufts; two
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. narrow white wing bars;
• NESTING Incubation 14-17 days by female. Young altricial;
voice differs.

fed by both sexes; first flight at 21-23 days. 1 brood per year.
• Population Fairly

Flight Pattern common; casual in winter in

coastal mountains of southern
California. Declining;one factor
may be deforestation and loss of
habitat on wintering grounds.
Swift flight on rapidly beating wings.
Sallies from perch to take flying insects
• Conservation
with audible snap of bill; returns to perch. Neotropical migrant.

Nest Identification Lined with weeds, and pine needles • in

lichen, grass, roots, twigs,
conifer, usuallyon horizontal branch, 5-70 feet above ground • built by
female • 3-4 white to pinkish buff eggs with brown and gray spots
Shape
concentrated ar larger end; oval to short oval, 0.9 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Sexes simiIar Habitat

A m Migration \fj
gnitory
Weight
Undetermined

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 435
Family Species Len Stn 6.25 inches Wingspan 10 5 inch ~
TYRANNIDAE C0llt0/)US SO rdidnlus\ I

Western Wood-Pewee
The western counterpart to the
Eastern Wood-Pewee is similar
in appearance but has a
different call. Like other
pewees, its wings quiver when
it lands, but it does not wag its

tail.This sparrow-sized
dark gray ish
flycatcher is dark and dusky
hruwn overall
overall and inhabits riparian
woodlands and open, mixed
conifer and hardwood forests
in the mountains. Note the
two thin wing bars and the
lack of an eye ring.
• SONG On breeding
grounds sings tswee-tee-teet.

Also has soft, nasal whistle

peeer or peeyee, given
throughout the year.
Often vocalizes before
daylight; in evenings
sometimes sings until
after dark.
• Behavior
Solitary. Stays quietly
ER PEW]
hidden in trees or ifted crest; larger;

perched in open view larger bill; dark

npperparts; yellow-
until it spots food,
orange underparts;
then flies out and indistinet wing bars;
snatches insect. different call • casual

Eats wide variety winter in Arizona and

California.
of small to
medium flying Eastern
Wood-Pewee
insects, some spiders, and a few wild berries.
More olive upperparts;
• BREEDING Monogamous. less dusky underparts;
pale different voice.
• NESTING Incubation 12-13 days by female. Altricial young
bill;

Fed by both sexes. First flight at 14-18 days. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Common to

Flight Pattern abundant in some areas but

declining in parts of California.
Casual in the East in migration.
• Conservation
Weak fluttering direct flight with shallow Neotropical migrant. This bird
wing beats. Sallies from perch to catch is vulnerable to deforestation on
insects, returning to same <>r nearby perch.
its wintering grounds.

Grass, plant fibers, and plant down • decorated outside with gray moss, leavi
Nest Identification
and sometimes lichen • bound to branch with spider webs • in trees, usually
conifer, on horizontal branch 15-75 feet above ground • built by female
Shape • 2-4 whitish to creamy eggs blotched with brown and lavender, often

concentrated toward larger end; oval to short oval, 0.7 inch long.

Plumage
Sexes simj , ar
Habitat
^^ Migration
Migratory Wei § ht 0.5 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

436 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan 1(X5
TYRANNIDAE Contopus virens 6 25 inches
_ nches ;

Eastern Wood-Pewee
Although this bird is very difficult
from its
to distinguish visually
western counterpart, the Western
Wood-Pewee, their ranges barely
overlap and their voices differ.
Like most flycatchers, it tends
to perch on an open lookout dark grayish
olive upperparts
among thick trees or shrubs,
sailing into the open only to
feed. It is often first detected
by its voice, because it often
calls its distinctive pee-a-wee
while perched, awaiting its

next chance at a flying

insect. Juveniles are similar
to adultsbut both upper
and lower mandibles
showing dark coloration.
• SONG During the day whistles
distinctive, slow plaintive pee-a-
wee, with second note lower; on
second or third repeat, often
followed by pee-yeer, second note Western
lower. At dusk and early dawn, Wood-Pi :\\ i.k

sings ah-de-deee. Ranges barely overlap;

very similar in size and
• BEHAVIOR Solitary. Perches on appearance; duskier and
open and/or dead branches in trees darker overall; darker
lower mandible; voice is
to spot prey; flies out to catch
different.
food. Eats a wide variety of flying
E \s ern Phoebe
insects, including beetles, flies,
i

Slightly larger; paler

moths, wasps, and bees. Takes
some
defends
pecking
spiders and a few berries. Like other flycatchers,
its territory
at their backs.
even from larger birds by flying at
it often
them and f whitish to yellow
underparts; lacks wing
bars;
dark;
both mandibles
pumps tail up and
dow n w hile perched,
• BREEDING Monogamous. especially upon landing;
voice differs.
• NESTING Incubation 12-13 days by female. Young altricial;
stay in nest 14-18 days, fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Fairly

Flight Pattern common and widespread.

Casual in the West in migration.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Infrequent
host to cowbirds eggs. Decline
Rather slow fluttering direct flight on
shallowly beating wings. Sallies forth to due to possible loss of South
catch insects in midair, returning to perch. American wintering habitat.

Nest Identification Grass, plant fibers, and spider web, cov ered w ith thick layer of lichens • fork of
tree or saddled on horizontal branch, 15-50 feet above ground • built by female
• 2—+ w hitish eggs, w ith brow n blotches and purple, often wreathed at large end;
Shape
oval to short ovate, 0.7 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes s ; milaf
Habitat
^ ^_ Migration
Migratory Wei ^ ht
0.5 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 T
BIRDS OF NOR TH AMKRICA • 437

Family
TYRANNIDAE Species
Empidonaxflaviventris
Len #h 5.5 inches
Wingspan 8 q h

Yellow-bellied Flycatcher
Once you spot this small bird, its
large head i

yellowish underparts from chin

to undertail coverts make it easy
to identify because it is the only
eastern Empidonax with a broad yellow
pale orange
eye rim
yellow throat. Voice and habitat lo wer mandible
also are key to clinching the
olive yellow thro/tt
identification. It usually stays
upperparts
hidden low in trees, shrubs, or
thickets, but making various
squeaking or kissing sounds
on the back of your hand may
lure it from its hiding place.
This flycatcher is credited yellow underparts

with eating more ants than

any other empid.
• SONG Often silent in
migration. Slurred and
explosive pse-ek! Also
makes a per-WEE,
reminiscent of a Similar Birds
pewee's short song,
cordilleran
and a shrill chiu. Flycatcher
• Behavior Teardrop-shaped eye
ring; less contrasting
Secretive and wings and wing bars;
quiet. Stays low darker brow n
in thickets near upperparts;
proportionally longer
the ground and
tail; different voice.
inside foliage in
Acadian Flycatcher
wet swampy woods.
Whitish gray throat;
Eats a variety of insects, including beetles, moths, tent buff to white wash on
and some spiders. May subsist on
caterpillars, flies, ants, w ing bars; larger bill is

yellow ish below; yellow

mountain ash during severe weather. As it gives its single strong
wash on belh and
note it flutters its wings and jerks its head and tail as if the vocal undertail coverts;
effort was so strenuous as to cause the shudder. proportionally longer

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. tail; different voice.

• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by female. Altricial young

fed by both sexes. First flight at
13-14 days. 1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• POPULATION Common to
fairly common. Stable.
— • Conservation
Neotropical migrant.
Weak fluttering flight with shallow rapid
wing beats. Sallies from perch to hawk Occasionally parasitized by
insects and returns to same or nearby perch. Brown-headed Cowbird.

Nest Identification Twigs, rootlets, weeds, and moss • lined with thin rootlets, grass, and fresh
leaves • atop hillock of moss or on upturned stumps among roots of fallen trees,
0-2 feet above ground • built by female • 3-5 white eggs with light brown dots
Shape
that become heavier near larger end; oval to short oval, 0.7 by 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simijar Habitat
m ^_ ^ ^_ Migration
Migratory Weight
QA Qunce

DATE TIME LOCATION

438 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
TYRANNIDAE s P ecies Empidonax virescens
Len &h 5.75 inches Wingspan
g>75 inches

Acadian Flycatcher pale yellow eye ringt

genus name, which means
Its scientific
"mosquito king," widely misses the mark in
describing this bird's feeding habits, but it

is an apt description of the small size,

0 /rV( ,

of a flycatcher that lords over a realm upperparts

of small insects. It is the only
Empidonax flycatcher to breed
in the deep southern states of
North America, where it rules 2 buffy or
in heavily wooded deciduous whitish
wing bars
bottomlands, swamps, and
riparian thickets, and in the
wooded ravines of drier
uplands. Like other empids it

is best known by its voice.

• SONG Soft call of peace or
peeet. Its explosive PIZ-zza!!
sounds like a bird sneezing.
On males utter a
territory,
mechanical ti, ft, ti, ti as they
move from one perch to the
next beneath the canopy.
• Behavior Solitary. :ast Flycatcher
Easily overlooked except Smaller bill; more
brownish olive
for its occasional
upperparts; grayish
vocalizations. Perches in white underparts; bright
shade on lower to mid- white wingbars and eye
level branches in thick ring; shorter primary
projection • voice and
trees to search for food,
breeding habitat differ.
then dashes out to snatch
Willow Flycatcher
insect. Eats wide variety of flying insects. Frequents wet areas
Alder Flycatcher
inopen woodlands where it aggressively drives away larger birds Less distinct eye ring,
and other intruders from the breeding territory. less contrastingwings
with dull wingbars; and
• BREEDING Monogamous. more brown upperparts
• NESTING Incubation 13-15
fed by both sexes, but
13-15 days; male may
more by female.
days by female. Young

feed fledglings while female

First flight at
starts
altricial;

second
f • voice and breeding
habitat differ.

clutch. 2 broods per year.

Flight Pattern
• Population Common;
range expanding in Northeast.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant.
Weak fluttering flight with shallow wing
Frequently nest parasitized by
beats on rapidly beating wings. Sallies out
from perch and takes insects in flight, Brown-headed Cowbird.
then returns to same or nearby perch.

and bits of bark and cobweb; lined with grass, hair,

Sticks, grass, dried stems,
Nest Identification
and plant down • sloppy/messy-looking with long streamers of grasses hanging
beneath cup • in fork of horizontal limb well out from trunk • 3-25 feet up
Shape • built by female • 2—4 creamy white eggs, with sparse brown spots; oval to short

oval; 0.7 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
^^ Migration
Migratory Wei S nt 0.5
ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 439
Family Species Len £ th Wingspan g_ 9 indlcs
TYRANNIDAE Empidonax alnorum 5.75 inches

Alder Flycatcher
Perhaps the most green-brown of
the eastern empids, this bird was white eye ring
formerly known as Traill's
Flycatcher, from which both it brownish <

and the Willow Flycatcher

olive head \ blackish bill
with pinkish
were split into separate species brownish olive •— orange lower
upperparts mandible
in the 1970s. This shy bird is
easily overlooked; during » whitish throat
nesting season hidden
it stays
within the thick trees and dusky wash
shrubs of its alder swamp on chest
and wet meadow-thicket
-• pale yellow
habitat. Occasionally can it
wash on sidei
be spotted dashing out of and flanks
hiding to catch passing
insects or perching
* whitish be/lv
conspicuously on an
exposed branch to sing.
• SONG Raspy fee-bee-o
or way-bee-o on breeding blackish legs andfeet
grounds. Also has call of
bold pep.
• Behavior Male sings
repeatedly for first 2 weeks Similar Birds

after returning to territory Willow Flycatchei

in late spring, but after he Different call; more
bonds with female is largely brown overall; less-
prominent wing bars
silent. Stays low in thick darkei
and eye ring; whit call
tail •-
vegetation, often hunting note • different

inside umbrella of thicket breeding habitat.

canopy. Perches in shrubs to ACADIAN FLYCATCHE

spot prey, then catches it in Greener upperparts;
longer tail; yellowish
flight. Eats wide variety of
eye ring; yellow wash
flying insects; gleans some from vegetation, including spiders on belly and undertail
and millipedes. Also feeds on some types of small berries. / coverts; different voice
and habitat.
• BREEDING Monogamous.
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by female. Altricial young. F ed
by both sexes. First flight at
13-14 days. 1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Common
and stable.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant.
Weak fluttering direct flight with shallow
wing beats. Sallies to hawk flying insects, Occasionally nest parasitized
often returning to same or nearby perch. Brown-headed Cowbird.

Nest Identification Grass, weeds, bark strips, small twigs, and rootlets • lined with plant down or
other soft materials • in horizontal or upright fork of shrub or low tree 1^ feet
(sometimes as high as 30 feet) above ground • built by female • 3-4 white eggs
Shape
dotted with brown on larger end; oval, 0.7 x 0.55 inches.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexes similar Migratory () 5 ()unce

DATE TIME LOCATION

440 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len Sth Wingspan
TVRANNIDAE Empidonax traillii 5.75 inch g _ 9 inches

Willow Flycatcher
This bird can be distinguished from other
Empidonax flycatchers by its voice and breedin
it is perhaps the most
habitat preference, plus
brown of the eastern Empidonax a»d lacks a
prominent eye ring. Much variation occurs in
overall color: northwestern races have dark
heads, while southwestern races are very
pale. The compact, intricate nests of
these birds often have streamers
hanging underneath. Formerly
lumped together with the Alder
Flycatcher as the Traill's dark wings with
Flycatcher. buff to yellow
'niv bars
• SONG Often silent in
-'ur

migration. Utters harsh, burry

fitz-bew ( > r // itz -de-yew,

resembling a sneeze with

accent on first syllable. Call
a loud, thick whitI

• Behavior inhabits
swamps and willow thickets
along streams. Often perches
low below crown of vegetation;
when singing uses exposed
perch. Males chase females in
courtship flights similar to those of
other empids. Perches to spot prey,
then catches it in flight. Eats wide
variety of flying insects and those
gleaned from foliage; also takes spiders Similar Birds
and some berries. Alder Flycatcher
• BREEDING Monogamous. Shorter bill; more
prominent eye ring;
• NESTING Incubation 12-15 days by female. Altricial young. more olive-gray to olive-
Fed by both sexes. First flight at 12-14 days. 1 brood per year. brow n back; bolder buff
wing bars • different
• POPULATION Fairly common and expanding southern
\ oice and habitat.
range in the East; uncommon to rare in parts of the West;
declining on West Coast. Decline due to loss of streamside habitat.
• CONSERVATION Neotropical migrant. Nests parasitized by
Brown-headed Covvbird.
Flight Pattern Populations increase with
reduced cattle grazing in
breeding habitats and cessation
of killing and removing
Weak fluttering flight with shallow
rapid wing beats. Sallies from perch to
streamside willow thickets.
hawk flying insects, returning to perch.

Nest Identification Bark, grass, rootlets, and bits of plants • lined with plant down and other soft
vegetation • in fork of deciduous tree or shrub 2-15 feet above ground • built by
0i female • 1-A pale buff to whitish eggs with brown spots that become thicker on
Shape Location
the larger end; oval to short oval, 0.7 x 0.55 inches.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Sexes similar j^j igratory q5

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OK NORTH AMERICA • 441

Wingspan
7>5 _ 8 5
Family Species Length
TYRANNIDAE Empidonax minimus 5t 25 i nc h( _ ; nchcs

Least Flycatcher large head

A common summer
breeding resident in short
white eye ring
North America and the triangulai
bill «k
smallest of the eastern
empids, the Least
whitish throat
Flycatcher is perhaps
the most often-
encountered small "ash on breast

flycatcher in the East.

During breeding
season the male makes paler underparts

a noisy territorial
display, calling chee- Similar Birds
BECK more than Willow, Alder,
sixty times per minute wo Acadian
while chasing other Flycatchers
Larger; larger bills;
flycatchers in its
greener upperparts;
territory. Note its longer primary
small size, small bill, extensions; different
voices • Willow
brown to olive wash
Flycatcher has less
on the upperparts, and prominent eye ring but
conspicuous eye ring and similar whit call note.

wing bars.
Dusky Flycatcher
• SONG Sings raspy Slightly longer,
narrow er bill; longer
repetitive chee-BECK. Call is
tail; graver throat; less
piercing whitt-whitt-whitt. contrast in w ings; more-
• BEHAVIOR Active, often narrow eye ring;
different song.
changing perches. Flicks tail and
wings a lot; jerks tail strongly upward. Hammond's
Flycatcher
Chases female in courtship; chases ecologically similar
Small narrow bill; part
American Redstart out of nesting territory. Perches to spot prey, 7 of low er mandible is

then catches it in the air while flying. Also gleans insects from orangish: gray throat;

branches and foliage. Eats wide variety of insects, some spiders, darker olive-gray breast;
more distinct teardrop-
and a few berries and seeds. shaped eye ring; long
• BREEDING Monogamous. Sometimes in loose colonies. primary projection;
different voice.
• NESTING Incubation 3— 5 days by female. Altricial young
1 1

stay in nest 12-17 days. Fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year.
• Population Common
Flight Pattern and widespread but declining in
parts of range.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant.

Weak fluttering direct flight with shallow

Uncommon host to cowbird.
wing beats. Sallies to take insects in flight Declining population noted by
and returns to same or nearby perch. National Audubon Society.

Nest Identification
Grass, bark strips, twigs, lichens, and plant fibers; bound by spider or caterpillar
webs • in fork of tree or shrub 2-60 feet above ground • built by female • 3-6
Shape creamy white eggs; ovate, 0.6 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes sjmilar Habitat
^ ^_ Migration \j
igratory
Weight
q4

DATE TIME LOCATION

442 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len S th Wingspan 9
TYRANNIDAE Empidonax hammondii 5.5 inches inches

Hammond's Flycatcher laigc <ya\ ish

• head
This small bird avoids competition
for nest sitesand food by living
mm mm
higher on mountains in open
teardrop-shaped
coniferous forests and nesting
wfttte eye ring
at higher elevations and
narrow short
farther north than most other blackish bill
Empidonax flycatchers.
Spending much of its day orange-flesh color at
base of lower mandible
perched high in the trees,
grayish olive
this rather large-headed, back —• whitish to buff
short-tailed empid has a wing bars
relatively horizontal
stance, with the tail on gray or olive
the same plane as the wash on breast
and sides
body or slightly cocked.
It often shows a small

patch of orangish color

atthe base of the
lower mandible. darker wings pale yellow vash
andtail on belly
• Song Often
silent for long
periods of time.
Similar Birds
Low, rapid, hoarse,
sharp two-syllable Dusky Flycatcher
sill-it or chi-pit and More open, scrubby
habitat; longer bill; pale
low-pitched, lower mandible with
rough greeep or dusky tip; pale gray

pweeet. Call is throat; shorter primary

projection; longer tail;
raspy, sharp peet.
different voice.
• Behavior Least Flycatcher
Active, flicking Slightly smaller; actively
tail frequently and flicks wings and tail;

often flicking wings at same time. Perches in tree to spot prey, grayer above, whiter
below; more prominent
then quickly catches it in flight. Eats wide variety of flying
eye ring; lower mandible
insects and others it gleans from foliage. mostly yellowish;
• BREEDING Monogamous. different voice.

• NESTING Incubation 12-16 days by female. Altricial young

stay in nest 16-18 days. Fed by
both sexes. 1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• POPULATION Common
and widespread. Casual in East.

• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Vulnerable
Weak, fluttering direct flight with shallow
wing beats. Sallies to take flying insects to loss of habitat from logging of
and returns to same or nearby perch. montane coniferous forests. U
Nest Identification Made of weed stems, grass, bark strips, and lichens • lined with finer materials,
hair, feathers, and grass • on horizontal branch or fork of tree 10-60 feet above
Shape <^r Location
^ 4jb
ground •
brown; ovate,
built by female • 3-4 creamy white eggs, sometimes dotted with
0.7 x 0.55 inches.

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat

m^ Migration
Migratory Weight
0 4 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 443

Family Species Len Sth 6 inches Wingspan 9

TyRANNIDAE Empidonax wrightii 5 inchcs

Gray Flycatcher pale gray fat

This shy bird is at home in the Great
spending most of its day in arid, open
small rounded
woodland, perched on pinon or juniper head
trees or in sagebrush. When frightened
it dives for cover and stays hidden in
thick bushes until the intruder has
passed.Its gray coloration and Ion

which it slowly bobs like a

tail,

phoebe, make it the easiest

empid to identify visually. By
late fall, its whitish underparts
show a pale yellow wash.
Juveniles display two buffy
rather than whitish wing bars.

• SONG Sings an energetic

irregular low-pitched chee-
whipp or chuwip. Call note
is a whipp.
• Behavior The tail-

dipping trait is the most

distinctive of any empid
and differs from the
upward tail jerks of several
other species. The long tail

is quickly twitched, then

slowly lowered, and finally
raised back to the original
Similar Birds
position. Tends to perch low
and fly down, taking insects Dusky Flycatcher
Frequents arid to
on or near the ground. Eats
semiarid scrub habitat
grasshoppers, beetles, wasps, • shorter bill with dark
bees, moths, and other small insects. orange base; pale
throat; olive-gray
• BREEDING Monogamous. upperparts; fairly
• NESTING Incubation 14 days by female. Young altricial; stay conspicuous eye ring;
in nest 16 days, fed by both sexes. First flight at 16 days. voice differs, but call
note is similar.
1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Fairly common in semiarid habitat of the Great

Flight Pattern migrant in coastal California;

accidental in the East.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Vulnerable

Weak
due to
to habitat loss
fluttering flight on shallow wing
beats. Sallies forth to hawk insects in development and overgrazing.
flight, often returning to same perch.

Nest Identification Weeds, bark, grasses, and twigs, lined with plant down, fine bark fibers, animal
fur, and feathers • fork of shrub or conifer, 2-9 feet above ground • female

Shape ^ Location
^ builds; male sometimes helps • 3-4 creamy white eggs; oval to short oval,
0.7 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat^ jf.
Migration
Migratory Wei § ht 0.4

DATE TIME. LOCATION

444 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family r
Species Len Sth Wingspan 8 _
fYRAN NIDAE Empidonax oberholseri 5.75 nches
i 9 nch ;

Dusky Flycatcher
This bird prefers to breed and nest in the open
woodlands and brushlands of high mountain chaparrals
pale lores more
of western North America. It is similar to
conspicuous than
Hammonds Flycatcher but stays tower • other empids
in elevation and less sheltered in /lite eye ring

trees, outside the dense spruce-

fir forests preferred by
Hammonds. grayish olro* billhas orange-
It is
upperparts based lower
intermediate between
mandible fading
the Hammonds and • into dark tip
Gray Flycatchers in
body size, bill size, • whitish throat and
and tail length, and pale olive wash on
sometimes shows a upper breast

yellowish wash on
its underparts.

Similar Birds

Gray Flycatcher
• SONG Song is variable in pattern. On Frequents more open
breeding grounds, sings a melancholy dee-hick or desert scrub and pi non-
juniper • longer bill;
sill-it, given in late evening or early morning. Also
long tail; overall gray
has songs of a rough grrreeep and a clear high-pitched coloration; gray-white
pweet. Call note is a dry whit. throat; dips tail down
like a phoebe.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary. Occasionally flicks tail upward while
perched, but only flicks wings irregularly. Usually builds nests Hammond's
FLYCATCHER
below 12 feet high, unlike Hammond's, which usually builds
Frequents higher-
higher than 12 feet. Often perches in trees to sing. Feeds by elevation dense conifer
gleaning insects from foliage and by hawking sallies; eats moths forests • narrow, short
bill w ith flesh-orange
and other flying insects.
basal half to lower
• BREEDING Monogamous. mandible; long primary
• NESTING Incubation 12-16 days by female. Young altricial; extension; call differs.

stay in nest 15-20 days, fed by both sexes, but female does
more. Parents tend young
another 21 days after leaving
Flight Pattern
nest. 1 brood per year.
• Population Common
and increasing. Accidental in
eastern US.
Weak fluttering flight with shallow wing
beats. Sallies forth and picks off flying
• Conservation
insects, often returning to the same percl Neotropical migrant.

Nest Identification
is, weeds, and bark, lined with plant down, soft grasses, feathers, and
3-7 feet above ground • built by female
hair • fork of tree or shrub,
Shape * halkv white eggs; ovate, 0.7 inch long.

Plumage Scxcs
similar
Habitat
^ A Migration
Migratory Weight
(U ()U

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 445

Family Species LeR gth Wingspan 8>3 jnchcs

TYRANNIDAE Empidonax difftcilis 5.5 inches

Pacific-slope Flycatcher
Formerly lumped together broad bill with blackish
upper mandible
with the ( lordilleran
Flycatcher as one species;
they w ere called the
How-orange to
Western Flycatcher. It broad pale eyt
pinkish lower mandible
is impossible to ring pointed
behind eye dull pale yellow or
distinguish the
grayish yellow throat
two species in the
field except by brownish breast
voice and breeding
range. This lemon -buff wing bars
common forest
yellowish underparts
inhabitant often is
brownish gray
spotted perched in wines blackish gray
deep shade, singing legs and feet
repetitive notes and
catching insects in
midair. In winter it

migrates to western Similar Birds

and southern Mexico. Yellow-bellied
This empid has a big Flycatcher
Shorter tail; longer wing
head, teardrop-shaped
tip; stronger green
eye brownish green
ring, long brownish
tones; brighter yellow
gray tail
upperparts, and a yellow underparts; rounder eye
wash on its underparts. ring is not pointed at

rear; more rounded

• SONG Variable. Male head; darker wings
gives distinguishing slurred, high-pitched, thin psee-yeet, whistled and hack; greater
on rising scale and usually repeated in 3 parts. Male's call is pit- contrasting wing bars
and tertial edges;
peet. Female's common call is sharp, thin, high-pitched seet.
different voice • ranges
• BEHAVIOR Solitary but not shy or elusive. Often found in barely overlap.

shaded spots, rarely in open habitats. Active; often flicks tail and cordiller \\
wings when perched. Hawks flying insects or gleans them from Flycatcher
foliage. Sometimes eats berries and seeds. Male has more
disyllabic call oiwi-seet
• BREEDING Monogamous. or wi-seen • in breeding
• NESTING Incubation 14-15 days by female. Altricial young season has separate
western range.
stay in nest 14-18 days. Fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Widespread and common despite forest cutting.
Common Southwest migrant;
Flight Pattern accidental in the East.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Rarely
parasitized by cowbirds.
Vulnerable to habitat loss from
Weak, fluttering direct flight with shallow
w ing beats. Sallies to catch flying insects, logging operations.
then returns to perch.

Made of plant materials, including moss, grass, roots, bark, lichens, and leave:
Nest Identification
along with hair and feathers • on stream hank, rootlets of upturned tree, cliff
Shape ledge, eave of building, or in tree • 0-30 feet above ground • built by female
• 3-5 whitish eggs with brown blotches near larger end; oval to short o\ al,

0.7 x 0.55 inches.

Plumage Migration Weight

Sexes simj , ar Migratory 04

DATE TIME LOCATION

446 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
TYRANNIDAE gayornis nigricans 6 _ 7 inches 10 .5_n i nches

Black Phoebe
An increasingly common bird, the Black
Phoebe is often sighted pumping its tail,

watching for prey from treetops and other

perches. Because it nests, forages, and
black
perches near water, a proliferation of body
artificialponds and other bodies of water
in its western range has ensured this
species' survival. This is our only black
flycatcher with a juncolike white pattern
on its belly and undertail coverts.
show more brown and have
Juveniles
acinnamon rump and two indistinct
cinnamon wing bars.
• SONG Most common call is a

sharp seek! Typical song is in

4 parts, beginning with
rising scale followed by
2 descending notes, pee-
wee, pee-wee\ usually
given at dawn but also
often during the day,
repeated many
Eastern Phoebe
times, and often
Olive-gray on breast and
given while sides; brownish gray on
circling in flight. upperparts darkest on
head; mostly white
Also occasionally
underparts • in fresh fall
makes loud tseee. molt has yellow wash on
• Behavior underparts • emphatic
FEE -be. voice.
Solitary or in pairs. Found near streams, rivers, cattle tanks,
'

ponds, lakes, and towns - wherever there is much water. Pumps Eastern Kingbird
tail

it
up and down. Often hunts from a low, shaded perch where
watches for insects and swoops down to catch them in midair.
Occasionally catches food from water's surface, ground, or
vegetation.
pellets.
Coughs up indigestible insect parts in the form of
Sometimes eats small fish caught at water's surface.
\ Black head; blackish
gray upperparts and
wings; black tail with
white terminal band;
white underparts from
chin to undertail coverts;
black bill, legs, and feet;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. does not bob tail.

• NESTING Incubation 15-17 days by female. Altricial young

stay in nest 14-21 days. Fed by
both sexes. 2-3 broods per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Common
near water. Accidental in East.

• Conservation Artificial
Weak fluttering buoyant flight with
ponds are contributing to an
shallow wing beats. Sallies from perch to
catch insects in air with audible snap of increasing population.
bill, returning to same or nearby perch.

Nest Identification Adherent • made of mud pellets and moss • lined with vegetation, including
grass', weeds, and roots, as well as bark and hair • attached to vertical surface or

on shelf or beam • built by female • 3-6 white eggs with occasional reddish
Shape f^gp
brown spots; ovate to short ovate, occasionally short subelliptical, 0.7 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi , a ,. Habitat _^ _j Migration
Most do not migrate Weight n
7 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 447
Family Species Len ^th 7 Wingspan n<5inches
TYRANNIDAE Say amis phoebe inches

Eastern Phoebe
An early migration makes the Eastern Phoebe
a common harbinger of spring north of the
Mason-Dixon Line. It is easily identified by
dark brownish
its wagging tail and distinctive, harsh fee-be
gray head
calls. The bird-banding
subject of the first

experiment in North America, by John James

Audubon in 1840, the Eastern Phoebe has
provided researchers with much information
about longevity, site fidelity, dispersal, and
migratory movements. Phoebes are hardy
birds that often winter near water as far
north as the Ohio River. This is the only
• white nii(lcrparts
species of flycatcher to winter in the
(washed with yellow
eastern United States. In the bird's in fall)
nesting range seems almost every
it
/dark legs
concrete bridge and culvert over and feet
small to medium streams has a
phoebe nest beneath it.

• SONG Sharp chip is one of most

common calls. Also issues brusque pointed
FEE-be accented on first syllable. Song often
repeated, especially when male establishes
territory and attempts to attract mate; may repeat
many times per minute from high, exposed perch.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Often bobs tail
dark brownish tad
when perched, especially after landing with the tail

swept downward, then raised upward, and

sometimes pushed sideways in an arc. While sitting
atop tree branches and other perches, watches for Similar Birds
insects and sallies to catch them in midair. Also catches
Eastern Wood-
food in foliage and on ground. In addition to insects, Pewee
also eats small fish, berries, and fruit. Darker underparts;
yellowish lower
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. mandible; 2 whitish
• NESTING Incubation about 16 days by female. Altricial wing bars; does not
young stay in nest 15-16 days. Fed by both sexes. 2 broods per pump tail; different

year, sometimes 3 in the South.

• POPULATION Common and increasing.
• BlRDHOUSES Accepts
Flight Pattern nesting ledges glued to vertical
walls under concrete bridges.
• CONSERVATION
Weak buoyant fluttering flight with Neotropical migrant. Parasitized
shallow wing beats. Hawks insects by by cowbirds. Buildings, dams,
flying from perch and taking insect in
bridges, and culverts have
flight w ith audible pop of the mandibles.
provided more nesting areas.

Nest Identification Mud pellets covered with moss • lined with grass, weeds, leaves, hair, and
feathers • often built on top of remains of old nest • attached to a vertical wal
Shape <j or on a shelf or beam • built by female • 2-8 white eggs with occasional reddi
Abandonc Nests brown spots; oval, 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Habitat 'ration Weight

Sexes simUaf Most migrate q j Qimce

DATE TIME LOGATION

448 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len Sth Wingspan
XYRANNIDAE Sayornis saya 7.5 inch< 12 .5 inches

Say's Phoebe
Unlike other phoebes, Say's
Phoebe is not as commonly brownish
tied to habitats near water gray
but inhabits semiarid regions upperparts black bill
such as savannas, farmlands,
and open brushlands. This
active bird is rarely
pale grayish brown
sedentary and is often throat and breast
spotted darting for insects
and wagging its tail. Its
gray-brown upperparts
tawny bu ff belly
and rusty underparts and undertail coverts
make it superficially
resemble the
American Robin,
but its upright Similar Birds
posture and aerial
American Robin
acrobatics quickly Larger body; gray-
reveal its identity brown upperparts; dark
gray-brown or black
as a flycatcher.
head; chestnut-orange
underparts; white lower
belly and undertail
coverts; black-and-
white-streaked throat;
broken white eye ring;
yellow -orange bill with

• SONG Often sings at dawn. Repertoire includes plaintive dark tip; largely

terrestrial.
downslurred whistled phee-eur or chu-weer, often repeated many
times. In fluttering flight also issues abrupt pit-tse-ar. vermilion
Flycatcher
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Conspicuous. Perches at low Female is smaller; gray-
tomiddle levels on branches, wires, posts, buildings, etc. From
perch or while hovering watches for insects and swoops down to
9^ brown upperparts and
crown; gray-brown lores
and auriculars; white
catch them in midair with an audible snap of the mandibles. supercilium; blackish
This bird rarely eats berries. Sometimes regurgitates pellets of tail; w hite chin; w hite

insect exoskeletons. neck and breast w ith

dusky streaking;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. salmon-peach belly and
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by female. Altricial young undertail coverts.

stay in nest 14-16 days. Fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year,
sometimes 3 in the Southwest
along the Mexican border.
Flight Pattern
• Population Stable and
fairly common. Casual in
T < eastern US.

Weak fluttering buoyant flight with

• Conservation
shallow wing beats. Hawks from perch to Neotropical migrant. Rare host
catch flying insects; also hov ers. to cowbird parasitism.

Nest Identification
Adherent • mud pellets, moss, and grass • lined with grass, weeds, moss, spidc
webs, and wool • attached to vertical walls • built by female • 3-7 white eggs
Shape with occasional brown or reddish spots; ovate to short ovate, 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Scxcs simi

, a|.
Habitat^ , ^1 ^± Migration
Migrg We '£ ht 0.7 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMP: RICA • 449

Family Species Len Sth Wingspan 9 5

TYRANNIDAE Pyocephalus rubinus 6 inches nches;

Vermilion Flycatcher red crown i

This is the most colorful North American

flycatcher. The adult male is unmistakable with dark blackish
brown upperparts
its bright red head and underparts and blackish
and wines
eye mask, back and w ings. A bird of arid and short
straight
semiarid regions, it is often found near natural * black bill
watercourses and man-made irrigation
ditches, cattle tanks, ponds, and lakes
The juvenile male is similar to the
adult male but its color
appears washed-out; th Male
female juvenile is

similar to the
adult female
but has a yellow blackish brown
wash on the belly lures and mask
joining at nape
and crissum.
• SONG Call is piercing, thin metallic
pseeup. Courting male sings soft tinkling
elated pit-a-see! pit-a-seel, which he carries
red underparts
aloft in display flight; then sings rapid,
accelerating pi pi-li-li-li-sing while
hovering with crest raised and tail
white superciliary stripe
spread before slowly fluttering
white chin, throat, and chest
back down to perch.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in grayish brown upperparts
pairs. Tame and approachable.
Wags and pumps tail like a
Femal
phoebe. Often perches low.
Spots prey while perched, then
hovers and catches it in air. Takes
Similar Birds
many bees. Sometimes feeds on
ground. Coughs up indigestible parts. pinkish belly SCARLET TANAGER O"
and crissum Male has superficial
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester resemblance • larger;
• NESTING Incubation 14-15 days by female. Altricial young scarlethead and body;
stay in nest 14-16 days. Fed by both sexes. 2 broods per year. black wings and tail;
stunt pale bill.
• POPULATION Fairly common in open and semiopen
riparian areas. Rare vagrant to Gulf Coast and coastal southern
California. Casual to accidental

Flight Pattern in the East.

• CONSERVATION
Neotropical migrant. Rarely
parasitized by cowbirds. Texas
Weak, fluttering direct flight with shallow
and Southeastern Califirnia
wing beats. Sallies to snatch flying insects,
then returns to perch. Hovers in display breeding populations declining
flight and when foraging. for unknown reasons.

Small sticks, grass, weeds, rootlets, and feathers often held together by
Nest Identification
spider webs and hair;decorated with lichens • lined with feathers, down,
and hair • in fork in horizontal branch 4-60 feet above ground • built by
Shape female • 2-4 whitish eggs with bold spots of brown, gray, and lavender; oval
to short oval, 0.7 x 0.55 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat
± +t Jt ftf
Migration !\| ost mi grate- Weight
o 5

DATE TIME LOCATION

450 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
TYRANNIDAE Species
My ia trims cinerascem Len Sth
8.5 inches Wingspan
H inches

ASH-THROATED FLYCATCHER
This bird inhabits a wide range of habitats, from
desert scrub below sea level to mountain regions
of oak and pinon-juniper more than 9,000 feet
high. It has the typical color pattern of
Myiarchus flycatchers, with grayish brown
upperparts, gray from the chin to lower
breast, yellowish underparts, and
rufous in the long tail. The visual key
to its identity lies in the paleness of
the underparts, which include a
whitish throat and pale yellowish
belly and undertail coverts.
• SONG Most often a coarse
pwrrit, like a referee's whistle,
and a short pt/ip or Jut it. On
breeding grounds sings a
rolling nasal ka-brik, ka
brik. Dawn song is

varied arrangement
of the calls.
Nutting s
• Behavior
Solitary or in
pairs.
prey while
Seeks
-•rufous wash on
inner webs of tail * Flycatcher
Darker yellow
more olive-brown
belly;

upperparts; dark color

on outer webs of outer
tail feathers does not
perched, then
extend across tips;
hovers above and drops down on it or sallies from perch to catch orange mouth lining;
it in flight. When hawking often does not return to same perch. different voice

Sometimes feeds from ground. Eats variety of insects, spiders, • accidental in winter
in southeastern Arizona.
and and small lizards.
caterpillars; also fruit, berries,
Occasionally defends territory from large birds passing through, Dl SKY-CAPPED
Flycatcher
including hawks. Sometimes usurps nesting cavities from
Smaller; brighter
woodpeckers, forcing them to begin another hole elsewhere. lemon-yellow
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. underparts; rufous-
edged secondaries; tail
• NESTING Incubation 15 days by female. Altricial young stay largely lacks rufous;
in nest 14-16 days. Fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year. different voice • only in
the West
• POPULATION Common to fairly common in wide variety of
habitats. Rare to accidental in fall and winter in the East.

• BlRDHOUSES Uses
Flight Pattern bluebird nesting boxes and
other nesting boxes with
sufficient-sized openings to
allow them access.
Fairly strong flight with shallow wing
beats. Sallies from perch to snatch insects
• Conservation Stable
in flight. Sometimes hovers above foliage and increasing in some areas.
or ground before dipping to catch prey.
Neotropical migrant.

Nest Identification Made of weeds, grass, twigs, and rootlets • often lined with hair and feathers • ii

tree cavity, man-made boxes, and woodpecker holes in trees, poles, and posts
3-20 feet above ground • built by both sexes • 3-7 creamy white eggs blotched
Shape
B iS ft IB with brown and lavender; oval to short oval, 0.9 x 0.7 inches.

Plumage Sexcs simi

ar ,
Habitat^ ± ^ ^ ^_ Migration
Migratory Weight
L0

DATE TIME LOCATION

 4

BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 451

Family Species Len eth Wingspan

TYRANNIDAE Myiarchus crinitus 8.5 inches j 2—1

Great Crested Flycatcher

This big eastern flycatcher with a rusty tail and shaggy

crest stays hidden in tall trees, but its coarse song darker gray
is heard throughout the forest. Although
similar in size to the Eastern Kingbird,
the Great Crested Flycatcher prefers
thickly w ooded areas. Males defend
their large territories by battling in
olive-green
the air with other males, clawing upperparts
one another and sometimes
gray throat and
pulling out feathers. Like some
upper breast
other members of its genus, it

often tops off the nest with a

discarded snakeskin, but in today's
throwaway society it more readily
finds cellophane and plastic. Perched lemon-yellow
birds show two white wing bars and belly and undertail
coverts
cinnamon-rufous-edged primaries.
• SONG Bold melodic whistle of
wheeepl and rolling prrrrrrrrrreeeet.
W/ieeep notes often given in rapid
succession in series of 3 or more.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in rufous inner
pairs.Often ranges high in the webs on tail
feathei Similar Birds
canopy, sitting on exposed limbs in
ASH-THROATl D
the crown of a tall tree or on top of a
Flycatcher
dead snag. Catches prey higher above Smaller bill; paler
ground than most flycatchers. Sallies underparts with whitish

from perch to snatch insects from throat and pale gray

breast; pale yellow belly
foliage and catch them in midair, often
and crissum; brown-
returning to same or nearby perch. Eats variety of larger insects, tipped (inter tail

including beetles, crickets, katydids, caterpillars, moths, and feathers; different voice.

butterflies. Also eats some fruits and berries. Male chases Brown-crested
female in courtship flight close to possible nesting cavity. Flycatcher
Larger; bigger heavier
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. bill; paler gray throat
• NESTING Incubation 13-15 days by female. Altricial young and breast; paler yellow
belly: different voice.
remain in nest 12-21 days. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Common in open wooded lots and on forest
edge. Rare on California coast
Flight Pattern in autumn migration.
• BlRDHOUSES Sometimes
f < uses nest boxes placed on trees
or buildings 6-50 feet high.
Fairly swift buoyant direct flight. Hawks • Conservation
insects in flight, returning to perch. Hovers Neotropical migrant. Vulnerable
over foliage or ground then dips for food.
to habitat loss.

Filled and lined with grass, weeds, bark strips, rootlets, feathers, fur, snakeskin,
Nest Identification
onion skin, cellophane, and clear plastic • in cavity, abandoned holes of other
birds, or bird boxes • built by both sexes • 4-8 creamy white to pale buff eggs
Shape marked with brown, olive, and lavender; ovate to short ovate, sometimes
elliptical ovate or elongate ovate, 0.9 x 0.67 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
I Habitat
^m^ Migration
Migratory Weight
u ()unces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 -

452 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA

Family Species Length Wingspan
TYRANNIDAE Myiarchus tyrannulus 8J5 inches 12 _14 inches

Brown-crested Flycatcher
This flycatcher makes its home in the
sycamore canyons, mountain woodlands,
darkest coloring
saguaro desert, or any arid country on head
where the trees are large enough 9

for its nesting holes. Like

other flycatchers the males long thick dark
aggressively defend their bill is often fleshy

territory during breeding at base

season, often attacking other

birds with their claws and pale grayish
throat and chest
pulling out feathers. Their
2 a."////C
victims may be other
wing bars
flycatchers, woodpeckers,
or wrens, all potential
threats to take over the pale lemon
nesting cavity. When rufous in el/ov belly and
excited it may raise its primaries undertail coverts

bushy crest.

• SONG Rough loud come

HERE, come HERE or whit-
will-do, whit-will-do\ Also
makes sharp calls of bew,
pwit, or purreeet.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in Similar Birds
pairs. Hawks flying insects or
ash-throated
gleans them from foliage or Flycatcher
ground. Occasionally catches Smaller; smaller bill;

paler yellow underparts;

and eats hummingbirds. Also
less olive on back;
takes small lizards, berries, and dusky brown of outer
fruits.Hovers and plucks prey tail feathers crosses tip

from trees and shrubs. Perches of tail; different voice.

to eat fruits and berries. Great Crested

Flycatcher
• BEHAVIOR Monogamous.
Deeper, brighter yellow
Solitary nester. Very defensive belly and crissum;
around nest cavity, driving other birds away. darker gray throat and
chest; different voice.
• NESTING Incubation 1 3— 1 5 days by female. Altricial young
stay in nest 12-21 days. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Fairly

Flight Pattern common. Casual to the Gulf

Coast and Florida.
• Conservation a
neotropical migrant that winters
in Mexico.
Purposeful buoyant rapid wing beats.
Sallies to take insects in air and returns tc

perch. Also hovers and dips for prey.

Lined with plant fibers, animal hair, and feathers; often adds snakeskin.
Nest Identification
onion skin, or clear plastic • in holes in giant cactus, tree, man-made
structure, or abandoned woodpecker holes, 5-30 feet above ground • built bv
2
Shape Location 3-6 white brown and lavender blotches;
^ both sexes •

oval to short oval, 1

to pale buff eggs with
x 0.8 inches.

Plumage igration \ f igratory Weight

g exes simi | ar j

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 453

Family Species Len Sth 8 Wingspan

TYRANNIDAE Myiarchus sagrae i nches j z j nchcs

La Sagra's Flycatcher
Like many flycatchers this bird makes crested brownish
its home near woodlands and forests gray crown
where the trees are large enough
for its nesting holes. Vagrants of grayish brown
thisCaribbean native species upperparts « black bill

occasionally have made their

way to Florida. This
flycatcher perches and
forages in the middle levels
of the interior of thickets 2 white wing ban
and hovers over foliage to
pick off insects, fruits, and
berries, behavior that
tfW brown
1

makes it difficult to see. • whitish belly and

primaries with
undertail coverts
Often its presence is first rufous edging
washed with yellow
revealed by its voice.
• SONG A squeaky wink,
wink often given in 2s or 3s.

• Behavior Solitary
(only single birds have been
seen in the US). Does not
perch in exposed positions
like other flycatchers of its
Similar Birds
genus; remains below the
canopy and in the interior of ash-throat]
Flycatcher
shrubs and thickets. The back ,arger in size; more
of the crown, the occipital region, rufous on tail; slightly

bears a slight crest that is often brighter yellow belly;

different voice.
raised when the bird is alarmed.
Spots prey from perch and hovers to Great Crested
Flycatcher
pluck it off foliage. Hawks flying insects
Darker gray throat and
beneath crowns of trees. Eats insects, fruits, and berries. In breast; bright lemon-
Bahamas, Grand Cayman, and Cuba, inhabits pine forests, yellow bell\ and
crissum; more rufous in
mangroves, cutover forests and scrub, and tropical lowland
tail; heavier bill; darker
evergreen forests. gray-brown face and
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. head; different voice.

• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Incubation

estimated at 12-14 davs bv
female. Altricial young
Flight Pattern
estimated to stay in nest 14-16
days. Fed by both sexes. 1-2
broods per year.

Weak
• Population Casual to
fluttering flight with shallow wing
beats. Often hovers before dipping
accidental in southern Florida;
for
prey. Sallies to take flying insects. accidental in Alabama.

Nest Identification Lined with grass, weeds, hair, feathers, and twigs • in natural tree cavity;
sometimes uses abandoned woodpecker hole • built by both sexes • 3-5 creamy
Shape
gj
2
Location 0t ^ w hite eggs blotched and streaked with reddish brown, purple, gray, and black;
oval to short oval, 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat^ ^ ^_ 'ration
Nonmigratory Wei § ht
0.6 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

454 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
TYRANNIDAE Species
Pitangus sulphuratus ^th 9.75 inches Wingspan
16 nches
;

Great Kiskadee
Inhabiting wet woodlands and riparian habitats, this
bird can be spotted sunning itself on an open perch
to dry its feathers after a series of dives into the
water for aquatic insects or small fash on the
surface. This large stout energetic flycatcher stout bid k bill
i

is named for its loud raucous screaming

call of kiss-ka-dee or k-reah\ Its voice

carries a long way, so the bird often

is heard long before it is seen. It
heeks,
kin. and throat
is the only flycatcher north of

Mexico with a bold black-and-

white-striped head pattern. It

also has a yellow crown

patch, which usually is
bright yellow,
concealed. In flight the best and belly
bright yellow underparts
and underwing linings
contrast sharply with the
rufous wings and tail.

• SONG Slow clear loud

raucous kiss-ka-dee. Also
makes bold screaming black legs
and feet
cree-ah.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary
or in pairs. Conspicuous.
Sitson perch to spot prey, brown tail

then dives into water to

catch fish and tadpoles. Sallies to
catch prey, then returns to perch and
often beats the victim on the branch several times before eating it. Catches insects in flight.
Eats a variety of crawling and flying insects. Also catches frogs, small lizards, baby birds, and
mice. Will eat fruits and berries when insects are not available. Noisy and aggressive; actively
drives away much larger birds entering its territory.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. Similar Birds

• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Incubation by None in North America.
female estimated at 13-15 days. Altricial young estimated to
stay in nest 12-21 days. Fed by both sexes. 2-3 broods per year.
• Population Fairly

Flight Pattern common southern Texas in

in
lower Rio Grande valley. Casual
vagrant to coastal Louisiana and
in southeastern Arizona.

Slow fluttering direct flight w ith shallow

• Conservation Some
wing beats. Sallies to catch prey, then decline from habitat loss in US.
returns to perch. Common throughout tropics.

Nest Identification Grass, weeds, bark strips, Spanish moss, and other plant fibers • in thorny tree,
palm tree, or shrub or on metal braces on utility poles 6-50 feet above ground
• sometimes refurbish old nest • built by both sexes • 2-5 creamy white eggs
Shape
£ dotted with dark brow n and lavender; oval to short oval, 1.1 inches long.

p,umaSe Sexes similar Habitat

1^ fcf M- JL. sas ^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei S nt
2.1 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 - r

BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 455

Family Species Length 8 Wingspan 14.5 inches

rvRANNIDAE Myiodytu/stes luteiventris 5 inch(
_

Sulphur-bellied Flycatcher
The only native US flycatcher with heavy
streaking on the upperparts and underparts, white stripes on face
this native ofMexico and Central America above and belo w
also breeds in the wooded mountain dark eye patch

canyons and along the woodland

streams of southern Arizona.
Perched high, and sometimes olive-greeu-tinted
somewhat concealed, in lofty upperparts with
trees like sycamores and heavy streakii
V thick black
walnuts, can be recognized
it streak through eyes

by its loud call, which blackish brown

malar mark
sounds like the squeaking
of a rubber duck bath toy. '

hitish buff-edged
• SONG Courting male secondaries and
and female sing a high rufous rump >ing coverts
and tail
noisy kee-ZE-ik or
shrieking grating pale yellow
belly with dark
PEE-PEE-pee-yah.
blackish brown
In early morning streaking
sings a soft repeated
tree-le-ree-re.

• Behavior
Solitary or in pairs.
Often sits on perch
high in treetops to
spot prey, then hawks
it in flight. Also
hovers above foliage
or branches,dipping to pick up food. Returns to perch to eat. Eats insects, including
and spiders. Also eats fruits and berries. A patch of yellow in the center of crown,
caterpillars,
which usually is hidden, may be displayed to show passion or aggression during courtship.
Courting male and female often chase each other around and through treetops.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. Begins nesting
later in the year than most other flycatchers. Similar Birds
• NESTING Incubation 15-16 days by female. Altricial young None in North America.
stay in nest 16-18 days. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Fairly common but local in mountain canyons,
especially along streams with
Flight Pattern large trees. Casual in southern
California and along Gulf Coast

— <
Accidental elsewhere.
• BlRDHOUSES Occasionally
will nest in nest boxes.
Somewhat slow fluttering flight with
shallow wing beats. Sallies from perch to • CONSERVATION
catch flying insects. Hovers, dips for prey. Neotropical migrant.

Nest Identification Fine leaf stems, pine needles, and leaves piled within 1 inch of hole • on
platform made of sticks inside knothole of tree, old flicker hole, or nest box
20-50 feet above ground • built by female • 2-4 white to pale buff eggs heavily
Shape
5 t Location
» la spotted with reddish browns and lavender; oval to short oval, 1 inch long.

Plumage Migration Weight

Sexe ,
Migratory L6 Qunces

DATE TIME. LOCATION

456 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Species Length Wingspan
Family
TYRANNIDAE Empidonomus varim 7>2 5 i nc hes n . 5 inches

Variegated Flycatcher
On two or three occasions, this native of
South America has made navigational errors
during migration and been found in
eastern North America. The Variegated
Flycatcher is one of several specie's of long dark brown black upper
heavily streaked flycatchers that are eye line on mandible
whitish face
widespread in the neotropics.
fairly
In North America any heavily
dark lower
streaked flycatcher with yellow- dark brown- and mandible with
black-streaked creamy pink base
tinged underparts and a brown-
upperparts
and-white facial pattern, found
thin brownish
outside the southwestern range malar mark
and mountain-canyon habitats of
the Sulphur-bellied Flycatcher,
• white-edged
needs be very carefully
to secondaries and
studied, and if possible wing coverts
photographed, to confirm the
individual's identity.
pale yellowish white
• SONG Usually silent. A underparts with brown streaking
gently whistled, high thin
zreeee. Also an abrasive
chee-chee-chuuuuu.
• Behavior Solitary.
Eats mostly insects, black feet and legs
berries, and fruits.
Perches low to spot
insects, which it
catches while flying,
returning to perch to
eat. Hovers over foliage Similar Birds
to pick up insects or to Sl/LPHTR-BELLIED
eat berries and fruits. Flycatcher
• Breeding Larger; brighter yellow
underparts more heavily
Monogamous and solitary. streaked; more rufous
• NESTING Estimated incubation 14-16 days by female. tail and rump; wider
malar mark.
Young altricial; stay in nest 18-19 days, fed by both sexes.
1-2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Accidental in

Flight Pattern North America; recorded in

Maine, Tennessee, and Florida;
Florida record under debate.
Uncommon to fairly common in
South America.
Weak fluttering direct flight on shallow
wing beats. Sallies from perch to take
• Conservation
flying insects, returning to perch. Hovers. Vulnerable to habitat loss.

Nest Identification
Twigs, bark, leaf stems, and grasses • fork of horizontal branch, 8-25 feet above
ground • built by both sexes • 3—1 white to pale buff eggs, heavily spotted with
Shape reddish browns; oval to short oval, 1 inch long.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
m^^ Migration
Migratory We 'S ht 1.0 ounces

DATE TIME. LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 457

Species Length 8-9.25 inches Wingspan 15 _ U)inchcJ

Family
TYR AWIDAK fy rannus melancholkus

Tropical Kingbird
The demise of the rainforest, resulting in less dense
forests, boosting this birds population. Originally a
is
light gray hear/
tropical bird, it is expanding its range in North and nape
America and becoming more common. These
birds often gather horsehair from the sides of long black
roads or fields, with which they line their p bill

dark gray
nests. The Tropical Kingbird is very similar
ear patch
to Couch's Kingbird and is best separated
from that species by voice. It also
resembles the more common Western
and Cassin's Kingbirds but has a dark grayish •
longer bill and slightly notched brown upperparts
dusky brown
• SONG
tail.

Squeaking, rapidly
with greenish tinge
i
repeated pip-pip-pip-pip. Sings
series of liquid trills. Often • bright yellow
sings just before daylight, underparts
repeating song over and over.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in
pairs. Hunts from
conspicuous, often high,
perches. Spots insects from
perch, catches them in
flight, and returns to perch
to eat. Sometimes picks up
food from ground. Often Wes ern Kingbird
i

A
hovers over foliage or ground, Cassin's kingbird
dipping to pick up an insect Straight-edged rail tip;

whitish to w hite edging

or berry. Eats mainly insects but
on tail tip; shorter bill;

also takes frogs, fruits, and berries. Usually the last species of lacks dark patch

yellow-bellied flycatchers to return to US breeding grounds and through eye;

different voice.
the first to leave after the breeding season ends.
Col
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. ell's KINGBIRD
Greenish back; thicker
• NESTING Incubation 5—1 6 days by female. 1 Young stay in bill; evenly spaced
nest 18-19 days. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year. individual primary tips;
different voice.
• POPULATION Uncommon and somewhat local in lowlands
near water in south Texas and Arizona. Casual in autumn and winter
on the West Coast north to
Flight Pattern British Columbia. Accidental in
the East.
• CONSERVATION
T < Neotropical migrant. Habitats

Weak fluttering flight with shallo w wing

seem be increasing because
to
beats. Sallies for insects in flight; returns to human changes to landscape are
perch. Hovers before dipping for insects. producing more open woodlots.

Nest Identification Twigs, grasses, stems, bark, and plant fibers • lined with plant down, moss,
horsehair,and other fine materials • on tree branch 8-20 feet above ground
Shape
• builtby female • 3-5 creamy buff or pinkish eggs with blotches of brown
and purple often concentrated on larger end; oval to short oval, 1 inch long.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
^ ^_ ^ Migration
Migratorv Weight
j 3 outtces

DATE TIME LOCATION

458 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species jLj Length Wingspan
TYRANNIDAE \ranims com •hit 8 _ 9-25 inch< ]5 _ 16inches

Cough's Kingbird
This bird is very similar to the Tropical
Kingbird but has subtle differences in
plumage and. bill
once considered
size. In fact,
a race of the Tropical
it was
light
and nape
gray face
a
long stout
Kingbird, but in the 1980s it was dark gray
black bill
declared a separate species. Tropical ear patch

and Couch's Kingbirds do not whitish throat

readily hybridize. Its breeding
range in the United States is greenish gra

restricted to southern Texas, back

and it is best distinguished in

dark grayish
the field by voice. Although
brown win«s
primarily nonmigratory,
bright yelloz
birds in the northernmost underparts
parts of the breeding range
are migratory.
• SONG A high, trilled,
nasal breeeear and a single- black legs
note or repeated kip. andfeet
Predawn song is a series of
rich whistles with abrupt
inflections, 5 'wees 'wees 'wee
s'wee-I-chu.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in dark grayish
bro wn tail,
pairs. Sometimes gregarious slightly notched
in winter. Perches and forages
Similar Birds
in middle to high levels. Sits
on perch to spot prey. Sallies out Tropical Kingbird
Grayer back; longer,
to catch insects in midair. Hovers
thinner bill; unevenly
over foliage or ground, dipping staggered tips of
down to pick up insects or berries primaries; voice differs.

Eats various flying and crawling insects, Western Kingbird

also berries and fruits. Cassin's Kingbird
Smaller thinner
• BREEDING Monogamous. Soli tary. bills;

indistinct, lighter gray

• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Incubation by ear patches; squared tips

14-16 days. Young altricial; fed by both of tails; voices differ.

female estimated at
sexes. First flight at 18-20 days. 1 brood per year.
• Population Common in

Flight Pattern lower Rio Grande Valley in

summer; uncommon in winter.
Casual to the Gulf Coast in fall
and winter.

Slow fluttering flight on shallow wing

• Conservation
beats. Sallies to take insects in flight, Neotropical migrant. Increasing
returns to perch. Hovers down for insects in range and in numbers.

Nest Identification Tu igs, leaves, Spanish moss, weeds, and bark strips, with lining of finer
materials • on tree limb, 8-25 feet high • built by female • 3-5 pinkish to warm
buff eggs, with brow n and lav ender blotches; ovate to long ovate, subelliptical to
Shape
long elliptical; 1.0 x 0.7 inches.

P| umage Sexes similar Habitat

1^ fif ^ Migration
Northern birds migrate We 'S ht 1.6 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 459
Family Species Length g_9 inch( Wingspan
TYRANNIDAE fyrannus vociferans i 5 _i 6 .5 inches

Cassin's Kingbird
The loud morning song of the male can be heard
through the canyons in the foothills covered with
oak-pinon and pine-juniper-sycamore woodlands on
the lower slopes of the mountains where this bird
makes home. This flycatcher eats more
its dark gray
berries and fruit, in addition to its diet of head and nape
insects, than any other North American
kingbird. Darker on the head, back,
and breast than the very similar
and more widespread Western
Kingbird, this bird has a pale
tip on its squared tail.

Cassin's Kingbird often

inhabits higher
altitudes than the \f
Western Kingbird.

dark grayish brown

tail with buff-white
feather tips

Similar Birds

Wes tern Kingbird

• SONG Bold burry 2-syllable call of chi-BEW with accent on Lighter gray head and
nape; paler less-
the second syllable. Also sings a noisy high-spirited ki-dear, fci-
contrastinn throat and
dear, ki-dear in the morning. chest; white-edged tail;

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Perches at middle to high different voice.

levels to spot prey, sallies to catch it, then returns to perch to Tropical Kingbird
eat. Hawks insects as far as 65 feet away from its perch. Hovers Couch's Kingbird
Larger longer bill;
over ground or foliage and picks off insects, insect larvae,
darker ear patch; olive
berries,and fruit. In courtship male can be seen flying in series breast; dusky brown tail
of rushed zigzags. has slightly notched tip
and no whitish edging;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. different \ oice.
• NESTING Incubation 18-19 days by female. Altricial young
stay in nest 14-17 days. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year, Z in
southern part of US range.
Flight Pattern • Population Fairly
common in variety of habitats.
Accidental elsewhere in
t*
< western, eastern, and southern

Buoyant fluttering flight with shallow

US in migration and winter.
wing beats. Hovers to take insects, berries, • Conservation
and fruit from foliage/ground. Also hawks. Neotropical migrant.

Nest Identification Twigs, weed stems, rootlets, leaves, feathers, and hair • lined with fine plant
fibers • on horizontal tree branch 20-50 feet above ground • built by both sexes
• 3-5 creamy white eggs with brownish mottling concentrated at larger end; oval
Shape
to long oval, 0.9 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
^_ ^ jf. A Migration
Mj Kratory Wei § ht 1.6
ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

460 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
TYRANNIDAE jy rannus verticalis 375 i 5 _ 16inches

Western Kingbird pale ashy gray head,

The most common and well-known kingbird neck, and breast
in the West has easily adapted to the ongoing
«^
development of its habitat. It even takes dark thin gray
advantage of it by using telephone poles eye patch

and other artificial structures as nesting

areas and fences and utility wires as olive-green
tinted back
hunting perches. Often found in urban
areas, it is more gregarious than any
other kingbird, with two or more pairs
occasionally nesting in the same tree.
Aggressive, it also is known for its
bright lemon-
tenacity for chasing hawks, crows,
yellow underparts
ravens, and other large birds away
from its nesting territory. It can be
distinguished from other large black legs
and feet
flycatchers and kingbirds by the
black tail with white edging on
each side. A red-orange crown
patch usually is concealed. >dark brownish black wings
ontrasted with paler back
• SONG Call is a rather quiet
clipped bek. Has an abrasive and black squared tail
bickering chatter of ker-er-tp, with white edges Similar Birds
ker-er-ip, pree pree pr-prrr. Cassin's Kingbird
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in Darker gray head,
breast, and neck; darker
pairs or small groups. Gregarious in winter. Conspicuous. Hunts
olive-brown back; pale
from open perches at low, middle, and high levels. Sits on perch buffy white tips on
to spot prey, flies out to catch in midair, and returns to perch to dusk) brown tail
feathers; whiter throat;
eat. Often hovers above foliage or ground and dips down to pick
voice differs.
up food. Feeds on various insects, fruits, and berries. Male
performs hectic courtship flight, darting upward into air, Tropical and
Couch's Kingbirds
fluttering, vibrating feathers, and delivering trilling song.
Larger, longer bills;

• BREEDING Monogamous. Sol itary. Sometimes found in darker ear patches;

darker upperparts;
loose semicolonies.
yellow of underparts
• NESTING Incubation 18-19 days by female. Altricial young extends upward to

stay in nest 16-17 days, fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year. throats; slightly notched
tails; voices differ.
• POPULATION Common in semiarid open country. Range
has expanded during the 20th century as expansion of agriculture
has created more suitable
Flight Pattern nesting and foraging areas.
Some winter in southern
Florida. Accidental in fall
f < migration to New England and
the Atlantic Coast.
Buoyant fluttering flight on shallow w ing
beats. Sallies or insects in flight, returns
• Conservation
to perch. Ho\ ers over prey and dips down. Neotropical migrant.

Grass, weeds, twigs, and plant fibers, lined with finer materials, including hair,
Nest Identification
plant down, and cotton • near trunk on horizontal limb or fork of tree, 8-40 feet
above ground • sometimes on brace or cross-arm of utility pole, church steeple,
Shape
£ -
is
or other man-made structure • built by both sexes • 3-7 whitish eggs, heavily
blotched with brown, lavender, and black; oval to short oval, 1.0 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Sexes m Habitat Migration Wei ^ ht ounces

si ji ar Migratory 1 .4

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 461
Family Species r
Len §th Wingspan i4_j5
TYRANNIDAE fy rannus tyrannus 8.5 inches

Eastern Kingbird
True to its name, this kingbird is the only one
nesting in the East north of southern Florida. It has
an extensive breeding range that covers most of black forehead,
North America: from the Atlantic Coast north sides offace,

almost to the treeline in the southern Yukon. Its and cap

Latin name means "king of the tyrants," and
when defending its nest this aggressive bird
sometimes will land on the backs of hawks, charcoal-gray
crows, and vultures, pecking and pulling back and rump
their feathers. In winter flocks fly to South
America and survive on a diet of mostly
berries. This species is fashionably decked
with blackish upperparts, white underparts,
and a distinctive white terminal tail band. A
red stripe on its crown, usually concealed,
is seen only when the bird is displayin

• SONG Utters grating buzzing high-

pitched dzeet note combined with a

rapid tzi, tzeet, tzi, tzeet, tzi, tzeet.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs.

Gregarious in migration and
winter. Often sits on exposed,
low- to mid-level perches and
high on trees, shrubs, weed black legs andfeet
stalks, fences, utility wires,
etc. Sits on perch to spot black tail with
prey, hawks insects in air, white terminal band
and returns to perch to eat
them. Also hovers to pick food
off leaves or ground. Eats various insects, fruits, and berries. Similar Birds
Male performs erratic courtship flights, hovering, circling, and Gray Kingbird
tumbling with tail spread and crown patch revealed. Pale gray upperparts;
w hite underparts; black
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. f
mask through eyes;
• NESTING Incubation 16— 8 days mostly by 1 female. Altricia forked tail lacks white

young terminal band • limited

stay in nest approximately 16-18 days. Fed by both
IIS range.
sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Common, widespread, and conspicuous. Has
expanded range and increased
Flight Pattern numbers with agricultural
expansion.

"T"
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Common

Fluttering stiff-winged direct flight with

cowbird host, but often
shallow wing beats. Sallies to snatch damages cowbird eggs.
insects in flight, then returns to perch.

Nest Identification Weed stalks, twigs, and grass • lined with fine grass, sometimes animal hair • far
to midway out on horizontal tree branch or shrub; sometimes on post or stump;
7-60 feet above ground, usually near water • built by female with help from
Shape tion t£fc male • 3-5 white to pinkish white eggs with heavy brown, lavender, and gray
jg
blotches; long and pointed to very round, but most ovate, 0.9 x 0.7 inches.

Plumage Migration Wei 6 ht

Sexes simUar Migratory 1.5 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

462 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
TYRANNIDAE jy rannus dominicensis 9 inch< i 4 5 _i 6 inches
.

Gray Kingbird
A common inhabitant of the Caribbean islands, the
Gray Kingbird usually nests in the United States
along the coastlines of Georgia, Florida, and eastern
Alabama. It is common in the Florida Keys. In » blackish mask
Florida this bird generally nests in mangrove
swamps, eating fruit from tropical trees, insects,
and an occasional lizard. Superficially similar to pale gray
upperparfs • I long,
the Eastern Kingbird, this bird has paler gray
thick bill
upperparts, a noticeable black mask, a very
large bill, and a forked tail without any white
dark blackish
on the tips of the tail feathers. A red patch on brown wings Jp
the crown is seldom visible. with whitish -• mostly white

• SONG Call is insectlike peCHEER-ry, edge: underparts

with accent on the second syllable. Also

gives harsh, trill calls of trii-ill-ill-it.
-• pale yellowish
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs; forms wash on belly and
small flocks in winter. Conspicuous; often undertail coverts

seen perched on Perches at

utility wires.
mid to high levels and sallies to catch
flying insects. Often catches insects low
black feet
over water's surface. Sometimes eats
and legs
various worms or caterpillars from
ground or nearby foliage. May hover
briefly to pick up insects, fruits,
berries, or lizards. Often found in
towns. Aggressively defensive
around nest and nesting territory,
chasing and attacking larger birds, Similar Birds

cats, dogs, and sometimes humans. Eastern Kingbird

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester.
Smaller
blackish
bill;

tail
rounded
with white
• NP2STING Breeding biology poorly known. terminal band; blackish
Incubation estimated at 16-18 days by female. Altricial young head without mask;
white underparts with
stay in nest an estimated 16-20 days. Fed by both sexes.
grayish wash across
1-2 broods per year. breast; shallow, stiff-

• POPULATION Increasing in interior of Florida. Locally winged flight; different

common in that state and Caribbean. Casually to rarely wanders

to Maritimes in fall and west along Gulf Coast to Texas. Accidental
elsewhere inland.
Flight Pattern • Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Vulnerable
to loss of coastal habitat,
particularly mangroves.
Buoyant fluttering direct flight with
shallow wing beats. Sallies to
Formerly known to breed in
hawk
insects, returning to perch. Sometimes South Carolina, but breeding
hovers over food, then dips to pick it up. range may be declining.

Nest Identification Lined with fine grass, twigs, and roots • flimsy, often showing eggs and young
through bottom • among coastal mangrove branches or other trees on horizontal
branch 4-50 feet above ground • built by both sexes • 3-5 pale pink to buff eggs
Shape Location
with brown, lavender, and gray blotches; oval to long oval, 1 x 0.7 inches.

Plumage Sexes simi

ar ,
Habitat
^ Migration
Migratory Weight
L5 Qunces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 463
Family Species Length 9 inches Wingspan 15 inchc
XYRANNIDAE jy rannus caudifasciatUL
.

LOGGERHEAD KINGBIRD
A native of the West Indies, the Loggerhead
Kingbird is spotted rarely in southernmost
Florida. In the Caribbean this bird is also
called the Tom Fighter or Hard Head
Bird because of its tendency to
aggressively defend its nesting
territory from predators.
Characteristic markings
include the large black bi
black head, white-edged
blackish wing coverts,
white underparts, and
buff-tipped tail feathers.
Unlike other kingbirds,
its flight is undulating.
• SONG Often silent.
Call is loud churring,
rolling teeerrp. Makes
series of similar
notes during
courtship or Similar Birds
when agitated,
E ksi ern Kingbird
teerrr, teerrr,
Smaller; much smaller
Song is
teerrr. brownish pale yellowish bill; dark gray back;
seldom heard on black tail with wash on lower grayish wash on breast;
buff-edged tip belly and crissum blackish tail with wide
breeding grounds. •
white terminal band
• Behavior shallow, stiff-w inged

Solitary or in pairs. flight; docs not

undulate.
Frequents wooded habitats where it is easily overlooked in the
crowns of trees or hunts from middle to low-level perches. Gray Kingbird
Pale grayish upperparts
Often sits quietly, sallying to catch flying insects and returning
and head; blackish
to perch. Sometimes eats berries and lizards. mask through eyes;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. notched tail lacks pale
tips • fluttering,
• NESTING Breeding poorly known. Incubation estimated at buoyant flight; does not
15-16 days by female. Altricial young estimated to fledge nest undulate • different
in 18-20 days. Fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year.

• POPULATION Casual in southern F lorida. Fairlv common i

.or

Flight Pattern • Conservation

Vulnerable to habitat loss due to
deforestation of hardwoods and
pine forests (where it often
retreats in late spring).
Alternates several rapid shallow wing beats
with short periods of wings pulled to sides.
Sallies from perch to snatch flying insects.

Nest Identification Twigs, grasses, stems, bark, and plant fibers • ined with plant down, moss,
]

horsehair, and other fine materials • on horizoi tal branch 8-25 feet above ground
• built by both sexes • 3-5 creamy buff or pinl .ish eggs with brown and purple
Shape Location <£fc jq.
blotches; oval to long oval, 1 x 0.7 inches.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
^ Migration
Nonmigratory We « ht 1 .5 ounces

DAT TIME LOCATION

464 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family S pec es fyrannus Length Wingspan 14.25-15.5
TYRANNIDAE 11>5 _ 15 inches
i

forficatm inches

SGISSOR-TAILED FLYCATCHER
Unmistakable, graceful, and beautiful, the Scissor-tailed Flycatcher, pale gray
head •
often seen darting above grasslands, is named for the way it opens
and closes its tail like a pair of scissors. During courtship the male
performs a spectacular sky dance.»From about a hundred feet above
the ground, the male suddenly plunges, flies in a zigzag pattern
with a trilling cackle, then flies straight up and falls over
backward in two or three backward somersaults,
pale gray
displaying his long streaming tail. upperparts
He repeats this courtship flight, sometimes
until the eggs are hatched. In flight the dark brown
salmon-pink and red can be seen
axiliaries wings arit/i

white edgi
Juveniles are paler overall with a yellow to
salmon wash on the underparts and a short tail

• SONG A harsh sharp bile or kew. Calls also

include a dry, buzzing chattering ka-quee-ka-
quee or repeated ka-lup.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. At
night roosts communally (except
nesting females) in groups that
may number more than 200.
Gregarious in migration
and winter; often in °" ter ed &s and white belm
n , , <4&%Z2r with black inner edges
spectacular flocks.

FORK-TAILED
FLYCATCHER
Casual to accidental
vagrant • black head;
long, deeply forked
black tail; white
Perches on branches, utility wires, and fences; often sits for
underparts and wing
hours to spot bees, wasps, and other flying insects, then catches linings.
them in midair. Often hunts from low perches, searching for
grasshoppers and crickets on the ground. Can perform very Western Kingbird
Similar to juvenile \\ ith
acrobatic flight.
short tail but has olive-
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. green-tinted back;
bright lemon-yellow
• NESTING Incubation 14— 7 days by female. 1 Altricial young underparts; squared tail.

stay in nest 14-16 days. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Common in open country with scattered trees,
prairies, scrublands, farmlands.

Flight Pattern Accidental to casual across

much of North America. Small
wintering population in central
to south Florida.
Light buoyant direct w
wing
flight
beats. Sallies to catch insects in
ith shallow • Conservation
flight, returning to perch. Hovers briefly Neotropical migrant. Rare host
over prey before dipping to pick it up. to cowbirds.

Nest Identification Lined with twigs, weeds, rootlets, grass, and hair • on horizontal limb or fork
tree or shrub or utility pole, post, building, or other man-made structure
7-40 feet above ground • built by female • 3-6 whitish eggs with reddish,
Shape
brown, olive, and gray blotches; ovate to rounded ovate, 0.9 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Sexes simi Habitat Migration Weight

ar , _j Migratory j 5

DATE TIME .OCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 465

Family Species Length Wingspan }5 incht

TYRANNIDAE jyrannus savana 14>5 inches

FORK-TAILED FLYCATCHER
Also known as the Swallow-tailed Flycatcher,
this bird often
flocks of more than
is seen at
normal
fifty
ground
and in
birds in
tropical range from southern Mexico to southern
South America. The Fork-tailed Flycatcher is
level
its

black head
0
easily identified by its deeply forked black tail and
black cap. A yellow patch on its crown is usually
pale gray
concealed. Wandering vagrants are casual in Texas
upperparts
and along the Atlantic Coast and accidental
elsewhere from the Gulf Coast to California to the
Great Lakes states and southern Canada. Many black bill
observations have been of juveniles, which
resemble adults but have shorter tails.
white chin,
throat, and
underparts

• SONG Call is abrasive repeated liquid sik or plik. Also utters lower, bleating ek-ek-ek-ek-ek-ek,
etc. During courtship flights male makes rapid, clicking, sharp dry rattle with wings.
• BEHAVIOR communally (except nesting females) with
Solitary or in pairs. At night roosts
up hundred birds. Gregarious during nonbreeding season. Often perches low within
to several
3 feet of ground in savannas and other open, grassy country.
Sallies up and hawks insects in air or drops to pick them off Similar Birds
ground. Plucks berries and fruits in flight and eats them. Males SCISSOR-TAILED
perform a slow butterfly-like courtship flight. FLY( VI ( III R
Pale pearly gray
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester.
upperparts and head;
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Incubation salmon-pink sides,
flanks, and underwing
estimated 14-17 days by female. Altricial young estimated to fly
linings; red axillars.
at 14-17 days. Fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year.

• POPULATION Casual to accidental in North America.

• Conservation
Flight Pattern Deforestation in tropics and
expansion of agricultural land
including grassy fields, has
T~
probably aided this species.
Swift flight with shallow wing beats and
long rippling tail streamers. Sallies to snatch
insects in flight, then returns to perch.

Nest Ident ifica tio n Grasses, plant fibers, leaves, and bark shreds • lined with seed down, plant
down, and hair • on horizontal branch of tree or shrub 3-35 feet above ground

Shape
• built by female • 2-3 glossy white eggs wreathed with chocolate and lilac
spots; oval to long oval, 0.9 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei § ht

Sexes simi , ar Migratory 1 .0 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

466 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family s P ecies Pachyramphus aglaiae Len §th Wj ngspan
Tyranmoak j
6.5-7.25 inches n 5 nches
;

Rose-throated Begard
The brilliant rose-colored throat
distinguish this stocky big-headed flycatcher. Often
nesting on or very near the same site year after year,
it may take weeks to build its
of the male helps

huge globular nest,

blockish cap
nape, extending
down to eyes
and

C
rose or rose-pink
which is 1-2.5 feet in size and hangs from the tip patch on lower

of a drooping tree branch high above the ground

throat and
upper breast
or over water. A native of Mexico and Central
America, its range includes parts of southeast
Arizona and southeast Texas. The race
occurring in Texas is darker overall; males
pale gray
have blackish upperparts and dark gray
underparts
underparts, and the rose patch on the throat
ismuch reduced or absent. Texas females
have a sooty black crown and deeper buff to
tawny cinnamon underparts. Juveniles are
similar to adult females.
• SONG Call is a sad downslurred whistled
tseeoou, often preceded by a reedy chatter.
Alarm note is a soft peek. Has a rarely heard
song at dawn, which is plaintive, reedy
and long-continued, wheeuu-whyeeeuur,
wheeuu-whyeeeuur.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs
After nesting season may join
mixed-species foraging flocks.
Sits quietly, almost motionless,
hidden in foliage on branch at pale bu ff
middle levels in clearing, underparts

opening, or forest edge, watching

for insects. Easily overlooked.
Catches insects in flight. Eats insects
their larvae, and some wild fruits and
berries. Also frequents canopy.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary.
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Estimated
incubation 15-17 days by female. Young altricial; brooded by
female; stay in nest 19-21 days, fed by both sexes. Has 1 brood
per year.

Flight Pattern
• POPULATION Casual to
rare in southeastern Arizona and
in the lower Rio Grande Valley
area of Texas.

Weak flights, often of short duration, with

• CONSERVATION
rapid shallow wing beats. Sallies forth to Neotropical migrant. Rare host
take insects in flight or off foliage. to cowbird parasitism.

Nest Identification Lichen, bark, vine, pine needles, spider web, and feathers, lined with finer
materials • hangs from branch of tree, 13-70 feet above ground • built by both
sexes, but female does most • 2-6 white or creamy white eggs, with brown
Shape
^ ft blotches: short subelliptical, 0.9 x 0.7 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat
A ^^ Migration rj
S 5irds migrate We '£ ht 1.1 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMFRICA • 467

Family Species Length g.5-9.5 Win S s P an 5- 6 inches

TYRANNIDAE Tityw sem jfascjata i nches 1 1

Masked Tityra
A native of Mexico with a range extending south to Brazil,
this bird has been found once
in southeastern Texas. pinkish red ryes,
When observed in its usual range it often is seen fare, and base of
black-tipped bill
perched or foraging high in the trees with several
other tityras and other species of birds. The fruit
eating tityra is immediately conspicuous and
distinctive with its pale silvery gray and white
or brownish gray and white plumage and its
pinkish red bill, bare lores, bare eye ring,
and nasal grunting reek-rack vocalizations.
Juveniles resemble females but have a
browner wash on paler upperparts and
black
a narrower white tip to the tail. wings
• SONG A soft buzzy froglike rreek,
rreek or rreek, rrack, with second
note higher. Sometimes a longer
series with other dry insectlike
notes is inserted.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in
pairs. Sometimes in small groups.
Often forages with other species
from middle levels to canopy.
Perches conspicuously on bare
branches to hawk insects,
sing, or preen. Eats various
insects and fruits, but fruits
seem to make up bulk
of
diet.Hover-gleans fruit Female
from branches and foliage
and hops along branches
to chase insects and the
occasional small lizard.
Similar Birds
• Breeding
No other bird in US vagrant range has
Monogamous. Solitary black
similar plumage pattern combined
subterminal band
nester or small loose colonies. with bare pinkish red facial skin and
on pale gray tail
black-tipped reddish
• NESTING Estimated incubation bill.

14-16 days by female. Female covers eggs with leaves and

blossoms when absent from
nest. Young altricial; brooded by
Flight Pattern
female; stay in nest about
14 days, fed by both sexes.
2 broods per year.

Swift bounding flight with rapid wing

• POPULATION Accidental in

beats alternated with wings pulled briefly

North America in lower Rio
to sides; sallies to take insects in flight. Grande Vallev of Texas.

Nest Identification No nest materials • cavity partially filled with leaf litter fragments, twigs,
and flowers • in hollow of tree, 11-100 feet above ground • built by female
• 2-3 dark buff eggs, heavily marbled with brown; oval to short oval,
Shape
B- 1.0x0.8 inches.

Plumage
Sexes djffer Habitat^ ^_ ^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei § ht 2.8 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

468 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species
LANIIDAE Lanius ludovidanus Len Sth 9 inches Wingspan 12.5-13
inches

Loggerhead Shrike _______• large head

1 his large-headed bird with whitish
underparts is one of two shrike species

that nest and breed in North America.

Known as the "Butcher Bird" ,

across its range, this adept hunter

black mask meets in a
usually perches in the open to
lender line over beak
watch for prey. It has the
unusual behavior of caching
bluish gray upperparts
the bodies of its prey by
suspending them impaled on
a plant spine or the barbed
wire of a fence. The caches
may serve as larder for future
use, to soften the food for
easier rendering, or to
passively advertise the
presence of the territory
and its owner. Juveniles Juvenile
have brownish upperparts
Similar Birds
and more distinctly
deader black North krn Shrikk
barred underparts.
tail with white Larger; paler head and
• SONG Variety of outer feathers back; narrower mask
squeaking notes and low does not meet above
warbles, delivered in slow bill; larger, more deeply
hooked bill, often pale
deliberate phrases, often repeated
at base of lower
queedle, queedle. Call is a grating shak-shak. mandible; barred
• BEHAVIOR breeding
Solitary. Pairs in
underparts; bobs tail

• juvenile much
season. Often sits immobile, hawklike, watching browner.
for prey for long periods. Flies down to catch prey with bill or
Northern
sharp claws; also catches insects in flight. Eats small rodents, mo< kingbird
birds, reptiles, amphibians, and insects. Pair defends territory in Longer thinner
breeding season but defend separate territories in winter. straighter bill; lighter
wings w ith larger white
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. patches; paler tail with
• NESTING Incubation 6— 7 days by female. 1 1 Young altricial; more extensive white
in miter feathers; head
brooded by female; stay in nest 17-21 days, fed by both sexes.
proportionally smaller.
2 broods per year (occasionally 3 in the South).

• POPULATION Fairly common in habitats with open fields and

scattered trees. Now rare over
Flight Pattern much of central part of range.
• Conservation Some are
neotropical migrants. Declining
seriously in coastal California,
the Northeast, and the eastern
Rapid High mi rapidly beating wings with
s of wings pulled t
brief perioc sides. »
Midwest due to habitat loss and
Often Hies ow across the grou nd. insecticide/pesticide use.

Nest Identification Twigs lined with grasses, string, feathers, and hair • in bush or tree, 8-15 feet
above ground (but as high as 50 feet) • built by female or sometimes both sexe;
• 4-7 w hite to grayish buff eggs, marked with grays, browns, or blacks, often
Shape
concentrated near large end; oval to long oval, 1.0 x 0.74 inches.

Plumage Scxcs simi ar i

Migration
Migratory Wei S ht 1.7 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NOR I I I AMERICA • 469

Species Length 9 _ Wingspan

Fami| y
laniidae i anjus excubitor ]() mchc; 13i5 _ 16-5 mchcs

Northern Shrike white h

1
</ 'fieri'mi

above bill*
Perched high in the treetops, this robin-sized bird en-

acts as a sentry, often uttering loud warning calls

to other birds as it scans the landscape tor prey.

The larger and more northerly distributed of
the two shrikes that nest and breed in North
America, it is aggressive and will attack pale gray i

large hooked
Blue Jays or other birds larger than itself, uipperpa)'/•
bill, often with
/7//c/ //re///
especially in defending its caches. pale base to
Irruptive movements south in the lower mandible

winter seem to be correlated with the

availability of prey species, especially
small mammals. In flight the white
• whitish
wing patches, white rump, and white
underparts with
outer tail feathers contrast against the faint barring
black wings and female is
tail. The
similar to the male but duller and
sometimes more brown. Young birds
are browner than adults and have
heavier barring on their underparts.
• SONG Sings a low disjointed
jerky thrasherlike song of clear
notes and phrases, some musical,
interspersed with grating shrieks.
Call is a shak-shak. Also imitates
calls of other birds.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary. Pairs in
Loggerhead Shrike
breeding season. Hunts in
Smaller; darker head
daytime. Perches in prominent ami hack; gray CO white
.11 A'HMI.Ii
lookout to spot prey; catches prey rump; u ider mask
with beak, stuns it, and often impales it on sharp thorns or extending above eye
and across hill; smaller
branches until ready to eat. Caches food for later use in this and less strongly
manner. Feeds on small mammals, mostly rodents, small birds, hooked black hill; gray
and insects. Aggressive in pursuit of prey. White in tail and underparts with \ ery
taint or no barring
white wing patches flash in flight.
• juveniles are gray-
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. brown and lightly

• NESTING Incubation 15— 16 days by female. Young altricial:

barred.

brooded by female; stay in nest 20 days, fed by both sexes. First

flight at about 20 days, but fed

Flight Pattern
by both sexes for 10 more days
or longer. 1 brood per year.

V • Population Uncommon
in taiga (boreal forest) in
clearings, open areas, and edges.
Sw ift undulating flight on shallow rapid • FEEDERS Raw hamburger,
wing beats, often low to the ground.
suet. Also hunts feeder visitors.

Nest Identification
Sticks lined with feathers, hair, and fine materials • in tree or shrub, 12-20 feet
above ground • built by both sexes • 4—9 grayish or greenish white eggs, heavily
Shape blotched with olive, brown, and lavender; oval to long oval, 1.1 x 0.8 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simj j ar
Habitat^ ^_ j£ Migration
Moratory Weight
3 ounces
2 .j.

DATE IME LOCATION

470 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len Sth Wingspan
VlRKONIDAK j.
ireo grtseus Sinchc g jnches

White-eyed Vireo
Preferring to hide in the dense foliage of
brushy thiekets, this bird is known for
uttering an explosive jumble of phonetic
sounds and phrases, typically beginaing
and ending the song with a sharp chick!
Sometimes it will mimic the songs and grayish olive
calls of other birds by incorporating upperpart.
their vocalizations into the jumbled
middle portion of its rather
unvireo-like song. Its white iris

can be seen only at close range.

Juveniles are paler overall
with gray to brown irises.

• SONG Abrasive chik,

ticha wheeyo chile.

Mnemonics for the

variable song differ
from region to region,
but the standard generic
one is quick-with-the-beer-
checkl Individuals vary
their songs and often omit
either the introductory or
mite uriderpart. Similar Birds
the ending chick. Call is a
Bell's vireo
wrenlike mewing note, a
Smaller; greenish back;
rasping rattle, and a sharp tick! yellowish underparts;
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. May join mixed foraging grayish face, crown, and
nape; faint white
flocks in fall migration. Usually remains hidden close to the
spectacles; one bold and
ground in blackberry thickets, thick brushy tangles, thick forest one faint white wingbar;
undergrowth, or the forest edge. Perches higher to sing. Often dark brown eye.

sings in winter. Gleans food from stems, branches, and foliage. Yellow-throated
Eats insects, snails, spiders, fruits, berries, and small lizards. Vireo
Yellow chin, throat, and
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. Courting male
breast; gray rump;
postures before female with whining calls of yip, yip, yah while bright yellow
puffing up his feathers and spreading his tail. spectacles; lacks white
different song.
• NESTING Incubation 12-1 6 days by both sexes. Altricial
iris;

young stay in nest 10-12 days. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per
year, 2 in the South.

Flight Pattern
• Population Fairly
common to common. Casual
vagrant to the West.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Parasiti zed
Relatively rapid direct flight short. frequently by cowbirds.
rounded wings.
1^
Nest Identification Twigs, rootlets, bark coarse grass, and leaves; bound with silk • lined with
strips,

fine grass and hangs between fork in twigs at the end of a branch of
fibers •

Shape .j^ * shrub or small tree 1-8 feet above ground • built by both sexes • 3-5 white
eggs spotted with brown and black; oval, 0.74 x 0.55 inches.

Plumage Sexcs sim ;,

ar
Habitat^ ^ Migration
Mj gratory Weight
Q 4 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 471

Family Species Length s Wingspan

viREONIDAE Vj, ro miss jrostrjs I
5 jnchcs
I

8 5 inches

Thick-billed Vireo
broken yellow
\ agrants of this Caribbean native species sometimes
spectacles
are spotted inhabiting the dense shrubbery of coastal
mangroves in southeastern Florida or the Florida
Keys. However, many reports from southern
brown in
Florida probably are misidentifications of
grayish
juvenile White-eyed Vireos with paler brazil in
coloration and dark irises. Thick-billed
large stall/
Vireos have brownish green upperparts brownish green gray bill
(not gray as in the White-eyed Vireo), upperparts
including their nape, broken yellow
spectacles, and a stouter grayer bill. ? white wing

More often heard than seen, this bars on dark

brown wings
bird is easily overlooked because
it frequents thickets and dense
undergrowth where it moves
pale yellowish
deliberately, often silently.
underparts
• SONG Loud, constant shading to white
singer. Sings 10-12 mi the crissum

variations of song, with each

one similar to the next;
energetic chip chip WEEEoo
chip. Sings as it moves
through the vegetation. Call
is rasping waaa, waaa, waaa.

• Behavior Solitary or
in pairs. Forages low, mostly
2-12 feet high, in shrubbery,
Similar Birds
thickets,dense
undergrowth, and trees for Willi K-EYED VIREO
Smaller; smaller black
food. Eats insects, spiders, small
bill; white iris; gray-
fruits, and berries. Tame; readily comes to squeaking or pishing olive upperparts; gray
sounds, making it an easy species to call for viewing. head and nape; white
underparts with yellow
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. wash on sides and
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by both sexes. Altricial flanks; complete yellow
spectacles • juvenile
young fledge nest at 10-12 days. Fed by both. 1 brood per year.
has erav or brown iris.
• POPULATION Accidental or casual in southeastern Florida
and the Florida Keys. Common in Caribbean range.
• Conservation Primary
Flight Pattern habitatexpanding with human
settlement and the resulting
deforestation, agricultural
expansion, and ornamental
plantings.
Relatively rapid direct flight on short
rounded wings.

Nest Identification Grasses and covered outside with moss, pieces of bark, and sometimes bits of
paper or rag • lined with soft plant fibers, down, and grasses • hangs in fork near
end of branch • built by both sexes • 2-3 white or pale pink eggs thinly marked
Shape
with blackish or reddish spots; oval, 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Habitat ^_ Migration Wei S ht 0.5

Sexes sjmi , ar : Nonmigratory

DATE TIME LOCATION

472 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Wingspan
VlREONIDAE Vjreo bemi 4.75 inche; 7 _ 8 inches

Bell's Vireo
This small plain bird is the western counterpart of
the White-eyed Vireo. It is a frequent victim of the
Brown-headed Cowbird, which often lays eggs in
its nest - the vireo often respond* by building a
very faint
new floor in the nest, covering the cowbird's white spectacles
grayish
face, crown,
eggs and own. Although these birds
its greenish to
(iiid nape
grayish buck
actively forage during the day they are
most often detected by their
frequent singing. Overall
plumage varies across
its range, from the
eastern and
midwestern
birds,which 2 (.sometimes only 1 )*r
have greenish faint white bars on
blackish bill,
each w ing
upperparts and slightly flattened
yellowish underparts, with hookt d tip
to the West Coast race,
"» white to yellowish
which has gray upperparts
inula parts
and whitish underparts.
• SONG Male sings husky rapid jumble of
question-and-answer-sounding phrases such as cheadle cheadle
cheel cheadle cheadle chew\ Often a phrase with rising inflection,
Similar Birds
followed by one that ends with a descending note. An active
singer, may sing 8-17 songs a minute. Incubating males may Gr w Vireo
I /arger; gray overall;
sometimes sing from the nest. Call notes are harsh and scolding.
paler underparts; one or
im,
• BEHAVIOR Secretive and active. Often pumps tail. Sings
.,

two faint w inn bars;

distinct eye ring;
often, rev ealing its presence in the thickets (particularly
different song.
riparian),hedgerows, and scrub that it frequents. Eats variety of
insects gleaned from the stems, branches, and foliage; also some White-eyed Vireo
Juvenile • dark eyes;
fruits and berries. Courting male actively chases female,
gray ish olive
spreading tail, fluttering wings, and constantly singing. upperparts; whitish
underparts with wash of
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. yellow on sides and
• NESTING Incubation 14 days by both sexes. Young altricial; flanks; yellow

stay in nest 1 1-12 days, fed by both sexes. 2 broods per year. spectacles; two w lute
wing bars; voice differs.
• POPULATION Uncommon; declining in some regions. Some
western riparian populations endangered.
• CONSERVATION
Flight Pattern Declining in Midwest and
California from habitat loss,
especially riparian habitat in
aridand semiarid landscapes;
frequent cowbird parasitism.
Relatively rapid direct flight with shallow Neotropical migrant.
v\ inji, beats.

Nest Identification Pry leaves, shredded bark, plant fibers, and spider cocoons, lined with fine gras
down, and hair • hung from fork in tree or shrub or suspended b\ rim between
Shape Location * two limbs • 1—5 feet above ground • built by both sexes • 3—5 white eggs,
usually dotted with black or brown; oval, 0.7 \ 0.5 inches.

P'umage Sexes
similar Habltat
j*. «L SS5 J* Migration
M Wei S ht 0.3 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 473

Family Species Length Wingspan 8 jnchcs

VlREONIDAE Vim) (/nm/f)i//lls I
4 s inchcs I

Black-capped Vireo
1 he Black-capped Vireo is a federally listed endangered
species. Difficult to spot because it forages among oak- broken white
scrub and dense thickets, it is a persistent singer spectairles

often deteeted by its song. The male's black eap and glossy

broken white spectacles are distinctive. Females black

can be identified by the slate-gray cap; juvenile olive

females have more buff-colored plumage. In the upperparts

fall, this bird migrates southwest, wintering

along the w estern coast of Mexico.
• SONG Persistent hurried series of twittering
insistent 2- or 3-note phrases suggestive of
come here, right-now-quick I'Gall note is ji-dit,

similar to Ruby-crowned Kinglet.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs.
white underparts
Secretive. Searches restlessly for food
in deep cover among trees and
yellow flanks
thickets, looking for insects, their
eggs, and larvae. Also eats small
spiders and small fruits and blue-gray
berries.During fluttering legs andfeet
display flight, male sings
slaty-gray
courtship song to female
to bluish
or follows her, singing gray head*
and spreading tail.

• Breeding
Monogamous. Solitary.
• Nesting
Incubation 14-17 days Similar Birds
by both sexes; female
Blue-headed Vireo
at night and both sexes
Female or juvenile
alternating during day. • larger; uray hood;
Young altricial; stay in nest white spectacles and
throat; olive-green back;
10-12 days, fed by both sexes. Femali yellow ish white wing
2broods per year. bars and edging on
• POPULATION Endangered. Uncommon to fairly common tertials; greenish yellow
edging on secondaries.
and local. Extirpated over much of its former range.
• CONSERVATION Cowbird brood parasitism a factor, with more
than 90 percent of vireo nests
Flight Patte parasitized in some areas, such
as the Edwards Plateau in
Texas. An additional known
factor is the loss of oak-juniper
habitat, primarily due to the
Somewhat weak fluttering direct flight development of land.
rapidly beating wings.

Nest Identification
Vegetation, including twigs, bark, and leaves, bound with silk and lined with fine
grasses, 1—15 feet in scrub oak or other short deciduous tree • built by both sexes
Shape • 3-5 white eggs, unmarked; oval, 0.7 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexcs diffcr Habitat
^ ^_ Migration
Migratory Wei S ht
0.3 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

474 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len § th 5.5 Wingspan
VlREONIDAE Yireo vicinior inches I g 75 inches

Gray Vireo
The Gray Vireo is most often found in arid
thorn scrub, chaparral, and pinon-juniper or
white eye ring
oak-juniper on the slopes in mountainous
regions. It forages in low undergrowth.
This bird is distinguished from other vireos
black bill
by its plain gray plumage, narrow white gray back • ^
eye ring, and two indistinct wing bars .Jp^
(sometimes only the lower one can jfl
be seen from a distance). The Gray
Vireo also is identified by its
unique tendency among vireos
to flick its long tail

gnatcatcher-like. A short-
distance migrant, the whitish
Gray Vireo winters underparts
brownish
in Mexico.
• Song Song
musical; a hesitant
and slightly jerky,
patchy chu-wee, chu-
wee, che-weet, chee,
ch-churr-weet, similar
toPlumbeous Vireo
but less throaty. Plumbeous Vireo
Males often sing Heavier body; shorter

with varying inflections. tail, not pumped or

flicked; bold white
In alarm, scolds wrenlike, issuing a low harsh chum or schray. spectacles; two bold
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs; small family groups in wing bars; olive-gray
wash and streaking on
nesting season. Hops and flicks tail with jerky movements from
sides and flanks.
low- to mid-level perches 1-12 feet above ground. Often stays
Bell's Vireo
concealed in dense foliage of trees and brush, including junipers
Smaller; two faint wing
and sagebrush. Feeds on variety of insects, which it gleans from bars; faint white
branches, foliage, or ground. spectacles; olive to gray
upperparts; yellow to
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. whitish underparts;
• NESTING Incubation 13-14 days by both sexes. Young does not wag or flick

13-14 days and are fed by both sexes. tail; voice differs.
altricial; remain in nest
2 broods per year.
• Population Fairly

Flight Pattern common. Mostly stable. Some

decline in California. Accidental
in Wisconsin.
• Conservation Frequent
victim of brood parasitism by
Weak somewhat flutteri flight cowbirds; often covers eggs with
rapidly beating wings.
new nest.

Nest Identification Grasses, twigs, shredded bark, leaves, spider webs, and insect cocoons;
lined with fine grass • 2-6 feet above ground in shrub • built by both sexes
• 3-5 rose-colored eggs, with brown spots, especially near large end; oval,
Shape
0.7 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
g exes simikr Habitat
# ^ Migration
Mi g ratory Weight
05

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OK NORTH AMKRICA • 475

Family Species Len 6th Wingspan 0>5 inch(

VlREONIDAE Vl reo flavifrons 5.5 inchc

Yellow-throated Vireo
(Considered the most brilliantly eolored vireo, this bird
is most often observed in deeiduous forests. Its
yellow
characteristic song is a series of short phrases similar in
spectacle.
pattern to several other vireos in its range but with
long pauses between phrases and a coarse quality. olive-green
• SONG Burry series of 2-note or sometimes 3- head W * slightly hooked
black bill
note phrases with hesitantly long pauses olive-green
between them sounding like f/iree-EIGHT, upperpan
bright yellow throat,
three-EIGHT. . . three-EIGHT, repeated hi//, ///id breast
with the pattern and quality of a
Blue-headed Vireo with a M • 2 white wing bars
sore throat. Calls harsh,
nasal, accelerating,
rapid series of cheh,
cheh, cheh notes.

• -white belly, flanks,

and crissum

brownish black
wings

gray ley
and feet

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. In autumn migration may

form mixed foraging flocks. Generally forages in treetops, eating Similar Birds

mostly insects. Also eats some small fruits and berries. In

courtship male performs nest-building display, singing and
crouching before female. He often begins several nests in his
territory before pairing.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester.
A Pine Warbler
Slender, pointed
slightly notched
yellow chin and throat;
yellow breast and sides
with dusky streaking;
thin, broken yellow eye
bill;

tail;

• NESTING Incubation 14 days by both sexes. Altricial young ring; narrow yellow
stay in nest 14 days. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year. superciliary mark; thin,
straight black bill; white
• POPULATION Fairly common and stable overall but
tail spots.
declining in the Northeast (particularly in areas with insecticide
spraying of shade trees) and increasing in the upper Midwest. Rare
vagrant in the West; casual in
Flight Pattern winter in south Florida.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Common
brood parasite host for Brown-
headed Cowbird; sometimes
Relatively weak fluttering direct flight builds second floor to cover its
with rapid wing beats.
own eggs as well as cowbird's.

Nest Identification Grass covered with lichens • lined with grass, shredded bark, spider webs, and
cocoons • in deciduous trees 3-60 feet above ground • built by both sexes • 3-5
white to pinkish white eggs with brown spots, especially neat large end; oval,
Shape
0.7 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
^^ Migration
Migratory Wei S ht 0.6
-
ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 —
476 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
VlREONIDAE Vire() pium fmiS 5 25 jnches g 5 jnches

Plumbeous Vireo
Formerly considered the grayest inland
western race of the Solitary Vireo, this gray head and
species was recently split from that upperparts
complex. A bird of the Rocky » blackish hill
Mountain environs, it breeds at
almost ten thousand feet and bold white
olive-tinged gray
frequents pines and pine-oak spectacles broken
sides of breast
by dusky lores
forests. It is much grayer than
its two sibling species, with
whitish throat
an olive-gray rump and
and underparts
mostly devoid of any J white wing
yellow, which, if present, bars and white
edged flight
shows as a wash on the
feathers
gray-streaked flanks.
dusky •
• SONG Varied; hesitant wash on
pauses and coarse nasal flanks
phrases much like a
hoarse Blue-headed Vireo blackish •
or a Cassin's Vireo, chureeh brown win<'s
ch-ireef, ch-reeh cg-ireet, often and tail
repeated. Calls a chattering cheh-
cheh-cheh, cheh, often accelerating.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Similar Birds

Forages and perches from mid to
Cassin's Vireo
high levels in trees. Deliberately Smaller; less gray
searches for insects, which it gleans overall; greenish gray

from the foliage or bark surfaces. head and upperparts;

olivewash on sides and
Takes a few fruits and berries, especially in fall. Male performs flanks.
nest-building courtship display, crouching low in front of female
Gray Vireo
and spreading tail. May chase female in courtship flight.
Not as heavily built;
Incubating and brooding birds sit tightly on the nest, sometimes paler upperparts; long
allowing themselves to be touched by humans. that it flicks and
tail

pumps; more faint

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. wing liars (lower one
• NESTING Incubation 14— 15 days by both sexes. Young more prominent); lacks
spectacles; has white
brooded by female and fed by both sexes, but mostly
altricial;

by male. Fledge at 14-15 days. 1 brood per year.

• POPULATION Fairly common in varied pine and pine-oak
woodland habitats. Accidental

Flight Pattern in Louisiana; other eastern

records are unconfirmed.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Fairly
common victim of cowbird
Somewhat weak fluttering direct flight parasitism. Vulnerable to habitat
on rapidly beating wings.
loss due to logging.

Nest Identification Bark, grasses, plant fibers, and spider web, lined with fine grasses and plant
down • suspended between fork near tip of branch in tree or bush • 4—30 feet

above ground • built by both sexes • 3-5 white eggs, spotted at larger end with
Shape
reddish brown; oval, 0.7 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat^ ^_ m Migration
Moratory We 'g ht Undetermined

DATE TIME LOCATION

 t

BIRDS OK NORTH AMKRICA • 477

Family Species Length Wingspan

viREONIDAE II CO I '(/SSI HI I 5 jnchcs 8<5 ; nche .

Cassin's Vireo
Until the 1990s this bird and the Blue-headed and Plumbeous
Vireos were classified as one species - the Solitary Vireo.
Although similar to the Blue-headed Vireo, Cassins
olive-washed
differs in range and is duller in color with
grayish head \
dusky lores break
less white edging on flight
grayish olive to ring of white
feathers and tail. The
olive upperparts spectacles
male catches the blackish brown wing.
females attention with grayish olive
trim on second</ries blackish bill
bv fluffing out

^ grayish white throat

and underparts

2 thick white to pale

yellow wing bars and
blackish brown tail narrow tertial edgings
wh itt -trimmed outer
feathers and olive- olive es//

trimmed entralfeathers
t idl-
blue-gray
legs and feet
his bright yellow
flank feathers and bowing up
and down to her. Juvenile Cassins Similar Birds
females sometimes have greenish heads.
Plumbeous Vireo
• SONG A mixed jumble of hesitant phrases, punctuated by Slightly larger; thicker
short deliberate pauses, such as chreu ... ch'ree . .. choo'reet or ch-ree bill; gray head and

... ch-richi-roo, often repeated. upperparts; more

contrast between' white
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Forages high in trees by throat and head and
gleaning food from bark, branches, or foliage; sometimes hovers sides of breast; grayish
sides and flanks with
briefly to pick food off vegetation or catch insects in flight. Eats
grayish streaking and
insects, larvae, Frequents open coniferous,
and various fruits.
without strong yellow
coniferous-deciduous, pine-oak, or oak woodlands. Male wash.
performs nest-building display for female with no nesting Ill I K)\\ VIREO
material in mouth. Fairly tame on nest, allowing close approach. Smaller; white eye ring

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. breaks above eye; pale

lores; grayish olive
• NESTING Incubation 11-12 days by both sexes, but female upperparts; di ffere n
does more. Young altricial; stay in nest 12-14 days, fed by both voice • only in the West.

sexes. 1-2 broods per year.

• Population Fairly
Flight Pattern common. Casual winter in in
northwest California. Accidental

"T < in southeast Alaska, Oklahoma,

New York, and New Jersey.
• Conservation
Somew hat weak fluttering direct flight on
rapidly beating wings. May hover briefly Neotropical migrant. Vulnerable
to pick insect or fruit off vegetation. to habitat loss due to logging.

Nest Identification Twigs, fine grasses, and stems, lined with finer grasses and hair • in fork of twig
of tree or bush or set inmiddle of conifer, 4-30 feet above ground • built by both
Shape sexes • 3-5 white to creamy white eggs, with black and brown speckles; oval,
0.7 x 0..S inches.

Plumage
Sexes sjmi , ar
Habitat^ ^m Migration
Migratory Weight
[j ncJ e termined

DATE TIME LOCATION

478 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len eth Wingspan
VlRKONIDAE yj reo so/ifarius 5.25 inch< g>5 inches

Blue-headed Vireo
This bird makes its home in the thick coniferous
and mixed coniferous-deciduous forests of Canada
and the eastern United States, where it breeds
bright greenish white
southward through the southern Appalachians. olive bark • spectacles
The Appalachian race is larger, with yellow-washed
a bluish gray back and the wingbai

yellow-washed tertiah

white trig's on all but

central tail feathei

- white throat,
yellow wash on the
underparts being
^WM^SC. bremt and belly
>

greenish yellow
restricted to the flanks.
trim on dark
Most often solitary or in pairs secondaries
bright yellow sides
on breeding grounds, the female
and flanks sometimes
may allow a human
touch or petto mixed with green
her as she sits on her nest. At one time this
bird and the Cassins and Plumbeous Vireos all

were classified as one species, the Solitary Vireo.

• SONG Slow drawn-out phrases with deliberate pauses between
them, cherry-o-wit cheree
. sissy-a-wt, repeated frequently throughout the
. . . . .

day. High, clear, sweet, sometimes piercing notes. Call notes resemble a husky chatter.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Early spring migrant in the Southeast; the first vireo back in
the woods in spring. Gleans insects, its principal food, from treetops and branches. Sometimes
catches insects in midair or hovers briefly to pick them off
foliage or branches. Eats some fruits, especially in winter. Male Similar Birds
courts female with much bobbing, singing, and fluffing of Black-capped Vireo 9
yellowish flank feathers. Fairly tame. Smaller • shorter,
slimmer
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. bill; glossy-

black cap; red eye

• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by both sexes. Altricial • juvenile similar to

young stay in nest 12-14 days. Fed by both sexes. Occasionally female but has more
buff underparts.
2 broods per year, particularly in the Southeast.
• POPULATION Common in mixed woodla nds and at higher
elevations in southern
Flight Pattern Appalachians. Casual to
accidental in southwestern US.

< • Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Frequent
host to brood parasitism by
Somewhat weak, fluttering flight with rapid
wing beats. May hover briefly over prey Brown-headed Cowbirds.
and dip to pick it off branch or foliage.

Twigs, fine grass, shredded bark, stems, spider webs, and cocoons; decorated
Nest Identification
with lichens • lined with finer materials, including grasses and hair • in fork of

tree or bush or in middle of conifer 4-30 feet above ground • built by both sexes
Shape • 3-5 white eggs with black and brown markings, especially near large end; oval,
0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Ptumage
Sexes similar Habitat
^^ Migration
Migratory Wei § ht 0.6 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 479

Family Species Length

5 _ s s inches
Wingspan s ys inche
VlREONIDAE Wreogj/vM I

Warbling Vireo
\\ intering in Mexico and Central America, this
bird has the largest breeding range of any vireo
in the woodlands of North America. dusky gray
Although common over most of its postocular stripe
range, it is not well known by
many people other

indistinct stript
over eye

grayish hill with

dark ru linen

whitish breast
(sometimes with
than birders. yellowish wash)

The drab male

rapidly sings his
warbled phrases throughout
the day while perched near the Philadelphia Vireo
treetops. Sometimes this bird is Dark eye stripe; dark
lores; yellow wash on
difficult to spot, because its plumage is camouflaged.
throat and breast; white
• SONG Pleasant unhurried warble of 12-20 notes, ending supercilium contrasts
abruptly with mnemonic
of /'// seize you and III squeeze you and with dark gray crown;
dark primary coverts;
III squeeze you 'til you squirt! Western birds sing a higher, less
different voice.
musical song, often with breaks between introductory notes.
Tennessee Warbler
Call is abrasive, nasal, upslurred queeh.
Smaller, slender bill
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Found in treetops in lacks hook; gray crow n;

woodlands, shade trees in towns, and especially large trees in white supercilium; dark
lores and postocular
riparian zones. Forages for food high in trees and catches some 9 stripe; white undertail
insects in flight. Eats various insects, caterpillars, moth and ^^^s>*r 3v r coverts; greenish
butterfly eggs, and some fruits. upperparts; different
song • female, juvenile,
• BREEDING Monogamous. Sol itary nester. and fall male have
• NESTING Incubation 12 days by both sexes. Altricial young yellow-washed
underparts.
remain in nest 16 days. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Common. Widespread range is increasing.
• Conservation
Flight Patter Neotropical migrant. Common
host for brood parasitism by the
Brown-headed Cowbird. Has
declined in the East in areas

Weak
where shade trees are sprayed
fluttering flight with rapid wing
beats. Sometimes hovers briefly over with pesticides.
foliage or branch, dipping for insect.

Nest Identification Bark strips, leaves, vegetation fibers, and grass • hangs between fork toward

end of branch, twig, or sometimes shrub, usually 4-15 feet above ground
• built by both sexes • 3-5 white eggs spotted with brown and black; oval,
Shape
0.8 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes similaf Habitat
M^ _^ Migration
Migratory Wei S ht 0.5
ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

480 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
VlREONIDAE Species
Ymo philadelphkus Len ^th
4.75-5.25 inches w <ngspan 8 _ 9 inches

Philadelphia Vireo
First discovered near Philadelphia in the
gray cap
1840s, this quiet bird is the least known whitish
of the East Coast vireos. A late spring upercilium
migrant, it is easily overlooked
greenish
in the company of warblers, upperparts •
with which it often travels. short, thick, slightly
Furthermore, it seldom sings hooked black bill

in migration, a characteristic
that serves to draw even N» dark eye line extends

less attention to it.

through lores

Superficially similar to
-a nous shades of yellow on
the Red-eyed Vireo underparts, with brightest
in appearance color on breast and throat
and voice,

very faint grayish

olive mng bar

Similar Birds

it prefers the Tennessee Warbler

blue-gray legs Slender pointed bill;
mixed forests of northern
and feet bright olive upperparts;
New England and southern Canada. white undertail coverts;
• SONG On breeding territory, sings a high indistinct wing bar;
short tail • females,
drawn-out cherrie-o-witt, cheree, sissy-a-wit, tee-o, similar to song of juveniles, and fall males
Red-eyed Vireo, but thinner, higher-pitched, and slower. Call have yellowish wash on
note a low nasal rreh. underparts.

• BEHAVIOR Tame. Solitary or in pairs. Very active forager, Warbling Vireo

Olive-gray upperparts
often hanging upside down beneath foliage, chickadee-like, as it
and head; indistinct
picks off insects. Sometimes slow and deliberate foraging in
white superciliary line;
low- to mid-level vegetation. Gleans off leaves and branches pale lores; white or

and may feed while hovering. Eats a variety of insects, some whitish throat; white
underparts with
fruits and berries.
yellowish wash on sides
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. anil on flanks; lacks
wing bars.
• NESTING Incubation 14 days by both sexes. Young altricial;

remain in nest 12-14 days, fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Uncommon;
Flight Pattern stable. Casual to rare in the
West, mainly during migration
in the fall.

• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Rare host
Relatively weak fluttering flight with rapid
wing beats. Hovers briefly when foraging to to cowbird brood parasitism.
pick insects off foliage, bark, or branches.

Nest Identification Grasses, bark, moss, lichen, and plant down, silk and webbing of
hung by spider
insects • hung from 30-80 feet above ground • built
fork in small twig or branch,
by female • 3-5 white eggs, usually speckled brown and black, especially toward
Shape
9 large end; oval, 0.8 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
^ ^_ Migration
M jg ratory Weight () _j.

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 481

Family Species Length Wingspan 10 inches

VlREONIDAE Vireo olivaceus 6 inches

Red-eyed Vireo
One of the most abundant in North American
deciduous forests, this bird sings almost nonstop
from dawn to dusk and often all night. It
kite eyebrow
delivers its brief trilled phrases
outlined in hiark
as it sits on the nest,
forages for food,
even as it

swallow s insects.
A researcher
once totaled the
number of song stout
repetitions blackish
uttered by an bill

individual in one
summer day as a
remarkable 22,197 songs.
These "sermons" have lent
it the handle of "preacher

bird." The black-bordered white

eyebrow stripe distinguishes this
Si mi la 1

bird from other vireos. The red iris is

not visible at a distance; juveniles have a brown iris. Juveniles Black-whiskered

vireo
and autumn birds may have a yellowish wash on the flanks.
Larger bill; lacks dark
• SONGRepeated phrases and pauses, look up! see . . . border on upper side of
me? over here
. . .this way! higher still! Individuals sing
. . . . . .
eyebrow ; dull green
upperparts; black
many different repertoires. Call is whining nasal chewy! mustache mark;
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Picks food off leaves and different song • onh in

Sometimes hovers the Southeast.

twigs. to snatch food off foliage, bark, or
branch. Eats mostly insects; infall migration lots of fruits and Yellow-green Vireo
Defensive at nest. Responds readily to pishing and
berries. ( )li\ e-green upperparts;
w hitish throat and
squeaking noises. In migration often joins mixed feeding flocks. underparts; bright
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. yellow sides, flanks, and
undertail coverts; pale
• NESTING Incubation 11-14 days by female. Altricial young gray or w hitish
stay in nest 10-12 days. Fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year. supercilium; gray crow n;

• POPULATION Common in eastern woodlands. Some pale olive auriculars;

dusky lores; red eyes.
decline due to clearing of forests in the East. Rare vagrant in
migration in the Southwest and on the Pacific Coast.

Flight Pattern

<
Neotropical migrant. Frequent
cowbird brood parasitism.
Vulnerable to poisoning by
ingesting insects sprayed with
pesticides and Gypsy Moth
1 Em
Alternates series of rapid wing beats with
short glides w ithin forest. Also hovers control programs.
briefly to pick insects or berries off foliage.

Nest Identification
Shape ^ Location
Grapevine bark, fine grasses, rootlets, paper from wasp nests, lichens, spider
webs, and cocoons • hanging on fork of tree branch or shrub 2-60 feet above
ground • built by both sexes, but mostly by female • 3-5 white eggs, most
4^ 0b often with fine brow n and black dots, especially toward large end; oval,
0.8 x 0.55 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi i ar I Habitat
^ fc _j I Migration
M j Kratory
Wei § ht
0.6 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

482 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
VlREONIDAE Species
Yi no flavoviridis I
Len 2th 6
inches I
Wingspan 10
inches

Yellow-green Vireo
Very similar to the Red-eyed Vireo and recently
pale gray or whitish
split from it to restore it as a separate species, this
supercilium •
native of Mexico has become a rare breedin
pale olivt \
bird in southern Texas and is being seen
auricular
more often in southern California in the
fall and along the Gulf Coast in spring. greenish oli
upperparts
It shows extensively yellow-green
upperparts (including a face with
strong yellow sides), flanks, and
undertail coverts, as well as a
dull olivecrown with more whitish throat
obscure head striping than and underparts
the Red-eyed Vireo and
inconspicuous or absent
dark bordering lines.
• SONG Sings
continuously. Song is
bright yellow
varied from rich and
ides and flanks
clear to nasaland
abrasive, non-
rhythmic jerky
chiree-chree, swe,
chiree-chree. Repeated
over and over throughout
blue-gray legs
the day. Some have likened the and feet
quality and pattern to the song of a
House Sparrow. Calls are dry chatters and
coursemewing rrieeh.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Deliberate in its movements,
foraging in the middle to upper levels of the vegetation. Similar Birds
Sometimes joins mixed-species foraging flocks. Picks food off
Red-eyed Vireo
twigs and leaves; may hover briefly to take insect or fruit. Eats a Blackish lores; black
wide variety of insects and spiders; minor part of diet is various border around white
eyebrow; whitish
seeds and berries.
underparts; dark gray
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. cap; olive back and

• NESTING Incubation 13-14 days by female. Young altricial;

upperparts.

stay in nest 12-14 days, fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Rare to
Flight Pattern casual in North America; regular
in summer in lower Rio Grande
Valley of Texas. Casual in spring
on Gulf Coast and increasingly
regular in fall in coastal
Relatively fast direct flight on southern California.
rapidly beating wings.

Nest Identification
Grasses, plant fiber, lichen, moss, cobwebs, and strips of papery bark
• hanging between fork from thin branch, 5-40 feet above ground • built by
Shape Location female • 2-4 white eggs with fine dots of brown; oval, 0.8 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage Sexes simiUir Habitat

^_ ^ Migration
Migratory Weight
0 6 Qunce
.

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 483
Family Species Len Sth Wingspan 10S inches
VlREONIDAE Yireo altiloquus 6.25 inches

Black-whiskered Vireo
In summer West Indies
this native of the
also inhabits thickmangroves and shrubs
near the Florida Keys and north to
central coastal Florida. The "whiskers"
on the sides of its face often can be
dull greenish
difficult to see. Camouflaged by its upperparts
kite eyebrow with
dull green upperparts, gray cap,
black border
patterned gray face, and yellow-
washed white underparts, this
vireo is hard to spot in the dark
green foliage. More often it is traight slightly

by hooked black bill

identified solely its

distinctive voice.

dark malar stripe

or "whisker" along
sides of throat

hitish underparts

variable pale yello

wash on sides and
flanks

blue-gray legs
• SONG Male sings almost and feet
continuously. Humorous mnemonics
of whip-tom-KELLY!, John-to-whit, or
cheap-john-stir-upl set the pattern of the 2- to
4-note (usually 3-note), repeated phrases. Call is

mewing queel similar to that of Red-eyed Vireo. Similar Birds

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Forages slowly and Red-eyed Vireo
deliberately. Picks food off leaves and branches. Eats a variety Smaller; shorter bill;

of insects but also takes some spiders and fruits. whitish supercilium
with dark border; dark
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. gray crown; darker
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by female. Altricial young olive back; lacks dusky
malar mark.
fledge at 10-12 days. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Fairly common to common in mangrove swamps
of the Florida Keys. Casual
Flight Pattern along Gulf Coast.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Vulnerable
to habitat loss as coastal
mangroves are lost to
Relatively fast direct flight with
development.
rapid win» beats.

Nest Identification Twigs, grass, plant fibers, spider webs, cocoons, and lichens • lined with grass,
pine needles, and hair • hangs between fork on thin branch of shrub or tree
Shape 3-20 feet above ground • built by female • 2-3 white eggs with fine brown,
purple, and black specks; oval, 0.8 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei S ht 0.6

Sexes sjmilar Migratory ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

484 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Win gspan
VlREONIDAE Vireo agister s.7-6.2 inches I 1() 5 inches

Yucatan Vireo
Similar to the Black-whiskered Vireo in habitat grayish crown
preference and habits, this bird frequents the
mangrove swamps of the Yucatan Peninsula. broad whitish 1^.
supercilium •
Like most of the vireos, this bird sings
frequently, with more leisurely and
broad dark
i large heavy
softer phrases than the Black- eve stripe
gray bill, paler
whiskered, suggesting a slow, at base
dusky a ii rim la i
mellow mockingbird. The
grayish crown is set off by a grayish oliz
upperparts • brownish eyes
broad whitish supercilium
bordered below by a
wide dark eye stripe. \ whitish throat
and underparts,
sometimes with
buff warn

yellow-olive trim
on wings a nd tail

blue-gray to
blue legs and feet

The whitish underparts Similar Birds

are often tinged buff. Red-eyed Vireo
• SONG Persistent singer, even during the tropical midday heat Blackish lores; white
eyebrow has black
and sometimes into the night. Jerky, hesitant, nonrhythmic,
border; red eyes; dark
varied, and mellow phrases of chu-ree, chu-ree or chu-i-chu, chu- gray cap; olive back and
weet, repeated often. Calls a nasal peek and soft dry chatters. upperparts.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary. A slow deliberate forager, it searches at

Yellow-green Vireo
all low to high, in vegetation. Prefers humid scrubby
levels, I )usk\ lores; pale olive
woodland, mangroves, and edge. Picks food off leaves and auriculars; red eyes;
olive upperparts; bright
branches. Eats mainly insects and fruit, as well as some seeds
yellow sides, flanks, and
and small berries. undertail coverts; pale
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. gray or w hitish
supercilium.
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known, but incubation
estimated at 12-14 days by female. Young altricial; fed by both
sexes.Leave nest at estimated
10-12 days. 1-2 broods per yea
Flight Pattern
• Population Accidental i

US; 1 record occurred in

southeast Texas.
• Conservation
Relatively rapid fluttering direct flight Vulnerable to loss of habitat.
shallowly beating w ings.
Not of concern in the US.

Nest Identification Twigs, grasses, and plant fibers, lined with grass, pine needles, and hair,
attached with spider webs, lichen, and cocoon material • hanging from twigs in

low to mid levels in tree or 3-20 feet above ground • built by female •
bush •
Shape
2 white eggs, usually speckled with browns and blacks; oval. 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Sexes simj ar ,

Habitat
^^ Migration
Nonmigrator> Wei e ht 0.5
ounc

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 485

Family Species Len Sth Wingspan 16 _ ]7

C ()RV11)AK perisoreus canadensis 11.5 inch.

Gray Jay
Sometimes called the "camp robber," the Gray Jay is known for
its bold behavior. Often observed at cabins and campsites, it
will steal food and nonedible items. With its large salivary
black head
glands, it secretes mucous that allows it to store food by patch f
sticking it on twigs, pine needles, and tree branches. pale gray
Several geographical races exist across its coast-to- dark smoky gray
p head
coast range. These races vary most noticeably in upperparts
the extent of the dark patch on the nape and
crown, from almost none in the Rocky
Mountain races to extensive patches in
the races inhabiting the northwest hort
black bill
coast. Juveniles are entirely sooty
gray with a whitish mustache.
Although nonmigratory, birds
practice some altitudinal gray breast

migration in winter. dark smoky

gray wings
• SONG Has a large
and tail
gray underparts range
repertoire of calls, from pale to dark
depending on race
including a fluted
wheeoo and a low
chuck. Calls also
include a bold black legs and feet \

hawklike whistle,
as well as a cla-cla-cla-cla-cla. Sometimes mimics hawk cries and
songs sung by small birds.
Juvenile
• BEHAVIOR Tame, bold, and curious. Caches food.
Omnivorous. Eats mice, eggs, and young of other birds. Takes Similar Birds
a variety of insects, carrion, camp food, seeds, nuts, and berries.
Clark's Nutcracker
Shows no fear of humans and comes close to snatch food and Chunky; medium gray
other objects. Males engage in courtship feeding of females. upperparts and
underparts; short white
• BREEDING Monogamous. Small colonies. tail with black central
• NESTING Incubation 6—1 8 days by female.1 Young altricial; feathers; black wings
with white secondaries
stay in nest 15-21 days, fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
creating patch on inner
• POPULATION Common to fairly common in conifer and wing in flight; entirely

mixed-conifer forests. Declining in some areas due to timber gray head; white eye
ring; lung black bill.
harvesting. Casual in winter in midwestern and northeastern
states just south of breeding range.

• Feeders Will attend

Flight Pattern feeders with corn, suet, and
sunflower seeds.
• Conservation
Vulnerable to habitat loss from
Light buoyant flight on steady wing beats; logging operations as well as
often glides between perches within or forest fragmentation.
between trees and from perch to ground.

Lined with moss, grass, sticks, bark, feathers, and fur, fastened together with
Nest Identification
spider webs and insect cocoons • on horizontal branch near trunk or in crotch
of tree, 4-30 feet above ground but can be up to 85 feet • built by both sexes
Shape • 2-5 grayish white, pale green, pale gray, sometimes white eggs, with fine

olive-buff, brown, or gray spots; oval, 1.2 x 0.8 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simikr I
Habitat
m^ ^_ _ I
Migration
Non migratory I
Wei e ht 2.6
ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

486 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len £th Wingspan
QORVIDAE Cyanocitta stelleri 1 1 .5 inches j 7 inches

Steller's Jay
Recognized as the only crested jay in the West,
Steller's Jay is named after Arctic explorer Georg
black head and crest
Wilhelm Steller, who discovered this* bird on the
Alaska coast in 1741. The darkest jay in North
America, it has a black head and crest and a white striping
sooty black back and breast. The extent of on head
black on the body is variable among local
populations, as is the amount of blue or
white striping on the head or throat.
• SONG Variety of calls, including
harsh shaack, shaack, shaack and
shooka, shooka notes; a mellow
long straight
k/ook klook klook\ and shrill black bill
hawklike vocalizations.
Often mimics calls of
other birds,
including
loons and
hawks.
• Behavior Bold
around campgrounds but somewhat
shy in woods. Often travels in flocks of more
than a dozen birds, which include family groups, black legs
after breeding season. Most often feeds in and feet
treetops and on ground. Omnivorous; eats wide
variety of animal fare, including frogs, snakes, eggs and
young of other birds, many kinds of insects, and carrion, but
Similar Birds
approximately 70 percent of annual diet (90-99 percent in
winter) is comprised of pine seeds, acorns, and fruit. Caches Blue Jay
seeds and acorns for winter larder. Purple-gray crest and
back; grayish white
• BREEDING This species is knownbe monogamous. It
to is underparts; black collar
known as a solitary nester. Courtship feeding is done by the extends around body
male Steller's Jay. from breast to nape;
white spots, bars, and
• NESTING Incubation 16-18 days mostly by female. Altricial patches in wings and
yourfg remain in nest 17-21 days. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood tail; blue wings and tail

with fine black barring.

per year.
• POPULATION Steller's Jay is common in pine-oak and
coniferous woodlands. Its

Flight Pattern population both stable and

is

increasing. Casual at lower

Direct flight with steady buoyant wing
Often glides between perches
beats.
among trees, or from tree to ground.
elevations during the winter
season. Accidental in the East.
• FEEDERS In winter family
in or
groups often frequent feeders.

Cemented with mud • includes pine needles, twigs, dry leaves, roots, and grass
Nest Identification
• on horizontal limb near trunk or in crotch of conifer; occasionally in deciduous
tree; 8-100 feet above ground • built by both sexes • 2-6, but most often 4, pale
Shape greenish blue or bluish green eggs with brown markings; subelliptical to short
subdliptical, 1.2 x 0.9 inches.

Pluma'Se
Sexes similar «M *L A Migration
Nonmigratory We 'S ht 4.5 ounces

DATE TIME. LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 487
Family Species Len ^th Wingspan
C oRVIDAE Cyanocitta cristata 1 1 inches , 6 inches

Blue Jay purplish

and back
Once considered primarily a forest dweller, the black collar line
Blue Jay has adapted to cities, parks, gardens, and extends from
breast to nape 9^
forest fragmentation. Some populations remain
in locales year-round, while more northern ones
migrate south in flocks of 50-100. Common
despite clear-cutting in eastern forests, its

range expanding northwest. It is easily

is bright blue back
and wines
recognized by its large size; blue-purple
upperparts, wings, and tail; and jaunty
bluish purple crest.
• SONG Sharp penetrating white spots and
jay jay jay or thief, thief, thief.
fine black-barred
Also musical weedle-weedle, "ripples" on wings
squeaking of a
like the
farm pump that needs oil.
Variety of other vocalizations, some
musical; mimics several hawk species.
black legs
• BEHAVIOR Usually in pairs or
and feet
flocks; especially gregarious after
nesting season. Lives in oak an
beech trees. Noisy; shrieks
alone or in groups at cats, -• fine black-barred
"ripples" a/id white
Similar Birds
snakes, owls, hawks, and
spots on bright blue tail Stellkr's Jay
hunters. Omnivorous, but
Black crest; smoky
over 70 percent of diet is plant matter, especially acorns, pine
black back, neck, and
seeds, corn, fruits, and berries. Animal fare includes insects, breast; cobalt blue

carrion, eggs and young of other birds, snails, fish, frogs, small upperparts; no white
spots in wings or rail.
reptiles, and small mammals. Stores acorns in the ground for
winter, a major factor in establishing and distributing oak wkstkkn s( :ri h-j w
forests, as many seeds are not found and thus germinate.
Florida Scrub-Jay
Lacks crest; lacks white
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. Male feeds during spotting on wings and
courtship. May keep several mates for several years. tail; lacks black collar;
grayish underparts
• NESTING
Incubation 16-18 days by both sexes but most contrast with gray-
often by female. Altricial young stay in nest 17-21 days; streaked white throat
brooded by female; fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year in the
• Florida Scrub-Jay
restricted to Florida.
North, 2-3 in the South.
• POPULATION Common and widespread in woodlands and
residential areas with big shade
Flight Pattern trees. Casual in the Northwest
in autumn and winter.

—r • FEEDERS Suet, sunflower

seeds, peanuts, cracked nuts;
birdbaths.
Direct flight with steady, buoyant wing
beats. Often glides between perches
w ithin or between trees, or to ground.

Nest Identification Twigs, bark, moss, lichens, grass, and sometimes paper and string • built by both
sexes • on horizontal branch near trunk or in crotch or vines 5-20 feet above

Shape qjj Location ^^ ground; sometimes up to 50 feet • 3-7 pale greenish blue or bluish green eggs
with dark brown markings; subelliptical, 1.1 x 0.85 inches.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
m^ ^_ Migration
Mligratory Wej g ht
3.0 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

488 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
CORVIDAE Species
Cyanocorax yncas Len §th
10.5 inches Wingspan 15 inches

Green Jay
Also known as the Rio Grande Jay, this brightly
colored tropical bird is Texas
restricted to southern blue-white band on

in the US, although it also ranges soijth through forehead and above
and underneath eyes
Mexico, Central America, and northern regions of
South America. Look for it in thickets and dense
blue crown
riparian growth along the river in the lower Rio
and nape
Grande Valley. Nonmigratory, the Green Jay
rarely wanders far from its nesting sites but
dark green
may travel in foraging flocks to nearby upperparts
ranch country after nesting season. Its
bright colors blend remarkably well
with sun-dappled foliage, but once it
has been seen this green bird with
its blue-and-black head and

bright yellow outer tail feathers

is unmistakable.
• SONG Dry harsh series of
cheh-cheh-cheh notes; loud
ringing chink, chink, think:
and froglike croaking
of ahrrrrrrrrr.
• Behavior bluish green tail
Gregarious and with yellow outer
noisy. Inquisitive. In tail feathers

pairs and small

family groups: family
groups of 4-9 remain on
permanent territories. Inhabits heavily wooded areas and thickets. May occasionally forage in
open country after nesting season; generally forages at low to middle levels. Omnivorous; eats
insects, spiders, small vertebrates (including eggs and young of other birds), fruits, berries, and
seeds of grass, weeds, and trees.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester; cooperative breeder with helpers at nest. Only
1 pair in each flock breeds.
• NESTING Incubation 17-18 days by female. Altricial young Similar Birds
stay in nest 19-22 days.Brooded by both sexes. Fed by both irth Amerk
sexes and helpers. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Common in restricted US range. Stable. Range
expanding west and northwest.
Flight Pattern • FEEDERS Suet, corn, nuts,
and sunflower seeds.
• Conservation Small us
population is vulnerable to loss
Direct flight with steady buoyant w ing of riparian habitat due to human
beats. Glides between perches within trees development and agriculture.
between trees, or from tree to ground.

Large platform supports cup of thorny twigs • lined with leav es, roots, vines,
Nest Identification
moss, and grass • in deciduous trees or shrubs 5-30 feet above ground • built by
both sexes and sometimes other birds • 3-5, most often 4. grayish white, green-
Shape * white, or buff eggs with brown, gray, and lavender markings; oval to short oval,
1.1 x 0.8 inches.

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei § ht 2.7

ounces
Sexcs simijar | Nonmigratory

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 489
Family Species Length 1S _ Wingspan M)
CORVIDAE Cyanocorax morio 17 inches mchcs

Brown Jay
Large and noisy with a long graduated tail and short brushy crest, the
Brown Jay is considered a cooperative bird and is often observed helping
other parents and guarding their young. A young Brown Jay can be
distinguished by its yellow bill and eye rings. In the US the species is
restricted to the lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas in the vicinity of
Falcon Dam, but in Mexico and Central America the Brown Jay is
widespread and fairly common.
• SONG Harsh nasal call ofjay! Jay!Jay! or kyeeeah,
short brushy crest
kyeeeah, kyeeeah! is similar to a Blue Jay or Red- on forehead
dark sooty brown
1

shouldered Hawk but louder. Also makes steadily body (/'id vin«s
repeated soft mewing.
• BEHAVIOR Noisy and gregarious.
Forms flocks of 6-15 birds
composed mostly of

• cream belly and

undertail coverts

family members in which

1 monogamous pair may nest with
young fed by several members of *
flock, or several females may lay eggs in
a communal nest with young fed by helpers.
New flocks are formed by young birds splitting off from
original flock. Omnivorous; eats wide variety of insects, small vertebrates, eggs, seeds, nuts,
fruits, and berries. Feeds from low to high and sometimes on ground.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester but sometimes communal; cooperative with
helpers at nest.
• NESTING Incubation 18-20 days by female and other birds.
Similar Birds
Altricial young
stay in nest 22-31 days. Fed by both parents and
other adult birds. 1-2 broods per year. None in North American ran^e.

• POPULATION Uncommon to rare and local in lower Rio

Grande Valley of southern Texas.
• Feeders Fruit, nuts,
Flight Pattern sunflower seeds, and suet.
• Conservation
Vulnerable to loss of riparian
woodland habitat due to human
Steady buoyant, somewhat bouncy wing development and agriculture,
beats. Glides between perches anions particularly in the lower Rio
trees, and from trees to ground.
Grande Vallev

Nest Identification
Lined with twigs and other vegetation • on horizontal limb tar from trunk
23-70 feet above ground • built by both sexes and other birds • 1-8 blue-gray
Shape eggs with brow n markings; oval, 1.3 x 0.9 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
^^ Migration
Nonmigratory Weight
7.2 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

490 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
CoRVIDAE Species
Aphelocoma Length
n inches Wingspan
coerulescens 16 inches

Florida Scrub-Jay
T his threatened species restricted to scrublands
1
.

is
.
white
supercilium
across central Florida and dense growths of low
oaks, myrtles, sand pines, palmettos, and thickets *:

along the East and West Coasts. Inquisitive and

intelligent, the Florida Scrub-Jay steals and
stashes bright items such as forks, bits of
glassware, and jewelry, much like the grayish
American Crow. It also caches acorns tan back
and nuts, storing them in shallow
pits or sand and covering them
- ^BSM
withu•
ia
leaves and stones.
l)ofly
* jMiir
w
• white throat
/mmt
dusky bluish
M
streaks

pale gray to tannish

blue tail • gray underparts

black legs and feet

While searching for buried food,

this bird swings its bill from side to
side. It is quiet for a jay and is rather
easily overlooked by the casual observer.
• SONG Harsh throaty quay-quay-quay or
cheek-cheek-cheek.

• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Sometimes solitary but

usually in small family groups. Hops on ground as it forages for food at low to middle levels in
vegetation. Omnivorous; eats wide variety of mice, eggs and young of smaller birds, scorpions,
turtles, mollusks, insects, spiders, ticks, and mites; also eats plant matter, including acorns, nuts
corn, lame in picnic areas and campgrounds; will
and fruit,

pilfer food and take peanuts from human fingers or lips. Major Similar Birds
disperser for oaks and pines. Blue Jay
• BREEDING Monogamous. Cooperative. Fledglings often Slightly larger, chunkier
body; blue crest; black
remain in territory for several years to help care for nestlings.
from breast
• NESTINGIncubation 1 5— 1 7 days by female. Altricial young
y collar
nape; blue back; bold
to

stay in, nest 18-19 days. Fed by both sexes and other helper white spots on wings
and tail.
birds. 1 brood per year (rarely 2).
• POPULATION Uncommon. Declining and threatened; reduced
by an estimated 90 percent
Flight Pattern during 20th century.
• FEEDERS Sunflower seeds,
scratch feed, suet, and bread.
• Conservation Decline
Direct flight with steady buoyant wing due to habitat destruction.
beats. Glides between perches within tree, Often hit and killed by
between trees, and from tree to ground. automobiles.

Nest Identification Bulky sticks • lined with roots, twigs, moss, grass, and hair • on horizontal
branch or in crotch of low tree or bush 2-12 feet above ground • built by both
sexes • 2-5 pale green eggs irregularly spotted with reddish brown; ovate to
Shape <3gp
elongate ovate, 1.1 x 0.8 inches.

Plumage Sexes simi ar ,

Habitat ^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei ^ nt 2.8 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 491
Family Species Len £th Wingspan
CORVIDAE Aphelocoma califarnica 1 1 inches j 6 inche

Western Scrub-Jay
Until recently the Western, Island, and Florida
Scrub-Jays were considered races of one species,
the Scrub Jay. The Western Scrub-Jay has a large
white eyebrow over
range over varying habitats, and the several dark eye patch
races currently accepted show some
differences in plumage, including
intensity of blue upperparts, color of
crissum, and size of bill. This tame,
bold bird serves as a major disperser
of oak. forests because of its habit
of caching acorns in the earth for smo u brown
winter stores. Found near back 'hite throat outlined
with blue necklace
urban areas, it will
sometimes take food from /
the hand of a human.

long blue tail <

variable whitish,
buff, and grayish
u u de /parts

• SONG Noisy. Call is a hoarse

repeated shreep or quay-quay-quay. Similar Birds
• BEHAVIOR Often in pairs or small flocks. Perches in the Pinyon Jay
open on trees, shrubs, or wires. Forages on ground and in trees Blue overall; white-
streaked throat; short tail
for food. Eats insects, various grains, small lizards, frogs, various
• western range.
and eggs and young of other birds. Courting male hops
fruits,
around female with upright posture, head erect, and spread tail Mexican Jay
Chunkier; lacks white
dragging the ground. Unlike the eastern Florida Scrub-Jay, pairs supercilium; lacks white
hold individual territories and have no helpers at the nest. throat with blue necklace:
grayer breast and throat
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. without strong contrast
• NESTING Incubation 15-1 7 days by female; male feeds between them • limited

female during incubation. Altricial young stay in nest range in the Southwest.

18-19 davs, brooded bv female, but fed bv both sexes. 1 brood

Flight Pattern • POPULATION Fairly

common to common in scrub
vegetation and in pine-oak-
juniper woodlands.

Flies with steadybuoyant wing beats.

• FEEDERS Attracted to
Glides between perches w ithin trees, feeder with nuts, sunflower
between trees, and from tree to ground. seed, and fruit.
TO
Nest Identification Twigs, grass, and moss, lined with finer rootlets and sometimes animal hair • in
tree or shrub, 5-30 feet above ground • built by both sexes • 2-7 light green or

Shape Location gjfe

^^ gray eggs, with brown, reddish brown, or olive spots; oval to long oval,
1.1 x0.8 inches.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
A ^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei e ht 2.8 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

492 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
QORVIDAE Species
Nucifraga columbiana
Len ^th 1 2.5 inches
Wingspan g jnches
j

Clark's Nutcracker
Far from shy, this fearless bird can be seen chasing coyotes,
barging into tents of campers, or flying toward the sound of an
long Mat k
imitation owl call. It is named after Captain William Clark of
bill
the Lewis and Clark expedition. An avid forager, this bird
gathers and stores its surplus pine nuts and seeds in caches in
the ground by tens of thousands per year. They become its

principal food from late winter to early summer, and those

that germinate become important for the distribution
of conifers. In flight the white tail with black central
tail feathers and white secondary patch on the
stocky pale
black wings contrast with the pale gray body. gray body «
It resides in coniferous forests in the
mountains between three- and thirteen-
thousand feet near the timberline.
• SONG Noisy. Gives a
very nasal rasping
drawling dragged-out
caw or kra-a-a. N» black wings with
• Behavior wh ite seco ndaries
forming patch on back
Gregarious; tame;
o f inner wing
curious. Eats • white tail with
insects and nuts, black central tail
including the shell. feathers
black legs
Can carry 70-95 pine seeds and feet
at a time in sublingual pouch in
mouth for winter cache. Sometimes
invades human habitation, campgrounds, or picnic
tables for scraps. Forages for food by walking or hopping on
ground, or by pecking trees, woodpecker-style, for insects; may
hawk flying insects like a flycatcher. Also takes bird eggs, Similar Birds
nestlings, lizards, small mammals, and carrion. Can find
Gray Jay
thousands of buried seeds annually by memory. Slimmer; longer,
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. uniformly gray tail;
lacks white in wings;
• NESTING Incubation 16-18 days by both sexes. Altricial uniformly dark gray
young stay in nest 18-21 days. Brooded by female. Fed by both wings; black nape; short

brood per black bill.

sexes. 1 year.
• POPULATION Common. Fluctuates from year to year but
remains stable. Eruptions to
Flight Pattern desert and lowlands every
10-20 years. Accidental in East.
T" ^ ^ ~ •

•
FEEDERS Sunflower seeds.
Conservation
Crowlike flight with slow steady deep
deliberate wing beats. Sometimes Vulnerable to habitat loss due to
alternates several rapid wing beats with logging operations in mountain
long glides.
coniferous forests.

Platfotm of small sticks and pieces of bark • lined with pine needles, leaves, and
Nest Identification
grass •on far end of horizontal branch of conifer 8-50 feet above ground • built
by both sexes • 2-6 pale green or gray-green eggs marked with brown, olive, or
Shape ^ <^ Location
^ gray; long oval pointed at small end; vary
1.3 inches long.
from ovate to elliptical ovate,

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar |
Habitat
m^ A Migration
Nonmigratory Wei £ ht 5.0
ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AM K RICA • 493

Family Species Length Wingspan m Jj^

coRVIDAE pl( (l.

}llui <olwl I

j 7.S-22 inches I 24

Black-billed Magpie
The Black-billed Magpie is one of four songbirds that has a tail

more than half the length of its body; one other is a magpie
and two are flycatchers. As part of courtship, the male and
female build large intricate structures for their nest,
black head <

which they use year after year, producing a mud-

based domed structure of sticks with a side
entrance that may be two to four feet high.
black back
Other birds often seek shelter from storms
and rump
in used magpie nests or nest in them
themselves. In flight this bird appears whiti
tertiai
black and white with large flashing
white patches in the short
white primai
rounded wings and a long dark wing patches
green tail trailing behind. kite sidei
• SONG Noisy. Ca 1 nd belly
plaintive nasal mag.
Also utters bold raspy
repetitive chuck-
chuck-chuck and has
melodic whistle.
black legs
• Behavior graduated ii idest \ •nt
and feet
blackish green tail is
Gregarious.
9.5-12 inches long
Travels in family
flocks of 6-10 birds;
in winter joins flocks of up to
50 or more birds. Forages for food on ground, walking or
hopping. Eats insects, larvae, and carrion. Also picks ticks off
backs of elk, deer, and livestock. Caches food when plentiful.
Similar Birds
Frequents open country with brushy thickets and scattered
trees, especially riparian groves. Roosts communally. Yellow-billed
Magpie
• BREEDING Monogamous. Small colonies. Pairs may stay Yellow bill; yellow pa
together all year and form long-term bonds. of bare skin below or
around eye; smaller
• NESTING Incubation 16-21 days by female. Altricial young
• western range, but
brooded by female but fed by both sexes. First flight at Black-billed may
25-32 days. 1 brood per year. casually wander into
Yellow -billed's ranee.
• POPULATION Common and widespread in rangeland and
scrubland with open woodlands and thickets, especially near water.
Casual in the East and the
Flight Pattern Southwest in winter. Some
eastern birds may be escapees.
• Conservation
Thousands have been killed by
accidentally ingesting poisoned
Direct flight with slow, steady deliberate
somewhat shallow wing beats. Often glides bait intended for predators in
between perches or from perch to ground. rangeland.

2-4-foot-high outside platform and roof made of sticks, mud, and thorny material
Nest Identification
• inside cup made of stems, rootlets, and horsehair • on limb of tree or shrub,
typically no more than 25 feet above ground but up to 50 feet • built by female
Shape
^ with materials brought by male • 7-13 greenish gray eggs marked with browns;
usually subelltptical but sometimes long oval, 1.3 inches long.

Plumage Habitat * a» ^> * Migration Wei 6 ht 6.6

Sexes Nonmigratory ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

494 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
CORVIDAE Species
Qorvus moiledula Length
u inch( Wingspan 17 5 nches
. j

Eurasian Jackdaw
Since 1983 Eurasian bird has been making its
this active
way Canada and the
as a casual visitor to southeastern
pale gray eyes
northeastern United States. For a period of time, a pair
even nested in Pennsylvania; however, the species has
been unable to survive there and the small population
is almost gone. It is believed that most, if not all, of
the little corvids were ship-assisted in making gray nape and
the Atlantic crossing to North America. Its
ear patches

smaller size, gray ear patches and nape, and

light gray eyes set it apart from other
dark glossy him
crows in the Northeast. black metallie
• SONG Calls include a soft chack sheen on back
and shoulders
and a grating clipped metallic kow
or kyow. Often repeats calls
several times.
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious.
In pairs or small groups.
Joins other corvids in
black overall
foraging and often uses
communal roosts. Hops or
walks on ground with
quicker jerkier gait than
most other crows. Hops
on branches in trees.
Forages in open and
cultivated country.
Omnivorous, eating
seeds, fruits, berries,
large insects, small
reptiles, amphibians, small
rodents, and eggs and nestlings of other birds. Unusual among
corvids, it nests in holes in trees, rocks, buildings, pipes, cliffs,
Similar Birds
and even rabbit burrows. Nomadic.
No other black bird, and especially
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary or colonial. no other corvid in North America, has
• NESTING Incubation 18-19 days by female. Young altricial; the combination of light eyes and
gray riape and earpatches.
brooded by female; stay in nest 30-35 days, fed by both sexes.
1 brood per year.

• Population Accidental to

Flight Pattern casual in southeastern Canada

from Ontario to Nova Scotia
and to northeastern US from
Pennsylvania to New England.

Flies with somewhat jerky buoyant wing

• Feeders Will come to

beats. Glides between perches within trees, feeders for sunflower seed, U\
between trees, and from perch to ground. bread, and suet. Ml

Nest Identification Twigs and grasses, lined with finer grasses and wool • in tree holes, ridges of
cliffs, burrows, under roofs, crevices, pipes, etc. • built by both sexes • 4-6 light
Shape <^ Location 4$&
bluish green or buff eggs, with fine dots of brown; oval to long oval,

Li 1.4 x 1.0 inches.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
^ _j Migration
N orthern
;
birds migrate
Wei § ht 8.6 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 495
Family
q Species
Qorvus brachyrhynchos Length
17 5 jnches
_
Wingspan 33 _40
inches

American Crow
One of the most widely distributed and recognized birds
inNorth America, the American Crow is entirely black r

from beak to toe to tail with a glossy purple-blue

sheen. Studies of these intelligent birds have shown
that they can count, solve puzzles, learn symbols,
and retain information. They often are seen
chasing and mobbing owls and hawks. black bill
Huge flocks from a few hundred to as
iridescent violet
many as 200,000 birds may assemble in gloss on bod)
winter to roost, travel, and feed black overall

together. Often persecuted, shot,

poisoned, and even bombed on iridescent blue-
jio/et and green
its roost in the past, this crow-
blue gloss on wings
still lives among us by its

intelligence and adaptability and

is common throughout its range.
4
• SONG Familiar loud call of
caw-caw with many variations. black legs and feet
Nasal begging call like uh-uah
of the Fish Crow.
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious.
Omnivorous; eats insects, many
other small invertebrates from fan -shaped tail
millipedes to snails, small amphibians
small reptiles, small mammals, eggs and
Similar Birds
young of other birds, waste corn and other grains, fruits,

field crops, garbage, and carrion. Mobs avian predators, calling Common Raven
gangs of crows together to harass a large hawk or owl on a perch Larger; heavier stout bill;

shaggy throat feathers;

or drive it out of the area. Catches up to a soaring hawk and
wedge-shaped tail;

repeatedly dives on it from above, often forcing it down into the different voice.
shelter of trees below. Breaks mollusk shells by dropping them
Fish Crow
on rocks from above. Smaller; more pointed
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. Sometimes wings; proportionally
smaller more slender bill
known to be cooperative. and longer tail; nasal,
• NESTING Incubation 18 days by both sexes. Altricial young higher-pitched call
• eastern range.
stay in nest 28-35 days. Brooded by female. Fed by both sexes
and extra birds. 1 brood per year, 2 in the South.
• Population Abundant
Flight i p cittern Adapting as habitat developed

T
Slow steady deliberate direct flight with
by humans.
• Conservation Widely
persecuted in the past by
farmers and hunters. Still legally
deep wing beats. Glides with slight dihedral
from altitude to perch or ground, between hunted for sport in many states.
perches, and from perch to ground.

Nest Identification Made of twigs and branches • lined with tree material, grass, feathers, moss,
leaves, and shrub or cross arms of utility pole 0-100 feet
hair • in fork of tree or

Shape above ground; sometimes on ground in prairie • built by both sexes and
sometimes extra birds • 3-7 bluish green to olive-green eggs marked with brown
and gray; oval, 1.6 x 1.1 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simHar Habitat
^ ^_ ^ Migration
Some migrate Weight
10 pound

DATE TIME LOCATION

496 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species
corcus Length
14_ 15 jnches Wingspan
CORVIDAE imparatus 2 5_? 8 inches

Tamaulipas Crow
Historically an endemic of northeastern Mexico, purple
iridescent
this species has settled in the winter in the sheen on head *

Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas, especially

near the city of Brownsville, where the species
has been recorded since 1968. Once called
the Mexican Crow, this gregarious small- iridescent
bodied bird is highly adaptable. The most purple sheen
dependable place to see the bird in on upperparts

Texas has been the municipal dump in

Brownsville. It is the smallest crow
that has nested in the US, and it is
possible to mistake it for a
Great-tailed Grackle, but in
flight note that this crow's
tail is short and squared.
• SONG Utters a
throaty craw or
Murr, or sometimes
a shrieking creow.
Also has a low
guttural croaking
similar to the
croaking of a frog.
• Behavior
Solitary or in pairs or
flocks; gregarious after
Similar Birds
breeding season. Eats
insects, grains, carrion, refuse, eggs Great-tailed
and young of other birds, and some fruits. Walks and hops on Grackle cf
Whitish yellow eyes;
ground as it forages for food. FVequents open and semiopen longer, keel-shaped tail;
areas with trees, brush, and thickets. Often found scavenging glossy black overall with

around towns, garbage dumps, and in agricultural areas. Often in purplish sheen.

large foraging flocks after the breeding season; roosts in ci in ii \in \\ Raven
communal roosts. Larger; heavy bill;

wedge-shaped tail;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. croaking voice; plumage
• NESTING Incubation 7—1 8 days by 1 female. Young altricial; not glossv.

stay in nest 30-35 days, brooded by female and fed by both

sexes. 1 brood per year.

Flight Pattern • Population Uncommon

to fairly common and local.
Some declines have occurred in
southern Texas in recent years.
Common to fairly common in
Rapid direct flight on steadily beating
northeastern Mexico. Adaptable
wings. Glides from altitude to perch; glides
between perches and from perch to ground. to habitat changes.

Nest Identification
Sticks and plant fibers, lined with softer materials • in fork of tree • built by
both sexes • 4-5 pale blue to blue-gray eggs, with brown or olive-buff streaks;
Shape flfl
Location subelliptical to long oval, 1.1 inches long.

Plumage Sexes simi)ar i Habitat ^ _jg

Migration
Nonmigratory Weight
Undetermined

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 497

Species Length Wingspan

Family
coRVIDAE Con)US 0SS jfnigt{S 15 ; nches 3() _ 4() inc , K

Fish Grow
An active scavenger, the Fish Crow frequently harasses gulls and
terns in attempts to force them to surrender their prey. It also
raids the unguarded nests of other birds, particularly
shorebirds, egrets and herons, or turtles, flying away with
their eggs in its bill. In the winter, sometimes
thousands of these crows can be seen roosting
together. Smaller than the similar American
Crow, the Fish Crow is never far away
from water, living along the coast
and penetrating inland mainly
along major rivers. Although
primarily nonmigratory, birds in
the northwestern part of the
range are migratory inland. pointed
wings
• SONG Call is a high-
pitched nasal ca-hah or aw-uk
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious
and sociable. Will feed
inland but usually feeds in
shallow waters along
coastline and salt marshes.
Omnivorous. Sometimes a
major nest predator at
heronries. Eats a wide
variety of crustaceans,
carrion, eggs of other
birds, insects and insect
larvae, fish, ticks from
livestock, various
berries, and some fruits.
Drops mollusks from the Similar Birds
air to break them on American Crow
rocks, highways, wharves, etc. Slightly larger; larger

Often hovers over water or land, searching bill; proportionally

larger head; shorter
for prey before dropping down to grab it.
tail; call is a lower
• BREEDING Monogamous. Small colonies. clearer caw.

• NESTING Incubation 16-18 days by both sexes. Young

altricial; brooded by female;
stay in nest at least 21 days, fed
Flight Pattern
by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• Population Common
especially along the coast. This
Flies with somewhat wing beats,
stiff
bird's range is increasing and
alternating several quick wing strokes expanding to the north as well
with long glides. Hovers when foraging. as inland.

Dried twigs with lining of bark chips, pine needles, feathers, horse and
Nest Identification
and soft grasses • set fairly high in fork of shrub or topmost
cattle hair,
crotch of deciduous tree or conifer, 6-90 feet above ground • built by both
Shape ^ Location ^ 4^ sexes • 4-5 bluish or grayish green eggs marked with brown and gray spots;
oval, 1.5 inches long.

Plumage ^8* Migration Weight

Sexes simj , ar Nonmigratory i 0> 6

DATE TIME LOCATION

498 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len ^th 19.5 Wingspan
QORVIDAE Corvus cryptoleucus inches 3g nches
;

Chihuahuan Raven
Sometimes called the White-necked Raven, this bird
has white bases on the back of the npck and lower
throat feathers that show only when ruffled by the
wind or when the bird becomes agitated. Highly
adventuresome, these birds sometimes dive into
rotating air masses or dust devils and allow
themselves to be taken for an upward ride. A
small raven of arid grasslands, scrublands, and
desert, it uses the endless strings of utility
poles crossing the barren landscapes it

inhabits as lookout stations, resting

places, and nesting locations,
placing nests high on the cross-
arms of the poles.
• SONG Call is drawling
crooaak. Utters guttural quark,
quark as a warning call.

• BEHAVIOR Gregarious.
Active forager and scavenger.
Eats wide variety of insects,
insect larvae, spiders, worms,
earthworms, small
snails,
mammals, lizards, eggs and wedge-shaped toil
young of other birds, carrion,
and scraps of human food. Breeds
grains, nuts, corn, cactus fruit,
late in season,timing nesting with food availability. Forms
Similar Birds
flocks soon after nesting season that may become enormous,
numbering in the thousands before winter. Male ruffles neck Common Raven
Larger; heavier bill;
feathers in courtship display and engages in acrobatic aerial
longer tail; pale gray
display for female. Then male and female sit next to each other bases on upper neck
and rub bills, bow to one another, and raise wings. and throat feathers.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. American Crow

•
young
NESTING Incubation 18-21 days by
sexes.
•
stay in nest 30 days.
1 brood per year.
POPULATION Common to fairly common
both sexes.
Brooded by female. Fed by both
Altricial

in arid to semiarid
4 Smaller; smaller
fan-shaped tail;

gray bases on neck and

throat feathers;
different call.
bill;

dark

grassland, rangeland, and desert.

• Conservation Formerb
Flight Pattern highly persecuted by ranchers
and farmers who considered
x^x them pests or threats to
livestock; they were
Alternates between several deep wing
systematically shot and
beats and short to long glides; glides from
altitude to ground or perch. Soars poisoned by the thousands in
effortlessly on thermals and updrafts. control programs.

Prickly sticks and sometimes barbed wire • lined with bark chips, grass, hair, and
Nest Identification
bits of refuse • in fork of tree or shrub 9-40 feet above ground; sometimes on
man-made structures such as windmills or utility poles • built by female • 3-8
Shape ^ c^r Location £t 4^ j£
pale or grayish green eggs with
oval, 1.8 x 1.3 inches.
lilac and brown markings; subelliptical to long

Plumage Sexes simjk Migration Weight ? pounds

Most do not mi g rate i

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 499

24_26 inch
Family Species Length Wingspan 46 _
CORVIDAE ( orvi/s <<>ra\ 56 nches ;

Common Raven
This magnificent flier is the aerial equal of hawks and falcons

and is the largest passerine, or perching bird, in North America.

If any bird truly enjoys flying to the point of playing in the air,
it must be this raven. Intelligent resourceful hunters and

scavengers, groups of these birds nostjih

,
stifftufis of
have been observed working feathers extending about a
together to capture prey that third of the way out the hi If

is too large for one bird to

conquer. It is a revered
totem and spirit to
many Native Americans
Adults are glossy black vedge-
overall, with a huge shaped tad with
central tad
"Roman nose," and athen
shaggy throat feathers that
can be elevated or sleeked
down. The female is similar
the male but smaller.
• SONG Variety of vocalizations,
some quite musical, but most often a
croaking drawling croooaaak or cur-ruk
or metallic tok.
• BEHAVIOR Tame. Quick learner. Solitary
or in pairs or small groups. Gregarious in winter,
when it may occur in large foraging flocks and nightly
Similar Birds
communal roosts. Active forager, scavenger, and hunter.
Omnivorous; eats wide variety of small invertebrates, from American crow

/
tadpoles and shellfish to worms and insects. Also takes many Smaller: smaller bill;

lacks shaggy throat

small vertebrates, including minnows, eggs and young of other
feathers; fan-shaped
birds, and rodents, as well as carrion and refuse. Elaborate tail; different call.

courtship flight with great display of acrobatics and pair flying,

Chihuahuan Raven
male above female, wing-tip to wing-tip and heads touching. Smaller; shorter bill and
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary; small, loose colonies in
wings: nasal bristles
extend farther out on
the North. Mates for life.
culmen; white-based
• NESTING Incubation 18-21 days by female. Altricial young neck and throat
feathers.
stay in nest 38^-4 days. Brooded by female. Fed by both sexes.
1 brood per year.
• Population Common.
Flight Pattern Expanding in California; also in
Appalachians into areas where
birds had been extirpated.
• Conservation in past
Strong flight, often rising in circles.
was shot, trapped, and poisoned
Alternates deep wing beats with long
glides or soaring on flat wings like a hawk. damage to wild
for alleged
Soars on thermals and updrafts. game and domesticated animals.
Branches and sticks on outside; cup made of small sticks • lined with bark chip:
Nest Identification
animal hair, sheep's wool, lichens, moss, seaweed, and grass • on cliff near watei

in mountains, or in fork of tree 45-80 feet above ground • built by both sexes •
Shape 3-7 greenish or gray-green eggs with brown or olive spots; subelliptical to long
oval, 2 x 1.4 inches.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
A J ft Migration
Nonmigratory Wei S ht 2.7
pounds

DATE TIME LOCATION

500 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
W W AH Species
Eremophi/a alpestr Length 7-8 inche Wingspan
1)1 1 )
.
] 2 .5-14 inches

Horned Lark
The Horned Lark is one of the most
widespread songbirds in North America.
The spectacular display flight of the male hornlike black tufts on
bird begins with an ascending flight as head connected by black-
borderedforei Town •
high as 800 feet. Singing, he then
circles, closes his wings, and drops
black lores and <

headfirst almost to the ground, "sideburns"

where he opens his wings at the last
second. He then struts around the brown back
and rump
female with his wings drooped
and horns erect. The female
appears similar to the male
but is duller in color and brown icings

lacks the black crown. In

flight note the w hite
underpays, including
the wings and wing
linings, the black
tail with white white underparts
with sandy buff wash
outer tail
on sides and flanks
feathers, and black tail with
white outer feathers
black legs
and feet.

• SONG Given from ground or in high, circling flight. Sings

series of bell-like, tinkling notes pit-zz-it, zree-pit. pit-zree. Call is tsee-tete or
• BEHAVIOR forming large flocks
Pairs: gregarious in winter,
sometimes mixed with Snow Buntings and longspurs. Walks and Similar Birds
runs rather than hops. Forages on ground, often in open fields American pipi t
with bare soil, pebbles, or short, sparse vegetation. Eats mostly Gray upperparts: brown-
streaked whitish
seeds, grains, insects, and small mollusks. Often found in
underparts: datk grayish
agricultural areas, to which it has adapted for nesting and brown tail with white
foraging, on country roadways and farm roads standing and outer tail feathers; bobs
w alking on pavement or gravel. This bird nests as early as tail continuously; lacks
horns, face pattern, and
February in the South. In courtship males perform display
black bib • cinnamon-
flights and skylark. buff underparts in
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary to gregarious. summer.

• NESTING Incubation 11-12 days by female. Altricial young

stay in nest 9-12 days. Brooded
Flight Pattern
by female. Fed by both sexes.
1 brood per year in the North,

<* T 2 in

•
the South.
Population Common.
Has expanded eastern range
After each \ ving beat folds win g fea thers since early 1800s because of
close to boc
agriculture.

Nest Identification
Grass • lined with feathers and soft materials • in shallow depression, natural or
dui; by female, often near clumps of dirt or animal manure • built by female
Shape • 2-5 gray or greenish eggs dotted with browns; subelliptical. 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Habitat Migration We, S ht ounces

Sexes differ Migra tory 1.1

PATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OK NORTH AMERICA • 501

Family Species Length 7 .75_8.5 inches Win g s P an 15.5-16.75

HlRUNDINIDAE prom suhh, I
inches

Purple Martin
Colonies once nested in holes in tall dead trees
and saguaro cacti. 'Today the largest North
American swallow usually nests in man-made
multidwelling martin houses, sometimes with
hundreds of pairs nesting together. Martin houses
were inspired by the Native American custom of
placing empty gourds on tall poles to attract the
Purple Martin for aesthetic reasons and to
reduce the insect population around villages and
crops. Juvenile males have browner upperparts
with whitish bellies and some purple sheen to
their bodies. Juvenile females are brown overall
with whitish bellies. A long-distant migrant, it

winters from Venezuela to southeastern Brazil.

• SONG A variety of rich low-pitched liquid gurgling
notes and chirruping, mixed with cackling and varying
in pitch. Songs often given predawn and in flight.

• BEHAVIOR In pairs or colonies. In fall,

communal migratory and roosting flocks

may number in the tens of thousands.
Mostly catches and eats insects in
flight, but also forages on
ground. Nesting birds will eat Tree swallow
broken eggshells placed for Smaller; entire
underparts are bright
them. Frequents open
u hire w ith no grayish
country, rural agricultural tone; dark glossy blue-
areas, especially near water, green upperparts
and urban/suburban areas. • juveniles and first

spring adults have

• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. browner upperparts.
• NESTING Incubation 15-18 days by GRAY-BREASTED
female. Young brooded by female;
altricial; Martin cT
stay in nest 26-31 days, fed by both sexes. Smaller; gray-brown
face, throat, and flanks;
1-3 broods per year.
dusky gray-brown
• POPULATION Common; declining, underparts; dark bluish

especially in the West. Female upperparts; cleft tail

• eastern range.
• BlRDHOUSES Man-made martin houses and gourds.
• CONSERVATION Neotropical migrant. National Audubon
Society Blue List. Practice of
Flight Pattern removing dead cavity-filled
trees, especially in riparian
reduced nesting sites.
areas, has
Introduced European Starling
Strong graceful flight with few rapid wing and House Sparrow compete for
beats followed by long glides. Often flies nesting cavities.
in circles while gliding.

Nest Identification mud, feathers, and bits of debris •

Grasses, leaves, in martin houses, old
woodpecker holes in trees and cacti, or in ridges in cliffs or large rocks
Shape 2
pr • 5-20 feet above ground • built by both sexes • 3-8 plain white eggs; oval to
gj jg
Location
^g^ jj
lonti oval, 0.96 x 0.68 inches.

Plumage
Sexes djffer
Habitat^ ^ _ Migration
Migratory Wei § ht 1.7
ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

502 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species
pr0gne cryptoleuca Length Wingspan 15<5 inche;
HlRUNDINIDAE 7 75

Cuban Martin
Nesting

Florida.
in

It is
Cuba and on
this little-known bird

Martin, and males are impossible to

distinguish from
is

similar to the Purple

one another
the Isle of Pines
accidental in

in the
dark iridescent
0
purplish blue
field. The Cuban Martin previously overall
was considered a race of the Purple
Martin {P. subis), or the Caribbean
Martin (P. dominicensis) a species
which has never been found in
North America. Males are dark
iridescent purplish blue overall
Male
with concealed white feathers on
the belly. Females and juveniles
are duller than the adult males
and have white underparts with
grayish brown upper breast and
sides. In flight, adult females
show a bluish purple nape and
upperparts, blackish flight
feathers, and a blackish
notched tail.

• SONG Gives a liquid-

sounding twangy chew.
• Behavior Fairly
gregarious, especially in thee
evening. It high on
often flies

updrafts along bordering

cliffs

the sea. Martins catch most of

their food while in flight,
often at rather high altitudes,
but they also forage for food Pi rple Mart
blackish flight Larger • males
close to the ground and low fen th as and indistiguishable
over the water's surface. Diet is blackish "9 • female and juvenile
primarily flying insects, some notched tail + J ' paler on breast and
chest.
spiders, fruits, and seeds. If

• BREEDING Monogamous. Loose Female

colonies.

Flight Patter
• Nesting incubation
15-18 days by the female.
Young altricial; remain in nest
26-31 days, fed by both sexes.
1 brood per year.
Light buoyant flight. Follows rapid wing
beats with long glides, often changing • Population Found once
direction and soaring in arcs and circles.

Nest Identification
in Kev West, Florida in 1895.
1
Twigs, dried grasses, stems, and leaves, lined with fine materials • in cavity of
rocks, tree, or in man-made structure • 8-30 feet above ground • built by both
Shape
PS Location sexes • 2-5 white eggs, unmarked; oval to long oval, 0.96 x 0.7 inches.

Plumage Sexes diffcr Habitat * Migration Wei ^ ht 1.5

ounces
Nonmigratorv

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 503

Family Species Len Sth 7 Wingspan

HlRUNDINIDAF p chalybea inch 15 inche .

^1
Gray-breasted Martin
Individuals of this native of Mexico, Central America and South glossy blue-black
America were found in southern Texas twice in the 19th mxrown and nape
Century. It has adapted as humans have altered its
habitat, and it will nest in bird boxes, eaves of
buildings, or other man-made structures. In flight,
gray-brown
this bird shows dark brownish underwings and face, throat
a dark brownish notched tail. Females and and chest
glossy blue-black
juveniles are similar to males, but their
upperparts
upperparts are mottled dusky, the throat
oftenis paler, and the chest is a more ^ray-brown
uniform dusky color. flanks

• SONG Often prolonged hesitant chirping

warble given as a nasal trilled chiurr-chi-
fine dusky
chur or chew. shaft streaks on
upper belly
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs or
Often gregarious outside
flocks.
• white belly
breeding season. Catches large and crissum
amounts of insects while in
flight, including moths, wasps, MALE
bees, dragonflies, and
termites. Like other
martins, it is

graceful and
dusky crown with
powerful on gray-white steel-blue feather tips
the wing. sides of Similar Birds
Often covers neck and
Northern Rough
underparts
great distances winged swallow
upperparts with
daily to gather Smaller; brown
steel-blue feather
upperparts; dusky
food, especially when tips on back and
throat; off-white
feeding young. Has uppertail coverts
underparts; slightly
adapted to nesting in and notched tail.
FKMALK
on man-made structures and Purple Martin
in houses and gourds erected blackish wings Male is dark glossy
and tail with purplish blue overall
specifically for that purpose.
bluish gloss • female and juvenil
• BREEDING Monogamous have grayish white
Solitary or colonial. underparts.

• NESTING 5— 1 8 days by female. Young

Incubation 1 altricial;

stay in nest 22-30 days, fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Accidental ir
Flight Pattern the Rio Grande Valley in Texas.
• BlRDHOUSES Will nest in
man-made bird boxes.

Light and buoyant on the wing. Series of

several quick wing beats followed by long
glides, often changing direction.

Nest Identification Shallow cup of twigs, dried stems, and leaves • in crevice of rocks or in bird
boxes, eaves of buildings, bridges, or other man-made structures, 8-30 feet
Shape
pg* jg above ground • built by both sexes • 2-4 white eggs, unmarked; oval to long

^^^
oval, 0.9 x 0.6 inches.
Location
j£

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat
^^ Migration
Northern birds migrate Wei § ht 1.5
ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

504 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species
HlRUNDINIDAE prQgne ekgans

Southern Martin
This its name, breeds
martin, true to
and coastal western
locally in southern
South America. The only accepted
record for this species north of
Mexico comes from a vagrant
documented in Key West,
Florida in 1890. Similar to the
larger Purple Martin, the male
is a glossy steely blue overall,
blacker on the wings and tail.

F emales have less strongly

glossed blue upperparts and
occasionallyshow a grayish
brown forehead. They have
mostly brown underparts with
feathers edged paler, giving a
scaly effect. Although
primarily migratory, some
populations do not migrate.
• SONG In flight utters a
musical twittering tchur-tchur.
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious,
particularly in the winter when
thousands may gather with other
species of swallows for nightly
roosts and to feed over rivers
like the Amazon. Feeds on
insects, most of which it
catches in flight. Has learned
to nest in close association
withman and is fairly
common around towns, Purple Martin
buildings, and settled and ^arger ; male is dark
blue-black glossy purplish blue
agricultural areas.
notched tall overall • female and
• Breeding juveniles have grayish
Monogamous. Colonial. white underparts.

• NESTING Incubation 15-16 days by female. Young altricial;

fed by both sexes. Fledge nest
at 2.S-30 days. 1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• POPULATION Accidental in

f Key West, Florida.

• BlRDHOUSES Will accept
t
gourds and other man-made
Buoyant, graceful, and rapid; a few quick
stiff wing beats followed by a long glide. structures for its nest sites.
Soars high in the air and above cliff faces.

Nest Identification
Cavity lined with grasses and leaves in crevices, holes in trees, man-made
Shape
p g g cavities,
•
and buildings, 8-50 feet above ground • built by both sexes
2-3 white eggs, unmarked; oval to long oval, 0.9 x 0.6 inches.
Location
^ is

Plumage Sexes Habitat a. Migration Weight

diff< Some mi g rate Undetermined

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 505

Family Species Length Wingspan

HlRUNDINIDAE progm tapem I
j jnch , s inchcs

Brown-chested Martin
Normally occurring over most of South
America east of the Andes, this bird is
generally common in semiopen or
open country with scattered trees,
dull grayish
often near water outside the nrnrmti
breeding season. But it is an
black bill
accidental vagrant in North
America, where it has been
recorded only twice, once grayish brown
breast baud with
in Massachusetts and
small median line
once in Florida. Its color at spots ion tinning
and pattern, including down to upper belly

the wide band across

the breast, and its size
grayish brown
all make it resemble a
sides and flanks
large washed-out
Bank Swallow. In bi hite
flight the long white W; underparts
undertail coverts are black feet
usually protruding ind legs
from the sides and
are visible from
above as the bird
twists and banks in
the air.

• SONG A rich gurgling

ilar Birds
similar to that of the Purple notched tail
Martin. Also makes a flat
Bank swallow
Smaller; darker
weak-sounding c/ut, chu, chu. chocolate-brown
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. In pairs or flocks. Nests in scattered upperparts; blackish
brown wings and tail;
pairs.Often associates with other martins and swallows when
white underparts; dark
feeding or roosting, particularly during the nonbreeding season. grayish brown breast
Feeds on insects. Is an aerial feeder, but unlike other martins, band; white undertail

often feeds very close to the ground and can appear somewhat coverts do not protrude
upward and are not
sluggish, frequently perching on branches.
visible from abas e;

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. voice differs.

• NESTING Breeding biology poorly is known. Incubation is

estimated at 15-18 days by % r \
female. Altricial young fed by
Flight Pattern
both sexes; fledge nest at an
estimated 22-30 days. 1 brood
per year.
Swift graceful flight typical of martins. • POPULATION Accidental in
Alternates several rapid wing beats with
long glides; glides in long circles, making
the US. Fairly common in its
normal range South America.
quick changes of direction. in
1
Nest Identification Abandoned nest • grasses and leaves in the abandoned or appropriated
Dutch oven-shaped mud nest of a hornero, in cavity of an arboreal termite
nest, or in tree cavity of woodpecker hole or in utility pole • built by both
Shape Location
sexes • 2-3 white eggs, unmarked; oval to long oval, 0.9 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Migration Wei ^ ht

ounces
g e xes similar Migratory 1.3

DATE TIME. LOCATION

506 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
HlRUNDINIDAE Species
Tachycineta bicolor
Len £th
5.75 inches Wingspan ^5 i nc hes

Tree Swallow
The Tree Swallow is equally common in open fields,
marshes, or towns. This bird's ability to adapt to its
ever-changing environment has led to its abundant
and widespread population. Migrating in huge
flocks during the day, it is one of the first swallows
to travel to its summer home in upper North

America. Many winter on the southern Atlantic

Coast, Gulf Coast, and in Florida. In flight it

shows dark upperparts, white underparts, d(jrk irtdgscent

triangular wings with greenish underwing greenish blue
linings, and a notched tail. Juveniles upperparts

have dusky brown upperparts and often

a dusky wash on the breast.
• SONG Utters quick repetitious
silip or chi-veet. In flight makes
pleasant liquid gurgling chatter.
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious in
migration and winter; often
occurs in huge flocks. Feeds in
mixed flocks with other
swallow species. Catches
insects in flight; sometimes
forages on ground. Eats
mainly flying insects but also
may take small crustaceans and
\ -EXILE
spiders. Often eats berries and •Il

seeds during cold snaps on notched tail

wintering grounds or in spring Similar Birds

migration. Inhabits open country and woodland edges near Violet-green
water. Male displays for female with series of aerial gymnastics. Swallow
White rump patches
• BREEDING Most often polygamous. Loose social colonies. extend onto sides of
Males may have 1 mates simultaneously and different mates rump; white on cheek
each year. extends up to. behind,
and above eye: purple-
• NESTING Incubation 13-16 days by female. Altricial young green gloss on
remain, in nest 16-24 days. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year upperparts • sympatric
on!v in the West.
(rarely 2).
• POPULATION Abundant and increasing.
*4t
• BlRDHOUSES Uses man-
Flight Pattern made bird boxes and gourds.
• Conservation Some are
neotropical migrants. Forestry
practice of removing dead trees

Swift graceful flight with slow deep win£ eliminates many potential
beats alternated with long to short glides nesting sites.
Turns back sharply on insects it passes.

Nest Identification
Dried stems and grass • lined with down and feathers • in tree cavity,
Shape
g
2
jg
Location
4| ^^ abandoned nest, bird box, or other man-made structure • built by both sexes,
but female does more • 4-6 white eggs; oval to long oval, 0.8 x 0.5 inches.
Abandoned Nests
jg

Plumage
Sexes sim ;, ar Habitat
^^ <s. _ Migration
M igratorv Weight
q j QUnce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 507

Family
HlRUNDINIDAE Species
Tachycineta thalassina
Length 5-5.25 inches w 'ngspan , ,_ u jnche

Violet-green Swallow
The and purples that shows on its head,
gloss of brilliant greens
back, and rump in bright sunlight andthe white patches on the sides
of its rump that show in flight set this
bird apart from its cousin,
the Tree Swallow, with which it often closely associates. Its
historical choice for nesting sites is in dead trees of partially
cleared forests or abandoned woodpecker holes. Females
show duller upperparts than males. Juveniles
have gray-brown upperparts without

notched greeni.
hiad- tail

1 greet
enish
black wings
the green-purple gloss and
grayish or mottled underparts. * white
underparts
• SONG Often makes series of
slightly buzzing chi-chit notes. Male's Juvenile
courtship song is repetitive ts/p, tseet, tsip, Similar Birds
given in flight before daylight.
Tree Swallow
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Usually feeds in flocks and catches Snowy white
insects, its principal diet, in flight. Rarely takes insects from underparts; steely blue-
green upperparts,
ground. Usually feeds by flying close to the ground or low over
including cap to below
water; sometimes feeds at great heights on insects that have eye; blue-green rump;
risen high in the air column. Defends nest cavities from other blackish flight feathers

swallows. Has been documented helping feed Western Bluebird • juvenile has brownish
upperparts; white
nestlings, then taking over the nesting cavity when they fledge.
underparts.
Often perches high in trees, on fences, or on utility wires.
white-throated
• BREEDING Monogamous. Occasionally found in loose Swift
colonies of up to around 20 pairs. Black upperparts; white
underparts with black
• NESTING Incubation 13-14 days by female. Altricial young
side patches; longer
remain in nest 16-24 days. Fed by both sexes, but female does more slender wings;
more. 1 brood per year. long forked tail; more
fluttering flight.
• POPULATION Common in various woodland habitats in
range, often found at higher elevations in mountains. Stable. Casual
in the East.
Flight Pattern • BlRDHOUSES Will nest in
man-made bird boxes.

V
Swift graceful flight, alternating several
t
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Has
rapidwing beats with long glides. Soars declined where forestry
on thermals and updrafts along cliff faces
and canyon walls.

Nest Identification
practices include removal of
dead trees. t
Grass and weed stems • lined in natural cavity, abandoned
with feathers •
Shape pg woodpecker
by both sexes •
dead tree; on rock ridges or in bird box • built
hole, or crevice in
4-6 unmarked white eggs; oval, 0.8 x 0.55 inches.
Location ^£ £^ g
Plumage
Sexes simiIar Habitat
^ Migration
Migratory We, S ht 0.6
ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

508 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
HlRl NDIMDAK |
S P ecies Tachynneta cyaneovirMiT Len §th 5.75 inches Wingspan
, ^ z inches

Bahama Swallow
Occasionally seen with flocks of Tree or Cliff Sw allow s

this endemic of the Bahama Islands rarely visits the

Florida Keys or the south Florida mainland. A dark blue-green rap
extends be/ov eye
nomadic feeder, this swallow moves with insect
populations. Its blue-green upperparts and
white underparts resemble those of the Tree
Swallow, but the tail is long and deeply
dark blue-greenish
forked and the underv ing linings are upperparts «
white. Females are similar to males but
are smaller in size and duller in color.
Juveniles have brow n upperparts.
• SONG Has a quiet metallic steel-blue
twittering c/iep or chi-chep. on wings ^

Juvenile
• BEHAVIOR Single, in pairs, or in small flocks of up to 20 birds. Feeds and nests primarily in
pine woods. Somewhat nomadic in the nonbreeding season, wandering widely over many
habitats in the Bahamas and eastern Cuba. Feeds on flying insects while it is in flight; it is agile
and able to make quick directional changes while in pursuit of insects. Has adapted to nesting
under eaves and in holes in buildings.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary to colonial. Similar Birds

• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known; incubation by
Tree Swallow
female estimated at 13-16 days. Altricial young fed by both Lacks white underwing
sexes; fledge nest at
• POPULATION
mainland. Uncommon
estimated 16-24 days. brood per \ car.
Casual to the Florida Keys and south Florida
in northern Bahamas in summer; uncommon
1

4 linings and deeply

forked tail.

to casual throughout the

Flight Pattern Bahamas and eastern Cuba

outside summer.
• Conservation The
destruction of pine forests in

this bird'sbreeding range in the

Swift graceful flight alternating rapid wing
beats with long glides. Similar to that of
Bahamas has contributed to a
other swallows. decline in its numbers.

Nest Identification
Grass and leaves, lined with finer materials • in trees, stumps, or under
Shape Q2 eaves on buildings • built by both sexes • 3 white eggs; oval to long oval,
g 0.8-0.55 inch long.
Location
Jj£ Jfl ^
Plumage Sc \cs similar Habltat Migration vi Wei § ht
I
*if on mi oratory 0.6 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 509

Species Len eth Wingspan

Family
HlRUNDINIDAE Stelgidopteryx serripennh 5.5 inches n _ Uind)cs

NORTHERN ROUGH-WINGED SWALLOW

This bird is named for the tiny hooks found on its

outer primary feathers. Their function is unknown,

but they may produce a sound during courtship
display. The male and female use their feet to
dig nesting burrows, some as long as six feet, short hi(ick
+ bill
depending on the nature of the but most soil,

are nine to twenty-eight inches deep. Since light gray-

brown wash on
it is highly adaptable this bird has a wide
chin, throat,
breeding range. Juveniles are similar to and upper
adults but show more cinnamon tones medium brown breast

in their upperparts and have upperparts

cinnamon wing bars.

• SONG Usually remains silent,

but sometimes utters harsh,
buzzing qu'tz-z-zeeitp or zzrrif.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or
in pairs or small flocks.
dark bro wnish *
Gregarious in
black wings and
migration. Catches wing linings
and consumes a dull white
underparts
variety of flying
insects while in
flight. Also
occasionally takes
insects from ground. slightly forked dark
brownish black tail
Often feeds low over
open landscapes or
water and sometimes
feeds along with other
species of swallows. Quickly Similar Birds

adapted nesting to utilize crevices in rock cuts along interstate Bank Swallow
highways. During courtship male chases female, flying with Smaller; darker brown
upperparts; dark brown
white undertail coverts spread along sides of tail.
breast band; snow-white
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary or in small colonies. underparts; faster wing
beats with quick
• NESTING Incubation 12 days by female. Altricial young changes of direction.
remain in nest 19-21 days. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Common and increasing.
• BlRDHOUSES Will nest
Flight Pattern some types of man-made
structures but has not been
recorded to use nest boxes.
• Conservation
Swift graceful flight with several deep Neotropical migrant.
slow wing beats, pulling back wings after
each stroke, then a short to long glide.
3k£
Nest Identification No nest materials except a few bark chips, grass, and leaves • on bank, sides of
rough highway/railroad rock cuts, or building or in abandoned burrows,
cliff,
Location
LI. drain pipes, or sewer pipes • dug by both sexes • 4-8 plain white eggs; long oval
0.7 x 0.5 inchesr

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat^ „ ^±^ Migration
Migratory Wei § ht 0.6
ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

510 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan _ n inche§
HlRUNDINIDAE jtiparia riparia 4 75 inches 1()

Bank Swallow
The member of the North American swallow
smallest
family an aerial gymnast that twists and turns in the
is

air over its breeding territory. Males and females take

turns digging burrows into vertical banks with their
bills. Once a hole is made, they use their feet to
chocolate-brown
finish the tunnel, which sometimes is as long
upperpart.
as five to six feet. The scientific name
refers to their association with rivers
during migration and their predilection
for nesting along sandy gravelly river
banks. The dark narrow breast
band is difficult to see when
the bird is in flight, but the
combination of an erratic
M/fhs// brown
brownish gray
breast hand,
flight pattern, chocolate- flightfeathers
sometimes extending
brown upperparts, paler down midline of
brown rump, dark brown upper breast
wing linings, and snowy
white underparts serve
to identify this bird. mowy white
underparts
Juvenile wing coverts
and tertials are edged Similar Birds
cinnamon and the throat
Northern rolc
and upper breast are
winged swallow
washed pale cinnamon. Larger; paler brown
• SONG Dry chattering, zzzrt orzzzrt, zzzrtt. upperparts; lacks brown
chest band; dusky white
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Often migrates and feeds with other underparts; light gray-
swallows. Gathers in large premigratory and communal roosts. brown w ash on chin,
throat, and upper
Catches insects while flying. Occasionally takes insects from
breast; slower deeper
ground or waters surface. Courtship includes dropping and wing beats.
catching feathers in the air, as if playing, by each member of
Trkk Swallow
pair; copulation in the nest burrow often follows such "play"
Juvenile is larger; white
and many feathers are used in the nest lining. underparts from chin to

• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. undertail coverts; often

with dusky breast band;
• NESTING Incubation 14-16 days by both sexes. Altricial greenish blue
young stay in nest 18-24 days, fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods upperparts.

per year.
• Population Common
Flight Patti and widespread; often near
water. Numbers are stable
overall, but species is declining
V A \ * V
in California due to river bank
alteration for flood control.
Swift erratic fluttering flight on shallow
wing beats; often alternates several rapid • Conservation
wing beats with short to long glides. Neotropical migrant.

Nest Identification
I ,ined with grass, rootlets, w eed stems, horsehair, and feathers • in sandy or
rocky bank, gravel pit, or man-made embankment, such as a highway road cut
Shape • dug by both sexes • 3-7 plain white eggs; oval to short oval, 0.7 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi ar i
Habitat -~ Migration
Migratory We 'g ht 0.5 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 511
Family Species Len £th
HlRUNDINIDAE Petroclielidon pyrrhonota 5.5 inches

Cliff Swallow
Hundreds of gourd-shaped "mud jugs" plastered to
the side of a barn or under a bridge or highway
overpass are a typical nesting territory for
these highly adaptable birds. Farmers
heartily welcome this resident
because it eats numerous flying
blue-black
insects that are harmful to crown
crops. Nesting colonies may
number from eight
hundred to more than
one thousand birds. Note
the dark rusty brown
throat, and in flight the chestnut throat

brown underwing linings, with black

center patch
cinnamon buff rump,
square tail, dusky blue-black
cinnamon undertail coverts ings and back
with dark centers, and whitish
buff edged feathers of back and
tertials. Juveniles have dusky brown whitish underparts
with dusky gray-brown
upperparts and paler underparts. This
sides and flanks
swallow has successfully expanded its range
in the Southeast and the West. The southwestern race displays a
cinnamon forehead similar to the Cave Swallow.
• SONG Utters a dry guttural churr or zarp. Alarm call is burry keeer Juvenile
During breeding, a chattering, squeaking, sputtering warble.
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Catches food in flight; sometimes forages on ground. Eats variety of
and some berries and fruit. Constructs one of the most complex swallow nests: a
flying insects
sphere of mud pellets with a tubular entrance on one side. Colonies are source of foraging
information for other birds; birds follow members who are
successfully feeding young back to food sources.
Similar Birds
• BREEDING Monogamous. Large colonies.
Cave Swallow
• NESTING Incubation 14-16 days by both sexes. Altricial
young
•
in nest

POPULATION Common
21-24 days, fed by both sexes. 1-3 broods
open country; especially near
in
a year. 4i Pale cinnamon-buff
throat; cinnamon
forehead; richer
cinnamon-rust rump.
water. Range is expanding and numbers are increasing.
• Conservation Neotropical migrant. Previously listed as
being of special concern, but
Flight Pattern successful adaptation to nesting
on man-made structures such as
x^x , x^x tjp^ buildings, highway bridges and % ! I
\
v ^>
overpasses, railroad bridges,
Swift graceful flight alternating several
dams, and other vertical walls
deep wing beats with long elliptical
rapid
glides with sharpsweeping upturns at the has greatly expanded
end. Soars on thermals and updrafts. populations and range.

Pellets of clay ormud. w ith lining of grasses, down, and feathers • usually
Nest Identification
under eav es of buildings or under dams or bridges; sometimes on ridges of
Shape canyons; rarely on trunk of conifer tree under overhanging branch • built by
both sexes • 3-6 white, cream, or pinkish eggs, marked with browns; oval to
Location Jg«r |^ g long oval, 0.8 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat^ Migration
Migratory Wei § ht 0.8 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

512 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
HlRUNDINIDAE Species Petrochelidon
fulva
Len Sth 5.5
inches Wingspan
u inches

Cave Swallow
This bird plasters its cuplike nests to the sides of caves, but it

has adapted to man-made structures and now also uses buildings,

bridges, culverts, and even drainage pipes. A native of Mexico
and the West Indies, in North America two races nest, one
in the Southwest and one in Florida. blue-black
One of the most visited colonies is upperparts with
established in the entrance whitish buff
streaks on back
to Carlsbad Caverns. whitish buff innamon-buff
Similar in appearance to edging to throat extends
the Cliff Swallow, it tertials around neck as a
collar

chestnut rump

• whitish underparts
blackish flight
with rufous wash on
feathers
breast and sides

squared tail '

dusky cinnamon under/ad
averts with dark centers

often nests with them, and with Barn Swallows. In flight it shows brow nish

underwing linings. The southwestern race of the Cliff Swallow has the
Juvenile
cinnamon forehead but has a dark throat.
• SONG Series of dry warbling buzzy chatters; sometimes calls
Similar Birds
chu-chu or zweih.
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Eats insects caught in Cliff Swallow
flight. Builds
Pale whitish to buff
a complex nest: a sphere constructed of mud pellets with a fotehead; dark rusty
tubular entrance on one side. Colonies often active on same site brown throat with black

year after year and may repair and reuse old nests. center patch; pale
cinnamon-buff rump
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. • southwestern race has

• NESTING Incubation 15-18 days by both sexes. Young cinnamon forehead.

altricial; remain in nest 21-33 days, fed by both sexes. Has

2 broods per year.

Flight Pattern
• Population Fairly
common but somewhat local.

Swift graceful
Vt
flight, alternating several
Expanding range and increasing
in number. Casual in Northeast.

• Conservation
rapid deep wing beats with long elliptical
Neotropical migrant.
glides ending on sharp sweeping upturns.
Soars on winds and thermals.

Nest Identification Pellets of clay and mud with lining of grasses and a few feathers • plastered

to sides of caves, sinkholes, bridges, culverts, buildings, or even drainage

Shape
Q pipes • built by both sexes
long oval, 0.8 x 0.5 inches.
• 3-5 white eggs, marked with browns; oval to

Plumia £ e
Sexes similar <
Habitat^ Migration
Migratory Wei S ht 0.7
ounce

DATE IME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 513

Species Length Wingspan

Family
HlRUNDINIDAE H j n/lu/a rustica (yjS-7.5 inches 12.5-13.5 inches

Barn Swallow
Since early colonial rimes this bird has been a welcome
presence on farms because it eats many crop-destroying
insects. Usually nesting inside of barns or other
buildings, it is the only North American
swallow with buffy to iark bluish black Femalk
cinnamon underparts and breast band
underwing linings and a
white-spotted deeply
forked tail. The female is

similar to the male but

most often is duller in
color. Juveniles have
shorter forked tails and
creamy white underparts.
The most wide-ranging
swallow in the world, it is

cosmopolitan, found breeding or

wintering on almost all continents.
• SONG Utters a repetitive clipped
chi-dit, chi-dit or wit-wit. Song is a
prolonged twittering warble with liquid
guttural notes interspersed. deeply forked
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Often feeds close
/darkish tail
irith vliitc
to ground or water. Eats a wide variety of
flying insects, and follows farm machinery, even
riding lawnmowers, to feed on stirred-up insects. Courtship
Similar Birds
flights may include pairs dropping and catching feathers in
midair; upon landing pairs may engage in mutual preening. Cliff s\\ \i i <>\\

Blue-black upperparts;
Individuals show strong site fidelity, and colonies may exist over
rusty cinnamon to buffy
long periods on the same site, with the same individuals cinnamon rump; pale
sometimes building nests on the same site used the previous forehead; short squared
tail w ithout white spots.
year. Has adapted to nesting in and on man-made structures.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Small colonies. During courtship, ( : we Swallow
male chases female, flying over acres of land.
• NESTING Incubation 13-17 days by both sexes, but female
4i Blue-black upperparts;
chestnut rump; short,
squared tail without
white spots.
does more. Young altricial; stay in nest 18-23 days, fed by both
sexes. 2 broods per year.
• Population Abundant *s4
Flight Pattern and widespread open in
country, agricultural lands, and
savanna, especially near water.
Increasing. Eurasian races are
accidental to casual in Alaska.
Swift and graceful with deep wing beats v"
and wing-tips pulled back at the end of
• Conservation
ea< h stroke; glides are short and infrequent. Neotropical migrant.

Nest Identification Clay or mud, dried stems, grasses, and straw, with thick lining of horsehair,
down, and feathers • inside barn or other building, in ridges of cliff, under
Shape
bridge, under culvert, or attached to bank • built by both sexes • 4-7 white
eggs, marked with browns; oval to long oval, 0.8 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
jf.
Migration
Migratory We 'S ht 0.6 ounce

DATE TIME LOGATION

514 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len §th 5 Wingspan
HlRUNDINIDAE Oelichon urbica inches 1(M j inches

Common House-Martin
Set apart from other swallows by its white rump,
this native of Eurasia sometimes visits Western
Alaska. Like its cousins in North America, it
frequents farms and open country,
especially near water; it also nests on
cliffs, buildings, and other man-

made structures. It breeds from

the British Isles to Siberia.
fate of cheeks
tops below eye
dark glossy blue-
black upperparts
and wings

lute underparts

Juvenile

Similar Birds

Violet-green
Swallow
Dark glossy greenish
purple upperparts;
forked blackish
white underparts; white
blue tail
of cheek extends
behind or above eye;
white patches on rump
extend almost to
midline, but center of
It often soars on wide triangular wings, showing gray
its
rump is dark greenish
underwings and feeds over water. The female has
in flight,
purple; greenish
slightly grayer underparts, and the juvenile is duller overall. underwing linings;

• SONG An abrasive preit or a ringing teerch-teerch. Song is a

blackish underwing
flight feathers.
prolonged squeaky twitter.
Trek Swall< >w
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Feeds in flocks; gathers on wires. Dark blue-green
Feeds mostly on insects taken in flight; sits on ground more
than most other swallows. Often soars long distances. Has
adapted to nesting on man-made structures and is often found
in and around human settlements.
4 upperparts; white
underparts; dark blue-
green rump; greenish
underwing lining;
blackish underwing
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. flight feathers.

• NESTING Incubation 13-19 days by both sexes. Young

altricial;stay in nest 19-25 days
fed by both sexes. 2-3 broods
Flight Pattern
per year.

t-
<V*'A • Population Casual in
North America in western
Alaska during spring migration.
Swift and graceful direct flight on
Accidental in Newfoundland.
rapidly beating wings. Makes lengthy
soaring flights.

Nest Identification Mud, and stems, with lining of feathers, fine grasses, and
leaves, dried grasses,
down • • on sides of cliffs or under eaves of buildings
entrance on side near top
or other man-made structures • built by both sexes • 4-6 white eggs;
Shape Location
|^ subelliptical, 0.8 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage Sexes simjlar > Habitat

^ Migration
Migratory Wei § ht 0.5 ounce

DATE IME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 515

Family Species Length Wingspan

pARIDAE poecile caro unensis 4J5 jnchcs J S mches

Carolina Chickadee
Readily attracted to feeders supplying sunflower
seeds, this little chickadee is a familiar bird to many

who operate feeding stations in its range, where

it is the only songbird with a black bib and

black cap. This energetic bird, a common

inhabitant of the southeastern United
States primarily south of the zone of
glaciation, ranges north to New
Jersey and west into Ohio,
Indiana, Illinois, and to the
100th meridian in
eastern Texas. When
disturbed in the
nest cavity during
incubation, it will
hiss and strike • short slightly
intruders, notched tail

behaving similarly to
copperheads and other snakes. hia<kish gray
• SONG Calls include a higher-pitched rapid chick-a-dee- feet and legs
dee-dee and a 4-note whistled an octavefee-bee-fee-bay,
higher than that of the Black-capped Chickadee, with
lower-pitched 2nd and 4th notes. Also makes variety of Similar Birds
high-pitched thin squeaky notes when foraging with others. Black-capped
Call notes are more complex than song. Chickadee
• BEHAVIOR Pairs or small groups. After breeding often
Larger body; white-
edged greater wing
joins mixed feeding flocks with titmice, nuthatches, kinglets, coverts; broad white
warblers, Downy Woodpeckers, and others. Eats moths, markings on edge of
caterpillars, and a wide variety of other insects when available; secondaries; more
boldly edged tertials
in winter and spring eats mostly seeds and some berries. May
with darker centers;
excavate own nest or enlarge cavity if wood is soft enough. black bib extends
• BREEDING Monogamous. Very early nester. farther down chest;
olive flanks; lower,
• NESTING Incubation 11-12 days by both sexes. Altricial slower chick-a-dee-dee-dei
young stay in nest 13-17 days. Brooded by female. Fed by both call; typically gives 2-
to 3-note fee-bee or fee-
sexes, mostly larval insects. 1-2 broods per year.
bee-be song.
• POPULATION Common inopen deciduous forests,
woodland clearings, forest edges, and suburban areas.
•Feeders and
Flight Pattern BlRDHOUSES Suet,
doughnuts, and sunflower
seeds. Nests in birdhouses.
i*
• Conservation
Short weak fluttering flight with rapid Sometimes competes for nest
beats; sometimes in longer flights folds sites with House Wren,
wings to sides after several quick strokes. especially in suburban areas.

Nest Identification Lined with plant material, including grass and moss, as well as feathers and hair
• in tree or snag 1-23 feet above ground or in man-made nest box • built by
Shape Location » Av ^ both sexes • 5-8 white eggs with reddish brown markings; oval to short oval,
0.6 x 0.45 inches:

Plumage
Sexes simikr I Habitat
m ^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei § ht 0.4
ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

516 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length c c Wingspan
pARIDAE poedk atricapiUa 5.5 inches ; s _8 s inches

Black-gapped Chickadee
A common visitor at bird feeders in t white
cheeks
northern US and Canada south of the
tundra, the Black-capped Chickadee /rrnf „ /m
leaves its nesting grounds in woodland uppe/pa/r.
areas during autumn and \ isits bird
feeders in suburban areas. The • short
Black-capped Chickadee rarely Mack bill

moves beyond the southern

black bib
edge of its breeding range,
bur occasionally it w ill irrupt
southward in large numbers
during autumn. It occasionally
hybridizes with the Carolina
Chickadee, in the oxerlapping
zone, producing intergrades
in si/e and song.
• SONG Lower huskier
blackish gray
more drawn-out chick-a- white underparts <
feet and legs
dee-dee-dee than that of with o Ik e-buff

Carolina Chickadee. wash on sides,

flanks, lower
Song is clear fluted fee- Similar Birds
belly, and crissum
bee or fee-bee-be. Carolina Chickadee
• Behavior Pairs: Smaller body; shorter
no broad white
tail:
forms small groups
edges on greater wing
after nesting season. coverts or secondaries
Often joins mixed foraging flocks with other species. Tame. (grayish); cleaner cut
lower edge on shorter
Forages among twigs and branches and under bark, often
black bib; less olive in
clinging upside down, for insects, and insect eggs. Eats seeds flanks; higher-pitched,
from conifers, bayberries. and other fruit. Holds large seeds faster chick-a-dee-dee-dee

between feet on perch and pounds seed coat open with beak. In call; 4-note fee-bee-fee-bay
whistled song.
winter eats mostly seeds. Incubating female hisses like a snake
when nest cavit\ is disturbed. Boreal Chickadee
Brown cap: gray-brown
• BREEDING Monogamous. back and sides: more
• NESTING Incubation days by both sexes. Altricial hoarse, draw ling chick-a-
deer-deer or chick-chee-
young stay in nest 14-18 days. Brooded by female. Fed by both
day-day song.
sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Widespread and common in deciduous or mixed

Flight Pattern often in riparian growth. Stable

Slow
beats.
T*
flitting short flights
On
<T V
with rapid wing
longer flights often folds wings
T^
and possibly increasing.
•Feeders and
BlRDHOUSES Doughnuts,
peanut butter-and-cornmeal
to sides after several quick shallow mixture, and sunflower seeds.
strokes before repeating. Will nest in birdhouses.

Nest Identification Lined with vegetation, moss, feathers, hair, and insect cocoons • in deciduous
box
tree, conifer, snag, or nest —
MJ feet above ground • built by both sexes
Shape
gj
1
Location ft ^ .£
-I

• 5—10 white eggs with fine reddish brow n marks; oval to short oval, 0.6 x

0.45 inches.
8
Plumage
Sexes si]
Habitat
i_ ft Wx Migration
\ onm j„ rat()rv Weight
(U ounc

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NOR TI AMERICA I • 517

Family Species Length S Wingspan

pARIDAE p0(rj/( ,
iuul, on ;ai I
5 inchcs 8 nch
;

Boreal Chickadee
In most of its range the Boreal Chiekadee is

the only chiekadee with a brown cap. It is a

gray rear of
calm tame little bird that prefers to nest face and
among the conifer woodlands in the colder sides of neck 1

brown cap
regions of North America, mostly north of brownish
the US-Canada border. Small flocks of upperparts

these chickadees often are seen Mark bill

traveling in the company of Golden-

crowned Kinglets, but they rarely
associate with Black-capped gray a"///
black bib
and tail
Chickadees in their mixed-
white cheeks
species foraging flocks in
rest rieted to small
the winter season. In area graying
some winters in the posteriorly

eastern parts of
North America,
some individuals
may appear as
much as
hundreds of miles
south of their gray-black legs
Similar Birds
normal breeding range. and feet
Gray-headed
Males and females are alike.
Chickadee
• SONG Song is short and warbled. Call is a drawling drawn- More extensive w hite
checks- gray-brown cap;
out lazy chick-a-dee-dee-dee or chick-chee-day-day.
longer tail; paler flunks;
• BEHAVIOR A highly tame and sociable bird. Pairs in gray-brown upperparts;
breeding season may stay together all year; they travel in small pale edges on wing
coverts; voice differs
tomedium flocks of 4-20 birds in nonbreeding season. Gleans
• western range.
much of its food from branches and needles of conifers and by
picking seeds out of cones. Eats variety of insects and their Black-capped
< ihickadee
larvae and eggs. Black cap; light gray
• BREEDING Monogamous. Small colonies. upperparts; large white
cheek patch extending
• NESTING Incubation 11-16 days by female. Young altricial;
onto hindneck; w hite-
brooded by female; remain in nest 18 days, fed by both sexes. edged tertials and
1 brood per year. secondaries; different
livelier call.
• POPULATION Fairly common in boreal conifer forests and
in mixed conifer-deciduous woodlands.

Flight Pattern Chickadees will come to a

variety of feeders for a mixture
of suet, peanut butter,
cornmeal, and sunflower seeds.
Weak on rapidly
fluttering short flights
• Conservation
beating wings. Alternates pulling wings to Vulnerable to loss of habitat due
body with several quick shallow strokes. to logging operations.

Nest Identification down, lichen, and animal fur and hair • in

Filled with bark strips, mosses, plant
dead conifer or used woodpecker hole • 1-10 feet above ground • built
live or
Shape 2

5 5 by female • 4-9 white eggs, with reddish brown specks; ovate to short o\ arc.
Location
^ ^ some rather pointed, 0.6 x 0.45 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi j ar
Habitat
m^ ^_ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei § ht 0.3
ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

518 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len Sth Wingspan
pARIDAE Baeolophus bicolor 6.5 inches {0J5 inches

Tufted Titmouse
Undaunted by the presence of people, this lively bird
sometimes will swoop down and pluck out a human
hair to use for its nest. The largest titmouse, it will
flytoward people making squeaking or pishing
sounds to attract birds. It is intelligent and medium gray rutted dark
may learn to eat food out of a human hand. gray head
upperparti
Often it can be seen digging in the
ground, where it stores surplus
sunflower seeds. Adapted to
traight
wooded residential areas
/dark bill
with large shade
trees and to bird
feeders and
nesting boxes,
gray tail
it has become a
familiar yard bird
with its jaunty crest and
large black eyes set against
gray plumage. The black-crested
form in southern and western Texas
was formerly considered a separate
species, the Black-crested Titmouse.
» gray-black
• SONG Bold, high-pitched, whistled peter,
feet and legs Black-crested
peter, peter ox peto, peto, peto. Sometimes females sing but not form
as much as males. Calls vary from high-pitched, thin squeaky
notes to low, harsh, fussy scolding notes.
Similar Birds
• BEHAVIOR Relatively tame; social. Pairs or small family
Phainopepla 9
groups; joins mixed foraging flocks after nesting season. Small range overlap in
Inspects and forages in trees and shrubs for food, sometimes Big Bend area of Texas
clinging upside down on trunk or branch tips. Uses bill to with black-crested form

t medium
• larger; sooty
pound open nut, while anchoring it with feet. Eats insects and
gray overall; crested;
their larvae, spiders, snails, various berries, acorns and other darker gray wing edges;
nuts, and seeds. Male feeds female during courtship. white on wing coverts
and whitish gray
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. Mates for life. patch
tertials;

at base of
• NESTING Incubation 13-14 days by female. Altricial young primaries flashes in

stay in nest 15-18 days. Brooded by female. Fed by both flight; long, rounded tail.
sexes.
1 brood per year, 2 in the South.
• Population Abundant to

Flight Pattern common in forests, parks, and

shaded suburbs.
•Feeders and
BlRDHOUSES Feeders with
Weak fluttering short flights with shallow
sunflower seeds, suet, cornmeal,
rapid wing beats. Flitting flight with several
quick wing beats alternating w ith w ings and peanut butter. Will nest in
draw n to sides, then repeated. man-made birdhouses.

Nest Identification Lined with bark, leaves, soft grass and moss, snakeskin, and bits of animal fur
and hair • in natural cavity, bird box, or woodpecker hole 3-90 feet above ground
Shape • built by female • 4-8 white to creamy white eggs speckled with browns,
ffff
occasionally w reathed; short subelliptical, 0.7 x 0.55 inches.

Plumage Scxes s ; mi , ar
Habitat
^^ Migration
Nonmigratorv Wei § ht 0.8 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 519

Family Species Len £th 4.5 inches Wingspan

ReMIZIDAE kuriparus flaviceps ? jnch

Verdin
Sometimes using as many as two
thousand twigs, this tiny bird builds an
elaborate sphere-shaped nest up to
eight inches in diameter. The
spherical nest has thick walls to
\
insulate from the hot desert sun
it yellow head
and the cold desert nights. Nests and throat
built early in the season have
their side entrances facing away
from the cooling winds to
conserve heat; those built later
in the nesting season face the
direction of the wind for its
cooling breezes. As it often
nests ten or more miles away
from any water source, this
bird eats fruit and insects to
obtain needed moisture.
Brownish gray juveniles lack
the yellow head and chestnut
shoulder patch of the adults
and, except for their shorter tail, could
be mistaken for a Bushtit.
• SONG Song is melancholy whistled
a Sil l IT
Juveniles • graver
tswee-swee, tswee, 3 notes with the second note
upperparts; longer tai
higher. Call is a quick tea-nip. brownish cheek patch
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs; small family or crown; usually in
staggered flocks;
groups after breeding season. May join mixed-
prefer oak scrub to
species foraging flocks in winter. Actively forages desert basins • only in
for food among twigs and leaves. Sometimes hangs upside the West.
down, clinging to limb or trunk like a chickadee. Eats insects, Lucy's Warbler
their larvae and eggs, spiders, wild berries, and fruit. Male Pale gray overall • male
builds several nests in his territory; female selects one, which has rusty red crow n and
rump patch • female
may be used several times for nesting, even in succeeding years. and juvenile have
Nests often are used for night roosts and as shelters from chestnut or buffy rump
noonday sun, and some are constructed for just that purpose. patch respectively.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester.

• Nesting incubation
Flight Pattern
10 days by female. Young
altricial; brooded by female;
stay in nest 21 days, fed by both
sexes. 2 broods per year.
Somewhat weak fluttering flight with • Population Common in
sev eral fast shallow wing strokes followed
desert and arid scrub, especially
by wings pulled in to sides; repeated.
Flights often short duration, bush to bush. mesquite and creosote bush.

Mass of sticks, leaves, and grasses held together with spider web and cocoon
Nest Identification
material, w ith lining of grasses, feathers, and plant dow n • w ell out toward tip of
branch or in fork of shrubby tree, cactus, or bush, 2-20 feet above ground • built
Shape
^ by male* 3-6 bluish green to greenish white eggs, with reddish brow n speckles;
oval to short ov al, 6.6 inch long.

Plumage
Sexes s ; mi , ar
I Habitat
± Migration
Nonmigratory We 'S nt 0.2 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 g
520 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan g jnches
SlTTIDAE Snt(l cana(iens is 4 5 jnches

Red-breasted Nuthatch
This bird will often eat from the human hand. To protect
young from predators, male and female smear pine pitch
around the nest entrance. Females'differ from black eye line

males by the dark gray cap and nape and fr0 ™ ^eff to i
black cap
,. j Tp, ,1 •, back of head < ind nape
,

lighter underparts. The blue-gray tail

blue-gray back,
spread in display or flight shows a white eyebrow
shoulders, and
white subterminal band. Winter wings
range varies yearly, particularly
blue-gray
in the East; this sedentary
rump
species remains in its breeding white cheeks
range as long as winter food
supplies can support it.
• SONG Galls are nasal and
high pitched, resembling the
sound of a tiny tin horn, ank, ink, or
enk, often repeated in a rapid series.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. May

join mixed-species feeding flocks after
breeding season. Climbs
up and down tree trunks, lighter buff

often headfirst, and walks underparts

an rustier
on the underside of limbs. on flank
Forages for conifer seeds, and crissum
nuts, and some insects by
gleaning them from bark or
foliage; wedges food in tree
bark crevices and pounds with
bill to break shell or exoskeleton. White-breasted
Male courts female by feeding her, also by turning his back to Nuthatch
Larger; white face
her and lifting his head and tail, raising his back feathers and
lacks black eye line;
drooping his wings, swaying from side to side. Irruptive migrant. white underparts with
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. rusty wash on flanks
and crissum; blue-gray
• NESTING Incubation 12 days by female. Young altricial; tail with black outer
brooded by female; stay in nest 14-21 days, fed by both sexes. tail feathers edged

and tipped white;

1 brood per year.
voice differs.
• POPULATION Fairly common to common in boreal and
subalpine conifer forests and mixed conifer-deciduous northern
montane forests. Stable. Eastern
Flight Pattern breeding range currently
expanding southward.
• FEEDERS Sunflower seeds,
peanut butter, and suet.
Somewhat weak fluttering flight of short
• CONSERVATION
duration, with rapid wing strokes followed Vulnerable to habitat loss due to
by brief folding of wings to sides; repeated.
logging operations.

Nest Identification Lined with shredded bark, grass, and roots • usually 5-40 feet above ground
(but up to 120 feet) in conifer • built by both sexes, but female does most of
Shape g- 4-7 white white eggs, marked with reddish browns; oval
work • to pinkish to

Location
j^y ^ short oval, 0.6 x 0.46 inches.

Plumage Sexes djffcr ,

I Habitat
m ?<f
Migration
S()mc migrate Weight
q 4 ()Uncc

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 521

Species Length Wingspan 9 _ n

Family
SlTTIDAE gitta caro Hnensjs 5 _ 6 inche; inch

White-breasted Nuthatch
The largest and most widespread of the North
American nuthatches, this nimble bird can balance
upside down on tree trunks, catch a falling nut in
midair, and rapidly hop down skinny branches. In
winter it joins mixed-species flocks and often
black cap and nape long black bill
feeds together in the same tree with extend onto hindneck with slightly
chickadees. Downy as partial collar • upturned tip
Woodpeckers, and Brown
blue-gray
Creepers. It is quick to blackish blue viug coverts,
upperparts
accept bird feeders, and tcrtia/s, secondaries, and
primaries, with white edging
will often attempt to
intimidate other avian
by spreading
visitors
itswings and tail and
swaying back and
forth. Females in the
Northeast have dark
white patches in
blue-gray crowns. blue-black tail
white uncle/parts
with rusty wash on
• SONG Sings an flanks, lover belly,
ascending wee-wee-wee-wee- and criss 11 in

wee-wee-wee. Call is a hoarse

yank-yank-yank.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs;
sociable in nonbreeding season. Eats
various nuts, seeds, spiders, and insects. black feet and legs
Inspects trees with head pointed downward
and around and underneath limb in search
circles
of food. Spends most of its time in trees. Roosts in tree cavities

in the winter; often roosts in crevices of bark in summer, some Similar Birds
sleeping in the head down, tail up position.
Rkd-breasted
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. Sometimes known to Nuthatch
form small colonies. Smaller; white face
broken by long, black
• NESTING Incubation 12 days by female. Young altricial; eye stripe; uniform
brooded by female; stay in nest 14 days, fed by both sexes. rusty chestnut

1 brood per year.

underparts; smaller bill;

• POPULATION Common
Ik' voice differs.
deciduous woodlots and in in
mixed coniferous-deciduous woods in the North and West.
•Feeders and
Flight Pattern BlRDHOUSES Comes to
feeders for suet and/or seeds;
will nest in nest boxes.
• Conservation
Weak fluttering flight of short duration; Vulnerable to habitat loss due to
several rapid wing beats alternated with logging operations.
wings drawn to sides; repeated.

Nest Identification Lined with bark shreds, hair, and feathers • natural cavity, knothole,
woodpecker's hole, or bird box, 10-60 feet above ground • built by both sexes
Shape 2
Location $b
g j£ female does more • 3-10 white to pinkish eggs, with brown, gray, purple, and
red blotches; oval.to short oval, 0.8 x 0.56 inches.
41^
Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
I Habitat
^m ^~ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei § ht
0.7 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

522 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
SlTTIDAE Species
SiUa pusijla Len eth 4.5
inches I
Wingspan 8 5 inches

Brown-headed Nuthatch
The only North American songbird to use a tool while buffy brown
foraging, this nuthatch lives in the southern woodlands, cap and nape
with white
especially in open stands of pine. sometimes holds
It
spot on nape
a piece of bark in its bill and uses to pry up
it

another bark chip, uncovering insects. This thin dark eye line
bird travels in small flocks of family blue-gray holders cap
groups. Often foraging high in the upperparts
straight
trees and well out toward the black bill
tips of the branches, it would
be easily overlooked but
for its constant peeping
calls and twittering.

• SONG Has various

squeaky bit-bit-bit calls
and a dee-dee-dee.
During courtship,
sings pri-u, de-u, de-u,
like a squeaky toy.

• Behavior in pairs
or small family groups,
often including an
unmated male helper
that helps excavate the
nesting cavity and feed
Similar Birds
female and young. Forages over,
around, and up and down branches, small twigs, and trunks, Red-breasted
Nuthatch
even hanging upside down. Picks seeds from pinecones. Eats Larger; black cap; white
insects and their larvae and spiders. Caches pine seeds. Forms face with long black eye

mixed-species foraging flocks with chickadees, titmice, kinglets, stripe; rusty chestnut
underparts; black nape;
warblers, woodpeckers, and others.
voice differs.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Cooperative. White-breasted
• NESTING Incubation 14 days by female. Young altricial; Nuthatch
brooded by female; stay in nest 18-19 days, fed by both sexes Larger: black cap;
completely white face,
and extra birds. 1 brood per year.
breast, and underparts;
• POPULATION F* airly common in mature open pine forests rusty-washed flanks and
and mixed pine-deciduous woodlands along the coastal crissum.
plain.
• FEEDERS AND BlRDHOUSES Will come to eat at bird

Flight Pattern birdhouses built for them.

• Conservation
Vulnerable to habitat loss due to
the cutting of pine forests and
Weak fluttering flight of short duration, the replacement with pine
with series of rapid wing beats followed by plantations that are on short
wings pulled in to sides; repeated. harvest rotations.

Nest Identification Soft bark shreds, wood chips, grasses, wool, hair, and feathers • in dead or live
gi tree, bird box, stump, or old post, usually 2-12 feet above ground (but up to
Shape
g 90 feet) • built by both sexes and extra birds • 3-9 white or off-white eggs, with
Location
^^ j|
reddish brown speckles; short subelliptical to short oval, 0.6 x 0.45 inches.

Plumage Sexes si]

Habitat
^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei e nt 0.4 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 523

Family Species Len Sth 5.25 inches Wingspan ? _ 8

CERTHIIDAE Qgrthia Americana nch;

Brown Creeper
This tree-dwelling by hanging onto a tree
bird roosts
trunk or the side of house with its sharp claws.
a

Unlike the nuthatches, it does not move sideways or

upside down when foraging for insects. Rather, it

buff-streaked brown
circles the tree in an upward direction, as if it were
upperparts
ascending a spiral staircase, or it takes a straighter
path up, then drops to the base of a nearby tree
and starts working its way up again. The long
decurved bill is an efficient tool for
picking insects out of bark crevices,
and the stiff tail feathers prop
the bird upright just as a
woodpecker's tail does.

long rufous tail

with stiff
pointed tail
feathers at end

white underpa its

wings and coverts
edged and tipped
with buff and white
sharp claws

• SONG Call is a soft musical see-see-titi-see, similar to that of the Golden-crowned Kinglet, but
thinner. Call note is a soft thin seee.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Tame. Often joins mixed-species foraging flocks in winter.
Forages for food by spiraling up tree, but does not move down or sideways. Hops back
occasionally, but then moves on up. Eats various insects, larvae, seeds, and some nuts. Well
camouflaged and difficult to spot; often escapes predators by pressing its body tightly against
tree, spreading wings and tail, and remaining motionless. Fledglings roost in tight circle with
heads in center of ring.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Sol ltary nester.
• NESTING Incubation 13-17 days by female. Young altricial; brooded by female; stay in nest
13-16 days. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Fairly common in pine, spruce-fir, mixed coniferous-deciduous, swampy
forests; declining in some areas.
• FEEDERS Will come to feeders formixture of nuts, peanut
and cornmeal.
butter, suet,
Flight Pattern Mixture can be put directly on
tree trunk.
• Conservation Nesting
area threatened due to cutting
of forest habitat.
Strong direct flights of short duration with
rapid shallow w ing beats.

Twigs, moss, conifer needles, pieces of bark, and silk, lined with shredded bark
Nest Identification
and feathers • in cavity of dead tree, or beneath piece of bark against tree,
5-50 feet above ground • built by both sexes; female does more • 4—8 white-
Shape eggs, sparsely flecked with reddish brown and often wreathed; oval to short oval,
"
0.6 x 0.46 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi i ar
Habitat^ A Migration
M igratory Weight
0 3 ounce
.

DATE TIME LOCATION

524 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family s P ecies Len £tn Wingspan
TROGLODYTIDAE Campy lorhynchus brunneicapillus 8.5 inches 10J5 nches
j

Cactus Wren
The Arizona state bird often builds its domed
nest in the heavily barbed cholla cactus, where brown cap
its nestlings and eggs are protected from broad white
stripe over eye
predators. Once the young leave the cactus,
the old nests are maintained and used for
a roosting area by the adult birds. The
largest of the North American wrens,
with its large size, long tail, and
long, slightly decurved bill,
actually is more suggestive
of a small thrasher heavy black
spots clustered
on bird st

i black spotting on
ides and flanks

wh itis// n ndei parts

than a wren. ™ *™p buffflanks,

th

n-i , , ^Ww&WIf lover bellw and crissum

In flight the long
tail is spread, revealing a
striking banded pattern.
• SONG A quick low guttural guah git ah git ah git ah guah, etc., gaining in speed toward the end.
• BEHAVIOR Pairs or small family groups. Forages for food on ground by probing and lifting
up objects with bill. Gleans foliage and branches for insects, spiders, small frogs, small reptiles,
nectar, and some fruits. More than other wrens, 15-20 percent
of diet is fruit, mostly from cactus. When disturbed, sometimes
Similar Birds
runs on ground like a thrasher, rather than flying.
Sage Thrasher
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. 0gT Grayer; unstriped
• NESTING Incubation 16 days by female. Young altricial; Jk » P* barring on wings and
back; brown-streaked
brooded by female; stay in nest 19-23 days, fed by both sexes.
underparts; spots not
2-3 broods per year.
clustered on breast;
• POPULATION Common and widespread in semidesert and white on tail corners
only; shorter almost
desert communities with large cactus, arid hillsides, and gravelly
straight bill.
bottomed valleys. Declining in parts of Texas and California.
• FEEDERS Will come to feeders for pieces of bread and slices of
potato or raw apple. 4
Flight Pattern • Conservation
Development of desert
communities for housing, golf
courses, and agriculture
decrease and fragment the
Weak direct flight. Holds il pa
available habitat.
spread when flying.

Nest Identification Stems, plant fibers, and grass, lined with feathers and fur • most often in cholla

cactus; sometimes in prickly bush, old woodpecker hole, orange tree, or side of
man-made structure • built by male • 2-7 pinkish eggs, speckled with brown;
Shape
^ oval, 0.9 inch long.

Plumage Habitat ^ Migration Wei S ht 1.4 ounces

Sexes s ;, w< Nonmigratory

DATE TIME LOCATION

 ;

BIRDS OF NORTH AM K RICA • 525

Family Species Len 6tn 6

inches Wingspan 9
)YT )AE inchcs
•

p R( )( , ( }| , , Salpinxes obsoletus

Rock Wren
This bird frequents more arid and barren terrain than its

cousin, the Canyon Wren. Its grayish brow n color serves

as a camouflage, but the male often can be spotted
huffy whitt
when he hops to the top of a boulder to sing or
supercilium
to admonish intruders. The nest is built
in a rock crevice, but a trail of tiny
rocks leading to the opening is grayish brown
upperparts with
a clue to its location.
white flecking •
slender bill

Individual males
sing many variations
of their songs and of
those of neighboring
males; some have more innamon-buff
than 100 songs in their wash on flunks
repertoire. When the black-
and lightly Inn red

barred cinnamon tail is flicked

open it reveals a thick blackish
subterminal band and buffy tips.

• SONG Sings a mix of buzzy trills, keree-

keree-keree, chair, chair, chair, deedle, deedle, deedle,
tur, tin; tur, keree. Call is a raspy tic-keer.

• BEHAVIOR Hops around, among, and

Solitary or in pairs.
between Bobs body and frequently cocks tail upward.
rocks.
Sings from conspicuous perches on rocks; forages for food Similar Birds
around and between rocks. Eats insects, spiders, and various
Canyon Wrkn
larvae. Often lines pathways to nests with hundreds of small
pebbles and small animal bones.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Sol itary nester.
4 Bright white throat and
upper breast; rich red-
brown belly and
underparts; rusty red
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known, but incubation upperparts; long
estimated at 12-14 days by female. Young altricial; brooded by slightly declined lull.

female; remain in nest estimated 14 days, fed by both sexes.

1-2 broods per year.

Flight Pattern • Population Fairly

common canyons, cliffs, and
in
valleys with rocky outcroppings
in arid and semiarid regions.
Casual to accidental in fall and
Weak fluttering direct flights winter in the East.
on shallow ly beating wings.

Nest Identification Rootlets, grasses, and various stems, with lining of feathers, various hair, and fur
• in ridges of rock, crevices, burrows, banks, or even buildings • usually hidden
Shape
^ by pile of rocks • built by both sexes
reddish brown; oval, 0.7 inch long.
• 4-10 white eggs, lightly flecked with
Location
|^ ^ itfia

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
A ^ Migration
Migratory Weight
0 6 ounce
.

DATE TIME LOCATION

526 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len §th Wingspan
TROGLODYTIDAE Catherpes mexicanus 5.75 inches 7_5 inches

Canyon Wren
True to its name, this energetic bird historically
makes its home among
the canyon^, rocks, and
caves in western North America. Adapting to
man and his buildings, this wren now often
builds its nest in or on them, especially
reddish brown upperparts
those made of stone. Often staying with dark barring and
hidden, its bold white breast white flecking
showing through the crevices

rusty chestnut tail <

with narrow black

barring
bright white throat «
and upper breast
rusty chestnut
underparts and belly

and ridges can be a clue

to this birds presence; but it is

more often heard than seen, for the male's loud

happy-sounding song cascades and bounces along canyon walls.
• SONG A descending gushing liquid rain of notes, peup, peup, Similar Birds
peup tew tew tew tew tew, ending with a buzzy mew. Call is an Rock Wren
abrasive nasal jeet. Gray-brown upperparts
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Thoroughly investigates barred dark brown and
flecked white; rufous
rocks to look for food; hopping over, around, under, and rump; barred tail with
between, then singing, it gleans food from rock surfaces and rufous-tipped corners

crevices. Often bobs body like a Rock Wren and cocks tail over and black subterminal
band; dark streaking on
back. Very tame; will enter houses and ranch buildings. Eats
white breast; whitish
mainly spiders and insects. underparts washed buff;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. slender, shorter, barely
curved bill.
• NESTING Incubation 12-18 days by female. Young altricial;

brooded by female. Not known how long young stay in nest, but
fed by both sexes. 2 broods per
year; sometimes 3 in the South.
Flight Pattern
• Population Common in
arid and semiarid rocky
canyons, rocky outcroppings,
and cliffs, often near water; also
Weak and fluttering direct flight, often of around stone buildings and
short duration, on shallowly beating wings.
stone chimnevs.

Nest Identification Sticks, leaves, mosses,and finer material, with lining of feathers and fur
• hidden in ridges of rocks or crevice, under stones, in holes, or
Shape Location
^ sometimes in buildings • built by both sexes • 4-7 white eggs, lightly
flecked with reddish brown; oval, 0.7 inch long.

Plumage Sexes simi ar ,

' Habitat Migration
Nonmigratory Wei Sht 0.5 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 527

Species Len Sth 5.5 inches Wingspan

Family
TfROGLODYTIDAE Thryothorus Itidovicianus j J5 inches

Carolina Wren
South Carolina's state bird is sensitive to
cold weather. Mild winters allow Carolina
Wrens to expand their range northwards bold white
stripeabove eye
but most will not survive the next hard
winter. Energetic, loud, and rusty brown
conspicuous, the largest wren in upperparts
eastern North America is equally with dark
brown bars on white chin,
athome in moist deciduous wings and tail throat, and
wood lots, on the farm, or in upper breast
shaded suburbs. Pairs
stay together on their
territories all year, and
the male may sing at
any time of day, any day of the
i<h buffy nude/parts
year. The female often responds with
a quick "growl" of t-shihrrr.

• SONG A bold clear teakettle tea-kettle

teakettle or cherry, cherry, cherry. Each male has a
repertoire of 25^-0 or more songs that neighboring
males match with a responding vocalization.
• BEHAVIOR Most often in pairs. Sings from exposed perch.
Usually stays hidden in undergrowth, but will emerge if it hears
Similar Birds
squeaking noises. Pokes into every nook and cranny, hopping
with tail cocked over back. Eats mostly insects, larvae, and Bewick's wren
Whitish underparts;
insect eggs, but will take small vertebrates, snails, berries, and
long rounded tail edged
some fruits. Common around human habitation; enters open with white spots;
buildings to inspect dark recesses for insects or spiders. Builds reddish brown to gray-
its bulky nest in any container large enough to hold it, from coat brown upperparts; long
white eye stripe;
pockets and boots to buckets, flower baskets, and mailboxes.
frequently flips long
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. tail; voice differs.

• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by female. Altricial young Marsh Wren

brooded by female; stay in nest 12-14 days, fed by both sexes White-striped back;
long white eye stripe;
but often tended by the male while female begins another
white underparts
clutch. 2 broods per year, often 3 in the South. washed rufous-buff on
• POPULATION Common. Numbers decrease in northern sides and flanks; habitat
and voice differ.
range after harsh winters, but overall population stable except in
the Northeast and Midwest where it is recorded as declining.
• Feeders and
Flight Pattern BlRDHOUSES Suet and
peanut butter. Will use nest
boxes, often filling several with
dummy nests.
• Conservation Declines
Direct flight somewhat weak and
are of some concern.
fluttering with shallow rapidwing beats.

Nest Identification Stems, leaves, grasses, bark pieces, mosses, feathers, and snakeskin • cavity of
tree, stump, or bank; sometimes old woodpecker hole, rafter, mailbox, bird box,
Shape or almost any cavity • built by both sexes • 4—8 white or light pink eggs, marked
with brown; oval, 0.8 x 0.6 inches.
LIPS
Plumage
g exes simHar Habitat
^^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei § ht 0.7
ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

528 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species T/iryommies bevicku Len Sth Wingspan
TROGLODYTIDAE I
5.25 inches I
7 2S inches

Bewick's Wren
This most of the
bird ranges across
western United States eastward ,

to the Appalachians. It fine, dark brown or l>l< t

usually builds its nest in barring on tail

natural cavities, but also

reddish or
will nest in mailboxes, grayish brown long slightly
baskets, cow skulls, or upperparts with f decurvedbill

almost anything that barring on xings

provides shelter. A tame

bird, it often resides near
farms, homes, and small long rounded i
white eye stripe
towns. For reasons still tail,with white
Spots on tips of
largely unknown, the feathers
Bewick's Wren is now rare
in areas where it was once
common. Since at least the 1960s,
populations have seriously declined
east of the Mississippi River. Color varies
gcographicalb from mous\ gray-brown in the
West to rusty brown in the East.
• SONG Male sings chip, chip, chip, de-da-ah, tee-dee,
similar to the pattern of a Song Sparrow, but high,
thin, buzzing, and variable, often ending in a thin
trill. Call is a flat //pp.

• BEHAVIOR Often
Noisy and conspicuous;
in pairs. Similar Birds
rather tame and bold. Holds
high above back as it hops,
tail
Carolina Wrkn
often flicking it from side to side. Sings with head thrown back
and tail depressed downward. Feeds mostly on ground or gleans
food from trees. Eats mostly insects, but takes some spiders.
-4 Larger; rusty
upperparts; butt'
underparts; shorter
u ithout white
brown

tips;
tail

Male builds several "dummy" nests in his territory; female song differs.
chooses one and helps construct it.
Marsh Wren
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. White-streaked back;
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by female. Young altricial;
rich brow n upperparts;
buff-washed sides and
brooded by female; stay in nest 14 days, fed by both sexes. flanks; tail lacks w hicc-

1 brood per year; possibly 2 in the South. ups; different habitat

and son«.
• POPULATION Common in the West in open woodland,
scrubland, and around farms and suburbs. Declining east of the
Rocky Mountains with most
Flight Pattern dramatic reductions happening
east of the Mississippi River.
• BlRDHOUSES Will accept
nest boxes.
• Conservation Of specia
Somewhat weak fluttering direct flight on
concern, especially in the East.
shallow wing beats; often of short duration.

Nest Identification Fwigs, mosses, bits of snakeskin, and grass, lined with feathers • in cavity of
man-made
Shape Location & ^^ ilmost anything; often tree,
» built by both sexes • -4—1 1
structure, hollow log. post, basket.
white eggs with flecks of purple, brown, and gra
et<

>val, 0.7 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage Sexes simi ar i

Habitat
^ _j ^ Migration
Eastern birds migrate Wei § ht 0.4 ounce

DATE TIME .OCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 529

Family Species Len eth 4.75 inches Wingspan 6 _

TROGLODYTIDAE Troglodytes anion 7 jnches

House Wren
This plain bird has a wide range, breeding from
southern Canada to Mexico. However, even though
its range spread southward in the East throughout

most of the 20th century, it is not found now nesting

in southeastern states. Despite its size, the House pale streak
Wren is highly competitive when searching for above eyei
-

nesting territory . It often narrow pale

inv ades nests of other taurine black eye ring
barring, on tail
wrens and songbirds,
puncturing their
eggs and killing
their young. When it
comes to selecting a
nesting site, the male
begins building dummy
nests in almost any
available cavity in his
pale gray
from natural cavities
territory,
narrow black underparts
and nesting boxes to boots, barring on sides,
cans, buckets, toolboxes, coat lover belly, and
pockets, and mailboxes. Birds in i n sMi in
southeastern Arizona mountains have
a buff superciliary
• SONG Sings beautiful,
mark, throat, and breast.
trilling, energetic
^ u^tftfrjeUf
~ *
****

-
*

flutelike melody delivered in a gurgling outburst and

repeated at short intervals. Call is rough scolding cheh-cheh, often run into a scolding chatter.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Loud and conspicuous. Relatively tame and bold. Often
cocks tail upward. Eats various insects, spiders, millipedes, and some snails. Male starts several
dummy nests in territory as part of courtship, then female joins
him to inspect them and selects one to complete for nest.
Similar Birds
Highly migratory except in extreme southwestern US.
• BREEDING Usually monogamous but sometimes j Winter Wren
f Smaller; darker;
polygamous. Males occasionally have 2 mates at same time. [ heavier black barring
• NESTING Incubation 13-15 days by female. Altricial young on rail, flanks, and
underparts; shorter
stay in nest 12-18 days. Brooded by female. Fed by both sexes
tail; different voice.
or female only. 2-3 broods per year.
• POPULATION Common in open woodlands, shrubs, farmlands,
suburbs, gardens, and parks.
Flight Pattern • FEEDERS Will nest in man-
made bird boxes.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Nestlings
sometimes are affected by
Weak fluttering direct fli ;ht with rapid
bluebottle fly larvae and may
shallow w ing beats.
die in nest.

Base made of sticks • lined with hair, feathers, cocoons, and fine materia
Nest Identification
• almost anywhere in cavity of tree, bird box, abandoned hole or nest,

Shape r^ cow skull, pipes, watering cans, etc. • male builds platform; female lines
• 5-9 white eggs with brown flecks asionalK w reathed; short rounded
ovate to oval, 0.6 x 0.5 inches.

ptuma6e
Sexes similar Habitat^ ^ _j Migration
Most m j grate
Weight
Q 4 ()uncc

DATE TIME LOCATION

530 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
TROGLODYTiDAK Species Troglodytes troglodyte, Length
4 inche§ Wingspan 6 nches ;
I

Winter Wren
One of the smallest songbirds in North America, this short-tailed
wren nests primarily in the coniferous forests of Canada and the
northern US, but it also resides along the Pacific Coast
from central California to the Aleutians, and gra3> t0 brown
superciliary stripe stubby tad
in the Appalachians south to
northern Georgia. It usually hides
in thick undergrowth, but when
excitedit will fly up, perch, bob its

head up and down, and deliver an

alarm call or a rapid, cascading
song that may last six to
seven seconds and contain more
than a hundred notes. This is
the only member of the wren
family found in Europe.
• SONG Male sings warbling
melody of varied up-and-down
notes with rapid trills; some notes
high, thin, and silvery. Also has whisper
song. Call is abrasive chirrrox tik-tik-tik.

• BEHAVIOR Often solitary; pairs

in breeding season. Scampers on
dark brown
ground and in low trees while underparts
foraging, ducking in and out of
heavy, dark brownish
root wads, in and around logs, into black barring on tad,
brush piles, and any opening or flanks, and underparts
cranny large enough. Gleans food
from surfaces, mostly insects,
caterpillars, and berries. Sometimes will
approach humans for bread crumbs. Bobs
Similar Birds
head and body and flicks tail, which is often
cocked over back. Frequents habitats near water. House Wren
Larger; longer
• BREEDING Polygamous. tail;

prominent barring on
less

• NESTING Incubation 12-1 6 days by female. Altricial young belly, sides, and

stay in nest 16-19 days, fed by female or both sexes. 1-2 broods flanks; faint eye stripe;
voice differs.
per \ ear.

• POPULATION Abundant. West Coast, northwest montane, and

southern Appalachian
Flight Pattern populations permanent; others
highly migratory.
• BlRDHOUSES Will roost in
bird box.
• Conservation
Weak fluttering flights of short duration
Vulnerable to habitat loss
on rapidly beating w ings.
caused by logging operations.
Cavity filled with platform of sticks, covered with moss and grass, lined with
Nest Id en t ific a Hon
hair and feathers • in cavity of log or stump, under tree roots, and sometimes
Shape in building • 0-6 feet above ground • male builds 1-5 nests; female chooses
g-
• 4-7 w hite eggs with brown flecks concentrated at large end; oval,
Location ^ ^ Jg |^ 0.65 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
•
Habitat
m^ Migration \
j ost migra£e We| S nt
0.3 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 531

Family Species le "& h Wingspan 5-5 _

TROGLODYTIDAE Qstothorus platensis 4.5 inches 6 inchcs

Sedge Wren dark brownish

Camouflaged by plumage, this wren
its black streaking on
crown and back
stays hidden in dense marsh grasses,
except when it perches to sing, which
sometimes does at night. The female
chooses one of several rather we brown
concealed nests built by the male, upperpart.

then lines it with materials of her

choice. This wren ranges over
much of the grasslands
hitish eyebrow
and marshlands of
the central and
north-central
United States
and south-central
Canada, often buff to wh itish
untie/parts
going where the
habitat is most suitable
and often changing nesting
areas from year to year.
• SONG Sings a bold melody of
single disconnected notes, followed by a rapid
chatter of dry notes. Has call of chip-chip.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary on wintering grounds; often in
pairs in small habitats; in small colonies in larger more
favorable habitats. Secretive, staying down in the foliage
except while singing, when it often ascends to a more
exposed perch. Scampers on ground in wet meadows and Similar Birds
in low brush, foraging for food. Eats mostly insects and Marsh Wren
spiders. Male builds several dummy nests and female chooses Larger; longer bill; dark
one; males will often destroy other bird's eggs when they crown; darker and more
brown overall; unbarred
discover them, including those of other Sedge Wrens.
rufous rump • western
• BREEDING Polygamous. birds have duller, paler
plumage with less
• NESTING Incubation 12-16 days by female. Young altricial; distinct white streaking
stay in nest 12-14 days. Fed by both sexes, but female does on back • eastern birds
more. 2 broods per year. have richer browns and
distinct back streaking.
• POPULATION Common in range but often very local;
numbers may change from year to year. Rare in winter in New
Mexico and casual to California

Flight Pattern in fall migration.

• Conservation
<T v T <T\ Neotropical migrant with some
birds wintering in northeast
Mexico. Vulnerable to habitat ^^^^^^^^
Weak fluttering flight with shallow, rapid
wing beats; alternating several wing strokes loss due to agriculture.
with wings being drawn to sides; repeated.

Nest Identification Stems, grasses, and sedges • linedwith plant down, feathers, and fur • on grasses
or reeds, usually near water or marshy area • 0-2 feet above ground in grass •
male builds several nests; female selects one and lines • 4—8 white eggs; oval to
Shape
|p Location
^ pyriform, 0.6 x 0.47 inches.

Plumage
Sexes sjmilar Habitat
te Migration
M i gratory
Wei S ht 0.3 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

532 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family s P eCies Cistothorus palustris Len Sth 4.5-5 Wingspan 5 5 _ inches
TROGLODYTIDAE I inches I 7

Marsh Wren
This bird usually stays hidden, but its song can
be heard over the reeds and cattails of the
marshlands. The male builds several
intricate globular-shaped nests, w hich have
side doors; the female chooses one and
adds the lining of shredded plants and
feathers. The male often roosts in one
of the dummy nests. Some males
have more than one mate, with brown upperparts
each one occupying a small with black-and-
section of his territory. The white streaking

black-and-white streaking on
black barring
the back of the Marsh W ren is on wings
less distinct in western birds.

• SONG Sings a gurgling hitish underparts

trilling melody with rufous-brown with rufous-buff

rump sides, flanks, and
western birds singing a
undertail coverts
harsher song than eastern
birds. Call is an abrasive te-
suk-te-suk. Western birds may
have more than 200 songs in
their varied repertoire, while
eastern males may have only
around 70.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary; in pairs or small colonies, depending
on the size and quality of the habitat. Often secretive, foraging for food in tall marsh grasses
and reeds, where it gleans aquatic insects, larvae, caterpillars, snails, and sometimes other bird's
eggs. Males often sing from exposed perches or even skylark before dropping back into the
cover of the thick vegetation; sometimes sing at night. Often
enters the nests of other birds and destroys their eggs, Similar Birds
sometimes having its own eggs destroyed in turn.
Sedge Wren
• BREEDING Polygamous. Colonial. Smaller: shorter bill;
buffy brow n head and
• NESTING Incubation 12-1 6 days by female. Young altricial;
upperparts; dark
stay in nest 1 1-16 days, fed by both sexes, but female does streaking on cinnamon
more. 2 broods per year. rump: less distinct eye
stripe; voice differs.
• POPULATION Common despite loss of freshwater wetlands.
Most populations are migratory, but some in the West and on the
coasts, arenonmigratory year
Flight Pattern round residents.
• Conservation
A Tv T *T V Neotropical migrant; vulnerable
to habitat lost to development,
agriculture, wetland drainage.
Weak fluttering flights, often of short
duration; alternates several quick wing
beats with brief pause and wings at sides.

Reeds, grass, sedge, bulrushes for outer layer; grasses, reeds, and cattails for
Nest Identification
central cavitv, lined with shredded soft materials • about 1-3 feet above water
(but up to 15 feet) • male builds several nests, female selects and completes •
Shape ^ Location
^ 3-10 brown eggs, flecked with darker brown and sometimes wreathed; usually
ovate, 0.7 x 0.55 inches.

Plumage Sexes similar !

Habitat
;= ass Migration
Mig ratory Weight
(U()U1

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NOR TH AMERICA • 533

Fami| y Species Len S tn Wingspan

CINCLIDAE Qindus mexicanus 7..S inche: 9 inchcs

American Dipper
The American Dipper frequents habitat in western
mountains or canyons near streams fed by melting snow
glaciers, and coastal rains. A notable characteristic of
the American Dipper is its ability to fly straight
moky hiark head 1

into the air from underwater. Penguinlike, it

uses its wings to "fly" underwater to
depths of more than twenty feet. It
may even walk on the bottom as it
forages. This bird usually builds
its nests just above the water

level on cliffs, midstream

boulders, or bridges, and
often hidden behind
waterfalls. Some of its

behavior is similar to that of

awren, and it often bobs its
body up and down as it stands
above the water. Juveniles are
similar to adults but have a
pinkish bill and are paler gray,
especially on the underparts.
• SONG Long series of rich
w arbles, buzzes, and trills,
somewhat like a mimic thrush. Ca
are a shrill loud zzeip, zzreip, or rreip.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary; in pairs only durin
breeding season. Wading, diving, or swimming stream bottoms, this bird
to
JUVENIL
feeds on aquatic insects, their larvae, clams, snails, small
fish, and crustaceans.
Sometimes catches insects floating on water surfaces or gleans them from rocks and logs along
the shoreline. The dipping and bobbing of its body may be a visual signal to its mate when the
noise of a mountain stream would drown out any vocalization. Ranges as high as 11,500 feet in
summer and moves to lower elevations in winter instead of migrating. Territories are linear,
following a stream for up to a mile.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Sometimes polygamous. Similar Birds

• NESTING Incubation 13-17 days by female. Young altricial; No other songbird in North Americ.
is similar in appearance and habits.
stay in nest 18-25 days, fed by both sexes, but female docs
more. Young able to swim and dive upon departing the nest.
2 broods per year.
Flight Pattern • POPULATION Fairly
common but local.

• CONSERVATION
Vulnerable to habitat loss
caused by the damming and
Strong swift direct flight on rapidly pollution of Streams,
beating wings

Nest Identification
Mosses • 0-8 feet above the stream • built by fenu 3-6 white eggs,
unmarked; subelliptical, 1 inch lonii.
Shape

Plumage
Sexcs simi , ar
Habitat
^ A _ Migration xr
onmiyratorv Weight Q ?

DATE TIME LOCATION

534 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length
PyCNONOTIDAE Pynonotus jocosus y jnches

Red-whiskered Bulbul
A popular caged bird in its native
homelands of India and Asia
because of its cheerful
chattering and active
manners, the Red-
whiskered Bulbul has
become established in
south Florida with the
escape of caged birds
from the Miami area.
Birds have been able to
establish themselves in
the southern suburbs of
the city because of all
white cheek i
the ornamental, berry- patch
bearing shrubs and
trees that provide them
with their principal <:hite underparts

foods. The red

"whisker" for which it is

named an ear patch

is

behind the eye of adults.

Juveniles lack the deep red
ear patch and their plummage
is duller overall.
• SONG A whistled queekey! or lerrrt
Also mimics lively cheerful phrases such as
"the rice must be finished off and "pleased to
MEET you."
• BEHAVIOR Sometimes secretive and difficult to locate: other
times lively and noisy. Singing birds often sit on exposed perches
such as wires, poles, antennas, and bare branches. Often stays in smal
"family" groups. More gregarious in nonbreeding season, often roosts
in flocks in winter.
• BREEDING Monogamous. \ EMLE
• Nesting incubation time 12—14 days, ^ouns stav in nest 10—12
days. Broods per year unknow n in U.S.
• Population The small
Flight Pattern established US
population has
expanded its range little since
its escape and is still within

the urban area of Miami. Small

population exists in Los

Direct flight with rapid wing beat;

Angeles area, also due to the
escape of caged birds.

Nest Identification Shallow to deep • in crotch of tree • dead leaves, grass, paper, bark, and plastic
• sometimes topped off with a snake skin • lined with fine roots and hair • 3-9

feet above ground • built by both sexes • 2—4 pinkish white eggs; oval-shaped
Shape
and spotted with reddish brown and purple.

Plumage Sexes simUar Habitat Migration

Nonmigratory Wei S nt 1 .0 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 535

Species Length Wingspan

Family
R EGULIDAE Regu/us satrapa 4 inches 6 5 _ 7 inchcs
.

Golden-crowned Kinglet
Living in dense coniferous forests, this tiny bird's
baseball-sized sphere-shaped nest is so small that its
orange patch on
crown bordered
clutch of half-inch eggs must be laid in two layers.
• by yellow
A tame bird, it will sometimes enter broad whitish
human habitations and not try to stripe above eye
escape if held. It often feeds in
mixed-species foraging flocks olive-green
upperparts
with woodpeckers, creepers,
chickadees, nuthatches, and
others. Females and b Iai k yellowish-
juveniles have a yellow short straight edged tertials and
crown bordered by black. black bill secondaries

• SONG Sings a song

beginning with 3-4 high-pitched
tsee, tsee, tsee notes, followed by a

rapid trill. Call is a series of

3-4 high-pitched tsee notes.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs.
Tame. Flits wings as it hops along
branches. Forages through dense
foliage of trees to pick off food. Eats
mainly insects, their eggs, and
larvae; takes some seeds. Drinks
yellow crown patch
tree sap, sometimes taking it from
• bordered by black
sapsucker drill wells. May hawk
insects or hover briefly to glean
them from trunk, branch, or foliage. Similar Birds

• BREEDING Monogamous. Rl BY-CROWNED

Solitary nester. Kinglet

White eye ring instead
• Nesting incubation of white stripe over eye
14-15 days by female. underparts arc darker,

Young dusky greenish yellow;

altricial; stay in
olive-green crown and
nest 14-19 days, fed by both I I.MAI I
upperparts; different
sexes. 1-2 broods per year. only male has
call •

concealed red crown

• Population Common in
patch.
coniferous woodlands. Populations may
drop after harsh cold seasons on winter range;
long-term stable, with range
Flight Pattern expanding to northeast. Many
populations nonmigratory. %
Tv • Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Vulnerable
Weak fluttering flight, alternating rapid
to habitat loss caused by
shallow wing strokes with a brief pull of
wings to sides. Hovers over food before logging, especially of mature
dipping down to pick it up with beak. coniferous forests.

Nest Identification rootlets, and feathers • in branch

Lichen and moss, with lining of bark chips,
of conifer, 30-60 feet above ground by female • 5-11 creamy white to
• built

muddy cream eggs splotched brown or gray, usually wreathed; elliptical ovate
Shape
tr 0.5 inch long.

Plumage
Sexes differ
Habitat
m^ Migration
Migratory Weight ()_7

DATE TIME LOCATION

536 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan 6
R EGULIDAE Reg///// , ca ieiI(ju ia I
4 2S nchcs
;
I

J5 _ 7 5 jnche

RUBY-CROWNED KINGLET small, o ften concealed,

red patch on crown
This seen in mixed-
small bird often is

species foraging flocks with creepers,

nuthatches, titmice, warblers, and other
kinglets. The red patch on the male's
crown usiialK is not visible, unless
• 0/l i e -green
he becomes excited, at which time upperparts
he flashes it open and the whole
crown seems to be gushing blood.
The female and juvenile are similar
to the male but lack the red patch.
This species is widely distributed
in the boreal zone across northern

and western North America as a

breeding bird, it is highly migratory.
Mali-:
• SONG Series of high-pitched tsee, tsee notes,
follow ed by several tex? notes, followed by a 3-note
trill of liberty-liberty-liberty; an impressively long and
loud song for such a small bird, ("alls are emphatic
je-ditt and cack-cack.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Tame and active.
Picks food off tree trunks, branches, and dense foliage; GOLDEN-CROWNE
KINGL
ma\ hawk hover to take food. Eats mainly insects,
or
White stripe above eye;
their eggs, and larvae. Also cats some paler underparts: song

fruits and seeds. Drinks tree differs • male has

sap, especially from the drill
w ells of sapsuckers. Has
2 white
orange crown patch with
wing bat
yellow and black border
• juveniles and females

"nervous" habit of have yellow crown parch

w irh black border.
flicking wings when
foraging, perhaps Hi rrox's Vireo
yellowish edged
Stockier; larger head;
r< i startle insects tertiah and secondai
stout bill; pale lores;
into flinching and olive-gray upperparts;
rc\ ealing themselves. secondaries and tertials
Female lack yellow edging; does
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. not flick w ings; w hite
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by female. Altricial young eye ring broken above
leave nest at 10-16 days, fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year. eyes; voice differs
• western range.
• POPULATION Common and widespread in coniferous and
mixed conifer-deciduous forests. Studies indicate that populations
ma\ be regulated by conditions
Flight Pattern on the wintering grounds.
• Conservation
T v Neotropical migrant. Vulnerable
to habitat lost to logging
Weak fluttering flight with shallow wing
operations. Rare cowbird host.
beats, alternating several quick strokes
w ith brief periods of w ings folded to sides.

Hovers over branches to pick off food.

Xest Id entification Moss, lichen, dow n, tw igs, and dead leaves, lined with finer marerials. including
feathers • hanging from tree branch. 2-100 feet above ground • built by female
• 5— 11creamy white to muddy cream eggs, splotched with brow n or gray, usualb
Shape
w readied: elliptical ovate to oval. 0.5 inch long.

Plumage Scxcs diffcr .

Habitat^ Migration
Migratory Weight () ? ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 537

Family Species Le, 'S th

sylvudaE PoUoptHa caerulea 4. 25 nches
i

Blue-gray Gnatcatcher
This slender bird can be seen in the East
foraging in the foliage of tall trees; in the
West it can he seen in thickets or
chaparral. Females are similar
to males but have less blue
in their plumage and, like
the juvenile male, lack
the black line on the
sides of the crown. The
high thin speee, speee, speee

notes, sounding like the

calls of a baby bird, may
attract attention before the
tiny bird is seen.
• SONG Sings a low-pitched
trilling zee-you, zee-yon, heard
infrequently. Its call, which is

given often, is a pwee or speee,

inflected like a question.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or Bla< :k- rAIL

in pairs. Forages in Gn vtcatcher

Smaller; mostly black
trees, shrubs, or
inner w eb of outer
thickets. Fats rectrices; smaller bill;

insects, their eggs, w lute rips on graduated

tail feathers; different
and larvae. Flicks
call • male has black
long tail open and cap extending dow n to
from side to side. /hitc ;ye rin,^.

Forages near Black-capped

branch tips. Catches Gnatcatcher
insects in flight. May More graduated tail;

longer bill w ith uray

hover briefly above
vhite underparL below base; more browr
food before taking it in in w ings • male has
its bill. Disturbance of the nest early in nest building may cause black cap extending
below eyes and lacks
the pair to dismantle it and rebuild on another site.
w lute eye ring • rare in
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. spring and summer in

• NESTING Incubation 13 days by both sexes. Young altrieial;

southeast Arizona.

brooded by female; stay in nest 10-12 days, fed by both sexes.

1 brood per year; Z in far south.

Flight Pattern • Population Common.

Population increasing and range
expanding northeasterly.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Common
Weak fluttering direct flight with sh
victim of cowbird parasitism.
w ing beats, often of short duration.

Fine plant fibers, with lining of bark pieces and finer materials; covered with
Nest Identification
lichen bound by spider silk • saddled on branch or in fork of tree, usually
3-25 feet above ground • built by both sexes • 4-5 pale blue to bluish white
Shape eggs, usually flecked with browns, occasionally wreathed; oval to short oval,
0.6 x 0.44 inches"

Plumage
Sexes diffcr I Habitat
^ A ± Migration
Mi gratory Weight q ? ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

538 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
SYLVIIDAE Polioptila melanura 4 jnches 5 5 _6 inches
_

Black-tailed Gnatgatgher
This bird lives near desert gulches and scrub growth.
The male's black cap sets it apart from similar
gnatcatchers, with the exception of rhc
Black-capped Gnatcatcher, which is
rare and local in southeastern
Arizona. Males have white
outer webs on outer tail
black bill
feathers and white termina
spots on graduated tail
feathers. Females have a
brown wash on their
blue-gray upperparts,
on the back, and, like the
especially
nonbreeding males, lack the black cap.
• SONG Sings a quick repeated jeh-jeh-jeh.
Has calls oicheeh, a breathy sseheh, and a me
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Active.
Forages for food in shrubs and in foliage
and branches of trees. Eats mostly
insects but some spiders and ilue-gray
seeds. Gleans prey from Gnatcatcher
Blue-gray upperparts,
foliage; hovers over blue-gray upperparts
including crown; white
prey and takes it eye ring; black tail with
with small bill or white outer tail
sometimes sallies feathers; white under
tail with black central
out like a small
feathers; voice differs
slender flycatcher • male has black line on
and takes insects * whiti
sides of crown.

in midair. Flicks long, graduated

eve ring black-capped
black tail with
tailfrom side to white outer xcebs whih Gnatcatcher
side or open and underparts Eong graduated black
on outer tail
r tail with white outer
up and down. feathers, white tips
webs on outer
on each tail feather Female tail

• Breeding feathers; mostly white

under tail; longer bill;
Monogamous. Solitary nester.
voice differs • rare and
• NESTING Incubation 14 days by both sexes. Young altricial: local in southeastern
brooded by female; stay in nest 9-15 days, fed by both sexes. Arizona.

1-2 broods per year.

• Population Fairly

Flight Pattern common in mesquite creosote

bush and in other semidesert to
desert shrub.
• Conservation
Vulnerable to habitat loss due to
Weak fluttering di ect flight development and grazing. Host
wing beats, often ( f short di
to cow bird parasitism.

Nes t I den tifica Hon Plant down and similar materials bound with spider silk, with lining of
fine materials • in bush, usually 2-3 feet above ground • built by both
sexes • 3-5 pale blue or green eggs with brown markings: oval to short
Shape
^ oval, 0.6 x 0.44 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat
± Migration
Nonmigratory Wei § ht 0.2
ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 539

Family TlIRDIDAE Species

Qenanthe oenanthe len ^ 5.5-6 inches Wingspan 1() s _, j inche

NORTHERN WHEATEAR dark

This long-distance begins its migratory
flier gray cap i

route near Greenland and eventually

white
reaches West Africa. During its courtship
superciliurn i

display, the male sings while flying

dark gray
upward, continues to sing while back and nape
hovering, then sings with tail
spread toward the female as it is black wings
gliding back down. Females black terminal
and nonbreeding males are
similar and show a white rump
and tail base in flight.
• SONG Utters bossy chack-
chack and whistled hweet. Song
is often given in flight and
imitates songs of other birds,
combining call notes into a
scratchy jumble of warbled notes.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs.
Bobs tail. Active; often nervously
restless when foraging. Often
makes short flights to hawk
insects in air near ground. Picks
food off trees and shrubs and
forages on ground. Eats various
insects, fruit, seeds, and small
bulbs. Inhabits open, dry
areas of tundra and mountain
slopes, often near rocky
areas. Often perches on rocks,
trees, or posts.
• BREEDING Monogamous.
Solitary nester.
• NESTING Incubation 14 days by
both sexes, but female does more.
Altricial young stay in nest 15-16 days;
brooded by female; fed by both sexes.
1-2 broods per year.
• Population Rare on
Flight Pattern Atlantic Coast primarily in
autumn migration. Accidental
elsewhere. Fairly common
breeding bird in Greenland,
Siberia, and arctic regions of
Relatively slow direct flight with shallow
Alaska and both eastern and
wing beats. Sallies from ground and hawks
insects in air.
western Canada.

Nest Identification
Grass, roots, and moss • lined with finer materials • in rock crevice or wood pile

Shape or on ground or cliff ridge • built by both sexes • 3-8 pale blue eggs usually
g
Location _ ^ |^ flecked with red-brown; subelliptical, 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ I Habitat
^ Migration
Mj gratory Weight
Q 5 Qunce

DATE TIME LOCATION

540 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
XURDIDAE Species
Saxicola torquata Len §th
5.25 inches Wingspan g_ 5 jnches

Stoneghat
This native of Eurasia makes its home either
in open meadows with brushy areas or at
the edges of marshes, where it ofte*n
perches conspicuously on low bushes.
Occasionally Stonechats have been
observed on islands near the Alaska
coast and once on Grand Manan blackish brown
Island off New
Brunswick. Males in upperparts and
black wings orange-rust
flight show a whitish rump, which
>m~// on breast
contrasts with the black tail and
blackish back, and a white spot
shows on the inner coverts at the
base of the upper wing. Females
in flight also show a white rump
and uppertail coverts. Juveniles
appear similar to females but white underparts
have white shoulder patches
and pale buffy rump patches.
• SONG A harsh tchack,
like two stones being
struck together. Call is a
short squeaky tsk-tsk-tsk.

Also has a variable

twittering trill.

• Behavior
Solitary or in pairs. "lute throat
Prefers dry
grasslands, moors,
damp meadows, and buffy wash on
hills.Forages for underparts

insects on ground; also Similar Birds

picks off vegetation. No orher male songbird in its range

• Breeding Femali has a black head, rusty orange breast,

M o n o ga m o u s S o a
. 1 i
• Nesting incubation
14-15 days by female.
young brooded by female; remain
and \\ hite rump. The pale rump and
t ry.
white bar at the base of the upper
w ing distinguish females and
juveniles from other species.
Altricial

in nest 12-15 days, fed by both

Flight Pattern
sexes. 2-3 broods per year.
• POPULATION Casual to
accidental in North America,
primarily on islands off the coast

Rather slow flight with shallow

of Alaska. Common in Siberia.

Nest Identification
Grass, moss, plant stems, and wool, lined with hair, wool, and feathers • in deep
pusses, heather, or under bush • built by female • 5-8 greenish bluish eggs,
Shape marked with reddish brown; subelliptical. 0.7 \ 0.55 inches.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Scxcs djffer (
Migratory Q.5 ()U

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OK NORTH AMERICA • 541

Wingspan
Family
TURDIDAE Species
Sialia sialis
Length
7 _ 775 inches n .5-13 inches

Eastern Bluebird Mali;

This brightly colored bird inhabits open woodlands,
meadows, and fields. Its population has been in serious
decline due to competition from other birds for its
nesting holes, as well as occasional severe snowstorms in
the South that kill them in great numbers. Juveniles
show gray-brown upperparts with white spotting
on the back, brownish chest with white
a
scalloping, a white bellyand crissum, a
white eye ring, and a bluish tail and wings.
• SONG Sings melodic chur chur-lee chur-lee.

Male gives call of true-a-ly, true-a-ly.

• BEHAVIOR Pairs, family groups, or sma
flocks. Gregarious in winter, often forming
large flocks and roosting communally in

natural cavities or nest boxes at night. Forages

in open from low perches. Flies from perch to
ground and forages for food. Eats mostly
insects, earthworms, and spiders but also
takes snails, lizards, and frogs. In winter
eats mostly berries and seeds.
• BREEDING Monogamous.
In pairs and small groups
• Nesting incubation 'white eye
12-14 days by female. ring
Altricial young stay in
nest 15-20 days; pale chestnut
throat, breast,
brooded by female, |[
sides, and WmL
fed by both sexes. flanks
Western Bluebird
2-3 broods per year.
Blue throat and sides of
• POPULATION white belly •- neck; chestnut-red
and undertail and flanks;
Fairly common, but breast, sides,
coverts pale grayish belly and
declined by more than brown
crissum; rusty
90 percent in 20th century. back • female has
Adversely affected by severe winters. gray-rusty brown tinge
on nape and back
• Feeders and Birdhouses • western range.
Peanut butter-cornmeal mixture and
commercial bluebird food. Nests in man-made bird boxes.
• Conservation European
Flight Pattern Starling, House Sparrow, and
other's intrude on nesting sites.

+* Many nesting sites lost to

cutting cavity trees. Bird boxes
Relatively slow direc t flight with shallow,
have helped recovery, especially
somewhat jerky wing beats. Sallies from those with proper hole sizes and
perch to catch insect in air. predator guards.

Nest Identification Grass, weed stems, pine needles, twigs, and occasionally hair or feather •

abandoned woodpecker hole, natural hollow in tree or stump, or bird box

Shape
g* jg 2-50 feet above ground • built by female • 2-7 light blue or white eggs;
Location ^
± it
subelliptical to short subelliptical, 0.8 x 0.64 inches.

Plumage
Sexes diffe ,
Habitat
^ Migration
Somc migrate Weight
j j

DATE TIME LOCATION

542 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Length Wingspan ii_i 2 .75 inches
Family
TlJRDIDAE Species $ja ija currucoides 7_7 25 inches

Mountain Bluebird
The overall brilliant blue coloring of
the male sets it apart from other birds
in its genus. Most often making its

home in the tree-covered mountains

and open landscapes of western North
America, generally above seven turquoise-blue
thousand feet, it is considered to be at » overall
riskby conservationists due to its
declining nesting habitat. In winter it

descends to open lowlands and

deserts. Juveniles are similar to females
but with pale whitish streaking and
spotting on the breast and sides.
Male
• SONG Often silent. A low warbling
tru-lee. Call is a phew.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs or
small family groups. Hovers more
than other bluebirds, dropping on
prey from above or pouncing on
it from low perches. Catches

insects in flight and

forages on ground. Eats
insects, caterpillars
and some fruits
and berries. Eats
mostly insects
in summer. Western Bi.t ebird
• Breeding Male is darker blue-
purple with chestnut-
Monogamous.
red breast, sides, and
Solitary nester. flanks; pale grayish
• Nesting belly and crissum; rusty
• white undertail brown back • female is
Incubation 13-14 days by
coverts and belly tinged gray-rusty brown
female. Altricial young on nape and back;
brooded by female first 6 days; chestnut-red on breast,
stay in nest 22-23 days, fed by both sexes. 2 broods per year. sides, and flanks
• western range.
• POPULATION Fairly common
but declined over much of its
range in the 1900s due to loss of nesting cavities to other species.

Flight Pattern migration and winter to north

Atlantic seaboard.

< • BlRDHOUSES Will

bird boxes.
• Conservation
nest in

Habitat
Relatively slow direct flight with shallow,
somewhat jerky wing beats. Often hovers loss is a concern.
over prey before dipping down to seize it.
\\ f

Nest Identification Grass, weed stems, pine needles, and twigs, occasionally with hair or feathers
• in natural tree cavity, ridges ot buildings, abandoned nest of swallow, or nest
Shape
pg 2
j box • built by both sexes • 4—8 pale blue
subelliptical to oval, 0.8 x 0.64 inches.
to bluish white eggs, rarely white;
Location
^ jg

Plumage
Sexes differ I
Habitat
.
J> ± I
Migration
Mi „ raltorv We 'S ht 1.1 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 543

Family Species Length Wingspan j.^j 4.5

TURDIDAE Myadestes townsendi 8-5 _9 inches indlcs

Townsend's Solitaire
Its beautiful prolonged song given from high up
in the trees, isin marked contrast with the
vhite eye ring
rather plain-looking plumage of this gray bird.
Although it makes its home in the high
mountains most of the year, during the winter
season Townsend's Solitaire moves into the
canyons, where it maintains a winter
territory and protects a critical food supply.
In flight the white outer tail feathers
contrast with the inner black ones, and
the bird shows white axillaries and a
long buffy wing patch. Juveniles are gray overall
dark brownish gray, with buffy and
white scalloping on both the
upperparts and underparts, as well
as a buffy crissum and wing patch. buffy wing
patch near base
• SONG A pleasant trilling and of blackish flight
rich warble. Often sings in feathers

flight. Call is a squeaking eek

or a plaintive whistled whee.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or
in pairs. Forms small black tail with white
groups Perches
in winter. outer tail feathers that
show in flight
upright and remains still for
long periods of time, thus is

easily overlooked. Perches

on exposed branch to spot
Juvenile
insect, then sallies out to catch in midair and returns to
perch. Also forages on ground. Feeds on various insects, worms
and caterpillars in summer; winter diet consists principally of Similar Birds
juniper berries. In summer, frequents mountainous coniferous NORTHERN
forests around 3,000 feet below the timberline; in winter, MOCKINGBIRD
descends to canyons with open juniper forests on lower slopes. Superficial resemblance
• paler gray overall; two
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary or small family groups. whitish wing bars; white
• NESTING Incubation 14 days by both sexes, but female wing patch; faint eye
stripe; longer bill.
does more. Altricial young brooded by female; remain in nest
15-16 days, fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year (possibly
2 broods in the South).

Flight Pattern • Population Fairly

common in montane coniferous
forests. Casual to rare in winter
in eastern North America.
Rather slow flight; several slow wing beats
followed by short glides. Often irregular in
flight pattern, changing directions quickly.
Sallies from perch to snatch insects in air.

Nest Identification Grass, roots, and moss, lined with fine materials • on ground, sheltered by
overhanging branches, rocks, or natural overhang • built by both sexes • 3-8 pale

Shape Location >^ blue eggs, usually unmarked, occasionally flecked with red-brown; oval, varying
from short oval ro long oval, 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simjlar Habitat
m A ^£ Migration
Migratory Weight j ?

DATE TIME LOCATION

544 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Qatharus aurantiirostris Len 2th Wingspan n nches
TlJRDI Mi- I 6.5 inche ;

Orange-billed Nightingale-Thrush
This drab-colored thrush from Mexico and Central America
can be identified by its bright orange bill and eye
ring. A shy, difficult to spot bird, it usually
orangt eyt ring*
stays hidden in thick undergrowth. Early
and late in the day, it is active in
bright orange bill
fruiting trees and on wooded bright brown
roads and trails. The male upperparts

sings a pleasant
melody, usually
at dawn
rufous-brown on
wings, uppertail
coverts, and tail

IlKRMIT THRl'SH
bright orange legs • — Grayish tawny brown
upperparts; taw ny
and dusk, and
rufous rump, uppertail
the bird is most often - " . . / coverts, and tail; white
revealed by its song. The ^IpK"^^ underparts; buff wash
on chest, sides, and
juvenile is paler, with a whitish
flanks; dark brown
throat; whitish underparts; heavilymottled dark brown on chest spotting on throat and
sides, and flanks; and duller brown upperparts spotted with chest; white eye ring;

buffy cinnamon. Only the northeastern and mountain dark bill with pinkish
yellow base; often
populations migrate.
pumps tail.

• SONG Bold melodic short scratchy warbled phrases, cheer-che-

Veery
witzee or chiveree-chee-oo\ Has a nasal mewing call of meeeahr. Reddish brown
Alarm call is a charrr. upperparts; white
underparts w ith buffy
• BEHAVIOR Solitary. Shy. Hops and runs on ground, staying w ash on breast and
hidden in thick vegetation. Somewhat conspicuous when brow nish spots and
singing on perches at low to middle levels in understory or streaking on chin and

trees. Attracted to fruiting trees. Eats insects, small upper breast; grayish
wash on sides and
invertebrates, and berries. flanks; yellowish bill

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. w ith blackish tip.

• NESTING Incubation 13-15 days by female. Young altricial;

brooded by female; stay in nest

13-17 days, tended by both
Flight Pattern
sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Accidental in
the Rio Grande Valley of Texas.
• Conservation
Swift rapid flight on quickly beating w ings Vulnerable to habitat loss due to
generally of short distance in understory.
land clearing and logging.

Nest Identification Stems, rootlets, and moss, with lining of rootlets and mud • low in bush
• less than 3 feet above ground • built by both sexes • 2—3 light blue or
green eggs, with dots and splotches of reddish brown; oval to short oval,
Shape <$f
0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Scxcs simibr Jk. 4*f ft^ Migration

Some migrate Weight
{ Q ()Unce

DATE TIME. EOGATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 545

Family
TURDIDAE Species
Catharus fuscescens ^th 7-7.5 inches Wingspan n_n _ 5inchc:

Veery
This bird is named for the lovely ethereal
downward-slurring song of the male, which is
heard at sunset, a repeated veer-u. It is one
,, , j- J Ic tawny
J reddish I 1

of the most splendid songs of any bird brown lipperparts

in North America. Its tawny and buff
plumage serves as camouflage in indistinct
the forest it calls home. The grayish eye ring •

Veery is the least spotted of

black upper
North America's brown-
mandible f
backed thrushes, with the
western populations slightly
more spotted than the
eastern ones. This bird creamy pink 4
lower mandible
haunts shaded moist
with black tip
woodlands with dense to
scattered understory.
• SONG Sings pleasant
liquid descending veer-u, veer- buff breast ,th S
u, veer-u, with each note sung pale tawny
brown spotting
lower, repeated frequently with
variation in phrasing. Call is

harsh down-slurred veer. Summer white underparts

Similar Birds
evenings, woodlots and forests fill

with the song of one singer cascading Wood Thri mi

into that of another; the chorus at twilight is Larger; dark spotting
on breast, sides, and
one of the truly beautiful sounds of nature in the Northwoods.
upper belly; rufous on
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Somewhat shy and retiring. upperparts, brightest on

Forages on ground and in trees; swoops from low perch to take nape and crown; black
streaking on face; white
prey on ground, or gleans food from branches, foliage, or
eye ring.
ground. Eats various insects, caterpillars, spiders, berries, and
Ill K\ll I THRI sii
fruit. Agitated birds flick wings and raise small crest. Both sexes
Olive- to russet-brown
guard and defend young. upperparts; pale grayish

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. white underparts with

blackish brown spots
• NESTING Incubation 10-12 days by female. Young altricial; and speckles; reddish
brooded by female; remain in nest 10 days, fed by both sexes. brown tail and rump;
white eye ring.
1 brood per year (sometimes 2 in the South).

• POPULATION Fairly common but numbers declining due to

habitat loss on breeding and
Flight Pattern wintering grounds.
• CONSERVATION
Neotropical migrant. Common
nest host to Brown-headed
Cowbird. Vulnerable to habitat
Relatively swift direct flight with
somewhat hesitant motion on rapidly loss due to deforestation.
beating wings.

Grass, bark strips,weed stems, twigs, and moss, with lining of soft bark and
Nest Identification
dry leaves • atop platform on dry ground, sheltered by shrubs, grasses, or
weeds; sometimes in low tree or shrub, 0-6 feet above ground • built by
Shape pp female • 3-5 pale blue eggs, usually unmarked; subelliptical to short
subelliptical, 0.9 x 0.65 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
^m Ration Migratory Wei ^ ht
1.1 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

546 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Catharus Len ^th 7-7.75 Wingspan L 5_ ]3 .5 nc h es
TtlRDIDAE minimus inches j j

Gray-cheeked Thrush
This bird is a truly long-distance migrant. Each spring
some of its population fly from southern Brazil to
Alaska, across the Bering Strait, and on to their
nesting grounds in eastern Siberia. Others spread
black upper
and northern taiga
across the arctic tundra
mandibh
from Alaska to Newfoundland. It has the
most northern nesting range of any olive-gray brown
upperparts
spotted thrush. In migration it can black lower

be found in almost any habitat mandible with

yellowish pink base
from woodlots to city parks.
The Newfoundland race has
gray heefa
<

warmer-toned upperparts
with a sepia back.
• SONG Male sings pale buff wash on
thin oboelike breast and throat, with
black-brown spots
phrases, somewhat

Similar Birds

sw Vinson's Thrush
Conspicuous eye ring;
browner upperparts;
and feet buffy lores, cheeks,
like the Veery, but ptnk legs

middle phrases rise

and first and last ones drop,
I* throat,
breast; buffy
and upper
underwing
linings; different voice.

wheeoo-titi-w/ieeoo. Call is a thin Bicknell's Thrush

high abrasive phreu. Vocal at dawn and especially at dusk. Formerly considered

i
subspecies of Gray-
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Shy and retiring, often
cheeked Thrush
staying in the dense understory and thickets. More heard than • smaller; warmer

seen. Feeds on spiders, caterpillars, earthworms, various insects, brown tones on

upperparts, especially
and even small crayfish. In fall migration, feeds more on berries
on tail and rump; more
and some fruits. extensive yellow on
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. lower mandible
• limited range in
• NESTING Incubation 13-14 days by female. Young altricial;
extreme northeast US
brooded by female; stay in nest 11-13 days. Fed by female. • best separated by

1-2 broods per year.

• POPULATION Common; southern breeding populations
declining due to loss of habitat.
Flight Pattern • Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Vulnerable
on both breeding grounds and
wintering areas to habitat loss
from logging operations and
Relatively swift direct flight with forest fragmentation.
somewhat jerky wing strokes

Nest Identification Grass, sedge, bark, weed stems, twigs, and moss, with lining of grass, leaves, and
fine rootlets •on low branch of tree or shrub, usually 0-10 feet above ground
(but as high as 20 feet) • built by female • 3-6 greenish blue to pale blue eggs,
Shape
most often speckled brown; oval to short oval, 0.9 x 0.65 inches.

Plumage
Sexe§ simUar i Habitat
M ^_ Migration
Migratory Weight
12 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 547

Family Species Len § th Wingspan _ u jncht

TURDIDAE Carbarns bkknelli 6.25 inches 1()

Bicknell's Thrush
Except when the male perches at the
blackish upper mandible
top of shy bird
a tree to sing, this with pale bas
remains hidden in trees and bushes.
It is a long-distance migrant that

until recently was considered a

yellowish lower
subspecies of the Gray-cheeked
mandible with
Thrush, from which it is
black tip
difficult to separate in the
field. Its eastern breeding
range in the northeastern
US, southeastern Canada, bujfy breast with
brown speckles and spots
and the Maritimes helps to
isolate it for identification
purposes from the
more northern and grayish wash
widespread Gray- on flanks
cheeked Thrush. whitish to bu ff belly
• SONG A raspy and undertail coverts
thin nasal whistled
descending series sepia-tinged
and
tail
of trilling phrases, Similar Birds
rump
somewhat like a
Gr vy-cheeked
Veery, in 3 parts,
Thrush
with the first Larger; olive-gray
and last parts upperparts; olive-brown
gray cheeks; gray
rising. Call is a
wash on breast, sides,
2-syllabled down- and flanks; yellow on
slurred vee-ah. lower mandible less
extensive; voice differs.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Shy and retiring, often
retreating to dense cover when approached. Feeds primarily on S\\ UNSON'S THRUSH
Conspicuous eye ring;
ground or low in understory or trees. Eats mainly insects, their
browner upperparts;
larvae, spiders, and earthworms, which it picks from the ground buffy lores, cheeks,
or gleans from branches and foliage. In fall, eats more berries and upper
throat,

and fruit. breast; buffyunderwing

yellow on lower
linings;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. mandible is less
• NESTING Incubation 13-14 days by female. Young altricial;
extensive; voice differs.

brooded by female; first flight at 11-13 days, fed by both sexes.

1 brood per year.

Flight Pattern • Conservation

Neotropical migrant. Vulnerable
on both breeding and wintering
grounds to habitat loss due to
timbering operations and forest
Relatively swift direct flight with fragmentation. Host to nest
somewhat jerky wing strokes.
parasitism by cowbirds.

Nest Identification
Grasses, leaves, bark, mud, and mosses, with no lining or a few leaves • in tree,
about 3-20 feet above ground • built by female • 3-6 greenish blue to pale blu<
Shape
^ eggs, with faint blotches of brown; oval to short oval, 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage
Sgxes simi , ar
Habitat ^ <*• Migration
Migra tory Weight
Undetermined

DATE TIME LOCATION

548 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Length Wingspan
Family
T URDIDAE Species Catharus ustulatm 7 jnche .
n. 5 nch es
j

Swainson's Thrush
Named for 19th-century British ornithologist
William Swainson, this bird migrates through
North America from its nesting grounds in
Canada and mountainous eastern and
western US to its winter home in the
prominent buff <

tropics. Migrating at night, flocks of eye ring

black bill with
these birds give plaintive, Sprin pinkish yellow
Peeper-like calls in the darkness base to lower
buff-olive-brow
as they pass overhead. It often upperparts mandible

travels in mixed flocks with

buff cheeks,
other thrushes, vireos, and bin. and throat
wood warblers. In flight
these birds show buff buff breast with
underwing linings. brownish spots
• SONG Sings
upward series of
thin, musical,
varied whistling
notes repeated at
intervals without
change. Call is liquid whit
similar to the dripping sound Similar Birds
of a leaky faucet. Gray-cheeked
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs Thrush
.arger; gray cheeks;
Shy and retiring. Feeds more in trees than buff-gray wash on
other spotted brown thrushes. Picks food off spotted breast; gray
leaves, catches some and forages for
insects in air, wash on sides and
flanks; olive-gray
food on ground. Eats insects, snails, and earthworms. In fall
upperparts; indistinct
migration eats more fruits and berries. A habitat generalist eye ring; different voice.
during migration; prefers conifers and mixed conifer-deciduous
BlCKNELL'S THRUSH
forests for nesting. In agonistic displays flicks wings and raises Smaller; more brown
crest. More often heard than seen. upperparts; tawny
brown on rump and tail;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. more extensive yellow
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by female. Altricial young on lower mandible;
different voice
stav in nest 10-13 days. Brooded by female. Fed by both sexes.
• northeastern range.
1 brood per year.
• Population Fairiv common n most woodlands and
coniferous forests. Abundant in

Flight Pattern boreal forests.

• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Vulnerable
to habitat loss from logging and
deforestation on breeding and
Relatively swi direct flight with rapid
it
wintering grounds.
w ing beats.

Sticks, moss, leaves, plant fibers, and bark with occasional middle layer of mud
Nest Identification
• lined with lichens, dried leaves, and rootlets • on branch close to trunk of

conifer, or occasionally in other trees or shrubs, 0-^10 feet (usually 4-20 feet)
Shape
^ above ground • built by female • 3-5 pale blue eggs usually flecked with
browns; oval to short oval. 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
^_ ^m Migration
Migratory Weight
u
DATE TIME LOCATION
 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 549

Family Species Length Wingspan

TURDIDAE Catharus guttatm 6>75 inches 1L5inehes

Hermit Thrush
Often considered to have one of the most beautiful
songs of all North American birds, the Hermit Thrush
lives in habitats with coniferous and deciduous trees
and along forest edges. It is Vermont's state bird and
the only brown-backed spotted thrush to winter in blackish upper
mandible
the US. Color variations exist across its broad
breeding range: northern Pacific Coast
races are smaller and darker with olive-brown to
gray flanks; western mountain russet-brown
upperpart
races are larger and paler also black-tipped
lower mandible
with gray flanks; and eastern
with pinkish
races are brownish gray yellow at base
with buff-brown flanks.
• SONG Song begins • buff wash on
reddish
with long clear low breast and throat
brown tiiil
flutelike note and then and rump
rises with delicate
ringing tones ending in pale grayish white
thin, silvery notes;each underparts with
phrase is repeated, and blackish brown spots
and speckles
the pitch differs from
that of the previous song.
Call note is chuck, often doubled; also
gives upslurred whee.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Often curious and Similar Birds
approachable. Responds to pishing sound or imitations of Veery
Eastern Screech-Owl by coming close, flicking wings, raising Reddish brown
upperparts; lacks dark
crest, and raising and lowering tail. Often slightly raises and
spotting on breast;
lowers tail upon landing. Sometimes hovers above food on inconspicuous eye
branch or foliage and picks it on ground
off with beak. Forages ring; different voice.

and other small invertebrates,

for various insects, insect larvae, Wood Thrush
including earthworms and snails. Also eats berries and some Reddish brown
upperparts; brightest
fruit, especially in autumn migration and winter.
on crown and nape;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. heavy black spotting
• NESTING Incubation 12-13 days by female. Altrical young on underparts;
different voice.
remain in nest 12 days; brooded by female, fed by both sexes.
2-3 broods per year.
• Population Fairly
Flight Pattern common. Breeding range is

extending southward in
southern Appalachians.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant.
Rather swift direct flight with rapid wing
beats. Sometimes hovers briefly over prey Uncommon host to cowbirds.
before dipping to pick it up.

Nest Identification Weeds, rotted wood, twigs, mud, and other fine materials • lined with moss and
grass • on ground or low on branch of tree 0-8 feet above ground • occasionally
nests in rafters of mountain buildings • built by female • 3-6 greenish blue eggs
Shape
^ usually unmarked but sometimes with black flecks; oval to short oval,
0.8 x 0.6 inches.
-

Plumage Migration Wei § ht

Sexes simikr Stt tit t*_ Most migrate 1.1 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

550 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Wingspan
Family
TURDIDAE Species
Hyloi it hla mustelina
Length
775 _8 jnches i 3 _i 4 inches

Wood Thrush
In early spring, the peaceful flutelike songs of
the males are heard throughout the nesting
territory, announcing their arrival. It bright russet
nape and
frequents moist forests or large black bill with
crow
woodlots, but also can be seen in reddish brown creamy pink base to

parks, towns, and country gardens. upperparts

When this heavy-bodied big-
eyed short-tailed thrush is

agitated, it lifts the feathers black streaking

on its head like a crest. on white face

The song, one of the

most beautiful thrush large black
spots on breast,
songs, is given before
sides, and flanks
daybreak, but is most
prolonged at dusk, when
the singer perches high
above ground and delivers it

in leisurely fashion, rising and

falling, until darkness silences him.
• SONG A serene flutelike series of
triple phrases, the middle note lower than
the first, the last note highest and trilled, ee-o-lee,
ee-o-lay. Call is an abrasive quirt ox rapid pit, pit, pit.
Similar Birds
• BEHAVIOR Somewhat shy and retiring
Solitary or in pairs.
but may feed in the open on wooded lawns. Feeds on ground or '/ Veery
Smaller; uniform
in trees close to ground, gleaning food from ground or from reddish brown
branches and foliage. Eats various insects, spiders, and fruits; upperparts; lacks black
feeds largely on fruits and berries in fall migration. In courtship, spotting of underparts;
longer tail; voice
male chases female in series of fast twisting circling flights
differs.
within the male's territory. Territorial in winter.
„ Hermit Thrush
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. Smaller; rich brown to

• NESTING Incubation 13-14 days by female. Young altricial; gray-brown upperparts;

buff w ash on breast;
brooded by female; remain in nest 12 days, fed by both sexes.
dark spotting confined
1-2 broods per year. to throat and upper
• POPULATION Common moist deciduous or mixed in breast; rufous rump and
tail; voice differs.
deciduous-conifer woodlands, often near water. Casual in the
West during migration.
• Conservation
Flight Patter, Neotropical migrant. Population
declining in recent decades due
to nest parasitism by cowbirds,
forest fragmentation on
breeding grounds, and habitat
Relatively swift direct flight on rapidly
beating wings. Flights in woodlots often loss on wintering grounds in
of short duration. Central America.

Nest Identification Moss, mud, and dried leaves, with lining of fine rootlets • in fork of tree or
shrub, usually 6-50 feet above ground (but generally 6-12 feet) • built by female
• 2-5 unmarked pale blue or bluish green eggs; short oval to short subelliptical.
Shape
slightly pointed at end, 1.0 x 0.75 inches.

Plum a ^e Habitat Migration Weight

Sexes similai , «* f*f Migratc L7 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 551

Family
TlJRDIDAE Species
Tll/r/lts m niUl
, I
Length a 8 _ 10 S inches Wingspan 1S _
16 jnches

Eurasian Blackbird
The bright yellow-orange bill and completely black plumage of yellow-orange
the male help identify this bird. It is a native of Eurasian eye ring

forests, where it is common, but a specimen exists for Quebec.

It was introduced and established in Australia and New
Zealand. In all lands, native and otherwise, it inhabits the

understory of wetter woodlands, gardens, parks, orchards,

and trees along watercourses. Juvenile males are yel/ow-
blackish with brown wings and a blackish bill. orange bill

• SONG Sings whistled, melancholy tune, often

loudly and in measured phrases, each of which
falls away. Calls of grating chak-chak or terr-

chock-chock. Makes persistent pink, pink black overall

when alarmed.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in
pairs. Moves on ground or
limbs with vigorous
hops, then
stops, droops,
and flicks
wings and
black feet
longish tail; ciiul legs
cocks head to
one side as if
listening for dull white to
worms. Jabs bill buff throat
with darker
into ground for streaks
food. Eats
earthworms, mollusks,
insects, fruits, and berries.
Strongly territorial and Similar Birds

vocal when breeding. European Starling

• Breeding Smaller; yellow
shorter tail;
bill;

chunkier
Monogamous. Solitary nester. body; purplish and
• Nesting incubation green sheen • in

winter has dark bill

13-15 days by female.
and white spotting.
young leave nest at 12-15 days.
Altricial
Brooded by female. Fed by both sexes. 2-3 broods per year.

• Population Accidental
Flight Pattern North America.
• Feeders Will come to
fruits and birdbaths.

Swift flight with rapid wing beats and

• Conservation
forward flip upward. Short flights alternate
Protected by law in native range
several rapid wing beats with brief periods of Eurasia and Australia and
when wings are pulled to sides. New Zealand.

Nest Identification Made of plant stems, grass, twigs, leaves, and roots • lined with mud and a layer
of flow ering grass heads, pine needles, and dried leaves • on branch of tree or
Shape shrub or on ground • built by female • 4-7 light blue-green eggs with cinnamon-
brown markings; oval to short oval, 1.1 x 0.8 inches.

Plumage
Sexes djffer Habitat
_f ^ Migration
M igratory Weight
4 9 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

552 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len §th Wingspan 15 _ 16 mches
TURDIDAE Turdus pilaris 10 inches

Fieldfare
In 1937 a flock of these European birds was
gray head •
migrating from Norway toward Britain when
a storm blew them across the Atlarftic thin whitish
eyebrow •
Ocean; they made landfall in Greenland.
A small but thriving nesting population
^
Ik
yellow bill with
• dark tip

has survived there, and vagrants rufous-browi,

back
sometimes make their way to Alaska buff wash on
and the northeastern part of North Sfets chin, throat,
and breast
America. The Fieldfare differs from
other thrushes by its gray head
and rump contrasting with a
rufous-brown back and black
tail. In flight the underwing vhite wing
lining
linings show white.
• SONG The Fieldfare
makes a repertoire of
sounds. It makes a
loud cackling. It
underparts with
also has a call of
black chevron spot
shak-shak-shak. pattern
Its song is a
pieced-together
series of variable
squeaking and different
chuckling sounds and noises.
• BEHAVIOR The is usually observed solitary or in
Fieldfare
pairs or small groups. This bird is gregarious in the nonbreeding
season. The Fieldfare is noisy and conspicuous. It hops about
Similar Birds
on the ground while foraging for food by sight and gleans food
from trees and shrubs. It eats insects, earthworms, slugs, berries, Redwing
and fruits. The Fieldfare is a highly migratory and nomadic bird.
It frequents woods and woodland edges in summer and open

country, fields, and agricultural areas in winter.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary to colonial nester.
4 Rufous w ash on
underwings; brow n
head and rump; black
spotted and streaked
throat, breast, and sides;
buffy eye stripe • casual
• NESTING Incubation 13-14 days by female. Young altricial; to accidental in the

brooded by female; stay in nest 14 days, fed by both sexes. East.

1-2 broods per year.

• Population The
Flight Pattern Fieldfare is casual in Alaska and
accidental elsewhere in North
It is common in
America.
The Fieldfare is also
Siberia.
common to fairly common in
Swift strong direct flight on rapidly the country of Greenland.
beating wings.

Nest Identification
Mud, vegetation, and twigs • on ground or in low tree branch • built by fema
• 5-6 grayish or bluish green eggs, marked with reddish brown; oval to short
Shape oval, 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Sexes similar

(
Habitat
^^ _j Migration
Migratory Weight 3-8

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 553

Family Species Len S th Wingspan

TURDIDAE Turdus lUacm 8.25 inches 13.5^4 inch<

Redwing
The combination of its rufous-red flanks, streaked
and spotted throat, breast, and sides, and its
distinctive buff eyebrows sets this bird apart
from the native North American thrushes. How bill with
A native of Eurasia, the Redwing strays brownish black tip

occasionally to visit Newfoundland and is upperparti

accidental to Long Island, New York,

in the winter season. In flight this
thrush'sunderwing linings are a
deep orange-rufous. The adult
also has white underparts.
Juvenile Redwings are
similar to adults but they
have paler upperparts
and also washed-out
iifous flanks
rufous on their flanks
as well as on their
underwings.
blackish brown
• Song The streaking and spotting on
underparts to lower belly
Redwing sings a
loud fluid song
made up of pinkish legs
4-6 musical notes, and feet
often descending and
followed by a softer warble at
the end. This bird's calls include a high
thin seee/i, often given in flight, and also a bold kuck-kuck.
• BEHAVIOR Usually observed solitary or in pairs. The Similar Birds

Redwing is more gregarious hops on the ground to

in winter. It Fieldfare
forage for food and also gleans its food from branches and Gray head; gray rump;
rufous-brown back;
foliage. The Redwing feeds on insects, larvae, fruits, and
black tail; w hite
berries. It is a thrush that frequents deciduous and mixed underparts with buffy
coniferous-deciduous woodlands in summer and open fields and wash on throat and
breast; black spotting
thickets in winter.
and streaking on breast,
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. sides, and flanks; white

• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by female. Young altricial;

underwing linings.

brooded by female; stay in nest 12-15 days, fed by both sexes.

2 broods per year.

Flight Pattern • Population The

Redwing is casual to accidental
in the Maritimes and north
Atlantic Coast of the US. It is

uncommon to fairly common in

Rather swift strong direct flight on rapidly western Europe.
beating wings.

Nest Identification
Grasses, mud, and twigs • in shrub or branch of tree, 3-30 feet above ground
• built by female • 5-6 bluish green eggs, spotted with red-brown; oval to
Shape short oval, 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei £ ht 2.2

Sexes k_ ^± MigratoI ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

554 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Yu/r/us grayi Length
9 jnches Wingspan 14 75 nches
XlIRDIDAE
I

Clay-colored Robin
This Mexico and South and Central America makes
native of
North America and has bred on occasion in
rare visits to
southern Texas. It is most often seen in the lower Rio
Grande Valley. Very similar in its habits to our American
Robin, this bird has adapted to a wide
variety of habitats, including dwelling brownish olive
in towns, villages, and cities, but it upperparts <
greenish
still is wary around humans. It is yellow bill/

a vellow-billed robin with

whitish buff
brownish olive throat with olive-
wings and tail brown streaking

ta wny buff underparts

nth brownish olive upper
olive-brown upperparts, hest and flanks
buffy brown underparts, and a
pale streaked throat. Juveniles are • brownish gray
legs andfeet
similar to adults but with some
buffy spots on the upperwing coverts.
• SONG Slow long continuous caroling
of various musical phrases such as cheerily-

cheer-up-cheerio. Calls include a throaty tock\ a slurred reeur-ee, and

a clucking note.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Small flocks in fruiting trees.
Somewhat shy and retiring. Upon alighting, spreads and closes
Similar Birds
tail while flipping it up and down. Hops and runs on the ground
pushing litter aside with its bill; gleans food from
to forage, American Robin
branches and foliage low in trees. Eats insects, caterpillars, and
some berries and fruits. Sometimes takes snails and small
amphibians and reptiles. Defensive around nest and young.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester.
A Brick-red breast; white
belly and crissum;
grayish brown
upperparts; white throat
with black streaking;

A
broken w hite eye ring;
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by female. Young altricial; white corners on
brooded by female; stay in nest 13-15 days, fed by both sexes. blackish brown tail;

yellow bill.
2 broods per year.
• POPULATION In North America, species is rare in southeastern
Texas. Common to very
Flight Pattern common in Mexican range.
•Feeders and
BIRDHOUSES Comes to
feeders for bananas and
plantains; will visit birdbaths.
Swift direct flight w ith rapid wing beats

Nest Identification
Mud, grasses, and twigs • on low branch of tree or shrub • built by female
• 2—1 pale blue eggs, with brow n, gray, and reddish dots; oval to long oval,
Shape Location ^fc 1.1 x().« inches.

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat

^^ _j Migration
Nonmigratory Wei S ht 2.6 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 555

Species Length Wingspan

Family
XURDIDAE jurdus assjm jHs 9>5 inches 14 j5_ I6i5 inche

White-throated Robin
Its white collar, darker bill, and dusky gray
underparts distinguish this shy bird from the
similar Clay-colored Robin. A native of Mexico, yellowish
it has been spotted twice in the lower Rio eye ring

Grande Valley in southernmost Texas in

winter. Unlike many of the robinlike dark gray to
yellowish bill
thrushes, the White-throated Robin olive-brown
is generally arboreal in its habits upperparts

and spends little time

foraging on the ground.
It is especially •hitf throat
with dark brown
streaking

lute partial collar

attracted to trees with

fruits and berries, and
these are prime places
to seek out this species.

• SONG A full pleasant warbling,

with thrasherlike phrases, repeated
2-3 times. Call is a throaty kyow or reeuh-reeuh.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs or small flocks. Retiring
but not secretive. Forages for food in all parts of the tree,
spending much time from mid-levels in trees to canopy. Gleans Similar Birds
insects, berries, and some fruits. In winter it frequently joins
Clay-i olored Robin
mixed-species feeding flocks. Males often sing from a high
Tawny underparts;
perch, sometimes in an exposed position. Species is relatively paler, more yellow bill;

easy to observe as it forages in the open, high in the trees. white throat with olive-
brownish striping;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. inconspicuous eye ring;
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by female. Young altricial; olive-brown upperparts;
lacks white collar.
brooded by female; stay in nest 14-16 days, fed by both sexes.
1-2 broods per year, may rarely have 3 broods.
• POPULATION Accidental in

Flight Pattern North America in riparian forest

along Lower Rio Grande in
southeastern Texas. Common to
fairly common in native range
inMexico and southward to
Swift direct flight on rapidly South America.
beating wings.

Nest Identification Rootlets, grass, moss, and mud, with lining of finer materials • in tree or bush,
mid to upper by both sexes, but female does more • 2^4 light blue
level • built

Shape tion ^& or whitish eggs, flecked with gray and reddish brown; oval to short oval,
1.0x0.75 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simjlar Habitat
^^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei ^ht 2.4
ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

556 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Turdus migratorius Len Sth 10 Wingspan 14 _ 16 inches
TURDIDAE inches

American Robin
In many areas this bird is considered a sign of spring, though it

is a year-round resident in most of its US range. It is among the

most common, widely distributed, 'and most well-known birds
in North America. Juveniles are similar to adults but
have heavily spotted underparts and white spotting broken whin
and edging on the back and shoulders. eye ring

• SONG A bold gurgling leisurely sing-song

dark brownish
cheerily cheer-up cheerio, with phrases often gray upperparts
repeated. Has rapid call of tut-tut-tut or hip-
hip-hip.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Gregarious after
breeding season; in winter often in flocks and
roosts communally with other
species. Eats
earthworms, insects, and berries. Berries and
fruits are principal diet in winter.
Defensive of nest site and young.
Adapted to human disturbance,
especially agricultural areas and the
combination of shade trees and
lawns. Running-stopping foraging
style in fields and lawns.
• BREEDING Monogamous.
Solitary. Sometimes observed in
loose colonies.
• Nesting incubation
12-14 days by female. Altricial
young brooded by female; stay in
nest 14-16 days; female does
more feeding. Male often tends
first brood while female begins to Rufous-backed
incubate second clutch. Robin
2-3 broods per year in south; Rufous chest, back, and
wing coverts; gray head
fewer in north. and tail; heavy streaking
• POPULATION Abundant and widespread in variety of on throat; yellow bill;
yellow eye ring
habitats, including forests, woodlands, gardens, and parks.
• southwestern range.
• FEEDERS AND BlRDHOUSES Will come to feeders for
breadcrumbs. Attracted to birdbaths. Uses nesting shelves.
• Conservation
Flight Pattern Neotropical migrant. Becoming
more common in the Midwest
and onto the Great Plains with
planting of shelter belt trees
and irrigation. Vulnerable to
Swift rapid direct flight on strongh
pesticide poisoning in the
beating w ings.
food chain.

A 7
<?.s/ Identification Grasses and mud, with lining of fine grass • in all areas of tree, but with shelter
from rain, or in building or nest shelf* female does more building • 3-7 pale

Shape 1)1 iic eggs, occasionally white, usually unmarked, but occasionally flecked with
Location
brown; oval to short oval, 1.1 x 0.8 inches.

Plumage
Sexes djffer .
Habitat
m^ j£ fc^ _jl Mi S ration
Migratory Wei §ht 2.7 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 557

Family Species Length Wingspan 14-16

XURDIDAE j xo/rus 1/ (/(-vi us 9>5 inches inches

Varied Thrush
This uniquely colored thrush, unlike the American Robin, frequents
dense damp coniferous and deciduous forests and undergrowth as well
as suburban lawns. It usually feeds and spends time on the ground,
except when the male perches to sing his somewhat eerie song. One of
the most strikingly colored thrushes, it has orange underparts,
wing bars, and eyebrows. Females have a dusky brown orange eyebro
cast to the upperparts and a dusky brown breast
blu ish gray
band. Juveniles are similar to the female but upperparts,
have a scaly appearance to the nape, and crown i

neck and breast and

have white underparts.
• Song a slow
whistled mysterious- black
'ar patch
sounding caroling
white undertail
melody followed by coverts
fast prolonged warbling, ide black
first high, then low, and fading at necklace

the end. Has a soft low call of c/utp.

rusty orange
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Forages for food breast and throat
on ground and low Often remains hidden.
in trees.
Eats insects, caterpillars, berries, acorns, and rusty orange
sometimes seeds. Defensive of ing bars
nest site and young.
orange eyebrow
Responds readily to
squeaking by birders.
• Breeding
Monogamous. Solitary.
Similar Birds
• NESTING Breeding
biology poorly known. Amkricw Robin
Broken white eye ring;
Incubation estimated solid graywings without
at 12-14 days by orange brea, wing bars; white throat
female. Young and throat with black striping;
chestnut-orange
altricial; brooded by FEMALE underparts without
female; leave nest at
13-15 days, fed by both sexes.
1-2 broods per year.
,4 breast band or
scalloping; yellow
lacks orange eyebrow.
bill;

• POPULATION Common to fairlv common in dense moist

woodlands, particularly conifers.
Flight Pattern Rare winter visitor in the East
to the Atlantic coast.
• FEEDERS Comes to feeders.
• Conservation
Vulnerable to loss of habitat and
Swift rapid direct flight on rapidly-
forest fragmentation due to
beating wings.
logging and development.

Nest Identification Dried leaves, inner bark strips, and soft moss, reinforced with twigs, lined with
grass and rootlets • on branch or fork of tree, usually 10-15 feet above ground
Shape ^ Location
^ (but up to 25 feet) * built by female • 2-5 pale blue eggs, flecked with browns;
oval to long oval,"1.2 x 0.9 inches.

Plumage
Sexe§ differ « hi Migration
Migratory Weight
Undetermined

DATE TIME LOCATION

558 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
Tl RDIDAE Species
Ri^ay ia p j„jcola Len Sth
9.5 inche
Wingspan 14.1 6 inches

Aztec Thrush
This elusive bird often perches high in the treetops, remaining
still hours at a time. A native o£ Mexico, it makes rare visits
for
to North America and has been spotted in Arizona and Texas.
In flight, note the broad white stripe at the base of the
flight feathers. Females are similar to males but have
lighter brown overall coloring with more streaking on
the breast and throat. Juveniles are scalloped with
dark blackish
brown on the underparts and heavily streaked brown overall
with creamy white on the upperparts.
• SONG A tremulous slightly burry
or dweeeeir, repeated steadily by the
male. Calls are quavering wheeeeer,
a

a slightly metallic wheer, and a

nasal to clear sweee-uh. white uppertail

• Behavior Solitary
or in pairs. Somewhat
gregarious after
breeding season,
forming small groups
or joining mixed flocks
of up to 50 birds. Best
detected by voice.
Forages for food mostly
in trees and shrubs, but
sometimes forages on
ground. Eats insects, fruit,

and berries. Frequents pine

and pine-oak forests.
• Breeding
Monogamous. Solitary.

• NESTING Breeding
white bell)
biology poorly known.
and undertail
Estimated incubation coverts
12—14 days by female. Young
altricial; brooded by female;
Female
stay in nest estimated 13-15 days, Juvenile
fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Rare and
Flight Pattern irregular vagrant in southeastern
Arizona and Texas to central
Texas coast.
• CONSERVATION
Vulnerable to habitat loss and
Swift rapid direct flight on forest fragmentation due to
beating wings.
logging and development.

Nest Identification
Twigs, moss, grasses, and mud, with lining of finer materials • on branch or fork
of tree, middle to upper level • built by female • 2-3 light blue eggs, unmarked;
Shape Location
i, oval to long oval. 1.2 x 0.85 inches.

Plumage Sexes differ ' Habitat

m^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei § ht Undetermined

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 559

Species Length Wingspan

Famil V
MIMIDAE [) umetella caroltnensis 8-5 _ 9 inches n_ 12inches

Gray Catbird
Its tail, and gentle mewing calls are helpful in identifying this
black cap, long
tame gray Frequenting thick undergrowth and bushes, it will reside in
bird.
summer in the ornamental shrubs, thickets, and hedges in farmyards and
towns. An accomplished songster with the quality of the other members of
the mimic thrush family, it patterns its song with phrases, some squeaky,
some melodious, but none repeated. The song is often interrupted
with catlike mewing notes. This bird migrates at night.
Although primarily migratory, birds on
the coastal plain are nonmigratory.
black tail

black cap

reddish chestnut
undertail coverts

short dark bill

• SONG A mixture of
sweet to melodious, thin
to squeaky,and
sometimes abrasive
pale gray
pharases mixed with pauses. underparts
Does not repeat phrases like
other eastern mimic thrushes.
Some individuals mimic sounds
of other birds, amphibians, and machinery, and incorporate them into their song. Distinctive
mew notes often included in the phrases. Has call of quiet mew. Also a harsh quit or chack.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Often stays low in thick bush and is easily overlooked.
Relatively tame, frequently allowing a close approach. Sings from an exposed perch; sometimes
sings at night.Often cocks tail upward and flicks from side to side. Gleans food from branches
and foliage and picks it from ground. Eats mostly insects, spiders, berries, and fruits. Strongly
defends nest and nestlings from predators and intruders. Uncommon cowbird host; recognizes
their eggs and ejects them from nest. Often in loose flocks with other species in winter.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester.
• NESTING Incubation 12-13 days by female. Young altricial;
brooded by female; stay in nest 10-11 days, fed by both sexes
but more by male. 2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Common.
• FEEDERS Cheese, bread,
Flight Pattern raisins, cornflakes, milk, cream,
currants, peanuts, and crackers.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant.
Swift direct flight on rapid wing beats
over some distance; short flights often Uncommon cowbird host.
with several rapid wing beats and a short
period with wings pulled to sides.

Nest Identification
Grass, stems, twigs, and leaves, lined with fine materials • in shrub or tree,
3-10 feet above ground (as high as 50 feet) • built by both sexes but female does
Shape more • 2-6 dark blue-green eggs; subelliptical, 0.9 x 0.7 inches.
Ay

Plumage
Sexes simUar Habitat
^ ^ Migration
Migratory Weight
j j ounces

DATE TIME. LOCATION

560 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Fami| V Species Melanoptila glabrirostris Length
7>5 _ 8 inches
Wingspan n
MlMIDAE inches

Black Catbird
The Black Catbird, which is endemic to the Yucatan
Peninsula, the nearby islands of Mexico, and northern
Central America, has on one rare occasion strayed from
its tropical home and been spotted in North America
in the US. Like most mimic thrushes, it perches to
sing from a fairly prominent place, but it also
skulks and hides in the interiors of thickets
and dense brush. The Black Catbird's short
glossy black
slim black bill, glossy black plumage, and short slim
overall i
black bill
distinctively long black tail make it

unmistakable in the field. Juveniles

have duller black plumage overall.
• SONG A gruff, sometimes
squeaky and sometimes musical,
raspy w arble of clee to-who-week
or te-che-wii, repeated over

Ions black tail <

black legs and feet

and over. The Black Catbird's

call is a nasal cheehr sound.
• BEHAVIOR This is a shy and somewhat
Solitary or in pairs.
retiring bird. It usually stays hidden, except when it is singing.
Similar Birds
It generally forages for its food in trees, shrubs, and on the

ground; it gleans from vegetation or picks food from the ground. f Gray Catbird
Slate-gray plumage;
This bird eats mostly insects, spiders, berries, and fruit. It is
similar in shape, size, and behavior to the Gray Catbird. m black cap and tail:

undertail coverts.
rusty

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester.

• Nesting incubation
12-13 days by female. Young
Flight Pattern
altricial; brooded by female;
stay in nest 10-12 days, fed by
both sexes but mostly by male.
Long distance flight is swift and direct on 1-2 broods per year.
rapidly beating wings. Short flights are on
rapidly beating wings followed by brief
• Population Accidental i

tucking of wings to sides. southeastern Texas.

Nest Identification
Twigs, stems, and grasses, lined with finer materials • in shrub or low tree • built
by both sexes • 2 pale greenish or blue eggs, often dotted with browns; oval to
Shape * short oval, 0.9 x 0.7 inches.

Plumage Sexes similaf Habitat

m ^_ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei ^ ht 1.3 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 561

Species Length Wingspan

Family
MlMIDAE Mimus polyglottos 10 inches 13 _ 15 inches

NORTHERN MOCKINGBIRD
True to its scientific name, polyglottos, meaning "man\
tongued," this bird imitates dozens of other birds, as
well as other animals, insects, machinery, and even medium gray
upperparts
musical instruments. Traditionally considered a
southern bird, it has adapted to a wide range
of habitats, from lush southern plantation
gardens to dry cactus land. Although
nonmigratory over most of its
range, northernmost
populations do
migrate. When
sparring with a rival
or when in flight, the
large white wing patches
and the white outer tail feathers
flash conspicuously. Juveniles have
underparts spotted with gray-browns.
• SONG Perches to sing a variety of original
and imitative sounds, each repeated 3-5 (or more) times.
Also has an evening "whisper song." Call is a bold abrasive
check. Often flutters skyward while singing and tumbles back
to perch. May sing well into the night or, on moonlit nights or
Juvenile
under the glow of a security light, may sing all night.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Conspicuous. Forages on Similar Birds
ground and in bushes and trees. Lifts wings straight up with a
1
Bahama
jerky snap to bring insects out of hiding. Eats various insects \ Mockingbird
and Very defensive during breeding season, especially
fruit. '
Larger; lacks w hite-

wing patches; browner

close to the nest or young. Will attack larger birdsand mammals
upperparts; streaking
that come too near. Sexes defend separate winter feeding
on neck and flanks;
territory. Has adapted well to disturbed habitats created by man white-tipped tail

and thrives in suburbs, towns, villages, and farmlands. • eastern range.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. Long-term pair §j TOWNSEND'S

W Solitaire
bonds. Males perform display where they face one another and
hop sideways, trying to keep other birds out of territory.
• NESTING Incubation 12-13 days by female. Young altricial;
f Darker
ring:
shorter
gray; white
buff wing patches;
bill; white outer
eye

tail feathers.
brooded by female; stay in nest 11-13 days, fed by both sexes.
2-3 broods per year.
• POPULATION Common.
Flight Pattern Range is expanding north,
particularly to the Northeast.
Casual north of the mapped
distribution range, sometimes
Long flight is swift and strong on steadily as far north as Alaska.
beating wings. Shorter flights with several
quick wing strokes alternated with wings
• Feeders Will come for
pulled to sides; repeated. bread, suet, and raisins.

Nest Identification Sticks, stems, bits of fabric, dead leaves, and string, lined with finer materials
• set in fork on branch of tree or shrub, usually 3-10 feet above ground • bui
by both sexes • 2-6 blue-green eggs, with splotches of brown; oval to short
Shape
oval, occasionally -short subelliptical, 1.0 x 0.8 inches.

Plumage
Sex£s similar Habitat
_f — ^± Migration
N
.\ on migratory
Weight
j 7

DATE TIME LOCATION

562 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Length 11 Wingspan 15 5 nches
Family
M IMIDAE Species Mimus gundlachu inches j

Bahama Mockingbird gray sn eaking on

head and neck
This native -of the West Indies is a rare visitor to
the Florida Keys and southern Florida. It is similar
to but larger than the Northern Mockingbird. In
flight it lacks the large white wing patches of the brownish gray
upperparts with
Northern Mockingbird and the larger, more
gray streaking
fan-shaped tail is white only on the tip. It
mostly frequents thick scrubby areas but
has also made itself at home in the
towns, villages, parks, and gardens within
its Caribbean range. 2 white
wing bars
• SONG Sings a variety of musical
melodies, which are loud and varied, but
does not imitate other birds or animals.
Certain characteristic notes recur with gray streaking
enough frequency to identify the singer, on flanks
cheewee, chipwee, chipwoo, cheewoo. Call is a

grating check or chup.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs.
Somewhat but male sings from a
retiring,
conspicuous perch, often fluttering straight
up for several feet while singing, only to
fall back to the perch. Eats various insects,

spiders, berries, fruits, and occasionally

small reptiles. Snaps wings up with a
jerking movement to bring insects out of
their hiding places.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary
nester. Males face one another on edge
of territory, hop sideways, and try to
prevent the other male birds from coming Northern
into territory. \l( )( KINGBIRD
• NESTING Incubation 12-13 days by Smaller; grayer
plumage; white wing
female. Young altricial; brooded by female; stay in nest patches; white outer tail
10-12 days, fed by both sexes. 2-3 broods per year. feathers on blackish tail;
lacks streaking on neck,
• POPULATION Rare in North America on Dry Tortugas, the
back, and flanks.
Florida Keys (may have nested at Key West), and the mainland
of southern Florida.
• Feeders Will come for
Flight Pattern raisins, suet, and bread.
• Conservation
Vulnerable to habitat loss on the
Caribbean islands; perhaps
some displacement on islands
Rather swift direct flig
where Northern Mockingbird
purposeful wing strokt
has been introduced.

Nest Identification Sticks, stems, dried leaves, fiber, paper, bits of fabric, and string, with
lining of finer materials • in fork of shrub or low in tree • built by both
sexes • 2-6 creamy white or pinkish white eggs, with brown markings;
Shape Locati<
ova! to short oval, 1.0 x 0.8 inches.

Plumage Sexes similar , Habitat

^^^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei S ht 2.4 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 563

Len eth 8.5 Wingspan

Family
M IM iDAI Species
Qreoscoptes mdntanus inch* 1L5inches

Sage Thrasher
At dawn the male Sage Thrasher flies to a high
perch and sings its pleasant song over the
yellow eyes
sagebrush plains. Slightly smaller than a robin,
its short bill, ashy brown upperparts, and

striped breast set it apart from other

brownish gray
thrashers in its range. This shy bird
upperparts
quickly flies away when approached
short, straight,
and the thick sagebrush
slips into 2 whit,
»

lender bill
or runs offon the ground. Its
streaking may be very faded
and faint on individuals
with worn plumage. The
juvenile has a streaked
head and back. whitish underparts
with heavy brownish
gray streaking on
breast, sides, and flanki

Similar Birds

curve-billed
Thrasher
Larger in size; longer
decurved bill; lighter
spotting/mottling on
breast; indistinct wing
bars; white-tipped outer
tail feathers; buffy
• SONG Perches warbled phrases, continuously
to sing pleasant crissum.
varied, sometimes repeated. Alarm call is chuck-chuck.
Cactus Wren
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Perches high in a Brown cap; broad white
supercilium; long
conspicuous place to sing. Sometimes sings in flight. Shy and
decurved bill;
retiring. Terrestrial, spending considerable time on ground, upperparts streaked
where it moves quickly in searching for food. Feeds primarily rusty brown and white;
on insects and fruit, which it gleans from soil or foliage. whitish underparts
heavily spotted with
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. black; tawny-buff flanks,
• NESTING Incubation 13-17 days by both Young
sexes. sides,and crissum; white
band on tail.
altricial; brooded by female; stay in nest 11-14 days, fed by both
sexes. 1-2 broods per year. Rejects cowbird eggs.
• Population Common to

Flight Pattern fairly common in sagebrush

plains. Casual to accidental in
the East and on Pacific Coast.
• Conservation
Fairly swift flight on shallow wing beats.
Neotropical migrant. Clearing
For short flights, several rapid wing
strokes are alternated with a brief period of sagebrush flats has led to
with wings pulled to sides; repeated. declining population. V
Nest Identification Twigs, forbs, bits of bark, and leaves, lined with fine materials • in sage, other
bush, or on ground • usually less than 3 feet above ground • buiit by both sexes

Shape
flfe
— • 4-7 deep or greenish blue eggs, heavily spotted with browns; oval
.0 x 0.8 inches
to short oval,

Migration Wei S ht
lgratory 1.4 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

564 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Fami| y Species Len gth Wingspan
MIMIDAE foxostoma rufum 11.5 inch< 12 .5_14 inches

Brown Thrasher
This shy bird becomes highly aggressive when
long decuroed brownish
defending its young, often charging toward the head black bill with paler
of any intruder. The male bird sings from an base to lower mandible
exposed perch, sometimes quite high. It is able to
imitate other birds but most often sings its own
song, which is a curious mixture of musical
phrases. Its bright rufous upperparts and Hr^
fMjp
deep
yellow eyes
heavily streaked underparts distinguish
this species
its

is this?
from all

range. Although primarily migratory,

birds in the South
SONG Male
other thrashers in

do not migrate.
sings conversation-
like phrases of hello, hello, yes, yes,
who Who is this? I should say,
m white underparts
4 JT
I should say, with the varied / with heavy
streaking
phrases being given in two's
and three's. Reported to have
the largest song repertoire of
all North American birds
with more than 1,100 song
types recorded. Call is a
bold smack or churr.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or
in pairs. Highly terrestrial;
forages on or near ground for
food. Finds insects by digging
with bill. Eats mainly insects,
small amphibians, fruit, and
some grains. Runs quickly on Long-billed
ground; turns over leaves and Thrasher
More brownish gray
moves debris with bill.
upperparts; darker
Frequents dense brush, early streaking on creamy

successional stage woodlots, and forest edges. Has adapted to white underparts;
2 white wing bars;
living in shrubby ornamental vegetation of suburbs and gardens.
longer, more decurved
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. bill; reddish orange eye;
long gray-brown
• NESTING Incubation 11-14 days by both sexes. Young
tail.

altricial; brooded by female; stay in nest 9-13 days, fed by both

sexes. 2-3 broods per year.

Flight Pattern
• Population Common to
fairly common. Rare in the
Maritimes and in the West.
• FEEDERS Will sometimes
Rather fast flight on shallow wing beats.
tend feeders for raisins, suet,
Short flights are made with several rapid
wing beats alternated with brief periods and bread.
with wings pulled to sides; repeated.

Nest Identification Sticks, grasses, and dried leaves, lined with fine grasses • in bush, on ground, or
in low tree, usually1-10 feet above ground • built by both sexes • 2-6 pale
bluish white or white eggs, with pale brown specks, occasionally wreathed; oval
Shape
to short oval, 0.1 x 0.8 inches.

Plumage
Sexes sim ; lar
> Habitat
^ Migration Weight
2 4

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIROS OF NORTH AM K RICA • 565

Family
MlMIDAE Species
foxostoma longirostre
Length
.5 inches Wingspan
12 5 _
. u5 . inches

LONG-BILLED THRASHER yelkw . „ ,

This native of eastern Mexico and southern

Texas is similar to the Brown Thrasher in
habit and appearance, but it has a longer,
more decurved plumage is more
bill. Its

gray, although the time of year and the

extent of the birds molt of the
feathers also can affect color. Highly
terrestrial, foraging on or near the
ground, it flies to a high open perch
to sing.This bird is most at home
in the dense undergrowth of river-

bottom forests but also is found

in the cactus and mesquite of

drier uplands.
creamy buff
• SONG Male perches to sing
underparts with
conversation-like phrases, //caw black
similar to the Brown Thrasher, streaking

in doubles and triples. Various

calls of tsuck, a soft kleak, and a
bold flutelike cheeooep.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in
pairs. Terrestrial. Somewhat shy,
retreating when approached.
Runs on ground; forages for food
on ground and low in trees and
shrubs. Often finds insects by
digging in ground with bill. Eats
mostly insects, small amphibians,
and fruit. Maintains interspecific Similar Birds
winter territories with Brown
Brown thrasher
Thrasher when both are present. Shorter bill is not as
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. decurved; more rusty
brow n upperparts;
• NESTING Incubation 13-14 days by both sexes. Altricial brown streaking on
young brooded by female for just 2 days; leave nest at buffy underparts; white

12-14 days, fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year. wing bars; long rufous-
red tail; yellow eve.
• Population Common in brush and scrubland, bottomland
willows, and dense forest habitat. Rare in western Texas. Accidental
in New Mexico and Colorado.
Flight Pattern • Conservation Declining
in southern Texas due to
Tv Tv clearing of brushlands for
development and agriculture.
Long on rapidly
flights are relatively swift
beating wings. Shorter flights
Common host to cowbird eggs.
with several
fast shallow wing strokes alternated with
brief periods with wings pulled to sides.

Nest Identification Prickly sticks, with lining of straw and soft grasses • in middle of shrub, bush,
or small tree, 4-10 feet above ground • built by both sexes • 2-5 blue-green or
greenish white eggs, speckled with reddish brown, occasionally wreathed; ovate
Shape
to short oval, l.Lx 0.8 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi]ar Habitat
A « |_ ^ Migration
Emigratory Wei e ht 2.4
ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

566 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Toxostoma curvirostre Len Sth Wingspan 14 inches
MlMIDAE 1 1 inches

Curve-billed Thrasher
Fond of water, the Curve-billed Thrasher is often
orange to yellow
observed in birdbaths, near dripping faucets, and
orange eyes
near other water sources, which often are in scant
supply in the desert and semiarid brushlands this
bird inhabits, especially those with cholla cactus
and mesquite. A nonmigratory bird, the Curve-
billed Thrasher is a year-round resident that
rarely wanders from its range, centered in the
southwestern United States and Mexico.
The most common of the desert
thrashers, it displays a curved black
bill, spotted underparts, buffy
undertail coverts, and bright
orange eyes in the adult.
Some individuals have
buff-gray
thin white wing bars. underparts
The westernmost
race has indistinct
spotting. Juveniles vhite- to gray
have straighter bills buff-tipped tail

and yellow eyes.

Similar Birds
• SONG Calls include a sharp whit-wheet, which sometimes
Bendire's Thrasher
includes 3 notes. Song is melodic, varied, and intricate, often
Smaller and more
with low trills and warbles, often with 2-3 repetitions of phrases. slender; shorter, less
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Terrestrial. Often straight bill; yellow
eyes; triangular or
conspicuous and noisy. Searches for insects by digging
arrow head-shaped
vigorously into the ground with bill. Also eats spiders, small markings on underparts;
reptiles, snails, fruits (especially cactus fruits), seeds, and different call note.
• only in the West.
berries. Mates remain paired throughout the year, often reusing
the same nest. May build roosting platform in winter that Sage Thrasher
Smaller; yellow eyes;
becomes nest in spring.
short straight slender
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. bill; w hitish underparts;

• NESTING Incubation 12-15 days by both sexes, but mostly heavy brownish gray
streaks on breast, sides,
by female; female incubates at night and also trades off with and flanks; 2 white
male during the day. Young altricial; brooded by female (often to w ing bars; white-tipped
shade them from sun); remain in nest 11-18 days, fed by both outer tail feathers.

sexes. 2 broods per year.

• Population Common.
Flight Pattern Small declines in Texas but still
abundant farther west. Casual in
southeast California and north
and east of its permanent range.
Long flights are swift and direct on rapidly
beating wings. Shorter flights are several
• Feeders Will come to

rapid shallow w ing beats followed by brief

water and to feeders with fruit.

periods of wings at sides or short glide.

Nest Identification Lined with fine materials, including twigs and grass • often found 2-8 feet above
ground in shrub, cactus, or tree • built by both sexes • 1-5 pale blue-green eggs,
with pale brown spots, rarely wreathed; ovate to short ovate or elliptical ovate,
Shape
1.2x0.8 inches.

Plum a ^ e Habitat Migration Wei S nt 2.8

Sexes similar Nonmigratory ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 567

Family Species Len eth 8.5 inches Wingspan

STURNIDAE snirmts vulvitis I I ]5 s

European Starling
chunky Eurasian species was introduced to North America in 1890 in
Tli is
New York City's Central Park and has become so well established that large
flocks have in some cases become a nuisance, roosting in cities and
towns from coast to coast and north into Canada to the
tree line. Tenacious in nature, this bird competes
huffy tips and
with native species such as woodpeckers, < <'/_ /. to feathers of
flycatchers, and bluebirds for nesting holes. back and man ih
This bird's winter plumage shows white
specks and its yellow bill becomes a dull
gray. Juveniles are sooty gray-brown
overall with pale streaking on the
underparts and a dull brown bill. f
• SONG Sings various trilling
melodies, clear whistles,
clatters, and twitters in
groups. Imitates songs of
black overall
other birds, including Eastern with iridescent
Wood-Pewee and Northern sheen of purple
Bobwhite, as well as mechanical sounds. and green
Also has a flutelike p/ieeEW. Singing male often
stands erect and flaps wings vigorously in display.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs in breeding season. Juveniles
form foraging flocks. Gregarious after breeding season, forming flocks with
juveniles for foraging and roosting. Joins other species in winter roosts, which
may number more than a million birds. Most often feeds in open areas,
primarily on the ground. Eats various insects, fruits, and grains. The muscles Juvenile
that open its bill are stronger than those that close unique trait that allows
it, a
this bird to insert its bill in vegetation or into the ground and then pry it open to reveal food.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Often forms loose colonies. Some individual males polygynous.
Aggressive in claiming nesting chambers.
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by both sexes, but female
does more. Young altricial; brooded by female; stay in nest Similar Birds
18-21 days, fed by both sexes. First flight at about 26 days.
No native species of blackbird has
2-3 broods per year. yellow bill; short tail; chunky body;
• POPULATION Common. Stable over most of continent; buffy streaking on back and wing
coverts; and a notched tail.
perhaps still expanding range north and south.
• FEEDERS AND BlRDHOUSES Will come for bread, peanut
butter, suet, and small seeds.
Flight Pattern Uses bluebird-sized or larger
nest boxes.
• Conservation
Conservation laws in the US do
not protect nongame, non-
Strong swift direct flight on rapidly
native species.
beating wings.

Grass, twigs, forbs, rootlets, and straw • in natural hollow of tree, bird box,
Nest Identification
crevice inman-made structure, or abandoned woodpecker hole, 10-25 feet above
Shape ground (but up to 60 feet) • built by both sexes • 4-8 pale bluish or greenish
Q> fi white eggs, usually unmarked, but sometimes marked with browns; short oval to
Location i£fc
long oval, 1.2 x 0.8 inches.

Plumage
Sexe§ similar Habitat
_^ m_^ Migration
Northern birds migrate Wei ^ ht 3.0
ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

568 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Motacilla citreola Len Sth 6.25 fwingspan 9 inches
MOTACILLIDAE I inches

Citrine Wagtail
Found deep in the damp meadows
and grassy marshes of Eurasia, where bright yellow head
it makes its native home, this small

citrus-colored bird has only once

been found in North America. r black 11 ape

And it was not found in the blackish gray, gray, or

most likely places near the P sometimes black back

Aleutian or the Pribilof islands, 2 white

ving bars
or perhaps on the coast of
Alaska, rather it was found
near Starkville, Mississippi.
The female Citrine Wagtail is
similar to the male but has a
duller overall coloring and a
greenish gray top to her head,
rather than the bright yellow bright yellow
head coloring of the male. underparts
Juveniles are very similar to
juveniles of the Yellow
Wagtail and are perhaps
indistinguishable from that
bird in the field.
• SONG The Citrine Wagtail
male gives a series of bold
short chirps when it is in its
characteristic skylarking flight.
Its call is a loud tsuile.

• BEHAVIOR This wagtail pairs in breeding

Similar Birds
season; it is most other times, generally
very gregarious at
forming flocks. The Citrine Wagtail forages for food on the Yellow Wagtail
Olive-green back and
ground and also in low trees, where it gleans from the foliage, rump; white edging on
feeds primarily on a variety of insects and also on worms and wing coverts and flight
some fruits. The Citrine Wagtail typically can be found feathers; yellow
underrail coverts; gray
perching on bushes and on grass stems when it is not foraging
nape and crown; white
for' food. Generally in its native range this bird is found in
throat in breeding
habitats that are wet or near water. season • western range.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester.

• Nesting incubation
14-15 days by both sexes.
Flight Pattern
Young altricial; brooded by
female; stay in nest 13-15 days,
fed by both sexes. 1 brood per
year.

Several rapid w ing stroke alternating • POPULATION Accidental in

with wings pulled to sidi
North America.

Nes 1 1dent ificatio n

Plane stems and moss with lir ng of leaves, hair, and feathers • sheltered by
grassy tussock • built by tern; le •4-5 ocherous or light blue eggs, with fine
Shape brown speckling: subelliptica 0.77 x 0.57 inches.

Plumage Scxcs di fTer l

Ha bitat _ := Migration
Migratory
We 'S ht 0.7 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OK NOR TH AMERICA • 569

Family Species Length Wingspan S _ 1()

MOTACILLIDAE Motaalla a ll>(l I
6 .5_ 7 .25 inches I (S _ mchcs

White Wagtail
This Eurasian bird has a small but stable
nesting population in Alaska and blackcap
Greenland. Like most wagtails, it wags and nape
its long black tail, w ith white outer tail

feathers, up and down and bobs its

head while walking. Highly
adaptable, it will nest under eaves
of houses, on bridges, and ivy-
gray bark,
covered walls, as well as scapulars,
natural cavities of cliffs and and rump »black bib from
banks. The adult female is hiu to lower breast

similar to the male.

Wintering adults have less
extensive black on the
chin, throat,and breast,
and juveniles have
mostly white underparts.
hife underparts

Mat /• tail a"/'/// •-

white outer tail
feathers

• SONG Sings an energetic trilling twitter with notes similar to

its call notes, which sound like r/iizzik-rhizzik. Similar Birds
• BEHAVIOR and
Solitary or in pairs; in flocks in migration Black-backed
winter. Forages for food on ground, on and around rocks, and in Wagtail
shallow water. Eats mostly insects and snails. Frequents In flight, slums mostly
white w ings w ith black
wetlands, shores of lakes, ponds, rivers, and inhabited areas, tips to outer primaries
including agricultural areas. • breeding adult has
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. Courting male chases
black back • winter
adult has black LF-
female until she notices him, then he shows off his shining shaped patch
black neck. encircling breast from
side of head.
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by both sexes, but female
does more. Young altricial; brooded by female; stay in nest
14-16 days, fed by both sexes.
1-2 broods per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Small
Alaskan population is fairly
common and Casual
stable. in
North America on the West
Several rapid wing beats alternated with Coast; accidental in the East.
wings drawn to sides; repeated.

Grass, forbs, leaves, roots, twigs, lichen, and moss, lined with grass, hair, and
Nest Identification
cliff, bank, bridge, or building, 3-10 feet above
feathers • in cavity or ridge of
Shape Locstion
g. m ground • sometimes on ground sheltered by grassy tussock or tree roots • built
by female • 4—8 grayish or bluish white eggs, with gray or brown speckles;
subelliptical, 0.8 \ 0.6 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi i ar
Habitat
^ ^ _ Migration
Mjli^ratory Wei § ht
0.7 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

570 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len §th 7.25 inches Wingspan
MOTACILLIDAE Motacilla lugens 1() inchc

Black-backed Wagtail
This slender long-tailed native of Asia reaches the
Western Hemisphere by making regular spring
and summer visits to the western Aleutian
thin black line
Islands. Occasionally these birds also nest through eye
in the Aleutians. Although the Black-
backed Wagtail is very similar to the black-and-white
White Wagtail in appearance, its upperparts

upperparts are black instead of

gray when the bird is in
breeding plumage. The white patch on
long tail is black with folded wings

white outer tail

feathers, which is

conspicuous in
flight, as are the kite underparts
almost entirely
white wings. Winter
plumage shows a \ black tail with white
o ute i tail feathers
-

white throat with a

black necklace.
Juveniles resemble long slim black •
legs and feet
adults but are gray
without black markings Juvenile
on head, upperparts, or breast. This Similar Birds
bird frequents wetlands, river banks, and lake shores.
White Wagtail
• SONG Sings a lively warbling melody. Call is a chuchun, Pule gray back;

chuchun, often given in flight. extensively blackish

flight feathers of wing,
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Gregarious in migration and with white secondary
winter, often roosting in large flocks at night. Walks on ground, coverts producing bar

often pumping long tail up and down repeatedly, moving the on inner wing • winter
adults retain some black
head backward and forward in characteristic manner. May on lower cheek, sides of
change its gait to a fast jerky run. Feeds actively on ground and breast; but chin and

in shallow waters. Eats mostly insects and snails. Sometimes throat white • juveniles
gray above without
nests around human habitation.
black; white below with
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. dusk} black band on
upper chest.
• NESTING Incubation 13-15 days by both sexes, but female
does more. Young altricial; brooded by female; stay in nest
12-15 days, fed by both sexes.
1-2 broods per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Rare to
V casual in North America on
outer Aleutians and other
Alaskan islands; casual on the
Several shallow quick wing strokes,
alternated with w ings drawn to
West Coast. Accidental in the
sides; repeated. East.

Nest Identification Grass, forbs, leaves, roots, and twigs, lined with grass, hair, and
feathers • in ridges of cliff or hollow in bank; sometimes on ground
• built by female • 4-6 grayish brown
or bluish white eggs, with
Shape
speckles; subelliptical, 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Sexes similar habitat

^ Migration
Migratory Weight Undetermined

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 571

Family
MqTACILUDAK Species
Anthm m bescens
Len §th
6.5 inches
Wingspan 1(M] inch(

American Pipit
This sparrow-sized bird spends most of its time on the open
ground, where it runs and walks, rather than hops. Like
many of the pipits, the male has a dramatic song flight in
which he flies to a height of 50 to 200 feet then floats
down with feet dangling below and tail cocked
upward, all the while continuing to sing. The
American Pipits breeding ranges extend from
alpine tundra in the high mountains of the brown
grayish
western US to arctic tundra across the top of upperparts *
the continent. Winter birds have browner
upperparts and they have more heavily
streaked underparts.
%
-
I f 1 1 • huffy wing
• SONG A repetitive rapid series of I i
'

bars on dark
notes, chee-chee-chee or cheedal- j ( / * gray wings
cheedal-cheedal. Call sounds like
wit, wit or pip-pit and is most

often given in flight.

- buff underparts
• Behavior Solitary or |f
'°
with faint brown
streaking
in pairs; gregarious after
breeding season,
forming flocks
that may be very-
large and mixed with black legs and feet
other species, including
Horned Larks and longspurs.
Walks on ground, often bobbing its head
while pumping tail up and down or wagging it. Forages in Similar Birds

foliage, grass, and soil. Also wades into shallow waters to pick Sprague's Pipi t

food from surface. Eats insects and their larvae, seeds, small Buff- and blackish-
streaked upperparts; dark
mollusks, and crustaceans. Alpine species may escape severe
eye on pale buff face with
weather by moving down mountain slopes to warmer valleys. pale eye ring; pinkish to

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. Male has yellow legs and feet;
slender yellowish bill;
courtship song flight.
white underparts with
• NESTING Incubation 13-15 days by female. Young altricial; deeper buff on lightly
streaked breast; does not
brooded by female; stay in nest 13-15 days, when they can
pump tail.
make short flight. Fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Common and widespread in tundra and alpine
tundra; in winter, in fields and
Flight Pattern on beaches.
• Conservation
\ Neotropical migrant. Vulnerable
to habitat loss on wintering
grounds as well as foraging areas
Swift flight on series of rapidly beating
wings alternated with wings pulled to in migration.
sides; repeated.

Nest Identification Often no nest materials; sometimes sticks and grass, occasionally with lining of
small amount of mammal hair • sheltered by bank, rocks, or hillock • built by
female • 3-7 grayish white eggs, with brown splotches; subelliptical,
Shape -
0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi | ar
Habitat
A ^ Migration
Moratory Weight 0.8
ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

572 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len § th Wingspan
MOTACILLIDAE A nffi us spragueii 6.5 inches 3 ( >- 1 1 inches

Sprague's Pipit
Because its plumage serves as camouflage in (lark eyes
buff- and
the prairie grasses, this bird hard to spot. is
black-streaked
When frightened, it often chooses to run upperpart:
or freeze, rather than fly. Olive-tan
upperparts are edged with buff on the
coverts, flight feathers, and back,
creating a scaly appearance. Dark eyes
encircled by thin eye rings stand out
in sharp contrast to a buffy face. In
white outer feathers are
flight,
evident on the mostly black tail.
Unlike the American Pipit, it
does not bob or wag its tail

when it walks.
• SONG In display
flight sings tinkling
downward series
of clear musical
notes, tzee, tzee-a.

Call is high-pitched
squeet-squeet-squeet,
mostly given in flight. yellowish to creamy •
Similar Birds
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pink fa t and Irj^s American Pipit
pairs; gregarious after breeding Darker and grayer back
without stripes; deeper
season, forming flocks, often with other species. Secretive.
buff breast; brown to
Walks and runs on ground as it forages in tall grasses and grain black legs and feet;
fields. Eats insects and seeds. When flushed, flies an extended dark bill; buffy wing
bars; dark grayish face;
erratic pattern before dropping back into the grasses. Female
bobs and wags tail
sits tightly on the nest; she often flies up to meet the male as he
continuously.
descends from his aerial courtship flight.
Vesper sparrow
• BREEDING Monogamous.
Courting male flies in
Solitary. Stockier; short conical
spirals as high as 500 feet, circles and sings, then closes his bill; less extensive
white on outer tail
wings and falls earthward, opening his wings just above ground.
feathers; white-
• NESTING Incubation unknown but estimated at 12-14 days bordered dark ear
by female. Altricial young brooded by female; stay in nest patch; chestnut patch in
bend of wine.
10-11 days, fed by female. 1-2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Uncommon in short-grass prairies and grassy

Flight Pattern and winter in California;

accidental in East.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Declining

Swift flight on series of rapidly beating

due to habitat loss on breeding
wing strokes, alternated with wings pulled and perhaps wintering ranges.
in to body; repeated.

Nest Identification
Grasses • on ground, sometimes on grassv tussock • built by female • 4-6 pale

buff or grayish white eggs, splotched with browns or gray, often with fine dark
Shape ^ Location —m brown lines at larger end; subelliptical, 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Sexes similar '

Habitat
^ Migration
lgratory
Weight
0i9 ()unce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 573

Family
BOMBYCILLIDAE Species
Bombycilla garrulus
Len §th
8.25 inches
Wingspan 13 _
H inches

BOHEMIAN WAXWING
True name, this bird is highly nomadic and travels in
to its
flocks over a wide range in search of abundant food sources, long grayish
cinnamon
particularly berries, which make up its principal diet. In
crest <

winter it often is attracted to berries and fruits produced

• narrow
by ornamental plantings in towns and residential black mask
areas, and flocks may appear as if from nowhere, with white
lingering until the larder is stripped. Gray lower border
grayish upperparts
underparts with cinnamon undertail coverts with more brown on
the back and head •
distinguish it from the smaller Cedar
Waxwing. Like its more widespread
relative its tail is yellow tipped. black chin

In flight it shows a white

usually waxy
patch at the base of the red tips on
primaries. Juveniles have secondaries
heavily streaked underparts
and whitish throats.
• SONG While flying, gray underparts

utters continuous
twittering and chatter.
Call is an abrasive white markings on
grayish wings with red
scree or zirrrr.
and yello w borders
• Behavior in pairs or
small groups during
breeding season; gregarious
rest of year, forming
flocks. Usually feeds close
blackish gray tail
to other birds on ground with ye/low trim
and Perches to
in trees. JUVENILE
spot insects, then hawks them in flight. Eats fruit, berries, and
insects. Drinks sap. Very tame. Southward eruptions are Similar Birds
unpredictable and varied, often tied to crashes in food sources Cedar Waxwing
in breeding range. Smaller; browner
upperparts; yellow on
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. belly; white undertail
• NESTING Incubation 14-15 days by female. Young altricial; coverts; lacks yellow

brooded by female; stay in nest 13-18 days, fed by both sexes. and white bars and
spots on wings.
1 brood per year.

• POPULATION Fairly common to uncommon in mixed conifer

and open coniferous woodlands
Flight Pattern and muskeg; widespread in
range in winter.
Tv • FEEDERS Comes to feeders
for dried fruits and berries.

Strong rapid flight with a series of rapid

• Conservation
wing beats alternating with wings pulled Vulnerable to habitat loss due to
briefly to sides. Hawks for insects.
logging in coniferous forests.

Nest Identification Sticks, lichen, stems, and grass; lined with mosses and fine materials • far out on
horizontal limb, 4-50 feet above ground • built by both sexes • 2-6 pale bluish
gray eggs, splotched and marked with black, especially at larger end; oval, 1.0 x
Shape
0.7 inches.

Plumage
Sexes sjmilar Habitat
^^ Migration
Migratory Weight 7 (j

DATE TIME LOCATION

574 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Bombycilla cedrorum Len Sth 7 Wingspan
BOMBYCILLIDAE inches j j_i2.25 inches

Cedar Waxwing
Named for the red waxlike tips on its brownish head
secondaries, this social bird travels* in large and back •

flocks in the nonbreeding season and may

even nest in loose colonies. The purpose of
the "red wax" is long-debated, but younger narrow black
mask /'ordered
birds do not have it and the older birds that white below
do often choose each other as mates and
produce more young than the younger pairs.
blackish throat
At times this bird may become so intoxicated »

on overripe fruit that it cannot fly. Females

• brownish
are similar to males but show a brownish
breast, sides,
rather than a blackish throat (a difficult field and wing coverts
mark that can be observed only at close
hand). Juveniles have streaked upperparts
and underparts.
light yellow belly
• SONG Call is thin, high-pitched
warbled zeeee or zeeeet, more protracted ~ed waxy tips
just before leaving perch; may on secondary
call constantly in flight. flight feathers
of older birds
• Behavior in pairs
or in small to large flocks.
Gregarious, especially in
migration and winter. Tame and nndertail

sociable. Feeds close to other birds

in trees or on ground. Eats fruit,
yellow trim on
flower petals, and insects; drinks sap.
end of gray - JUVENILE
Several may sit on a wire or branch and black tail
pass a piece of fruit back and forth, beak
Similar Birds
to beak. Hawks insects, particularly mayfly hatches and those of
similar species, especially along streams. Bohemian Waxwing
Larger; grayer;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary to colonial. During cinnamon undertail
courtship, male and female will sit together and pass flower coverts; white and
yellow spots and bars on
petals back and forth, share food, and rub bills.
wings; white bar at base
• NESTING Incubation 12-16 days by both sexes. Young of primaries on folded
altricial; brooded by female; stay in nest 14-18 days, fed by both wing shows as white
patch in flight.
sexes. 1-2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Fairly common to uncommon in woodland, forest
edge, farmlands with fruit trees,

Flight Pattern towns, and suburbs.

• FEEDERS Raisins and
V berries; attracted to birdbaths.
• Conservation
Strong rapid flight with several quick winj Neotropical migrant. Not a
strokes alternating with brief periods of common cowbird host; often
wings pulled to sides; repeated.
rejects or damages its eggs.

Nest Identification Sticks, mosses, and grass, lined with fine grass, moss, rootlets, hair, and pine
needles »on limb or in fork of conifer or deciduous tree, 6-60 feet above ground
• built by both sexes • 2-6 pale bluish gray eggs, dotted with black and brown;
Shape
oval, 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage
Sex£S sjmi , ar
Habitat^ ^ Migration
M igratory Weight
L1 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 575

Family Species Length 7.?_s.2 Wingspan

Pfl LOGO N ATI DA E ptiiogonys dnereus inches | j .ik-

Gray Silky-flycatcher
This bird catches insects like a flycatcher
but is more similar to a waxwing in
dark lot
appearance and in habits, mixing its
insect diet with fruits and berries,
especially mistletoe. An endemic of black bill

the highland forests of Mexico and

southwestern Guatemala, strays have gray throat
and chest
been spotted in Texas. This silky-
plumaged bird has a small broad bill,
slender crest, and long tail. In flight
females show grayish uppertail coverts. yellowish flanks,
• SONG Warbled twitters and becoming bright yel/cm
on undertail coverts
whistles, some nasal, some pleasant.
Call is abrasive chureet or chuleep.
• BEHAVIOR In pairs or flocks,
which can be large. Perches high in
treetops. Feeds in upper and middle
levels in trees and on ground.
Catches insects in flight, similar to
the hawking of a flycatcher. Eats
fruits and insects. Often flies high in dn sky gray head
and upperpa rts
the air. Foraging is often social in
loose flocks. Wanders after breeding
season to lower regions, sometimes
well beyond breeding range,
especially in winter.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Female
Solitary or loose colonial.
• Nesting incubation
12-14 days by both sexes. Young
'HA1NOPEPLA 9
altricial; brooded by female; Female and juvenile are
stay in nest 18-20 days, fed by slaty gray overall;
whitish-edged undertail
both sexes. 2 broods per year.
coverts; blackish gray
• Population Accidental wings and long tail; pale
in North America in southern grayish white patch at
base of primaries.
Texas. Common to fairly
common in Mexico.

Flight Pattern • Conservation

Tv
Swift flight with rapid wing strokes
alternating with brief periods of wings
pulled to sides. Sallies from perch to take
insects, returning to perch.
Vulnerable to loss of pine-oak
and evergreen highland forests,
which are required as breeding
habitat, as a result of logging
operations and land clearing.

Nest Identification
Twigs, grasses, and lichen, lined with finer materials • saddled in tree or shrub
• built mostly by male with some help from female • 2 bluish white eggs, with
Shape Location 4^ £jt dark brown and gray markings; oval, 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage
Sexes djffer Habitat^ ^ Migration
Migratory Wei ^ ht 1.2

DATE TIME LOCATION

576 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
p n LOGON ATI DAE Species Phainopepla nitens Len §th
7.75 inches Wingspan
n 5 inches

Phainopepla
This may be the only North American bird that nests in
two different regions during the s^ame breeding season.
The early nest of the breeding season is usually in the
desert.Then, as the desert warms with the season, the
Phainopepla moves to a higher, more moist habitat
and nests again. These highly nomadic birds survive
by following the crops of mistletoe and other berries
glossy black
The glossy black-crested males flash a white wing
overall
patch at the base of the primaries in flight; the slate-
gray juveniles and females show a pale gray one.

• SONG Sings a short trilling somewhat liquid

whistle of tlee-oo-eee, which is not often heard. Has
mellow call of whew or werpP
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs or loose groups.
Forages for food in trees, bushes, and, rarely, on ground.
Catches insects in flight, similar to flycatcher. Eats mistletoe
and various other berries; defends food trees and shrubs from
other birds. Also eats spiders and flower petals. May hover
over food and pick it up. Male has courtship display in
which he flies 300 feet or so and zigzags or circles above his
territory; sometimes other males join in above their own
territories. Sometimes
wanders beyond
breeding range whitish edging to
after nesting season. wing coverts and
secondaries
• Breeding
Monogamous.
Gray Silky-
Solitary or in flycatcher 9
small colonies. Female and juvenile
• grayish head and
• Nesting slaty gray
breast: dusky gray
overall
Incubation 14 days upperparts: blackish
by both sexes. Young gray wings and tail; gra
uppertail coverts; dull
altricial; brooded by
gray-brown throat and
female; stay in nest 19-20 days, underparts; whitish
fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods pe belly; yellowish

• POPULATION Fairly common to common in

undertail coverts.

desert scrub, mesquite brushland, and semiarid and

riparian woodland and oak
Flight Pattern foothills. Accidental in the East.
• Conservation
Vulnerable to habitat loss due to
development and agriculture,
mesquite for
also cutting of
Direct flight is high and fluttery. with
shallow jerky wing strokes; sallies from charcoal in Mexico.
perch to snatch insects in midair; returns.

Nest Identification Sticks and plant down, bound with spider and lined with down and hair
silk
• in fork of tree or bush, often shaded by 4-50 feet above ground
foliage,
• mostly built by male, who may build several nests • 2-4 grayish eggs,
Shape
i, dotted and splotched with browns and black; oval, 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Scxes
differ
f Habitat^ Migration
Northern birds migrate Wei § ht 0.8 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 577

Family Species Length Wingspan 6 75 _

pA RULIDAE yerm jvora pinus 4 7S inches 7 .5 inches
.

Blue-winged Warbler
Except when the male pe
unobtrusive, deliberate bird
low, amid brushy overgrown
and thickets. It often
interbreeds with the
Golden-winged i

Warbler, producing
the fertile hybrids
known as Lawrence's
Warbler and Brewster's
Warbler. The female is
similar to the male but
duller in color and has
less yellow on her crown.
W hen its range overlaps
that of the Golden-winged
Warbler, it tends to displace it.

• SONG Sings a breathy Yellow Warbler

Female and juvenile
descending beeee-buzzzz. A dry buzz • yellow w ins bars, tail

followed by a lower buzz is the typical spots, and undertail

song. The alternate song sounds similar to coverts; lacks bluish
wings, black eye stupe.
that of the Golden-winged Warbler's beee-
buzz, buzz, buzz. Call note is a sharp tisk. pr0th0n0tary
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Somewhat tame, but also Warbler
somewhat inconspicuous. Feeds low
ground, often hanging upside down
in trees
in the
and close
manner of a
to
0& Golden yellow head,
neck, and underparts;
white undertail coverts;
chickadee. Often probes into curled dead leaves with long bill. blue-gray wings and
tail; large white tail
Eats insects and spiders. Sometimes hover gleans. More
patches; olive green
generalized in habitat requirements than Golden-winged back; long black bill; no
Warbler, it lives in a wide variety of early successional stages wing bars or eyeline.

from old fields to young clear-cuts to power line right-of-ways. BREWSTER'S WARBLER
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitarv or small loose colonies. Blue-winged/Golden-
winged hybrid • yellow
• NESTING Incubation 10-12 days by female. Young altricial; or whitish underparts
brooded by female; stay in nest 8-1 1 days, fed by both sexes. tinged with yellow;
1-2 broods per year. whitish to yellowish
wing bars.
• POPULATION LIncommon to fairly common in second
growth and early successional habitat. Expanding in northern and
northeastern portions of range.
Flight Pattern Casual in West on migration.
• Conservation
<^ <^ < Neotropical migrant. Host to
cowbird parasitism. Decreasing
Weak fluttering flight with wings briefly
in the Midwest due to habitat

pulled to sides; repeated. Sometimes hovers lost to agriculture.

to glean insects from foliage or branches.
%
Nest Identification Grasses, dried leaves, and bits of bark, with lining of fine grasses, vines, and hair
• on ground, usually in vines or grasses and sheltered by shrub • built by female,

perhaps aided by male • 4-7 white eggs, with flecks of brown and gray; oval to
Shape ^ Location
short oval. 0.6 x 0.49 inches.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat _^ — ^£ Migration
Migratory Wei § ht
0.3 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 1

578 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA

Family Species Vermivora chrysoptera Len 6th 4.75-5 Wingspan 7.75.8.25 inches
pARULIDAE inches

Golden-winged Warbler
This bird feeds chickadee-style, often hanging
upside down, to find its favorite fpod, leaf-eating
caterpillars. Its combination of a yellow wing
patch and a black throat sets
it apart from other
similar warblers. The
female is similar to par
11 1

the male but is

duller in color, and
her throat and eye
patch are gray.
• pearl'gray
The Golden- upperparts
winged Warbler
hybridizes with
blackish wings
the Blue-winged
Warbler, producing
two hybrid forms
known as Brewster's
Warbler and the very
rare Lawrence's
Warbler. The hybrids
generally cross back
with the parent species.
• SONG Primary song is an
insectlike bee-buz-buz-buz\ gives
second song of bee-buzzz, similar
to that of Blue-winged Warbler.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Energetic feeder.
Inspects all sides of branches and foliage. Eats mainly
caterpillarsand spiders. Commonly probes leaves for larvae.
Forages dfad leaves in fall and winter. A habitat specialist, using
in
early successional stages of old fields and woodland borders.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Sol itary nester.
• NESTING Incubation 10 days by female. Young altricial; brooded by female; stay
in nest 9-10 days, fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Uncommon to rare. Numbers are declining.
• CONSERVATION Neotropical migrant. Declining with loss of
habitat primarily due to later
Flight Pattern stages of succession and to
competition with increasing
Blue-winged Warbler, which
displaces it when ranges are
sympatric. Vulnerable to nest
Weak fluttering flight w ith rapid wi ng
beats, alternating with brief periods of parasitism by Brown-headed
wings drawn to sides; repeated. Cowbird.

Nest Identification Bark pieces and grass, lined • on ground at base

with hair and a few bark chips
of shrub or tree or hidden sometimes set on pile of stems • built by
in tall grass;

female • 4-7 white or cream-white eggs, with brown splotches and dots; oval to
Shape
short oval; 0.7 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage Sexes similar » Habitat^ ^ Migration

Migratory Wei S nt 0.3 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 579

Species Length Wingspan

Family
pARl JUDAE ye/ mtvora peregrtna 4 75 inchcs
_ 7-5 _ 8 ; nchef

Tennessee Warbler gray head

Despite its name, this short-tailed
plump-bodied warbler nests almost
entirely in Canada and is found in
Tennessee only during migration.
Fall adults and juveniles are thin black
eye line
similar to females but have a
yellowish wash on the underparts
except for the undertail coverts,
which are almost always white.
grayish white
pale yellow-tinged underparts
olive-gray crown,
su pen ilium and undertail coverts
• forehead, and nape
auriculars •

tested * °l' ve upperpart.

grayish
white face

gray ish white m

Similar Birds
undeiparts with Female
pale yellow wash ORANGK-CROVVNKI)
Fall Warblkr
plumage Duller; often has
streaking on throat and
• SONG Male sings often with a loud staccato 3-part song of chest; less distinct face
pattern; yellow or
ticka-ticka-ticka-ticka, chip-chip-chip, stt-sit-sit-sit-sit-stta-sita-sita\
greenish yellow
third part is faster and has a dry clattering similar to the twitter undertail coverts.
of Chimney Swift. Call is sharp tstt.
Waruling Vireo
• BEHAVIOR Solitary when nesting; postbreeding birds form
small groups, often in mixed-species flocks. Active, nervous.
Creeps along branches, foraging at all levels. Eats mostly insects
w Larger; heavier
bill; slower actions;
duller and paler
hooked

upperparts; indistinct
(especially spruce budworm), flower nectar, fruit, and some pale arc beneath eye.
seeds. More active than similar vireos.
Philadelphia Virko
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. Larger; indistinct pale
below eye; heavier
• NESTING Incubation 11-12 days by female. Altricial young arc
hooked bill; sluggish
brooded by female; stay in nest 9-11 days, fed by both sexes. actions; duller, paler
1 brood per year. upperparts; yellowish
undertail coverts.
• POPULATION Fairly common; rising in coniferous and
mixed deciduous-coniferous woodlands. Uncommon in West in fall

Flight Pattern • FEEDERS Mixture of suet,

peanut butter, and ripe banana. '
i ~r~r " S-
{ >->.< tfgfa
• Conservation .
\

T
Weak, somewhat fluttering flight
Neotropical migrant. Rare
cowbird host. Vulnerable to
with brief periods of wings pulled to habitat loss.
sides; repeated.

Nest Identification Dried grasses and moss, with lining of fine grasses, stems, and hair • above bog
moss, on ground, or in base of shrub • built by female • 4-7 white or creamy
Shape
^ in
white eggs, with brown splotches; ovate to short ovate, subelliptical to short
Location _ tt 4& subelliptical, 0.62 x 0.48 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat
^_ ^m _ Migration
Migratory
Wei § ht 0.4
ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

580 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Length Wingspan
4 75 _ s jnches 7 _8
Family Species
pARULIDAE
I

Vermivora celata inches

Orange-crowned Warbler
The brownish orange head pateh for which
this warbler is named is rarely notfceable pale yellowish
supercilium •
unless the bird is frightened or agitated.
It most often lives and nests in thick
'l)ldlStl)lCt
foliage close to the ground, but the
dark eye Inn
male perches at the tops of tall thin slightly
tin nix ed bill
trees to sing. Considerable
color variation in this widely
distributed species ranges olive-green
upperparts
from dull greenish birds faint streaking on
in the East to brighter -• sides of breast

yellow birds in the

West. The female mall yellowish
pateh on marginal
wing coverts

paler yellowish
green underparts

sometimes lacks
Similar Birds
the crown patch. Juveniles are
similar to adults but may show indistinct wing bars. Yellow Warbler 9
• SONG
chip-ee.

• BEHAVIOR
Male

Call note
sings a high-pitched abrupt
pitch toward the end, often slowing and dropping, chip-ee, chip-ee,
is a rough
actions. Forages
Solitary. Vocal.
stir.

Slow deliberate
trill, which changes
X Female and juvenile
• pale edging
flight feathers,
coverts; yellow
to tertials,

dark eye on pale face.

and wing
tail spots;

N \si iville Warbler

for food along branches and low in trees, shrubs, and in foliage
Clear yellow underparts
grasses. Probes curled dead leaves. Eats mainly insects, flower with no streaking;
nectar, and some fruits. Feeds from sapsucker drill wells. Hardy clear white eye ring;
shorter tail.
species, wintering farther north than most other warblers.
Inquisitive; will respond to pishing and squeaking by birders. Tennessee Warbler
Fall plumage • greener
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. upperparts; shorter tail;

• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by female. Young altricial; unstreaked underparts;

white undertail coverts.
brooded by female: stay in nest 8-10 days, fed by both sexes.
1 brood per year,

• Population Common
Flight Pattern the West; rarer in the East.
• FEEDERS Mixture of
peanut butter and suet. Also
eats doughnuts.

Somewh it w eak flight \

• Conservation
beats fol owed by brief Neotropical migrant. Rare
pulled sides.
t(
cowbird host.

Nest Identification
Bark pieces, grass, leaves, and plant fibers, with lining of hair, feathers, and gras^
• on ground, usually sheltered by shrub or grasses • built by female • 3-6 white
Shape eggs, with dark red and brown blotches; short ovate, 0.65 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage Sexes simi ar i

'
1 Habitat
^^ <=.
Migration
Migratorv
Weight
q 3 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 581

Family Species Length Wingspan

pARULIDA E Vermivora mficapilla 4 7S inchcs |
7 2 .S-7.75
. inches

Nashville Warbler
First collected while migrating near Nashville,
Tennessee, this is the only North American warbler with

a yellow throat, no wing bars, a white eye ring, and a

bluish gray head. It also has a chestnut crown that is white eye ring*
blue-gray head
rarely noticeable. It has two breeding populations:
one in the Pacific Coast states that often wags
and another in northeastern and
its tail,

mid western North America that does

not wag The
female is
its tail.
olive-green
upperparts •
^
.r^r~ • bright yelloz
similar to the male but is duller throat

in color and often lacks the

chestnut crown.
1

NP*

-• yellowish
underparts

white area between <

yello w belly and yellow

undertail
Similar Birds

Virginia's Warblhr
• SONG High-pitched and loud, in 2 parts, see-bit, see-bit, see-bit, Grayer overall,
titititititit in the eastern birds, similar to that of the Tennessee including gray-green
back and rump; yellow
Warbler. Western bird's songs begin the same way, but the
underparts restricted to
second part is more musical, richer, and generally without the chest and undertail
trill at the end. Call note is a sharp pink. coverts; w hite eye ring;
shorter
• BEHAVIOR Frequent singer on territory. Sometimes
Solitary.
tail.

gives song in flight. Sings from high exposed perch. Forages low Connecticut
Warbler
in trees and in undergrowth for food, but often at the tips of
Larger; gray head;
branches or stems. Eats mostly insects. gray ish throat; white

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. eye ring; pink legs and

feet; yellow underparts.
NESTING Incubation 11-12 days by
v
• both sexes; female does including belly; sluggish
more. Young altricial; brooded by female; stay in nest 11 days, behavior walking on
limbs and on ground.
fed by both sexes but mostly by female. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Common to fairly common in riparian woodland
and bogs, deciduous or
Flight Pattern coniferous woodlands, and
thickets.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Rare
cowbird host. Vulnerable to
Rather weak flight w ith series of rapid
w ing strokes alternating with brief periods habitat loss.
of w ings pulled to sides.

Nest Identification Plant stems, pine needles, mosses, and rabbit fur, with lining of finer materials
• on ground, sheltered by shrub or small tree, or sometimes placed on grassy or
mossy tussock • built by female • 4-5 white or cream-w hite eggs, w ith fine dots
Shape -g<- Location
of brown; ovate to short ovate, 0.6 x 0.47 inches.

Plumage
Sex£s simi , ar
Habitat
^^ Migration
Migratory Wei ^ ht 0.3
ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

582 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan 7.25-7.75 inches
pAR(; ,IDAE yerm jVO ra virginiae 4.5.4.75 inches

Virginia's Warbler
This most often builds its nest in arid
bird
coniferous forests in mountains and chaparral
between six thousand and nine
thousand feet. It is named for the ashy gray head
greenish yellow
wife of Dr. William W. and upperparts
rump
Anderson, an assistant army
surgeon who recorded
first

the bird in New

Mexico.
It is closely related and
very similar to the
Nashville Warbler,
although their
ranges do not
overlap. This shy and
active warbler almost
constantly bobs its tai

up and down. Females are

similar to males but have
duller coloring, with both the
rufous crown patch and the yellow
breast patch being much reduced.
• SONG Sings a 2-part song of slurred notes, with Juvenile
first 2-syllabled part of chee-wee, chee-wee, chee-wee, cheah, cheah,
Similar Birds
chee. Call is a sharp abrasive chink.
Lucy's Warbler
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Rather shy and retiring. May Shorter tail; white
join mixed-species foraging flocks after nesting season. Male underparts with white
often sings from high exposed perch. F"orages in low trees, undertail coverts • male
is smaller and has
shrubs, and sometimes on ground. Eats mostly insects and their
chestnut crown and
Gleans prey from branches and foliage and
caterpillars.
rump • female and
sometimes hover gleans. Catches some insects in flight. juvenile have cinnamon
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester.
rumps.

• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Estimated Colima Warbler

Larger; more brown on
incubation 1-12 days by both sexes, but mostly by female.
1
upperparts and flanks;
Young altricial; brooded by female; stay in nest estimated brighter yellow rump;

1 1 days, fed by both sexes. 2 broods per year. yellow undertail

coverts.
• POPULATION Common in mountain brushlands with
adjacent pines or oaks. Rare migrant and wintering bird to coasta
California. Casual in the East
Flight Pattern during migration.
• Conservation
T Neotropical migrant. Rare to
uncommon
parasitism.
host to cowbird
Some range
Somewhat weak fluttering direct flight
expansion in California since UN
on rapidly beating wings.
the 1960s.

Nest Identification Bark pieces, grasses, moss, lichens, and stems, with lining of same materials and
hair • on ground, near grassy tussock or base of tree, or hidden in pile of leaves
Shape Location _ • built by female • 3-5 white eggs, flecked with brown; oval to short oval,

0.6 x 0.5 inches.

Plum a §e
Sexes differ '
|
Habitat
A X ft*
Migration
XIigratory
Wei S nt 0.3 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 583

Family
pARULIDAE Species
Vermivora crissalis
Len ^ 5.5 inches
Wingspan
8 .5
5 inclu

Colima Warbler
This large warbler is a native of Mexico but has a
breeding range in southwestern Texas and makes
its summer home in the high mountain canyon

oak forests of the Chisos Mountains in Big

Bend National Park. This trusting bird is
vhite eye ring
similar to Virginia'sWarbler but is larger,
longer tailed, has browner upperparts and
underparts, and rarely bobs its tail. The
female is similar to the male, and
juveniles are similar to adults but grayish brown to
olive-brown
have buffy wing bars, pale yellow
upperparts
uppertail coverts, and little or no
rufous on the crown.
• SONG A high-pitched warbling staccato
trill, with slight changes in pitch within
each song, similar to that of the Orange-
crowned Warbler. Has a sharp loud call of
plisst. Males sing often throughout the day.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs.
Somewhat tame, allowing fairly close
approach. Responsive to pishing by
birders. Forages for food in trees,
gleaning from branches, twigs,
foliage, and flowers. Eats insects
and their larvae. Occasionally
catches insects in flight.
Frequents moist mountain
canyons above 6,000 feet with
woodland overstory of oaks, Virginia's Warbler
Smaller; paler and
and madrone.
juniper, pinon pines,
grayer overall; large
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. yellow breast patch;
lemon-yellow
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known; virtually
clear
undertail coverts;
unstudied in the field. Estimated incubation is 10-12 days by smaller rufous crown
both sexes. Young altricial; brooded by female; stay in nest patch; lacks brown
estimated 1 1 days, fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year. tones on upperparts,
breast, and flanks.
• POPULATION Common in limited US range and habitat in
Chisos Mountains of Texas. Accidental in southeast Texas.
Conservation
Flight Pattern Neotropical migrant and habitat
specialist. Vulnerable to habitat
loss due to fire. Also vulnerable
to habitat loss in Mexico from
overgrazing and logging. US
Somewhat weak fluttering direct flight
range is fully protected. Extent
on rapidly beating wings.
of cowbird parasitism unknown.

Nest Identification Dry leaves, dry grasses, pieces of bark, and moss, with lining of fur and hair
• on ground, sheltered by grassy tussock, rocks, or stream bank • built by both
Shape sexes • 4 creamy white eggs, with brown wreath at larger end; oval,
<^ 0.72 x 0.53 inches.
'

Plumage
Sexes simjlar Habitat
A ^ Migratory Weight
() _4 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

584 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
p \kll.II)\i: Yermivora luciae 4 25 jnches
_ y inch(

Lucy's Warbler
Distinguished from similar birds by its reddish reddish brot
patch on cro
rump, Lucy's Warbler is the only wood warbler
to nest in the desert of southwestern North
America and the only western warbler to
nest in crevices and tree cavities. It was pale ashy gray
named for the daughter of Spencer R upperparts •
Baird, secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution. A small pale plain gray • white
eye ring
bird, kinglet-sized and has a
it is

chestnut crown, chestnut

V
uppertail coverts, and a
habit of constantly
bobbing its tail.

• SONG Sings a loud

sweet persistent song of
2-5 parts on different pitches,
tea-tea-tee-tee-tee, wheat-wheat-wheat.
Gall is sharp chink.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. After
nesting season, forms small family groups Virginia's Warbler
and may join mixed-species foraging flocks. Active. Constantly Juvenile • larger;

greenish yellow rump;

on the move. Bobs tail habitually. Forages for food in foliage of yellowish undertail
trees, flowers, and shrubbery. Fats mostly insects and moths. coverts;prominent
Probes blossoms of cacti. Among North American warblers, only white eye ring.

it and the Prothonotary are hole nesters. Bell's vireo

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. Larger; big-headed;
w hite spectacles;
• \ESTING Breeding biology poorh known. Estimated 2 w hitish wing bars;
incubation 10-12 days by both sexes. Young altricial; brooded b\ greenish gray cast to
upperparts; also
female; stay in nest estimated 10-11 days, fed by both sexes.
habitually bobs tail.
2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Fairly common in desert riparian thickets with
willows and cottonwood and in
Flight Patte stands of mesquite. Declining
over much of range.
• CONSERVATION Declining
due to clearing of riparian
woodlands. Occasional host to
Rather weak fluttering direct flight
cow bird parasitism. Neotropical
rapidly beating wings.
migrant. Accidental in the East.

Nest Id entification Pieces of bark, leaf stems, and weeds, lined with hair. fur. and fine bark chips
• abandoned woodpecker holes, other birds* nests, or tree hollows • built by
both sexes • 3-7 white to creamy white eggs, flecked with browns, usually
Shape
ffF concentrated at larger end; ovate to short ovate, 0.57 x 0.45 inches.

Plumage Sexes similai, Habitat

± _ ^ Migration x^r
lgratory
Weight q 7

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 585

Family Species Length Wingspany jndu

p ARl LinA ,. ;
paru /a americana 4-25 inches

NORTHERN PARULA
The male often can be heard singing its buzzy
song during migration and from the tops of tall
trees on its nesting ground. Nesting in the
Deep South, it most often is associated with
Spanish moss-covered trees, while more bold yellow
chin, throat,
northern nests are in trees laced with the
and breast
lichen Usnea. Both are important for
construction of the nest. Females lack
the chestnut/slate breast bands. -• chestnut and
• SONG Ascending insectlike buzzy slate to blackish
bands across
trill of zeeeeeeeee-yip. which rises and
upper breast
tripsover the top; the equivalent of
the bird filling a cup with its song
and running it over the rim.
Secondary song is series of slow
• white belly and
rising buzzy notes ending in a trill,
undertail coverts
reminiscent of the Cerulean Warbler.
Regional variation; western birds often
lack the abrupt downward ending note.
Call note is a sharp chip.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs.

Allows close approach. Active, acrobatic
forager; sometimes upside down to
hunt for insects on trunk, cluster of
leaves, or branch tip; hover gleans hurt blue-gray tail with white
and hawks flying insects. Eats 'pots in outer tail leathers

insects, caterpillars and larvae, and

spiders. One of the smallest warblers,
often dominated by other birds, including other warbler species Similar Birds
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. Tropical Pari la
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by both sexes; more by More extensive yellow
female. Altricial young brooded by and fed mostly by female. on underparts; orange
w ash on breast; laeks
1-2 broods per year.
chestnut and gra\ -
• POPUEATION Common in boreal forest, mixed hardwoods, black chest bands;
bottomland forests, riparian corridors, and swamps. Rare in the lacks white eye ring;
often has dark mask.
West in migration.

• Conservation Neotropica migrant. Rare cowbird host.

Vulnerable to habitat loss due to
Flight Pattern logging, clearing of bottomland
hardwoods for agriculture.
Declining in Great Lakes
T region and on Atlantic Coast

Relativ el\ swift flight of short duration

due to loss of Usnea lichen as a
on
rapidly beating wings. Sallies forth to take result of air pollutants.
insects in midair, returning to perch.

Nest Identification Lined with fine grasses, moss,and plant down • in Spanish moss, Usnea lichen,
or tangled vine, hanging from tree, 0-55 feet above ground • built by female
• 3-7 white to creamy white eggs, splotched and flecked with browns;
Shape -j<
St* subelliptical to short subelliptical, 0.64 x 0.47 inches.

Plumage
Sexes djffcr Habitat
m^^ Migration
Migratory Weight
Q 3

DATE TIME LOCATION

586 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan j inches
p ARULIDAK parula pitiayumi 4-5 inches

Tropical Parula
This warbler is a rare to uncommon nesting bird

in southern Texas. It was more common along

the lower Rio Grande before increasing
development and intensified agriculture
brought increased use of pesticides and
clearing of riparian forests. It still can
be found in thick riparian woods
festooned with Spanish moss and tawny yellow chin
i nd throat extends
bromeliads along the river, lagoons, onto sides offace
and resacas. Its dark mask and
lack of a white eye ring set it diffuse orange
breast hand
apart from its close relative, the
Northern Parula. In flight it ^ yellow Ii rea st

shows an olive-green patch on and upper belly

the center of its back and flanks
often washed with cinnamon.
whitish belly and
Females are similar to males undertail coverts
but show duller coloring and
often lack the black mask.
Although nonmigratory, some
retreat from the northern
part of the range in winter.
• SONG A buzzy insectlike
Similar Birds
trill of zeeeee-yip or zzzzzzzzzirrr
and varied thin buzzy notes. Has a sharp call of chik, chik. Nori hern Parula
Dark chestnut breast
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Similar habits to Northern band; less extensive
Parula. F orages in lower tomiddle levels of trees. Eats mostly yellow underparts not
insects and berries, which
gleans from branches and foliage.
it
extended as far onto
belly or sides of face;
Sometimes hovers over food before dipping down to pick it off. broken white eye ring.
Sallies forth from perch to hawk insects in flight. Frequents
Crescent-chested
stands of trees with heavy growths of Spanish moss, which is
Warbler
important for nest construction and concealment. White supercilium
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. widens behind eye;
lacks wing bars and
• NESTING Incubation period and length of stay in nest crescent-shaped
undetermined. Altricial young brooded by female, fed by both chestnut spot on chest
• western range.
sexes. 1-2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Uncommon in North America along lower

Flight Pattern • Conservation

Neotropical migrant. Rare to
casual north of the Rio Grande
in Texas and adjacent Mexico;
has declined significantly
Weak fluttering flight with brief periods of
wings pulled to sides. Flies forth to snatch during 20th century due to
insects in flight, returning to perch. habitat loss.

Bits of bark, mosses, roots, grasses, and hair, with lining of plant down and
Nest Identification
feathers • set into pocket of Spanish moss or hanging vine, 8-AO feet above
ground • sex of nest-builder undetermined • 3—1 white to creamy white eggs,
Shape -q* Location <£jfc
^ with fine dots of browns, usually wreathed
0.64 x 0.48 inches.
at larger end; ovate to short ovate,

Plumage Sexes simi]ar (

Habitat^ m ^_ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei ^ ht 0.1 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 587

Family Species Len Sth Wingspan

pA RULIDAE Dendroica petechia 5 inches y 75
_ ; nch<

Yellow Warbler
This plump-bodied bird has a wider range than any other North
American w arbler, nesting from Canada to Mexico and from height ye/low head
the Pacific to the Atlantic Coasts. A habitat generalist,
° ,
dark
,

eye contrasts
like many warblers, it reeds harmful lear-eating with yellow face •
caterpillars to its nestlings. When a
cowbird invades and lays eggs
in this warbler's nest, the
female builds a roof over all
of the eggs, both hers and
the brood parasite's, and often
lays a new set on the "new"
nest floor. As many as six stories Male
have been found in a single nest,
each floor containing entombed
cowbird eggs. Bright red streaking on the bright yellow
male's underparts distinguishes him from the underparts with
female and all other North American warblers. reddish streaking

Females may have faint reddish streaking on their

underparts. Juveniles resemble adult females.
• SONG Sings a swift warbling sweet
Fm-so-sweet or tseet-tseet-tseet-titi-deet,
yellowish olive
bouncy and variable. Similar to back, wings,
some songs of Chestnut- p and tail
Similar Birds
sided Warbler and
yellow W )\'s \\ \KKI.I K ']
American Redstart. wing bars
II S(

Female and juvenile

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in and edging • longer darker tail; lacks
pairs. Tame and conspicuous. yellow tail spots; more
Active. Forages in bushes, shrubs, or uniform olive-green
coloring on upperparts;
trees. Gleans food from branches and no wing bars; female may
foliage; sometimes hawks insects. Eats show trace of dark cap.
mostly insects, larvae, and some fruit. Orange-crowned
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. Female Warbler
Olive-green overall; paler
• NESTING Incubation 11-12 days by female. underparts with dusky
Altricial young brooded by female; stay in nest 9-12 days, fed streaking; uniform dark

by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year. tail without pale edging
or spots; lacks wing bars.
• POPULATION Common and widespread in riparian
thickets, second-growth woodlands, gardens, orchards, and wetlands.

Flight Pattern Neotropical migrant. Common

host to cowbird parasitism.
Vulnerable to habitat loss,
'\ I T; > -
>^>
especially in riparian areas, and

W eak, fluttering flight with brief periods to herbicide spraying of willow

of wings drawn to sides. Sallies out to thickets for grazing.
snatch insects in air and returns to perch.
VIM
Strongly built from plant material, grasses, moss, lichen, and fur, bound with
Nest Identification
spider's silkand cocoon material; lined with fine materials • in fork of tree or
bush, 6-14 feet high (but up to 60 feet) • built mostly by female; male watches
Shape Location ^& • 3-6 grayish, green, or bluish white eggs, splotched with grays, olives, and

browns, wreathed at large end; oval to short oval, 0.7 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ
Habitat
^ Migration
Migratory Wei § ht 0.3 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

588 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
p^r^ Length Wingspan
Family
1.1 DAK Species Dendroid pensylvan tea 5_5 25 inches
_ L5 _8 25 inches
.

Chestnut-sided Warbler
The only North American warbler with pure white
underparts in all seasons, this bird most often lives in
second-grow th deciduous woodlands. An active
feeder, it often cocks its tail high above its back, black lores and
yellow crow,
exposing a white crissum. Birds in tali plumage f eye stripe
upp^rpamZlth
have a white eye ring on a gray face, a green black streaking
crown, and creamy yellow wing bars;
2 pale yellow
males have chestnut on the sides and wing bars «
black streaking on a green back.
• SONG High-pitched
-
pleasi -pleasi
pleased-to-meetcha.
Alternate or "second" song
rich
lacks strong up-and-down slurred chestnut sides
notes at the end and is similar to that
of the Yellow Warbler, deet-deet-deet-titi white
underparts
deer. Call is a husky slurred chip.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs.

Tame and Singing male
active. is

conspicuous on territory. Picks

food off leaves of trees and green ish upperparts
forages on ground. Catches ith black streaking
2 yellowish
insects in flight. Eats wine bars
insects, caterpillars,
seeds, and berries. Fall
• Breeding PLUMAGE
Monogamous. Solitary.

• Nesting incubation blackish gray

11-13 days by female. Altricial lores, malar and
postocular stripe
young brooded by female: rem; fg jf\ less chestnut

in nest 10-12 days, fed by both

\ on sides
sexes. 1-2 broods per year.
Similar Birds
• POPULATION Fairly common to FEMALE
common brushy thickets, second-growth deciduous
in All plumages are distinctive and if
woodlands, brushy old fields, and young clear-cuts. Rare seen well are not likely to be
confused with anv other warbler.
migrant in West.
• CONSERVATION Neotropical migrant. Vulnerable to habitat
loss through natural succession
Flight Pattern processes. Rare in the early
1800s, but became increasingly
common as eastern forests
were cut. and brushy, early
Weak fluttering flight with brief period^
succession-stage woody habitats
wings drawn to sides. Sallies forth to emerged. Declining in some
snatch insects in air. returning to perch. areas as current forests mature.

Nest Identificatio n Bark chips, vines, and plant material, with lining of animal hair and grasses
• in fork of small tree or shrub, or in blackberry thicket. 1-4 feet above ground

• built by female • 3-5 white to greenish white or creamy white eggs, with
Shape
purple and brown blotches; oval to short oval. 0.66 x 0.5 inches.

Ptumage Sexes differ Habitat^ Migration

Migratory '§ ht
0.4 ounce

DATE TIME. LOCATION

 BIROS OK NORTH AMERICA • 589

Family Species Len §th Wingspan 7,75

pARULIDAE ftendroica magnolia 5 inch inch

Magnolia Warbler
Often fanning its tail to show its broad white subterminal
band and yellow rump, this bird nests in damp
coniferous forests. The tail from below is white at the
base with a black terminal band. From above, the
white band is interrupted in the middle.
Females are similar but show two white
wing bars and sometimes a white
eye ring during their first spring;
a black loral mask may
extend onto auriculars.
Juveniles and fall-plumaged birds have
gray heads with white eye rings, greenish gray dark
upperparts with black streaking on the males, black blackish
freaking on
streaking on the sides and flanks of males, and faint
breast, sides,
streaking on the flanks of females. and flanks
• SONG Brief high-pitched wee-o, wee-o, wee-chew or weety
weety-weeteeo, Z or 3 slurred phrases with an ending note Male
higher in pitch, emphatic and down-
slurred. Call is distinctive
olive-tinged white s 11pen ilium
nasal dry chip tzek.
gray crown md eye ring
• Behavior Solitary a lid hindneck black-spotted
or in pairs. Tame and yellow-olive

active. Males sing from it P hack

conspicuous perches or
while foraging. Often
spreading tail, busily • white Fall
gleans insects from yellow 11 ndertat7 coverts plumage
underparts with
branches and foliage; black streaking*"
occasionally hawks them Similar Birds
in flight. Eats insects, larvae,
Prairik Warbler
caterpillars, and spiders.
Fall • yellowish
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. First Spring supercilium; has only

• NESTING Incubation 11-13 days by Female arc beneath eye; olive-

green rump; uniform
female. Altricial young brooded by female; stay in nest olive-green tail; lacks
8-10 days, fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year. grayish white breast
band; pumps
• POPULATION Fairly common to common; slight decline in
tail.

parts of Appalachians, increase in southern Appalachians and in New

England. Casual in winter in
Flight Pattern Florida. Rare migrant in West.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Vulnerable
to habitat loss. Loss of eastern
Weak
spruce-fir forests to adelgids and
fluttering flight with brief periods of
wings drawn to sides. Sallies forth to take air pollution is causing a decline
insects in flight, returning to perch. in numbers.

Nest Identification Grasses and sticks, lined with rootlets • on horizontal branch, usually 1-15 feet
above ground • built by both sexes • 3-5 white, creamy white, or greenish white
Shape eggs, with brown dots or splotches, sometimes wreathed at larger end;
subelliptical to short subelliptical, 0.64 x 0.48 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat^ ^ Migration
Mj gratory Wei S ht
0.3 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

590 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
pARULIDAE Species
Dgndroica tigrina
Length 17^ inches
4.75 Wingspan 7 inches

Cape May Warbler

Identifiable by its chestnut cheek patches, this bird is

named after Cape May, New Jersey, where it was

discovered in 1811. This fairly common inhabitant of 0liv
northern spruce forests is known for its
aggressive behavior of chasing other birds
large white
from treetop foraging areas. Females are
wing patch
duller but are easily identified by the yellow on
yellow rump and patches on the side face and neck
of the neck. Juveniles and fall- • chestnut
plumaged birds are similar to cheek patch

females, but many have faint gray

heavily black-
streaking on pale yellow to streaked yellow
whitish underparts. inderparts

• SONG Sounds like seet 4 yello

seel seel seel, high- greenish rump
pitched, win', and N. dark gray
upslurred, usually in
* Sh0rt
% and feet

series of 5-6 notes.

Call is high thin seet, dusky gray Juvenile
postocular pale yellow patch on neck female
• Behavior stripe •
f behind auricu/ars
Solitary or in pairs. yel/oxi Similar Birds
Forages in thickets
super/ //////// •
^ dull olive-green
upperparts
Ykllow-rimped
or high in trees, Warblkr 9
particularly in Larger; browner

conifers on breeding i te* upperparts; coarse

dusky streaks on
grounds. Hawks underparts; yellow
yellowish •
and spruce
insects
throat, breast,
patch on sides of chest;
budworms. yellow rump; lacks
and sides with \ 2 narrow yellow on neck; distinct
Sometimes drinks dusky streaking white wing bars facial pattern; longer
tree sap, juice from tail; chip or check notes
grapes, and flower nectar. Female distinctive.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. Palm Warblkr

Fall • distinct pale
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Incubation about
superciinim: 5 ellov
11—13 days by female. Altricial young brooded by female; fed by undertail coverts;
both sexes; stay in nest estimated 10-12 days. 1 brood per year. usually found at ground
level; wags tail.
• POPULATION Uncommon in spruce fir forests; may become
locally common during spruce budworm outbreaks. Declining short-
term populations. Very rare to
Flight Pattern casual in West during migration.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Vulnerable
to loss of breeding and
wintering grounds due to
Weak fluttering flight with brief periods
of wings pulled to sides; sometimes deforestation and forest
sallies from perch to take insects in flight. fragmentation.

Nest Identification Thickly lined with fine materials, including moss, vines, and weed
stalks • 30-60 feet above ground on branch of spruce or fir • built by
female • 6-9 creamy white eggs, with gray or brown spots; ovate to
Shape
short ovate, 0.66 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ
'

j
Habitat
^^ Migration
M gratory
j
Weight
0 4 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 591

Species Len Sth 5.25 Wingspan

Family
pARULIDA E uen(iroica caerulescens inches 7 _ J S jnches

Black-throated Blue Warbler

hasilv identified by its deep blue-gray back, white
underparts, and w hite wing patch, this common migratory
bird can be seen across eastern North America every
spring and fall. Its nesting ranges from southern
Canada through the Appalachians to
northern Georgia. Females
differ from their mates
more than any of the
wood warblers, with
brownish olive to gray
upperparts, w hitish
supercilium, and small
w hite patch at the base of pnmartt
the primaries. Juvenile
females sometimes lack the
white patch. pale eyebrow
• SONG A breathy buzzy
contrasts with
dark face
zwee-zwee-zwee-zweeeee, "I brownish olive to
am lazy,"" or zur-zurr-zree. blu ish gray blackish legs Male
Call is abrasive dir. upperparts and feet
• Behavior Solitary
or in pairs. Tame and Similar Birds
Forages in low
trusting. Tl wi-ssKV
and middle level trees Warbler
underparts
and underbrush. Unbroken whitish
supercilium; lacks
Sometimes hawks
white wins patch;
insects in flight. Eats bright greenish olive
insects and their larvae. In Fhmalh back; grayish white
underparts with white
migration and winter, also takes
crissum; short tail.
fruit and seeds and may feed from sapsucker drill wells.
Orange-crowned
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. Warbler
• NESTING Incubation 12-13 days by female. Young altricial; Yellow to greenish
olive upperparts;
brooded by female; stay in nest 1-12 days, fed by both sexes.
yellow-green
1 brood per year.
underparts; yellowish
• POPULATION Common deciduous and mixed coniferous
in crissum; indistinct
supercilium.
forests with dense undergrowth, rhododendron thickets, and
bogs, often on mountain slopes. Western vagrant in migration.
Uncommon in winter in Florida.
Flight Pattern • FEEDERS Suet and peanut
butter in migration and winter.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant.
Relatively weak flight with series of rapid
wing beats alternating with brief periods Uncommon host to cowbird
of wings pulled to sides. Sallies from perch parasitism. Vulnerable to habitat
to snatch insect in air; returns to perch. loss due to deforestation.

Nest Identification Bark pieces, dried grasses, stems, and leaves, with lining of fur, hair, mosses, and
by both sexes • 0.5-3 feet above ground • 3-5 white to creamy
rootlets • built

Shape ^ Location
white eggs, flecked or marked with grays and browns; ovate to short ovate, rarely
tending to elongate ovate, 0.66 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes djffer Habitat
^ A Migration
Migratory Wei g ht 0.4
ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

592 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Fami, y Species Len §th Wingspan 8 5 inches
PARULIDAE ftendroica coronata 5.5 inches _

Yellow-rumped Warbler
In the East this is the most prevalent migrating warbler, and in winter it

is the most abundant in North America. Plumage varies with geography.

In the West the group known as Audubon's Warbler has a yellow throat
black auricular yellow crown
and broken white eye ring. The northern and eastern group
patch patch
known as the Myrtle Warbler has white eyebrows,
a white arc beneath the eye. and 2 white
wing bar
white on the throat and both
sides of the neck. Until
recently these groups were
considered two species, but
they interbreed where their
ranges overlap and have been
classified as geographic races
of one species. Juveniles are
similar to winter adults.
• SONG Variable slow
black-streaked gray-
warble that often brown upperparts
slows in the middle
yellow Audubon's
then speeds up breeding
Female patehes
and ends on Myrtle MALE
rising or falling Warbler
notes. Some white arc
below eye
ha\ c musical
trill. Call is loud • white Winter
check, (Imp, or chip. underparts with I'l l MA(iE
gray streaks on
• Behavior Solitary
breast and sides Similar Birds
or in pairs. Gregarious in winter,
often joins mixed feeding flocks. Gleans or hover-gleans on Palm Warbler
Juvenile • yellow
ground and in bushes and trees; also hawks. Able to live for long undertail coverts; w hite
periods on berries and seeds. Also eats insects and spiders, and spots in tail corners;

drinks tree sap and juice from fallen oranges. pumps tail.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. Cape May W arbler

Juvenile • smaller;
• NESTING Incubation 12-13 days by female. Altricial young yellow on sides of neck;
brooded by female; stay in nest 10-12 days, fed by both sexes. shortertail; dull green

2 broods per year. rump; pale yellow wash

on center of breast.
• POPULATION Abundant in coniferous or mixed forests;
wooded and brushy habitats in winter. In winter Myrtle form
common in East, fairly common
Flight Pattern on West Coast; Audubon's form
casual in East in winter.
• FEEDERS Suet, doughnuts,
and peanut butter.
Fairly rapid flight with quick w ing stroki
alternating with brief periods of wings
• Conservation
pulled to sides. Sallies forth and takes Neotropical migrant. Myrtles
insects in flight, returning to perch. are common cow bird hosts.

Nest Iden t ificatio n Shredded bark, weed stalks, tw igs. and roots, lined w ith feathers • 4-50 feet
above ground in conifer • built by female • 3-5 white to creamy eggs, with
Shape 3g* brown and gray markings, occasionally wreathed; oval to short oval,
t, 0.7 x 0.53 inches.

Plumage
Sexes diffcr Habitat
m Migration
Migratory Weight
Q

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 593

Species Len 6 th 4.75-5 Wingspan

Family
Par l J LI DAE Dendroica nigrescens inches 7 __S __ (S mch(

Black-throated Gray Warbler

Its streaked plumage serves as camouflage in the coniferous
forests and scrub-oak woodlands where this bird makes its

home. The female is similar to the male but has a

mall yellow
white throat and shows mostly gray coloring where
pot between
the male bird shows black. Its pattern is very eye and bill
similar to that of a Townsend's Warbler but
with the grays replaced by yellow-
greens and the whites by yellow.
The only yellow in the » black chin,

plumage of this bird is the throat, and

upper breast
small dot on the supralorals.
• SONG Varied. A buzzy
insectlike weezy, weezy, weezy, weezy,
wueeo, w ith the last note or next to
~» black streaking
the last note higher. Call is a dull tip.
on sides
• BEHAVIOR Often
Solitary or in pairs.
joins mixed-species foraging groups outside
breeding season. Forages at low to middle levels for
food, which it gleans along twigs, branches, and
leaves of trees. Eats insects, larvae, and caterpillars.
Active and energetic; may hawk insects or
hover glean for food.
• BREEDING Monogamous. gray crown with
Solitary nester. black borders and
• NESTING Breeding biology
black-streake Female
forehead «
poorly known. Incubation
estimated at 12 days by female.
Young altricial; brooded by Similar Birds
female; estimated to stay in
Black-and-white
nest 8-10 days, fed by both S^te W'ARBLKR
sexes. 1 brood per year. life White median crow n
stripe; black-and-
• Population Fairly
white-striped back;
common to common in black cheeks; white
chaparral, dry coniferous and i black patch on crissum with black
side of rear throat spotting; lacks yellow
mixed coniferous-deciduous forests,
supraloral spot.
and scrub-oak woodlands in mountains. Casual to rare in the
East; rare in migration and in winter on the Gulf Coast and Lower

Flight Pattern • FEEDERS Occasionally

comes to feeding stations in
winter for suet, peanut butter,
or fruit.
Weak flight with rapid wing strokes
alternating with brief periods of wings
• Conservation
pulled to sides. Sallies forth to take insects Neotropical migrant. Rare
in flight and returns to same perch. cowbird host.

Nest Identification Plant fibers, grasses, and weed stalks, with lining of feathers, animal hair,

mosses, and flower stems • in fork or on branch of tree, usually 3-10 feet above

Shape ^ Location ^& ground by female • 4-5 white or creamy white eggs, with purple and
• built

brown splotches and dots; usually ovate or short ovate, 0.67 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes diffcr Habitat^ ^ Migration
Mi gratory Weight
Q 3 ouncc

DATE TIME LOCATION

594 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
pARULIDAE Species £>
endro ica chrysoparia
Len Sth 4.75-5
inches w 'ngspan 7 5 _8 inches

Golden-cheeked Warbler
Now endangered, this habitat specialist of "cedar breaks," Ashe juni]
and oaks, breeds only on or near the Edwards Plateau in Texas
and winters in Mexico and Central America. From the
mature Ashe juniper the female strips bark and binds black

it with spider webs to camouflage the outside of

widen cheeks with
its nest. The male sings sunrise to sunset from black outline
high conspicuous perches on its nesting
black eye lint
territory. Females have white throats and
black upperparts
underparts. Juveniles have olive
upperparts streaked with black and
streaked sides to their throats.
• SONG 4-5 harsh buzzy notes, black chin,
bzzz-layzee-dayzee or tweeah- throat, and bib
tweeah-tweesy. Call is tip.
black streaking
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in ides

pairs. Clings chickadee-like white

under branches as it forages. underparts
Gleans food from foliage,
stems, and twigs. Eats
mostly insects. Feeds at
heights of 30 feet or less,
hunting in middle to lower dark olive-green
levels. Outside breeding
upperparts and
cro wn with black
season joins mixed freaking
foraging flocks. Returns blackish eye Hue
to breeding grounds in
mid-March and males
begin territorial songs. streaky blackish bib

• Breeding
Monogamous and solitary.
Similar Birds

• Nesting incubation k^ Black- iiroatkd

i

12 days by female. Young streaks

Green Warbler 9
Juvenile female • olive
altricial; brooded by female on sides
cap; unstreaked
stay in nest 9 days, fed by light golden olive-green upperparts;

both sexes. 1 brood per year. W W \\ \ t kecks without olive auricular patch;
outline greenish olive rump.
• POPULATION Rare; limited to
hill country of central Texas.
• Conservation Federally
Flight Pattern endangered. One of the rarest
songbirds in North America.
Vulnerable to Blue Jay
predation, cowbird parasitism,
and habitat destruction.
Weak flight with rapid wing strokes
alternating with brief periods of w in]
Neotropical migrant.
pulled to sides.

Nest Identification Bark pieces, grasses, spider's silk, and rootlets, with lining of feathers and hair
• in fork of tree, usually 15-20 feet above ground • built by female • 3-5 white

Shape to creamy white eggs, with brown and gray dots and flecks; generally ovate to
4 i
short ovate, 0.75 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage Sexes differ / Habitat^ ^ Migration \

j lgratory
Weight
q_ 4 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AM K RICA • 595

Length Wingspan
Family
pARULIDAE Species
i) emlmira v j mis | 4>75 _5 jnches ? 5 _8
_ mc , )cs

Black-throated Green Warbler

Like many in irs family, the individual Black-throated
Green Warbler sings two different songs, but in
two different contexts: one in the vicinity of yellow- and olive-green
the female or nest and the other near olive-green upperparts with black
the territorial boundaries or when auricular patch streaking on back

stimulated by another male. It

is the only warbler in eastern

North America with bold

bright yellow
yellow cheeks. The female jo relied (I and
is similar to the male but sides offace i

shows fewer black streaks

on the sides of her body,
less black on her throat, black chin,
throat, and
and has a yellowish chin upper breast
and upper throat. The
juvenile is similar to the
white underparts
female but has a white throat
and lacks the black on its breast.
• SONG A throaty trees-trees-
whispering-trees (the territorial/male
interaction song) and a hoarse zay-
'

zay-zay-zoo-zeee (the pair

bonding/nest vicinity song).
Call is a flat soft tsip.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs.

Forages at mid-level in vegetation
and in the interior of branches, usually GOLDEN-CHE
r WARBLER
not at the Gleans from twigs and foliage;
tips.
Gray to black
hover-gleans and may hawk flying prey. Eats adult insects, upperparts w ith black

caterpillars, larvae, and some berries, particularly in migration. streaking; black or

black-streaked crow

—
n;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. yellow face; black eye
• NESTING Incubation 12 days by female. Young altricial; line connected to the
dark color of nape;
brooded by female; remain in nest 8-10 days, fed by both sexes
black ear patch; white
but female does more. 1-2 broods per year. crissum • restricted rar

• POPULATION Fairly common in a variety of habitats of in Texas.

conifer, mixed deciduous-conifer, and deciduous woodlands.

Some winter regularly in southern Florida; casual to accidental in
the West. Numbers decreasing
Flight Pattern in the Great Lakes areas and in
parts of New England.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Vulnerable
Somewhat weak flight with rapid wing
to habitat loss. Rare host to
strokes, alternating with brief periods of
wings pulled to sides. Sallies from perch, cowbird parasitism.
takes insect in air, and returns to perch.

Dead grasses, plant fibers, and stems, with lining of animal hair, flower stems,
Nest Identification
and feathers • usually in crotch of small or large evergreen or in hardwood tree
on horizontal branch, 3-80 feet above ground • built by both sexes • 3-5 gray-
Shape white or creamy white eggs, with brown and purple dots and blotches, often
w readied; oval to short oval, 0.65 x 0.5 inches.

'lumage
Sexes differ Habitat
^ Migration
Mj gratory We 'g ht 0.3 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

596 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length
4>75 _5 inche Wingspan 7<5 _ 8 inches
pARULIDAE jyendroica townsendi j

Townsend's Warbler
The western counterpart of the Blaek-throated Green Warbler
nests in high pines and spruces of che Pacific Northwest. blackish ear

The bright yellow underparts and yellow face with patch with wide
yellow trim dack blackish
black check patch arc difficult to see because olive-green
crown
the bird forages and sings in the tops of the upperparti :
black streaks
mature conifers. Townsend's Warbler '

white
often hybridizes with the Hermit ring bai black chin,
Warbler where ranges overlap. throat, and
upper breast
• SONG Variable. Raspy high
weezy, weezy, weezy, tweea,
rising in pitch but
dropping at the end.
Call is high sharp tsik.

• Behavior
Solitary or in pairs.
Gregarious after
breeding season;
joins mixed-species
foraging flocks.
Aggressive toward

Similar Birds

Black-throated
Green Warbler
Yellow cheeks and face
other species.
without dark ear
Sometimes hover-gleans patches; w hitish chest;
from branches and foliage. Eats oli\ e back w itli black

insects, caterpillars, and spiders. FEMALE streaking; yellowish

wash on undertail
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. coverts • eastern

• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Incubation breeding range has

almost no overlap.
estimated at 12 days by female. Altricial young brooded by
female; stay in nest estimated 8-12 days. Fed by both sexes; Hermit Warbler
1 ,.ccks black cheeks and
female may do more. 1 brood per year. crown; yellow restricted
• POPULATION Fairly common in coniferous and mixed to breast and sides; fine
black streaking on sides
coniferous-deciduous forests. Casual to accidental in winter and
in migration in the Fast. May be increasing slightly and
* 9 and flanks.

expanding range southward in Washington and Oregon.

• Feeders Mixture of
Flight Pattern peanut butter, cheese, and
marshmallows.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Degree of
Relatively weak flight on rapidly beating cowbird parasitism unknown.
wings, alternating with brief periods of Subject to forest fragmentation
w ings pulled to sides; repeated.
by logging.

Nest Identification Bark pieces, plant fibers, lichens, grasses, and cocoon materials, with lining
of feathers ami animal hair • across limb of conifer, high above ground
• built by both sexes • 3-5 w hite eggs, w ith fine dots of brown; short ovate,
Shape
0.7 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage Sexe§ diftcr '

Habitat
m^ Migration
Mj gratory Weight
qj ounce

DATE TIMP LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AM K RICA • 597

Species Length Wingspan

Family
pARU LIDAE Dendro ica occidentalis 5 inch( 7J5 inchcs

Hermit Warbler
This bird is difficult to spot because it spends its time in the
tops of tall fir and pine trees. It exhibits a marked
slate-gray
partiality to conifers when foraging and
upperparts with
nesting. Sometimes it can be drawn into black nape with black st ret iki

the open when it hears a call or dark markings

extending onto
imitation of the Saw-whet Owl.
crown
This warbler generally has
gray upperparts and white 'kite outer
nnderparts with a brilliant tail feathers

yellow face. Males have a

black throat. Females are
faint streaking
similar to males but have a
on sides
yellow chin and little or no
black on the throat. Juveniles white nnderparts
are similar to females;
juvenile females have more J white
olive to the upperparts. wing bai
• SONG Highly variable. A
gray upperparts
vibrant high wheezy seadle, gray tail with
yellow fa t\ m tineed olive
white corners
seadie, sendie, zeet-zeet. Call is a
and chin *

flat tsik or chip.

J®
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in varying degree
pairs. Territorial birds sing of black an
high up in conifers. Forages throat

for food in high and mid-level 2 white win bars 1 '

branches of trees. Acrobatic,

clinging upside down to pick
white
insects off undersides of twigs Fats nnderparts IWNSEND S
adult insects, caterpillars, and spiders, Warbler
Black to dusks car
which it gleans from branches and foliage;
patches outlined by
hover-gleans and sometimes hawks insects in midair. Sometimes yellow face; black
hybridizes with Townsend's Warbler. Streaking on breast,
and flanks; more
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. sides,
blackish crown; oli\ e
• NESTING Estimated incubation 12 days by both sexes. back with black
Young altricial; brooded by female; stay in nest estimated streaking; olive rump;
yellow breast.
8-10 days, fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Fairlv common. Stable in coniferous forests.
especially in mountains. Casual
Flight Pattern in the East in migration.
• Conservation
T v Neotropical migrant. Infrequent
cowbird host. May be displaced
Swift short flights on rapidly beating
by Townsend's Warbler when
wings, alternating with brief periods
both are sympatric. Vulnerable
wings pulled to sides. Hawks flying
insects, returning to perch. to habitat loss due to logging.

Nest Identification and lichen, with lining of hair, feathers, fine plant
Sticks, plant material, stems,
stems, and bark pieces • on limb, usually 15-120 feet above ground • built by

Shape ^ Location
^ female • 3-5 white eggs, with red, brown, and
end: ovate to short ovate, 0.66 x 0.51 inches.
lilac blotches, wreathed at larger

Plumage
Sexes diffef Habitat
m^ Migratory We 'S ht 0.3 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

598 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan g inch(
pARrL]DAE Dendrolca fusca 5 jnches

Blagkburnian Warbler brillunit orange

Head and throat glowing like embers, the males are head, throat, and
unmistakable. Juveniles and fall males are similar. upper breast*
Itfrequents coniferous or mixed deciduous- black nape and
conifer forests in most of its breeding range; sides of crown

in theAppalachians, it is also found in black triangula

lower drier forests of pine-oak-hickory. ear pa teh

• SONG Thin high-pitched black back with

ascending trill in 2-3 parts, ending white streaking
white breast
with upslurred note that some with pale
b/at k wings
people cannot hear: seep seep seep with large ocher wash
seep t'iti zeeeeee. Call is rich tsip. white patch

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in
pairs. May join mixed foraging
flocks after breeding. Gleans prey
from branches, twigs, and foliage
in treetops. Sometimes catches

dark gray-olive
pale orange-ochei
upperparts
supercilium and
of head
s ides
Juvenile
behind ear pa teh
Similar Birds

„.
TOWNSEND'S
broad Warbler
FKMALE white wing ban Juvenile female
• yellow throat and
chest; olive crown and
pale orange to •
ochre throat and ^» white underparts upperparts; entirely

with black streaks dark bill; more distinct

upper bn ast
on sides and flanks dark streaking on sides.

Cerulean Warbler
insects in flight. Eats insects, caterpillars, and some berries. h
Female and juvenile
male • supercilium
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. broadens behind eye;
• NESTING Incubation 11-12 days by female. Altricial young less distinct rounded ear
patch; white or buff
brooded by female; stay in nest estimated 9-12 days, fed by
underparts; pale lines
both' sexes. 1 brood per year. on back; dark streaks
• POPULATION Fairly common in coniferous and mixed
1
across back; shorter tail

• eastern range.
deciduous-conifer forests; stable. Strays to California in fall
migration. Can be numerous in areas where there are spruce
budworm outbreaks.
Flight Pattern • Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Infrequent
cow bird host. Vulnerable to loss
T
of habitat due to land clearing.

Fairly swift direct flight on rapidly beating

Hemlock infestations by insect
wings. Sallies forth from perch, taking pests could negatively impact.
insects in midair and returning to perch.

Nest Identification Small and plant down • lined with hair, bark pieces, and small
sticks, lichen,
roots • on horizontal branch. 20-50 feet above ground (but as high as 80 feet)
Shape Location
• built by female 4-5 white or greenish white eggs, with brown dots and
•
4n splotches; oval to short oval, 0.68 x 0.49 inches.

Plumage Sexes differ 'Habitat

m^ Migration
Migra ,
Wei § ht
0.4 ounc(

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 599

Family Species Len §th Wmgspan

pARULIDA E d
E)en ro ica do in in ha 5. 25 inches 8<5 jndlcs

Yellow-throated Warbler
Some of these birds frequent the old oak
black-and-white head
trees of the Southeast and Mississippi with white patch on
Valley, where Spanish moss is abundant ides of neck
white or yellow
Their habitat varies regionally from white arc under eye,
supraloi
white stripe over eye
tall swampy bottomland hardwoods,

to oak-pine woods on ridges, to

blue-gray
low land pine forests, to sycamores
• upperparts
in riparian corridors. In all habitats,
this long-billed warbler sings
loudly from the tops of trees, and
can be identified by the black face
set off by a bold white supercilium
and bright yellow chin and throat.
The female is similar to the male but white
duller and has fewer black markings. underparts
Most migrate but southern populations
are sedentary. black stripes
on sides of
• SONG Loud descending series of
breast, sides,
3-4 measured whistles, followed by 2-3 weaker and flanks
large white>
notes and more rapid notes, ending with sharper ascending note
tail spots
tweede-tweede-tweede-tweede-dee-da-m-deet. Call note is high soft tsip

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Somewhat sluggish and deliberate. Joins mixed-species

feeding flocks after breeding season. Creeps along inner branches, twigs, and in foliage,
foraging generally in the upper parts of trees; however, sometimes lower and even on the
ground. Uses long bill and behavior similar to that of Brown Creeper to extract insects from
bark crevices and pick them from the surface. Also catches
Similar Birds
insects in flight. Eats insects, caterpillars, and spiders.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. Blackbirnian
Warbler
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Incubation by Juvenile fall male
female estimated 12-13 days. Altricial young brooded by
at • shorter bill; yellow-

female; stay in nest estimated 10 days, fed by female (possibly orange throat and
supercilium; yellow
some by male). 1-2 broods per year.
patch on side of head;
• POPULATION Fairly common in habitat. Stable overall; blackish back with

some expansion white stripes; 2 white

in the Northeast and noted decline in the
wing bars; dusky streaks
Florida Panhandle and southern Alabama. Casual in the West on sides and Hanks.
during fall migration; rare to casual in southeastern Canada
during spring migration.
• FEEDERS Bread crumbs
Flight Pattern and suet.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Infrequent
cowbird host. Vulnerable to
Fairly swift flight of short duration on
rapidly beating wings. Sallies forth from
habitat loss due to logging, land
perch, taking insects in air, and returns clearing, and development.
to perch.

Plant down, stems, grasses, and cocoon material, with lining of feathers and tint
Nest Identification
plant material • tucked into Spanish moss or on or near end of branch.
10-100 feet above ground • built mostly by female • 4-5 grayish white or
Shape greenish white eggs, with lavender, reddish, and grayish flecks and splotches;
subelliptical to short subelliptical, 0.68 x 0.51 inches.

Plumage
Sex£s simHar I Habitat
^^ Migration
Migratory Weight n 3
ounce

DATE TIME. LOCATION

600 • BIRDS OP^ NOR TH AMERICA
Family Species Len ^th Wingspan
pARULIDAE Oendroka pinus 5.25 inches g 5 inches

Pine Warbler
blackish
True to its name, the long-tailed somew hat heavy- eye line •
billed Pine Warbler inhabits open* pine tree
groves, where it conceals its nest among
needles near the branch tips. It is
distinguished from other warblers by
its tendency to winter throughout greenish olive
much breeding range.
of its upperparts with
streaking.
Males and females are similar,
both showing a white belly
and undertail coverts.
although females are long tail projects
duller in color with beyond undertail
less yellow on their coverts •

breasts. Juveniles
have brownish to
brownish olive
upperparts with
Juvenile
white wing bars, tail tea'th a Female
and underparts varying
Similar Birds
from white to yellowish with a brow nish wash on the flanks.
• SONG Twittering musical trill similar to Chipping Sparrow Yellow-throated
k """""" Vireo
but varying in speed, loudness, and pitch. Call is slurred tsup.
hooked
I Iea\ ier bill;

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Very vocal. Gregarious in yellow spectacles; white

belly and flanks; no
winter; often joins mixed feeding flocks. Gleans food by
streaking on sides or
creeping slowly and deliberately along branches, usually high in breast; gray rump and
trees, but sometimes lower, even on ground. Often flies from crissum; no white in tail

tree to tree, diving for passing insects. Eats insects, caterpillars, corners; sluggish.

and spiders. Also eats seeds, wild grapes, and some berries. Bay-breasted
Aggressive toward other species sharing same pine habitat. Warbler
Blackpoll Warblkr
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. Basic plumage • black
• NESTING Incubation 10 days by both sexes. Young altricial; streaking on back;
much less white in tail
brooded by female; leave nest w ithin 10 days, fed by both sexes.
corners; shorter tails
2-3 broods per year in the South, 1 brood per year in the North. with less extension from
• POPULATION Fairly common to common. Stable or undertail coverts; paler
cheeks contrast less
increasing slightly, but some decline in coastal New England with throat color.
and Great Lakes region due to clearing of pines. Subject to loss
in severe winters. Increases occur as pines mature. Casual in West
• FEEDERS Peanut butter
Flight Pattern and cornmeal mixture.
• Conservation
T v Neotropical migrant. Infrequent
host to cowbird parasitism.
Weak wing beats alternated
flight, rapid
Vulnerable to fragmentation and
with brief period of w ings pulled to side> clearing of pine forests.
Sallies out to take flying insects, returns.

Nest Identification Lined with feathers, weeds, grass, bark, pine needles, tw igs,and spider
webs • built on or near end of limb, 10-135 feet above ground • built by
female • 3-5 off-w hite eggs, with brow n specks near larger end; oval to
Shape
tit short oval, 0.7 \ 0.5 inches.

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat

^ Migration
Northern birds migrate We 'S ht 0.4 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 601

Family Species Len Sth Wingspan

PaRULIDAE ftendroica kirtlandii 5.5 inches g_ 5 inchcs

Kirtland's Warbler
One of the rarest warblers, this species white eye ring, broken
nests only near brushy young jack, I rout and rear

pines in northern Michigan,

principally the north-central part of blue-gray ttpperparts with

Lower Peninsula. In an effort to heavy black streaking

the
increase this bird's population, the
2 narrow white
US Forest Service in recent years
wing bars
has controlled planting and fires to
produce the necessary habitat.
Kirtland's is the only gray warbler
with yellow underparts that
constantly pumps its tail up and yellow m
inulcrparts
down, flashing white spots in the
black spots and
tail corners. Females are similar to
streaking on
males but lack the black lores and sides

have duller coloring.

• SONG Loud, bubbly, and low-pitched.
A bold vibrant melody of notes, varying in
range; chip-chip-che-way-o is one rendition of the
song. Male sings constantly, with more than
2,000 songs given by one individual male in a day
Call is low strong chip.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Males on territory much more conspicuous than females;
both sexes inconspicuous in migration. Tame. Forages with slow deliberate movements on
ground and high in trees. Eats mostly insects and caterpillars;
also takes tree sap and berries. Restricted to young jack pines Similar Birds
3-15 feet tall and 5-15 years old, with lower branches
Magnoli \ \\ \rbi.kr9
overlapping adjacent trees and brushy ground cover. Spring female • gr.iv
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. head; complete white
eye ring; taint whitish
• NESTING Incubation 3— 5 days, longest of North 1 1 American supercilium; streaked
warblers. Male feeds incubating female. Altricial young brooded olive back; yellow-green

by female; leave nest 9-13 days but have weak flight, so both
at rump; bold w hite wing
bars; black streaking on
sexes feed for 42 more days. 1 brood per year, rarely 2. sides and some on
• POPULATION Fairly common but very local. Rare in breast; white-based
black tail from below;
migration; winters only in Bahama Islands. Estimated at 1,600 in
does not pump tail.
1998, up from low of 167 breeding males in 1987.

• CONSERVATION Endangered due to habitat loss and cowbird

parasitism. Neotropical migrant
Flight Pattern Planting of pine plantations,
controlled burning, and annual
trapping of several thousand
cowbirds have contributed to
increase. Many wear leg bands
Moderately fast flight with quick win
strokes, alternating w ith brief period? due to conservation and
wings pulled to sides; repeated. research efforts.

Nest Identification Plant fibers and dried grasses • lined w ith moss, mammal hair, and fine
grasses • on ground near jack pine, sheltered by vegetation • built by female
• 4-6 pinkish white or creamy white eggs, flecked, splotched, and dotted
Shape
with browns: oval to short oval, 0.7 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
^ Migration
M igratory Weight ()

DATE TIME LOCATION

602 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length
4j 5 Wingspan 7<5 inches
pARULIDAE Dendroica discolor inches

Prairie Warbler
Rather than the prairies as its name might imply
this bird can be found in brushy old 'fields, open
pine stands, and sometimes in coastal
mangroves in eastern and southern North yellow sides offace with
black streak di rough eyes, bright yelloz
America. Like many warblers, the male yebrow
outlining car patch #
sings from an exposed perch at the tops
of tall trees. Females are similar to olive-green upperparts \
males but duller in color. Juvenile with (//(Stunt V
markings on back
females are duller still, with
grayish olive upperparts,
pale supercilium, and
broken eye rings.

2 light yelloz
ing bars

» black streaking
white patches on on sides
outer tailfeathei

• bright yellm
un departs
• SONG An ascending trilling
zzee-zzee-zzee-zzee-zzee- zzee-zzee,
starting at one pitch and rising sharply
over the last half of song. Call note is a rich
smacking tchick.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Joins mixed feeding flocks Similar Birds

after breeding season. Tame. Active and restless. Constantly Pine \\ \rblkr
pumps or wags tail while feeding. Forages in low branches of
trees and bushes and sometimes on ground. Catches some
insects in flight but primarily gleans from foliage; sometimes
hover-gleans. Eats mostly insects and spiders.
4 Yellow-green face;
indistinct yellowish
ring
eye
and supercilium;
olive-green back
without streaking;
• BREEDING Monogamous; some males polygynous in
yellow ish underparts
with indistinct dusky
midnesting season. Solitary nester. streaking; extensive
• NESTING Incubation 11-14 days by female. Young altricial; white tail spots; bobs
tail but not as strongly.
brooded by female; stay in nest 8-11 days, fed by both sexes.
Both sexes tend for additional 40-50 days. 2 broods per year.
• Population Common but
Flight Pattern is declining.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. 'UiT
Frequently host to cowbird
Fairly fast flight with rapidly beating
parasitism. Vulnerable to habitat
w ings. alternating with brief periods of
wings pulled to sides. May sally forth and loss that occurs with maturation
take insects in flight. of.forests.
\\\

Grasses, stems, bark pieces, plant down, and leaves, bound with spider's silk and
Nest Identification
lined with feathers and mammal hair • hidden in tree or bush, usually 10-15 feet
above ground (but ranges from 1-45 feet) • built by female 4-5 white, creamy-•
Shape white, or greenish white eggs, w ith fine and large dots of brown, concentrated on
larger end: oval to short oval, 0.6 x 0.48 inches.

Plumage Sexes differ I 'Habitat

xJ i_ I Migration
Moratory I
Wei S ht 0.3 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 603

Family Species Len §th 5.25 inches Wingspan g>5

pA RljLIDAE Dendro ica palmarum nchcs ,

Palm Warbler
This inhabitant of northern bogs pumps its tail up and down more than

any other warbler. Two subspecies occur: the eastern form with strongly
washed yellow underparts and the western form with whitish
underparts with stronger streaking. Both nest on
knolls of moss at the foot of small
grayish to olive-
spruce or pine trees. A medium-
brown upperparts
distance migrant, the Palm
Warbler winters in the
South and frequents
open habitats such as
cultivated fields,
yellow to whitish
marshes, pastures, supercilium
parks, and gardens.
Some winter in open chestnut to ~»greenish ye/low
brownish streaks
pine woods or along undertail coverts
on sides of breast
their edges. The species
and rump
is associated with palms streaked whitish
only on some of its underparts

wintering areas and shows

no inclination seek them
to
and juveniles
out. Fall adults
are drab, washed out, and lack the
chestnut cap.
• SONG Monotone buzzlike fast trill, often stronger in middle,
Similar Birds
zwee-zwee-zwee-zwee-zwee-zwee. Call is forceful slurred tsik.
Cape May Warbler 9
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Gregarious after breeding Pale lemon supercilium;
season, forming flocks and often mixing in foraging flocks with
other species. Terrestrial; searches for food on ground or along
m white undertail coverts;
does not wag short tail.

beaches during migration, particularly among twigs and cones Yellow-rumped

from conifers. Also foliage-gleans and hover-gleans in shrubs Warbler
and trees; sometimes hawks prey in flight. Eats insects and
^ Myrtle form, basic
plumage • brown to
caterpillars, also bayberries and raspberries. gray upperparts with
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. black streaking on back;
white supercilium;
• NESTING Incubation 12 days by both sexes. Young altricial; bright yellow rump;
brooded by female; stay in nest 12 days, fed by both sexes. streaked underparts;

2 broods per year. does not pump tail.

• POPULATION Fairly common to common. Stable with some

decline noted in wintering
Flight Pattern numbers in Florida.

• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Rare
cowbird host; buries eggs of
parasite in floor of nest.
Weak flight; rapid w ing beats alternate

with brief periods of wings pulled to side Vulnerable to loss of habitat due
Sallies from perch to take insects in air. to forest fragmentation.

Nest Identification Grass and shredded bark, lined with feathers on or near ground or up
• built

to 4 feet above ground in coniferous tree by female • 4-5 white to

• built

Shape creamy eggs, with brow n markings; ovate, short ovate, or elongated ovate,
ixv 0.7 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexe§ simi}ar Habitat
^^ Migration
Migratory Wei § ht
0.4 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

604 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
pARUUDM Species
Den jro ica castanea Len ^th 5.5 Wingspan 8
inches 5 pch ,

Bay-breasted Warbler
The males warm chestnut and creamy creamy buff
markings help identify this native,of patch on side
northern coniferous forests. It is one of of neck •

the largest warblers. Females are gray upperparts

duller and have a gray rump. with black
Juveniles and winter adults have streaking «

olive upperparts with streaking

white spotting on
outer tail feathers

on the back, white wing

bars, often show some
chestnut wash on their
chestnut crown
underparts, and have streaked black Similai Birds
a buffy crissum.
creamy white patch behind
• SONG Blackpoll Warbler
High thin dusky auriculars
Winter adults and fall
double-syllabled
notes in series of
• gray uppcrparts
streaked black 7 juveniles have yellow
yellow-olive wash on
to

3-10 sides and flanks; sides

tees teesi
Y\ \\ \! I of breast and flanks are
teesi teesi teesi teesi.
streaked; duller green
Call is thin high- upperparts; white
pitched tseet and undertail coverts; more
distinct eve line; yellow
loud slurred chip.
toes and soles of feet
• pale chestnut
• Behavior underparts mottled
• adults have yellow

Solitary or in pairs. feet and pinkish legs.

creamy white
Gregarious in migration Pine Warbler
and winter. Gleans from branches, twigs, and foliage, often at
mid level. In migration and winter forages lower. Eats insects,
larvae, and fruit. Attracted to areas with spruce budworm
4 Winter adults and fall
juveniles have longer
tail; lacks white tips to

tertials and primaries;

outbreaks. Wags tail slightly as it forages. unstreaked olive to

olive-brown back; olive
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. cheek patch contrasts
• NESTING Incubation 12-13 days by female. Young altricial; with paler throat; more
elongated tail spots.
brooded by female; leave nest at 10-12 days, fed by both sexes.
1 brood per year.

• Population Abundant to

Flight Pattern common in boreal coniferous

forests and adjoining deciduous
second growth.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Rare
Relatively weak flight with rapid wing
strokes alternating briefly with wings cowbird host. Vulnerable to
pulled to sides. habitat loss due to logging.

Sticks, grasses, roots, mosses, and stems, lined with pieces of bark and
Nest Identification
rabbit hair • on branch of tree or bush, 4—K) feet above ground • built by
female • 4-6 white, greenish white, or bluish white eggs, with lavender or
Shape Location brown splotches at larger end; varying from ovate to elongate ovate,

0.7 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ igration
M gratory
i
Wei S ht
0.5 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 60S

Family Species Length Wingspan

pARULIDAE Oendroica striata 5>25 jncht 8i5inches

Blackpoll Warbler
This summer resident of Canadian boreal hold black
streaks on
forests migrates more than twenty-five gray bad
hundred miles in the fall, flying nonstop over
water to winter in northern South Americ;
Juveniles and fall adults have streaked
greenish upperparts; a pale
greenish yellow wash on
the face, throat, and
breast; a white belly
and crissum; legs
that are pale
pinkish on the
front and back but
dark on the sides; white underparts with black
streaked sides and flanks Bay-breasted
and yellow soles.
Warbler
• Song ;nile and fall adult
• bulkier; brighter green
Mechanical series
upperparts; thicker wing
of high thin tseet
dusky eye and grayish head
line bars; little or no
notes that begin gray-buff supercilium <
ana neck • olive-gray streaking on underparts;
softly and get man} show buff sides
and/or flanks; creamy
louder and
undertail coverts; gray
more intense; legs and feet.
may contain
10-20 notes.
Much
between
variation
individuals.
white
underpart.
blackish
streaked
throat, side,
and flanks
4 Pine Warbler
I ,arger bill; unstreaked
olive upperparts; shorter
undertail co\ erts
tail look longer; more
make

Call is sharp loud chip.

w hite in tail corners;
• BHHAVIOR and deliberate.
Solitary or in pairs. Sluggish brown legs and feet.

Forages low to high in migration, but stays in middle to upper black-and-wh1 ik

levels on breeding grounds. Catches insects in air or combs Warbler
leaves and twigs for food. Eats insects, caterpillars, Black-and-white-striped
crown; black back with
cankerworms, spiders and their eggs, and pokeberries. white stripes; black
• BREEDING Monogamous. Polygynous. Females breed with spotting and streaking

the territory-holding male on the previous years nesting on undertail co\ erts;
site.
black legs and feet
• NESTING Incubation 12 days by female. Altricial young • male has black throat

brooded by female; stay in nest 11-12 days, fed by both sexes. and cheeks.

1-2 broods per year.

• Population Abundant in

Flight Pattern northern boreal coniferous

May be declining in
forests.
southern part of breeding range.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Vulnerable
Fairly sw direct flight ipidly to habitat loss from logging and
ift

beating w ines.
forest fragmentation.

Nest Identification Lined with spruce sprigs, twigs, bark, dried grass, feathers, weeds, moss,
and lichen • on branch near trunk, 2-33 feet above ground • built by-
Shape female • 3-5 white to off-white eggs, with brown or lavender markings,
occasionally w readied; oval to long oval, 0.72 x 0.53 inches.

Plumage Migration Wej S ht 0.5

Sexes differ j\j igratory ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

606 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
pARULIDAE Dendroica cerulea 4-5 jncheJ J25 jnches

Cerulean Warbler
Although its buzzy song can be heard from dawn one of until dusk, this bird,
the smallest warblers, is hidden in dense foliage in
difficult t@ spot, as it stays
the crowns of tall deciduous trees. This habit of remaining high in mature
trees has made studies of its natural history difficult, and its breeding biology
and feeding habits are poorly known. Juveniles are similar to females.
• SONG A series of accelerating buzzy notes on the same
or slightly ascending pitch, ending in a drawn- bluish to blue-gray

out buzz, zray, zray, zray, zray, zeeeeeee, upperparts with black
streak in<' on back
reminiscent of the slower second
song of the Northern Parula.
Call is a slurred chip.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in
pairs.Vigorous and persistent
singer on breeding grounds. Eats
mainly insects, larvae, and spiders.
Very active and acrobatic forager
but sometimes moves sluggishly,
gleaning food off leaves and branches
while staying hidden in trees. Also
catches insects in flight. Male
• BREEDING Monogamous. white
Solitary nester. underpart.

• NESTING Incubation blue-gray to whitish supercilium

about 12-13 days by greenish mantle widens behind <

Similar Birds
female. Altricial
young brooded by e small and short-tailed male is

the only warbler with a blue back,

female; stay in nest
black necklace, and white throat.
estimated 8-10 days,
BLACKBURNIAN
fed by both sexes. Warbler
1-2 broods per year. Female and juvenile
• Population Fairly
• pale orange
supercilium broadens
common to uncommon in behind eye; white or
mature deciduous forest. buff underparts; longer
Declining dramatically, tail; triangular check
patch; pale lines and
particularly in the heart of
dark streaking on back.
range, but range is expanding
pale yellowish buff
north and northeast, on the breast and throat

Flight Patte, Atlantic coastal plain, and the

Piedmont.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Moderate
host to cowbird parasitism.
Relatively weak flight with quick wing
strokes alternating with brief periods of Vulnerable to habitat loss and
wings pull to sides; repeated. forest fragmentation.

Nest Identification Stems, grasses, mosses, bark pieces, and spider's silk, with lining of mammal ha
and mosses • far out on branch of rree, usually 30-60 feet above ground • built
by female • 3-5 grayish or creamy white eggs, with fine dots or splotches of
Shape
brown, usually loosely wreathed; oval to short oval, 0.7 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ
Habitat^ ^^ Migration
Migratorv Weight
0J ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 607

Family Species Len £th 5 Wingspan 8

pARULIDAE Mniotiltavaria I inches I
s ._ 9 inches

Black-and-white Warbler
This mostly black-and-white striped bird feeds bold black-and-white
nuthatch-style, moving up and down the trunks of stripeson head and
trees and crawling over and under branches, a most of body
foraging behavior unlike any other warbler. It

is one of the earliest warblers to return to

distinctive whit/
the breeding grounds in early spring, stripe over and
because its bark-gleaning foraging under each
habit does not require it to
linger on wintering
grounds until the
leaves begin to
develop. Females
are similar tomales
but have cream-colored
flanks and creamy whitish
rather than black cheeks. Juveniles
are similar to females.
• SONG Repetitive thin high-pitched
series of 6-10 wee-sect, wee-sea notes like the
sound of a turning squeaky wheel. Sometimes
a trill is added as an ending to the cadence. Has Juvenile
call of an abrasive chip or tink, and a sectp.
Similar Birds
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Probes into bark crevices
with long does not prop body on tree with tail as do
bill; Black-throated
woodpeckers and creepers. Eats adult insects, caterpillars, and Gray Warbler
Small yellow spot
spiders. Occasionally hawks and hover-gleans. If flushed from
between eye and bill;

ground nest, female performs distraction display, dragging wings blackish crown; gray
with tail spread. back with black
streaking; white
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. undertail coverts; lacks
• NESTING Incubation 10-12 days by female. Young altricial; central crown stripe.

brooded by female; remain in nest 8-12 days but still not able to Blagkpoll
fly well; fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year. Warblkr d"
Black crown; white
• POPULATION Widespread mature and second-growth
in cheeks; gray back with
deciduous or mixed deciduous-conifer woodlands with large black streaking; white

trees. Declining in the Midwest and Great Lakes region throat; white undertail
coverts.
because of habitat loss and cowbird parasitism. Vagrant in the
West during migration as far north as Alaska.
• Conservation
Flight Pattern Neotropical migrant. Common
host to cowbird eggs.
V Vulnerable to forest
fragmentation and habitat loss
due to logging operations in
Relatively weak flight with rapid w
strokes alternating with brief perioc sof mature forests.
wings pulled to sides; repeated.

Nest Identification Grasses, bark pieces, dead leaves, rootlets, and pine needles, lined with moss
and mammal hair •on ground, near base of tree or bush, or in small hollow of
rock, stump, or log • built by female • 4-6 creamy white or white eggs, flecked
Shape 4& -^a with brown; short subelliptical to subelliptical, 0.67 x 0.52 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simj Habitat
m Migration
Migratory Weight
0 .4 ounC e

DATE TIME LOCATION

608 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len §th 5 Wingspan
pARULIDAE Setophaga rutkilla inches g inches

American Redstart
Birders enjoy watching this vivacious bird as it flits to catch
on a perch, partially spreading and drooping
insects or sits
its wings and spreading Other warblers pump or
its tail.

flick their tails, its tail and holds it

but this bird fans
there for a second. The male's tail can be either
glossy black
orange and black or yellow and dusky olive-
• ovcra,
gray. This woodland inhabitant is one of the
most common warblers nesting in North
America. Juvenile males look like females
but with an orange wash on the sides.
• SONG Variable. Sings often and
through the heat of midday. Basic
song is 4-8 high-pitched, somewhat
coarse notes, with explosive accented
lower-ending zeet-zeet-zeet-zeet-zeeeah. Male
Other songs have unaccented ending.
Some are reminiscent of the Yellow,
Chestnut-sided, and Black-and-
white Warblers. Territorial males thin white
have repertoire of several songs. supercilium
Call is slurred thin chip. and eye ring*
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs.
Time. Conspicuous. Sings often.
Responds to squeaking or pishing whitish underparts m
from chin to tip of yellow patches
by birders. Sallies into air to catch
undertail coverts on wings, sides,
insects,perching between hawking and tail
events like a small flycatcher. Gleans
food from branches and foliage; hover-gleans.
Eats insects, caterpillars, spiders, berries, fruit, and seeds.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester.
• NESTING Incubation 1-12 days by female. Altricial young brooded by
If
1
First Spring
female; stay in nest 9 days, fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year. Male
• POPULATION Common to fairly common in wet deciduous
Similar Birds
and mixed conifer-deciduous woodlands with understory,
woodland edges, riparian woodlands, and second growth. None in range

Widespread but declining in the Midwest, Great Lakes, the

Northeast, and the Maritime Provinces. Rare to uncommon migrant
in the West to California.

Flight Pattern • Conservation

Neotropical migrant. Common
cowbird Vulnerable to
host.
habitat loss caused by
Somewhat weak flight on rapidly beating
deforestation or maturation of
wings, alternating with brief periods of
wings pulled to sides, f lies into air from second-growth forests.
pereh to take flying insects, anil returns.

and plant down, decorated with lichens,

(irasses, pieces of bark, rootlets,
Nest Identification
birch bark, and spider's and lined with feathers • in fork of tree or bush,
silk,

usually 10-20 feet above ground (but ranges from 4-70 feet) • built by-
S h ape female • 2-5 off-white, greenish white, or white eggs, flecked and dotted
with browns or grays; a\ ate, occasionally short ovate, 0.63 x 0.48 inches.

Plumage
g exes differ i Habitat ^ _^ Migration
Migratory Wei § ht 0.3 ounce

DATE LOCATION
 BIRDS OF NOR TH AMERICA • 609

Family Species Len §th 5.25 inches Wingspan

pARUL1DAK j. IdtOIIOltllKI ClllCtl 8.5 inches

Prothonotary Warbler golden yellow large dark

The male builds several nests, then sings continuously head, neck, and • eyes
until the female arrives to choose a nest anil complete it underparts «
This is the only eastern warbler that nests in tree
hollows, a trait it shares with only one other North
olive-gi
American warbler, the western Lucys Warbler. It was
once called the "Golden Swamp Warbler,"
describing the bird and its dark backwater haunts.
• SONG A bold ringing repetitive zweet,
blue-gra)
slightly up-slurred as sweet, sweet, sweet, sweet.
wines
Call is loud chip-chip.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Gregarious
in winter, roosting communally. Tame,
noisy, and conspicuous. Deliberate
short blue-gra^
in its feeding, gleaning food
tad with large
and probing crevices with its
white patch
bill. Picks food off floating logs
and branches and out of water. Also d//te

forages in trees while grasping trunk like undertail coverts

a nuthatch. Eats insects, spiders, larvae,

Mai.h
and seeds. Takes small crustaceans and
greenish yellow
snails. Inquisitive; will come • crown and napi Similar Birds
to squeaking and Yellow Warbler
greenish bach
pishing by birders Bright yellow
bright yellow gray win{
• Breeding face, throat, uppertail coverts,
underparts; orange-
yellow forehead and
Monogamous. and breast t and tail front of crown; reddish
Solitary nester. streaking on underparts;
Femalk
• Nesting incubation
yellow-olive wings;
yellow spots in tail
12-14 days by female. • appears completely
Altricial young brooded by yellow from a distance.

female, fed by both sexes; Blue-winged

first flight at 11 days. 2 broods Warbler
pots on Blue-gray wings w ith
per year in the South.
white belly and inner web of two white win^ bars;
• Population Fairly undertail coverts tail feathers black eye line; shorter
common in swampy bill; yellow head and

lowland underparts; olive back;

forest, river-bottom woodlands subject to flooding, and
no w hite spots in tail.
riparian corridors along streams. Accidental to rare in the West.
• BlRDHOUSES Nest boxes.
• Conservation
Flight Pattern Neotropical migrant. Common
cowbird host. Destruction of
mangrove swamps and wetland
drainage reduce populations.
Competition from other cavity
^^^^^
Rapid direct flight, often low over water,
nesters that destroy eggs or
on quickly beating wings.
usurp cavities.
Grasses, moss, leaves, and sticks, lined with feathers and rootlets • in natural
Nest Identification
hollow or woodpecker cavity in snag, tree, post, or nest box, near water and
Shape gPj usually 5-10 feet above ground (but tange from 2-32 feet) • male builds dummy
nests; female selects and completes one • 4-6 pinkish or cream eggs, with brown
Location &^ jg and gray dots; short elliptical to elliptical, 0.8 x 0.57 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat
te ^ Migration
Migratory Wei § ht 0.5 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

610 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species fjelmitheros vermivorus Length Wingspan
pARULIDAE 5>2 5 i nc h es g 5 jnches

Worm-eating Warbler
Similar to a sparrow in color, size, and habits, the Worm-eating
Warblers steady diet of moth caterpillars and worms has earned
this bird its name. An inhabitant of deciduous forests, it
buff- colored head
seldom is observed combing the forest floor for food; rather, with 1 pairs of bold
it usually forages in the understory vegetation, where it dark stripes •

often probes for food in clusters of dead leaves. While

primarily a solitary bird, the Worm-eating Warbler
sometimes is known to associate loosely with
foraging flocks of mixed bird species.
• SONG A buzzy insectlike fricative tril

often beginning softly and fading away

at the end with a series of chip notes.
Song is similar to the Chipping
Sparrow's but more rapid and
given in a thick shaded wooded
habitat. Call is a zit-zit.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary
or in pairs. More often
heard than seen in the
breeding season. Most
often observed foraging
alone for insects, spiders, and some worms.
Gleans food by moving along branches like a
Black-and-white Warbler, but specializes in
probing clusters of dead leaves for food. Usually
forages in low to middle levels, but sometimes in treetops;
rarely in leaf litter on ground. Frequents deciduous woodlots on
slopes, along ravines, or mountain sides. When flushed from
nest, female drags wings and spreads tail, running on ground in Similar Birds
distraction display. Mixed flocks postbreeding season.
S\\ \1\S( )\'S Wakbu- u
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. Larger; longer bill;

• NESTING Incubation 13 days by female. Young altricial; browner upperparts;

grayish buff underparts;
brooded by female; stay in nest 10 days, fed by both sexes. brown cap without
\-Z broods per year. stripes; pale

• POPULATION Fairly common to common in ravines,

supercilium; thin dark
eve line.
hillsides, and mountainsides in thick deciduous woodlands.
Stable in most of its range but regional declines noted. Casual to
rare vagrant in migration in the

Flight Pattern West to California.

• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Frequent
host to cowbird parasitism.
Vulnerable to habitat loss due to
iriy fast direct flight on rapidly
forest fragmentation.
beating wings

Nest Identification Lined with dead leaves, animal hair, fungus, moss, and tree stems • often built
on sloping ground near base of deciduous shrubs or saplings or on ridges of
leaves on forest floor • built by female • 4-6 white eggs, with brown spots or
Shape
blotches, often wreathed; short ovate, 0.7 x 0.55 inches.

Plumage Sexes simHar - Habitat

m Migration
Migratory
'
Weight
Q J ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 1

BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 61

Family s P ecies Limnothlypis swainsomi Le "gth 5.25 inches Wingspan 8 5 im

pARULIDAE _
j hcs ,

Swainson's Warbler
This recluse hides in dense thickets, except when the
male perches to sing, which he does with his head
thrown back and his bill lifted in the air. It is
found in two habitats: in the low coastal tawny
and river-bottom country of the brown cap
brown and olive brownish
Southeast it inhabits canebrakes upperparts eve lint

and thickets in swamps and vhite eyt

among hardwoods; in stripe

i long
pointed bill

the Southern
Appalachians it is
found in laurel and
rhododendron thickets in
moist montane forests.
• SONG Bold clear whee-whee-
whee, whip-poor-will, with the
opening notes down-slurred and the last 3 clear and more rapid. Begins like that of the
Louisiana Waterthrush but lacks sputtering downward trill at the end. Call is loud clear chip.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Tame. Sings from concealed perch

from ground; voice has or
a ventriloquial quality. May sing continuously for 10-15 minutes, then be silent for an hour or
more. Forages frequently on ground, walking slowly and turning over leaves with its bill or
probing into leaves or ground for food. Eats insects, caterpillars,
and spiders. A skulking bird in dense undergrowth, it is difficult Similar Birds
to see. Sometimes detected by the noise it makes tossing leaves
Worm-eating
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. Sometimes in Warbler
loose colonies in prime lowland habitat. Shorter bill; buff-
colored head with
• NESTING Incubation 13-15 days by female. Young altricial; 2 pairs of blackish
brooded by female; stay in nest 10-12 days, fed by both sexes. stripes; brownish olive
1-2 broods per year. upperparts; buff-
colored underparts.
• POPULATION Uncommon in thickets in swamps,
canebrakes, and moist woodlands.
• Conservation
Flight Pattern Neotropical migrant. Increasing
host to cowbird parasitism.
Vulnerable to habitat loss as
wetlands are drained and river-
bottom forests are cleared for
Fairly swift short direct flights on rapidly agricultural use.
beating wings.

Nest Identification Mass of leaves, pine needles, mammal hair, grasses, Spanish moss, and rootlets
• in fork of bush or vines, 2-10 feet above ground • built by female • 2-5 white

Shape eggs, occasionally with brown speckles; elliptical, 0.76 x 0.59 inches • only
North American warbler besides Bachman 's to lay unmarked white eggs.

Plumage
Sexes simjlar Habitat^ ff£ ftf A fk_ 4ss
Mi S ratlon
Migratory Wei S ht 0.7
ounce

DATE TIME. LOCATION

612 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
pARULIDAE Species
Seiurus aurocapillus
Len ^h 6 inche Wingspan 9 inches

OVENBIRD
In the leaf litter under tall deciduous trees, the female bird
builds a small o\ en-shaped nest w ith a side entrance. Unlike
many warblers, it does not often forage in live vegetation; brownish orange stripe,
instead walks on the ground, foraging among the leaf
it edged in black, over
headfrom bill to napt «
litter and twigs, its wings partially drooped and its tail

cocked upw ard and sometimes quickly raised and

slowly low ered. It is sometimes called the W ood white eye ring
Wagtail because moves its tail up and down
it

Most singing is done from an elevated perch, olive-brow,

upperparts
and the song of one territorial male initiates
a response song from each neighbor,
which in turn stimulates another to do
so. until a wave of Ovenbird songs

sweeps across the w ood lot.

• SONG More often
heard than seen. Sings a

loud and repetitive

TEAcher-TEAcher-TEAcher,
rising and becoming more
pale pink
emphatic. There is regional legs and feet
variation, with some birds singing
teach-teach-teach-teACHl From a distance the
• white undi rparts
song sounds like two stones being tapped together with dark brown
harder and harder. Call note is a loud sharp tsick. splotching

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Tame. Eats adult insects,

caterpillars, snails, slugs, earthworms, small amphibians, seeds,
Similar Birds
berries, and fruit. When flushed, usually flies up to perch.
Walks on limbs in interior of trees. LOUIS! w \

Waterthrush
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. Northern
• NESTING Incubation 11-14 days by female. Young altricial; g Waterthrush
White to yellowish
brooded b\ female: remain in nest 8—1 1 days, fed by both sexes
supercilium; lack eye
1-2 broods per year (occasionally 3 in regions with spruce
ring and black border
budworm outbreaks). to crown; brownish
*~
• POPULATION Common mature
to fairly common in
upperparts; usually
near water: habitual
deciduous forests; rarely in pine forests. Rare in the west of the "SHI
tail bobbing.
Rockies in migration; rare to casual on southern Atlantic Coast
and Gulf Coast in winter.
• Conservation
Flight Pattern Neotropical migrant. Host to
cowbird parasitism. Significant
declines documented in the
northeast beginning in the
1970s but now increasing in
Relatr ely swift, short direc much of its range.
rapidh beating wings.

Nest Identification Leaves, grasses, stems, rootlets, mosses, and hair • in slight hollow on ground
of forest, concealed by leaves on top of nest, creating a dome • built by female

• 3-6 white eggs, with gray or brown flecks; subelliptical to short subeUiptical,
Shape
0.79 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Sexes Migration Wei § ht 0.7 ounc<

Migratory

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NOR TH AMERICA • 613

Family Species Len 6 th Wingspan o

pARULIDA E Seiurus not >ebon u ensh 5.75 inches he

Northern Waterthrush
Northern lakeshores, slow -running streams, and bogs are
the most common habitats of the Northern Waterthrush. whitish to pale

Walking, rather than hopping, along the ground, yellow supercilium

the Northern Waterthrush often is observed olive-brown to

repeatedly bobbing the rear part of its body gray-brown

upperparts
and its tail while searching for food. An early
migrant, the Northern Waterthrush
generally begins traveling
southward by mid-July. heavily
streaked throat,
• SONG Begins upper breast,
with loud and sides
insistent notes,
tapering to
rapidly whistled
lower tones, twit twit twit twit '//iris// to pah
sweet sweet sweet chew chew chew, with the yellow underparts

individual notes grouped in series of 3s and

4s. Call is a very loud ringing metallic chink.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Terrestrial

but often sings from elevated perches and walks,
bobbing, on branches. Forages on ground by
picking up leaves with and tossing them
its bill

aside or turning them and terrestrial adult

over. Eats aquatic Similar Birds
insects, caterpillars, and case worms; also sometimes slugs,
LOUIS! W \
mollusks, crustaceans, and small fish. Frequents areas with Waterthrush
dense shrub and slowly moving or still water. Longer stouter bill;

white supercilium
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. broadens behind eye;
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Estimated few er and less-
incubation 13 days by female. Young altricial; brooded by contrasting streaks on
underparts; unmarked
female: stay in nest estimated 10 days, fed by both sexes.
white throat: contrasting
1 brood per year.
pinkish buff wash on
• POPULATION Generally common in wooded sw amps, flanks: bright pink legs
and feet; more
forests with standing water, bogs, and thickets with slowly
deliberate and
running or standing water. Rare to uncommon in migration in exaggerated tail bobbing
the Southwest to California. Rare to casual in winter in the US with a circular body
motion; song differs.
except for southern Florida where it is uncommon.
• CONSERVATION Neotropical migrant. Uncommon host to
cowbird parasitism. Some
Flight Pattern declines in southern portions of
breeding range and increases in
New England portions.
Vulnerable to habitat loss due to
deforestation and drainage.
FairK swift direct flight for short distances
on rapidly beating wings.

Nest Identification Lined with grass, animal hair, moss, tw igs, pine needles, bark strips, and roots
• often built in moss-covered stumps near water • 0-2 feet above ground • built

Shape by female • 3-6 cream or buff-white eggs, w ith brown or gray spots or speckles;
-IL ovate to short ovate, 0.8 x 0.57 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
m Migration
M gratorv
i
We 'g nt 0.8 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

614 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
pARl LIDAE Species Length
6 jnches Wingspan
i
Seiurus motacilla 9 inches

Louisiana Waterthrush
The less common of the two waterthrush species frequents fast-running
streams and floodplain river swamps, where it hides its nests on streamskle
banks, under tree roots, or in rock crevices. This bird has a nesting range from
Minnesota to New England and as far south as
Texas and Georgia. In spring it is one darker
crown broad gray-buff stripe broadens
of the earliest warblers to arrive on _

long stout
j behind eye and becomes white
the nesting grounds and one of
bill f
the first to depart in late olive-gray to olive-

summer and early fall. y» brown upperparts

• SONG Loud and clear, u //streaked whit,

chin and throat
beginning with 3-4 high-
pitched downslurred notes,
followed by a brief rapid
medley of jumbled notes
that cascadeup and down
white or buff-white
prior to fading awav, SWEER
undt /parts ^»
SWEER SWEER c'hee clu-vit-h pinkish buff flanks
contrast with white
chit swee-yuu. The combination of nude/parts
slurred opening notes and ending
twittering is diagnostic. Gall is a loud
bright chik. bright pink
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Sings on legs and feet
ground or from elevated perch in trees. Bobs rear
and tail while walking. Terrestrial, primarily foraging on
Similar Birds
ground, along stream banks, on rocks and logs in water, and in
the stream shallows. Bobs up and down while foraging, much North kr\
like a sandpiper, with a slow circular exaggerated motion. Dines
Watkrthrush
Narrow buff to w hite
on adult aquatic and terrestrial insects, caterpillars, mollusks, eye stripes of uniform
snails, and small fish. Territories are linear along stream. color and width; smaller
bill; streaked and
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. spotted throat; pale
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by female. Young altricial; yellow to white
brooded by female; remain in nest 9-10 days, fed by both sexes. underparts with darker,
more uniform streaking;
1 brood per year.
olive-brown to gra\-
• POPULATION Uncommon to fairly common. Restricted brown upperparts; dull

habitat specialist along fast-flowing streams within woodlands, pink legs and feet;
different voice.
often in mountains or hilly terrain, or in floodplain forests and
swamps in lower country. Casual in the West during the migration
7 rvT '*2\N
1

Flight Pattern • CONSERVATION

Neotropical migrant. Frequent
host to cowbird parasitism.
-x Deforestation and stream
impact both
siltation negatively
Swift short direct flights on rapidly breeding and wintering areas.
beating wings.

Lined with roots, fern stems, grass, animal fur, dead leaves, moss, and twigs
Nest Identification
• 0-2 feet above ground, on bank, rock crevice, or roots of tree, no further than

3-6 feet from water • built by both sexes, but female does more • 4-6 white or
Shape Location — cream-colored eggs, with brown and gray specks or blotches; oval to short oval,
0.78 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Sexes similar • I Habitat

m^ Migration
Migratory - Weight
Q J ounce

DATE TIME. LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 615

Family Species Len eth Wingspan

ParULIDAE Oporomis formosu* 5.25 inch< 8 25 inchcs
_

Kentucky Warbler
This retiring, short-tailed chunky bird is named for the
state wherew as first encountered, but it is common
it

throughout most of the damp shaded woodlands in

southeastern North America. The female is especially
short tail
wary and will sometimes abandon her nest if she is
threatened. She appears similar to the male, but her
black areas are duller. Juvenile females have dark
olive plumage in place of black.
• SONG Loud and rich. A rolling melody of
5-8 notes with 2 syllables, churry-churry-churry-
churry-churry, but sometimes 3 syllables, with
an upward inflection at the end of each
bright olive
phrase. Reminiscent of the Carolina upperparts
Wren, but drier sounding, and
although the wren may give 2-
syllabled notes, more often has
3-syllabled notes in its song
series. Has call of low bold yellow
abrasive chuck chuck. spectach

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or
in pairs.Rather secretive;
more often heard than
seen. Terrestrial, but black on face and
also forages and sings in sides of neck
» yellow pink feet
low to middle levels of
underparts and long legs
vegetation. Hops or runs
on ground while flicking its
tail, which is usually partially cocked upward. Forages for food
Similar Birds
by picking over foliage and branches and overturning leaves.
Jumps up to pick insects off bottom side of leaves. Eats adult Common
insects, spiders, and caterpillars. yell( iwthroat
First fall male • some
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. black on sides of face;
• NESTING Incubation 12-13 days by female. Altricial young olive-gray to olive-
brown upperparts; paler
brooded by female; stay in nest 8-10 days, fed by both sexes, yellow underparts;
but female does more. 1 brood per year. whitish belly; brownish

• POPULATION Common in moist woodlands with dense

flanks; longer tail.

understory; large tracts are optimum. In migration, casual to rare in

_ the Southwest to California.
Flight Pattern • Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Frequent
cowbird host. Vulnerable to
deforestation; sensitive to forest
fragmentation and overbrowsing
Swift short direct flights
bv deer.
beating w ings.

Nest Identification Grasses, stems, vines, and leaves • lined with mammal hair and rootlets • on
ground, near base of tree or bush, or clump of vegetation, sometimes in fork of
low shrub • build by both sexes • 3-6 white or creamy white eggs, with brown
Shape
flecks and splotches; short oval to long oval, 0.75 x 0.58 inches.

Plumage
Sex£S simjlar Habitat^ m Migration
Migratory Wei § ht 0.5 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

616 • BIRDS OF NORT H AMERICA
Fannly Species Length Wingspan g 75 inches
pARULIDAE Qp oror,ijs agilis 5 5 inches

Connecticut Warbler
Although this large chunks short-tailed wfcti huffy gray hood over
shy bird does not nest in Connecticut, it even * head and da oat
was first seen in that state and is a

regular autumn visitor. Its secretive

habits make this a poorU known
species. Its wintering grounds in long 1
South America are not clearly bicolored
bill
defined, and .is one of the year's
latest migrants, taking vastly
different spring and fall routes, it gray •
upper
often is not seen. Males and females
breast
have long yellowish undertail coverts. dull
Male yellox

• SONG Bold rocking jerky whipity- utiderparts

zidiipiry-irliipily or headier, beacher, pinkish

beadier. Call is
• BHHAYIOR
pairs. Secretive.
also forages low in vegetation
Singing males may move
higher in trees. Female
lands 30-60 feet from
nest and w alks to
conceal location. Walk
w ith slight bobbing of
tail instead of
hopping. Walks on logs
and branches. Gleans
insects and spiders: also
snails, berries, and seeds.
W hen flushed, flies up to
perch and may sit still for
plink or e/iimp. legs and feet
Solitary or in
Terrestrial:
F E.MAI
MOURNING WARBLER
Smaller: thinner: thin
broken grayish white
eye ring: shorter
undertail coverts: richer
yellow underparts; hops
rather than walks
• juvenile has paler
throat.

several minutes, thrushlike. dull pale yellow Nashville Warbler

• BREEDING Monogamous. utiderparts Smaller: thinner: white
e\e ring w ith pale lores:
Solitary nester.
short undertail coverts;
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Estimated yellow throat: dark legs:

incubation 1-12 days by female. Young altricial: brooded b\

1
short bill.

female; stay in nest estimated 8-9 days, fed by both sexes.

1 brood per year.
Flight Pattei M
• Population Uncommon
inmost woodlands. Fall
migrants uncommon in East.
• ( lONSERVATION
Neotropical migrant. Infrequent
Rather swift direct flight tor short host to cow birds. Species may
distances on rapidly beating wings.
be declining: reasons unknow n.

Nest Identification Bark pieces and grass, w ith lining of fine plant materials and mammal hair • or
Mnall hillock of moss or sheltered by reeds and grasses • may be built by both
-*e\e^ • 5-5 creamy white eggs, splotched and flecked with lavender, browns,
Shape
and black: short ovate, 0.74 \ 0.57 inches.

Plumage Sexes differ 1 Habltat

94 = iss
Migration
M ii;r , Uorv Weight
a5

DATF TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NOR TH AMERICA • 617

Family Species Length Wingspan

pARULIDAE Op ororn is Philadelphia 5.25 inches 8>25 inchcs

Mourning Warbler
The eastern counterpart to MacGillivray's Warbler w as
named for the way its black breast and gray hood
gray hood
resemble a person in mourning. Usually skulking in

the undergrow th of damp woodlands, the male

w ill fly up from the bushes to sing and is
more often heard than seen. The female-
is similar to the male but has a paler

dusky hood, light grayish throat,

and a more distinct eye ring.
Juveniles have pale yellow ish
throats and broken thin white eye
rings. Traveling over eastern
Mexico, this bird circumnavigates the
^ yellow
underparts
western Gulf of Mexico, making it one
of the latest spring migrants of all North
American warblers.
M \l l

• SONG Typically a 2-part song, with the

second part lower in pitch, cherrie, cherrie,
chorrie, chorrie. Individual and regional
variations exist. Call is a sharp raspy chit,

sometimes given in a series.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or light gray

in pairs. Secretive. Sings head, crown,
olive-green
and nape « wings and tail
often in migration and
on breeding grounds.
Will respond to
FEMALE /
yellow
pishing by birders. $ underparts
Terrestrial, forages low Juvenile
in vegetation hidden

in undergrow th. Hops Similar Birds

grayish
and flicks wings and tail. white throat ( lONNECTICUT
Gleans insects and spiders. Warbler
• BREEDING Monogamous. gray to gray
pink legs
Larger; longer
distinct huffy to white
bill;

Solitary nester. brown du st

and feet eye ring; long undertail
• NESTING Incubation 12 days
by female. Altricial young brooded by female;
remain in nest 7-9 days, fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
v eo\erts; walks instead of
hopping; voice differs.

• POPULATION Fairly
Flight Pattern common in dense shrubbery in
open deciduous woodlands,
dense second growth, bog, and
marsh edges.
• Conservation
Fairly swift direct flight over hort Neotropical migrant. Infrequent
distances on rapidh beating v ings.
host to cowbirds.

Nest Identification Dried grasses, leases, and stalks • lined with grass and mammal hair • placed
near or on grassy hillock, base of shrub or other vegetation, or low in vegetation

Shape — fcti m.
• 0-2.5 feet above ground • 3-5 creamy white or white eggs, with fine dots of

brow n: short ovate: 0.7 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes diffcr Habitat
^ i
Migration
Migratory Weight
0.5 ounce

DATE TIME. LOCATION

618 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
pARULIDAE Species
Oporornis tolmiei
Len Sth
5.25 inches Wingspan g_ 25 jnches

MacGillivray's Warbler
white crescents above
The western counterpart to the
and below eyes
Mourning Warbler remains hidden gray hood
olive-green
in thick vegetation on or close to upperparts, iin lit ding
the forest floor until breeding * wings and tail
season, when the male becomes
more conspicuous and perches
bill has. blackish
to sing in a higher, more upper and pinkish
exposed position above the lower mandible
thickets, bill pointed toward
the sky. Both sexes have legs
that are basically pink, but
the male's legs do vary from
grayish pink to brownish pink.
Juveniles are similar to females.
• SONG Usually two parts. 3-5 short,
slightly coarse notes followed by
2-3 slightly slurred notes
olive-green upperpart.
on a lower pitch, swee- wings, and tail •
eet, swee-eet, swee-eet,
peachy, peach, peachy, dull gray •-jjjS
Individual and
hood ^ ''

geographical variation. paler gray

Call is loud sharp tsik. chin and
M()l RNING W'ARBI.
throat
• Behavior Solitary Lacks distinct eye
crescents • male has
or in pairs. Skulks in
more black mottling on
thickets,where it often remains throat and upper breast;
hidden. Inquisitive and will come to shorter tail • adult

pishing by birders. Forages in vegetation female and juvenile has

thin eye rings broken i

on or close to ground, gleaning from ground, leaves, or bark.

front • juvenile has
Takes adult insects and caterpillars, spiders, and worms. paler throat.
Frequently feeds from sapsucker wells. Hops, often flicking tail
Connecticut
from side to side. Warbler
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. Distinct white eye rin£
duller underparts;
• NESTING Incubation days by female. Young
1 1 altricial; longer undertail covert
brooded by female; remain in nest 8-9 days, fed bv both sexes. shorter tail; walks
instead of hops.
1 brood per year.

m
• POPULATION Fairly common in dense undergrowth, especially

Flight Pattern shaded deciduous thickets.

Stable or slightly increasing in
some areas. Vagrant in the
Midwest and East in migration.
• Conservation V- 15 5 ySf
Fairly swift direct flight for short distances Neotropical migrant.
on rapidly beating wings.
Uncommon cowbird host.

Nest Identification Stems and dried with mammal hair, rootlets, and grasses • set on tall
grass, lined
grassv tussock, w eeds, or in fork of bush, 1-5 feet above ground • built by
tall

Shape ^ Location 4^ vrr

female, perhaps with help from male • 3-6 creamy white or white eggs, with
various brown markings; short ovate to ovate, 0.7 x 0.53 inches.

Plumage Sexes differ Habitat^ Migration

Migratory Weight
a4 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 4

BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 619

Family Species Len § th Wingspan

pARULIDAE Geothlypis 'trichas 5 inches g ind

Common Yellowthroat
One of the most numerous and widespread warblers usually stays
close to the ground, concealed in vegetation. The amount of yellow
on the underparts, the shade of olive on the upperparts, and
the color of the pale border between the mask mask, bordered
and crown all vary with geography.
• SONG Bold rhythmic wichity
by thin blue-gray or
'
iV" /v '

w ^
olive-gray to olive
&reen upperpart
Juvenile
wichity wich; varies with
range. Sharp raspy call Male
of chuck or diip; ,
.
, ,,
bright yellow chin,
, /
„
sometimes flat throat\ breast) and
pit note. undertail coverts

• Behavior
Solitary or in pairs. brownish-washed Similar B yds
flanks
Wrenlike; skulks in '^<«s*<"
NOTE Black mask separates
white belly *r
adult males from other North
vegetation, climbs
American warblers.
vertically on stems,
COWKCI IC! I

cocks and flicks \\ \KBI I \<

dusky to gray -brown forehead, Female and juvenile are

lores, and ear patch larger; chunkier; bolder

white eye ring; longer
wings; browner
pale gray to upperparts; yellow
buff eye ring underparts; long
undertail coverts; short

pale yellow upper dull yellow tail; walk on ground or

breast, throat, undertail coverts limbs.

and chin Macgillivray's

dull whitish /owe/
Warbler
Female and juvenile are
breast and belly Female hooded; yellow
underparts; broken
and droops and flicks wings. Hops on ground, gleaning from
tail,
white eye ring; longer
and grass. Eats insects, caterpillars, and spiders.
foliage, twigs, wings.
Sometimes hover-gleans and hawks flying insects.
Mourning Warbler
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. Often polygamous. Female and juvenile
have brownish hood;
• NESTING Incubation 12 days by female. Young altricial; yellow underparts; short
brooded by female; stay in nest 8-10 days, fed by both sexes. tail • female has yellow
2 broods with single female per year; more if polygamous. eye ring either
throat;
complete or broken.
• POPULATION Common abundant in marshes, brushy
to
fields, hedgerows, woodland edges, and second growth brush. Some
decline in the South, Texas, and
Flight Pattern San Francisco Bay.
• Conservation
Tv Tv Neotropical migrant. Frequent
cowbird host. Vulnerable to
Slow w eak jerky flight w ith rapid wing
habitat loss due to wetland
beats, alternating with brief periods of
w ings pulled to sides. Sallies from perch to
drainage and stream
take insects in midair, returning to perch. channelization.

Dried grasses, dried leaves, stems, bark chips, and sedges • lined with Fine
Nest Identification
grasses, hair,and bark Fibers • atop small pile of weeds or grass or atop
cattails, sometimes in small shrub, less than 3 feet above ground • built b\
Shape — Hi'
female • 3-6 creamy-white or white eggs, flecked w ith black, grays, and
browns, mostly at larger end; oval to short oval, 0.7 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei ^ ht 0.4

Sexes differ I
,

s = Migratory ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

620 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Qeot/i/ypis poliocephala Len § th Wingspan 8 5
pARl Lllnl .

: 5.5 inches jnch(

_

Gray-crowned Yellowthroat
This tropical warbler once had a nesting population in
the lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas, but it w as broken white
eye rim
eliminated in the early 1900s. Strays occasionally
visit southern Texas but arc difficult to spot.
thick (let lin ed
and nape
Females are similar to males but are bieo/ored bill
duller in color and have gray rather
brownish olive to
than black Lacking the black
lores.
grayish o/ivt
mask male
so characteristic of other upperparts
yellowthroat species, and with its black Ion
large size, graduated tail, and rich extending
beneath eye
musical warbled song, this bird
does not closely resemble other
vellowthroats.

long graduated tad

bold \, Uo%
underparts

• SONG Low-pitched trilling melodious warble,

sounding more like a bunting than a yellow throat.
Sometimes given in flight but more often from a low
perch. Call is sharp nasal chee'dle.

• BEHAVIOR Skulks low in dense vegetation.

Solitary.
Similar Birds
Frequents tall dense grasses with shrubs, also low trees. Pops up
to sing from exposed perch. Forages on ground or low in trees
Common
Yellowthroat
and shrubs, with tail cocked and wagging. Eats insects, spiders, Juvenile male has olive
and berries. Hawks insects. May adopt a "straight-up" posture, upperparts. including

sitting erect with tail pointed straight down. crown: black mask
reduced to area around
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. eve: complete yet
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Incubation indistinct eye ring; dull
yellow underparts with
estimated at 10-12 days, by female. Young altricial, brooded b\
whitish belly; straight
female; stay in nest estimated 8-10 days, fed by both sexes. bill of uniform color;
1 brood per year, possibly more. more w renlike actions;
voice differs.
• POPULATION Rare in North America. Formerly rare on
delta of low er Rio Grande in Texas. Possible cause is loss of habitat
due to agriculture.

Flight Pattern • CONSERVATION Early

successional-stage species in
pastures and grassy fields. Has
increased in Mexico and
Slow and jerky short direct flights on Central America with
rapidly beating w ings. Sallies from perch deforestation. Host to parasitism
to snatch insects in air; returns to perch.
bv cow birds.

Nest Identific ation

Thick grass w ith lining of fine grasses and hair • atop small grassy hillock
• probably built by female • 2—4 creamy w hite or white eggs, with reddish
Shape brow n flecks; oval to short oval, 0.7 inches long.

Plumage
Sexes simi , a|
. Habitat
^ Migration
Non migratory Wei S ht 0.5
ounc

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NOR TH AMERICA • 621

Family Species Len eth Wingspan

pARULIDAE Wilsonia citrina 5.25 inches g mch ,

Hooded Warbler
This bird resides in the thick foliage of the
understory beneath tall deciduous trees. When
large
the male sings from his high perch, often
dark i ye
concealed, lie may sit almost motionless as
he delivers his ringing song. The
juvenile female lacks the black on
her crown but has dusky lores
and white tail spots
bold yellow fare
• Song a bold
Did forehead
whistled melod>
with emphatic Male
ending, ta-wit, ta-wit, large white
pots on long bold yellow
tee-yoe or wheta, wheta, underparts
~quare-tipped tail
whee-TEE-o. A second
song of slurred whistles rises
continuously, wee-tee, wee-tee, WEE
too-Wee. Call is loud abrupt chink.
• Behavior Solitary
or in pairs. Sings yellow
persistently. face

Constantly opens
and closes tail occasionally Wilson's Warbler
flashing shows blackish Female and juvenile
laterally, tail is green abo
crown and throat and white below Hooded Warbler-
white in tail
with large white • smaller; smaller bill;
corners. Forages Female tail spots lacks white spots on
low, commonlv on tail: face lacks dusky
ground. Often remains hidden in dense thickets. Hover gleans lores; call note differs.

and catches insects in flight; picks and some food off leaves Yellow Warbler
branches. Eats adult insects, caterpillars, and spiders. Requires f emale and juvenile
mature shaded forests with well-developed shrubby understory. Hooded Warbler
• yellow overall; yellow
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. edging to wings and
• NESTING Incubation 12 days by both sexes. Young altricial;
coverts; yellow patches
no dusky or
in tail;
brooded by female; remain in nest 8-9 days, fed by both sexes. black on head;
1-2 broods per year. prominent dark eye on
• POPULATION Fairly common in upland and bottomland yellow face • male has
red streaking on breast.
woodlands, swamps, and ravines with dense understory. Rare to
casual in western states, where it has rarely nested. Rare in fall in
the Maritimes.
Flight Pattern • Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Frequent
cowbird host. Vulnerable to
habitat loss from timbering
operations, land clearing, and
Fairly swift direct flight of short duration
on rapidly beating wings. Sallies up to grazing in woodlots by cattle
take insects in flight. and by overbrowsing by deer.

Nest Identification Dried leaves, plant fibers, and down, bound with spider's silk, with lining of
mammal hair and grasses • in fork of shrub or small tree, 1—5 feet above ground
• built by female • 3-5 cream eggs, with splotches and dots of brown, usually at
Shape
larger end; usually ovate, 0.72 x 0.53 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat
m^ ^_ ^_ te Migration
Migratory Weight 0 4

DATE TIME LOCATION

622 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
pARULIDAE Species
Wtlsonia pusilla
Length
4 75 nches Wingspan inches
j 7 5

Wilson's Warbler
Making its home in the thick damp woodlands and bogs of western North
America, this active warbler has a»wide nesting range, from Alaska to New
Mexico, in the boreal forest from the Pacific to the Atlantic coast in
Canada, and south into the New England states. The female is
similar to the male but lacks the
black cap or has only a light
gray-black wash on her crown.
Juvenile females lack the
black crown altogether.
• SONG Quick series
of slurred chee-chee-chee
notes, dropping in pitch
at the end. Subject to
much individual and -• bold yellow to
regional variation. Call greenish yellow

is abrasive nasal chimp. underparts

• Behavior Solitary
or in pairs. Tame and
inquisitive: responds to
pishing by birders.
Energetic. Moves tail up dusky yello Similar Birds
and down or in a circular patch
Hooded Warbler
fashion, similar to
gnatcatcher, as it
a

picks food
y
r

»
White spots on tail,
which it constantly
flicks open and closed;
off foliage by gleaning and
n longer bill: dark dusky
hover-gleaning. Also catches
lores; black hood in
insects in flight. Eats males, with suggestion
spiders, insects, and berries. of hood in many
females.
• BREEDING Monogamous.
Female Yellow Warbler 0
Solitary in coastal areas. Forms
Female and juvenile
loose colonies and polygynous high elevations.

\^
is at i • yellow edging to

• NESTING Incubation 10-13 days by female. Young altricial: L wings and wing coverts;
yellow spots in tail:
brooded by female: stay in nest 8-11 days, fed by both sexes.
short tail with undertail
1 brood per year.
coverts reaching closer
• POPULATION Common to fairly common in dense moist to tip; more subdued
tail wag.
woodlands, willow and alder bogs, riparian corridors, and dense
brushy ground cover in moist situations. Much more numerous in
the West than in the East.
Flight Pattern • Conservation
Neotropical migrant.
Uncommon cow bird host,
except in the coastal lowlands
of California. Vulnerable to
Swift flight of short duration on rapidly
beating wings. Sallies forth from perch to habitat loss from destruction of
take insects in midair before returning. lowland riparian thickets.

Xest Identification Dried leaves, stalks, moss, and grass, with lining of fine grasses • atop grassy
tussock, pile of moss, or sedges, or set at base of tree or bush, or in low shrub
• 0-3 feet above ground • built by female • 4-7 creamy white or white eggs,
Shape c^f
with flecks of brown, sometimes wreathed: oval to short oval, 0.6 inches long.

Plumage Sexes djffer Habitat^ .« Migration \jj We 'S ht 0.3 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 623

Family Species Len Sth Wingspan

PaRULIDAE Wtlsonia canadensis 5-6 inches 7i5 _ 8 j5 ; nchcs

Canada Warbler
This from the dense forest undergrowth
bird sings frequently
it from an exposed perch just above it, with a
favors, or
jumbled warbling song that defies a fitting mnemonic. It
actively forages for insects by flushing them from the
foliage and chasing them. Males have been observed in
"anticipatory feeding," offering insects to the unhatched
eggs in the well-concealed nest on the ground. Canada
Warblers are more often seen than heard on the breeding
grounds, but a bird often will reveal itself, coming close
to squeaking and pishing sounds made by birders.
This early fall migrant heads southward before
many other warblers begin their migrations.
During migration they are often seen in lack
pairs, and may be traveling with their ban
mate of the season.
• SONG Chip followed by explosive
staccato series of short notes ending
with 3-note phrase, the last note rising
in pitch. Song carries well and is given
often on breeding grounds.
• BEHAVIOR Skulks in the
undergrowth; often concealed when
perched. Frequently found in low,
dense, luxuriant undergrowth under
mixed hardwoods. Gleans insects
from foliage, stems, and ground;
sometimes flycatches.
• BREEDING Solitary nester.
• Nesting incubation 12
days by female. Altricial young
fledge at 10-12 days. Probably Magnolia Warulkr
1 brood per year.

• Population Common
to fairly common
breeding range and
migration in the East; casual to
in
in white i
undertail
coverts
1 legs
feet
and
Black streaking extends
onto sides; yellow rump
white wing patch or
bars; white patches
white supercilium;
tail;

black lores and cheeks.

in

accidental elsewhere. Declining

• Conservation
Flight Pattern Neotropical migrant. Host to
Brown-headed Cowbirds.
Vulnerable to disturbance of
mature forest on wintering
ground. Habitat loss and forest
Direct flight with rapid
fragmentation negatively
fluttering wing beats.
affecting populations.

CJenerally on the ground • bulky cup of dead leaves, grasses, dried plants, and
Nest Identification
and rootlets • on a bank, upturned tree roots, or
ferns • lined with finer grasses
mossy hummocks by female • 3-5 brown, buff, or creamy white eggs with
• built
Shape ^ Location ^ speckled dots and small blotches of various shades of brown, gray, and purple;
oval to short oval, 0.68 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes djffer I
Habitat
m^ Migration
Migratory Wei S ht 0.4
ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

624 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan
pARULIDAE Cardellina rubrifrons 5 jnchcs 7 5 jnches

Red-faced Warbler
Sporting a scarlet and black face, this active bird
is easily recognizable. A native of -Mexico and
Central America, it regularly nests in the
black crown
high mountain forests of Arizona and behind eye tind
New Mexico in conifers, oaks, and sides of head
aspen at 6,400-8,000 feet,
bold scarlet face,
sometimes lower in shaded throat, and
canyons. This inquisitive sides of neck gray upperparts

species comes readily to the

squeaking and pishing of
birders. When clinging
chickadee-like upside down
on white nape
trees, the
patch and white rump often
are visible. The red on the
face of the female is a little
less bright than that of the white belly a/id
male, and juveniles are similar underparts

to adults, just a little duller.

• SONG A ringing melodic series of
notes, with an emphatic ending of
several slurred notes, wi tsi-wi tsi-wi si-wi
wishu, reminiscent of a Yellow Warbler's
song. Call note is a hard shup.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs, lame and
approachable. Active and acrobatic forager. Picks food off oaks
and conifers from branches and clusters of needles, sometimes hanging
upside down beneath the limb or cone. Catches some insects in flight. Eats mostly
insects and spiders. May join mixed-species feeding flocks after breeding season.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. Small loose colonies.
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Incubation estimated at 10—13 days by female.
Young brooded by female; remain in nest estimated
altricial.
8-11 days, fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year. Similar Birds
• POPULATION Fairly common in montane oak-conifer No other bird in its US range has a
forests. Casual to western Texas and southern California. red and black face with a gray and
white bodv.
Current populations seem to be stable and have expanded
slightly in US breeding range in the 20th century. Accidental in
southern Texas and Louisiana.
Flight Pattern • Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Unlike
most other warbler species, not
known to be parasitized by
Fairly swift flight of short duration on
cow birds. Vulnerable to loss of
rapidly beating wings. Sallies forth from
perch to snatch insect in midair and nesting and wintering habitats
returns to perch. due to timbering operations.

Nest Identification Stems, leaves, hark pieces, and conifer needles, with lining of tine plant material
and mammal hair • hidden by grasses or sheltered by rock, base of tree, or log
• which sex builds unknown • 3—4 white eggs, with fine dots of brown; oval to
Shape
short oval, 0.65 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage Scxcs similar Habitat

^ A Migration \ j-
r.
lgratory
Weight
QA ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 625

Family Species Length Wingspan 8

ParULIDAE Myj0 />ori/s pjrfl/s I
s s inchcs s ; nches

Painted Redstart
Easily identified by its conspicuous scarlet breast and
w hite wing patches, this native of Mexico and Central
America also nests in the wooded pine-oak foothills
black head and
and mountain canyons of the Southwest. It often upperparts •
spreads its tail and droops its wings while hopping
ox er stumps and branches. In the dark
white arc
shadowed habitats the redstart frequents, the beneath eye Mark bill

resulting white flashes may attract the

attention of the bird's mate, foraging
white black throat
nearby. The white flashes may also patch and upper breast
startle insects into revealing
themselves as prey. In flight
bold scarlet
this bird shows a white lower breast and
crissum with black upper belly
scalloping. Juveniles
are duskier and lack the black sides
red underparts until ind flanks

early fall.
3 white ante/
• SONG A full melodic tail feathers black feet
low-pitched warble, weacher, and less
weacher, weacher chee, the last note
emphatic and single-syllabled, but all preceding notes 2-syllabled. Songs are given rather
slowly, with much variation by a single male and between singers. Females may duet with
male. Has call note of squeaky down-slurred peep.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Tame and inquisitive. Hops
Similar Birds
on ground, logs, rocks, and branches, often turning sideways
Unmistakable; no other North
with each hop and flashing tail open or spreading it open with American w arbler resembles it.
wings partially spread. Eats only insects. Forages actively on SLATI HROATED
I

ground, in lower to middle lev els of vegetation, and sometimes

high in trees. Gleans, hover-gleans, and catches insects in flight.
4 W REDSTART
Accidental vagrant
• slate-gray « ings,
May join mixed-species foraging flocks outside breeding season. lute patches;
lacking \\

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. slate-gray upperparts

and dark chestnut
• NESTING Incubation 3— 14 days by female. 1 Young altricial;
face;
crow n patch; lacks
brooded by female; stay in nest 9-13 days, fed by both sexes. white are beneath eye;
1-2 broods per year. less w hite in tail; black-
scalloped w hite crissum.
• POPULATION Fairly common to common in montane
canyons of shaded pine-oak habitat. Rare in southern California.
Accidental to rare elsewhere
Flight Pattern outside breeding range.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Rare host
t~
to cowbird parasitism.

Weak
Vulnerable to habitat loss
fluttering flight of short duration on
rapidly beating w in^s. Sallies from perch because of logging and also
to snatch insects in air, returns to perch. from overgrazing in wood lots.

Nest Identification Stalks and bark pieces • cup often roofed • lined with grasses and hair • built on
ground, sheltered by large rock, grassy tussock, tree roots, shrub, or side of bank
• built by female • 3—1 creamy white eggs, with specks of brown, mostly at
Shape
IL- larger end, not w reathed; oval to short oval, 0.7 x 0.55 inches.

Pipage Sexes Habitat^

similar A Migration \jj„.
ri
Weight
0.3

DATE TIME LOCATION

626 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Basileuterus culicivorus Len §th 5 Wingspan 7 5 inches
pARULIDAE inches

Golden-crowned Warbler
This bird, which nests in and is a resident of northern
yellow-orange stripe
Mexico, Central America, and rarfges well into South
with black borders
America, is an occasional visitor to the lower Rio on midcrown
Grande Valley of southern Texas, usually greenish yellow
supercilium
recorded \n winter. There it often flocks ayish olive
dusky olive face
with other warblers outside its
auricula/
breeding season but often remains
olive-gray
hidden in dense moist forests.
upperparts
When visiting the southern
United States, the bird is
often found in the
company of mixed-
species foraging
flocks of

• bold yello w breast,

belly, and underparts

titmice, gnatcatchers, warblers, and

other songbirds. Juveniles resemble adults.
• SONG A rich whistled warble of wee-wee-wee-seee' or chew-chew-
Similar Birds
chew-weee\ ending with an up-slurred note. Call is a series of tick

or chip. Orange-crowned
Warbler
• BEHAVIOR A
shy skulking species.
Solitary or in pairs.
Olive-green upperparts;
Active and restless; often flicks open or jerks tail and wings. olive-yellow underparts
Forages on ground and low in trees by picking food off foliage; with faint dusky
streaking; dusky eye
occasionally hawks prey. Eats mainly insects and spiders.
stripe; greenish yellow
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. supercilium; yellow
crissum; lacks yellow-
• NESTING The breeding biology of the Golden-crowned orange crown stripe
Warbler is poorly known. The
time of incubation and the time with black border;
nestlings stay in the nest unknown. The role of the sexes
is also sometimes shows rusty
in nesting and in the number of broods per year is unknown or orange patch on crown.

has not been published.

• POPULATION This bird is

Flight Pattern casual in the lower Rio Grande

Valley of southern Texas.
• Conservation Not of
special concern. There are no
published records of any degree
Weak fluttering direct flight of short 0 f cowbird parasitism.
duration on rapidly beating wings

Nest Identification Grasses and plant fibers, oven or dome-shaped with lining of fine materials
• sheltered by bank, clump of grass, or large boulder • built by female
• 2-4 white eggs, with reddish brown markings, concentrated at larger end;
Shape
^ -IL oval to short oval, 0.68 x 0.53 inches.

Plumage Sexes simUar Habitat^ A ^_ Migration

Nonmigratory Wei S nt 0.4 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 627

Family Species Len £th Wingspan

pARULIDA E Basileuterus rufifrons 5.25 inches g inch

Rufous-gapped Warbler
Easily identifiable by its bold rufous cap, broad white eyebrow,
and yellow throat, this endemic of Mexico and Guatemala is

an infrequent visitor to southern and western Texas and

southeastern Arizona. Like many warblers, it cocks its bold white
tail and tends to remain hidden in the dense eyebrow
undergrowth of woodlands. This warbler's tail rufous patch
Hi 111
j
y long and slender and is waved
on cheek ,

in the manner of a gnatcatcher. olive-gray hack

and short J
long olive- rounded wings
gray tail
•~~~~-
vAs
r
J* :\

yelloz
throat and
upper breast

brownish wash on sides, 'hite belly

flanks, and crissum

• SONG Begins with chip-

chip-chip, ending with melodic
trilling, changing in pitch once or

twice. Has call of tik, sometimes

long pink
doubled or, if agitated, run into a rapid series. legs and feet
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Pairs may remain
together throughout the year. Found
dense brush or second growth, often close to the
in
ground. Somewhat its movements. Cocks its very long tail above
sluggish and deliberate in
back, anywhere from a 45-degree angle to almost vertical, and
wags it. Gleans limbs and foliage for insects and spiders.
Similar Birds
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester.
Thecombination of face pattern,
• NESTING Incubation period and time young remain in nest yellow on underparts, and long
undetermined, as are roles of sexes in nesting and number of slender tail cocked above body easily
broods per year. separate it from any North American
warblers in US range.
• POPULATION Casual to accidental in southwestern US in
brushy foothills and mountain canyons. Accidental in southern

Flight Pattern native range.

• Conservation
x Preference for disturbed or
brushy and second-growth
habitats keeps it relatively safe
Somewhat weak fluttering direct flight of
from habitat loss. Infrequent
short duration with rapidly beating wings.
host to cowbird parasitism.

Nest Identification Grasses and plant fibers, domed, with lining of finer materials • sheltered
by large rock, bank, or clump of grass • built by female • 2-4 white eggs,

Shape ^ Location |tf

with reddish brown- flecks and
0.69 x 0.53 inches.
splotches, concentrated at larger end;

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei S ht 0.4

Sexe§ sjmilar Nonmigratory ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

628 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len Sth Wingspan 9 _
I LID AK lcte
.

7.25 inches 1{)incht

Yellow-breasted Chat
The largest North American warbler is named for its song, which resembles
bizarre loud chattering.
are unusual for a warbler, yet
The large *size, stocky body, thick
DNA studies confirm its
and long tail
bill,

taxonomic
vj
placement within this family. Unlike other warblers, it often sings at night
in addition to its daytime vocalizations, a trait shared with some of the
mimic thrushes. The female is similar to the male but has gray lores.
• SONG A clashing mixture of prattles, whistles,
catlike sounds, clucking, screeching, and caw olive-green to
olive-gray
notes, both musical and harsh. Pacing is
upperparts
slow, hesitant, and unwarbler-like,
more like a mockingbird or blackish
auriculan
thrasher. Has the lowest voice
whih » long
of any American wood graduated tail
spectach
warbler. Some songs
given in hovering
thick curved
mothlike display
bill
white belly
flights. Call notes are
andcrissum
harsh cheow or nasal hair,

• Behavior Solitary
or in pairs. Acts more
like a mockingbird than
a warbler. Shy, skulking
and Often
secretive. bright yelh,
remains hidden in thick throat and
breast
foliage. Best seen when
male sings from an exposed
perch or is displaying. Display
flight lasts several seconds, head held high tail pumping, legs dangling, and singing all the
while. Forages low in dense brushy shrubbery and sometimes on the ground, gleaning insects,
larvae, berries, and fruits. The only warbler known to hold food in its feet.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester or small colonies.
• NESTING Incubation 11-12 days by female. Altricial young brooded by female; stay in nest
8-1 1 days, fed by both sexes. 2 broods per year.
Similar Birds
• POPULATION Common in dense thickets, brush, or scrub,
especially along swamp margins and streams. Significant decline No similar species in North Ameria
over much of its eastern range.
• Conservation Neotro P i< migrant. Common host to Brown-
headed Cowbird. Vulnerable to
Flight Pattern habitat loss due to land
development and clearing,
urbanization, and natural
succession from old fields to
maturation of forests.
Weak direct flights of short duration. Ii

singing display, flies with legs dangling

and wings flapping limply.

Nest Identification Dried stems, leaves, grasses, and bark pieces, lined with soft grasses, stems, and
leaves • in bush, vines, or thorny shrub, 2-8 feet above ground • built by female
• 3-6 white or creamy white eggs, w ith flecks of rust or violet, concentrated at
Shape
larger end; oval, 0.86 x 0.67 inches.

Plumage Sexes Migration Wei ^ ht 0.9 ounc

Migratory

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AM K RICA • 629

Family Species Length Wi "gspan

COEREBIDAE Cl)erch(l f/atro/a I
4.5 inches I 7.25 inches"

Bananaqliit
1 his close cousin of the tanager uses its pointed
bill and tongue to draw nectar from flowers.
Often seen feeding upside down or sideways,
it clings to branches because it is unable to black lores
hover like a hummingbird. Its dome- and ear patch
shaped nest with its side door is used
in all seasons as a roost. It is a casual
[Minted decurved
visitor to southern Florida from the black bill
Bahamas, where it is common to
abundant. Note the bold white black back
eyebrow, the decurved bill, and
the yellow breast. It also has a
yellow rump patch and a
white-tipped outer tail. In
flight the white patch at
the base of the flight
feathers flashes when
the wings are flicked.
The juvenile is

similar to the adult but

dingy and has a yellowish
white supercilium and dull
yellow rump.
• SONG A hoarse breathy rapid
high-pitched chattering zee-ee-ee-swee-te,
interspersed with squeaks and wheezes.
Call notes are high-pitched squeaks.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. 'lame.
Uses long bill and tongue to find food in flowers. Clings in various positions to twigs, leaves,
and flowers. Creeps along branches and foliage. Eats mostly nectar. Also eats insects and
occasionally fruit if flowers are not available. In Caribbean often becomes bold enough to take
sugar from outdoor cafe tables or enter houses to steal sugar. Often constructs smaller nests for
roosting, with entrances near the bottom.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary nester. Similar Birds
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by female onl v. Young None in North America,
brooded by female; stay
altricial; in nest 15-18 days, fed by both
sexes. At least 3 broods per year.
• POPULATION Casual in
Flight Pattern North America in the southern
Florida area.
•Feeders and
Birdhouses
Weak fluttering flight on rapidly beating Will drink nectar from feeder
w ings. May alternate wing strokes w ith
bottles and will nest in man-
brief period of wings pulled to sides.
made houses.

Nest Identification
Plant fibers and leaves, with side door near top • far out on branch
wire, or in building, 2-30 feet above ground • built by both sexes «

Shape ^ Location buff eggs, dotted with brown; oval to short oval, 1.6 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
^_ Migration
Nonmigratory We '£ ht 0.3 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

630 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
THRAUPIDAE Species
piranga f/ava Len gth 8
inches Wingspan
n 75 jnches

Hepatic Tanager
Named for the liver-red plumage of the male, this tropical
bird has a small summer
range in the southwestern grayish cheek
j
• patch
mountain forests of North America. *Not shy around
humans, the male perches in tall trees to sing a dark red to
sing-song series of musical phrases, similar to orange-red
those of the Black-headed Grosbeak, but faster. P overall

The adult male retains his red plumage

throughout the year. The combination of dark
bill and dusky gray auriculars in both sexes are

good field marks to separate them from other

tanager species. Juveniles are similar to females
but have paler underparts with buffy wing
bars and are heavily streaked with brown.
• SONG Clear bold musical phrases in
back-and-forth sing-song pattern. Call note is

a loud chip or chuck, similar to the Hermit Thrush

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Often joins
mixed-species foraging flocks after the nesting
season. Forages for food in upper foliage of
tall trees where it gleans from branches,

stems, and leaves. Sometimes catches

grayish
insects in flight. Eats insects and fruit
cheek
Sings often and is often detected by
olive-green
calls or song. Restless and active.
upperparts
Often flies considerable distances,
moving rapidly from one tree to
the next or traveling all the way
across mountain canyons.
• BREEDING Monogamous.
In courtship display male
moves head back and forth
Similar Birds
and lifts bill to sky,
showing off his bright throat. ^ g Simmer Tanager
FEMALE *5 Large yellow-brown
• NESTING Breeding biology lacks grayish cheek
bill;

poorly known. Estimated incubation -~> g~ 9 patch • male displays

brighter reds.
13-14 days by female. Young altricial;
brooded by female; stay in nest estimated 13-15 days, fed by
both sexes. 1 brood per year
Flight Pattern • POPULATION Uncommon
common in pine and
to fairly

x pine-oak in mountain canyons.

Accidental on Gulf Coast.
• Conservation
Relatively swift direct flight on rapidly Neotropical migrant. Rare host
beating wings.
to cowbird parasitism.

Nest Identification Forbs, grasses, stems, and flower petals with lining of soft grass • in fork, toward
end of limb, 15-50 feet above ground • built mostly by female, but male may-

Shape <^ Location ^ ^jfe

bring materials • 3-5 bluish greenish eggs with brownish markings, often
wreathed; oval to short oval, 1.0 x 0.75 inches.

Plumage Sexes differ , Habitat

A ^ ft^
Migration
Mj graCory We 'S ht 1.3 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 631

Species Wingspan
Family
THRAUPIDAE piranga rill)ra I
Length
? 75 inchcs
I

u_u inchcs

Summer Tanager
Males are easily identified by their brilliant red plumage.
This bird is the most common North American tanager in its
range, which is the most extensive tanager range across the
eastern and southern United States. Males retain the bright
red plumage all year long. Females have olive-green
upperparts and orange-yellow underparts. First spring
males are a mixture of reds and yellow-greens, usually
\\ ith red on the head, back, and uppertail coverts.

• SONG Melodic leisurely warbling of

5-7 phrases; sing-song, back-and- /
forth, and robinlike. Call a bright rosy <r a
repeated pick-a-tuck.
is
red overall M
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in f||
pairs. Forages at middle to
high levels in trees; picks
food off leaves. Eats mostly
bees and wasps, which it

takes expertly in midair,

and often raids wasp
nests and beehives.
Also eats other
insects, grubs,
caterpillars, and
Often
fruit. FIRST
found near SPRING MALE
water, including
Similar Birds
bottomland orange-yelloi

hardwood and underparts « Northern

J* Cardinal d"
riparian forest,
Red crest; black face
but also pine-oak and chin; large cone-
KMALK
forest in the East; primarily riparian in the West. shaped reddish bill.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. cf Hepatic Tanager

Duller darker red color;
• NESTING Incubation 11-12 davs b Y female. Altricial young blackish bill; grayish
brooded by female; leave nest at 13-14 days, fed by both sexes. cheek patch; gray wash
1-2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Common in deciduous and mixed conifer-
V on flanks, back, and
wing coverts.

deciduous forests, especially oaks. Some declines in the East.

• FEEDERS Mixture of
Flight Pattern peanut butter and cornmeal.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant.
Uncommon cowbird host.
Vulnerable to habitat loss and
ift direct flight with quickwing strokes
forest fragmentation.
Hies forth to take insects on the wing.

Nest Identification Bark pieces, forbs, grass, and leaves, with lining t grasses • far out on
limb, 10-35 feet above ground • built by female light blue or green eggs

Shape marked with browns, occasionally wreathed or c< ; oval to short oval,
sometimes long oval, 0.9 x 0.75 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat
^ ^_ Migration
Mj gratory Wei § ht 1.0

DATE TIME LOCATION

632 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan 12 inches
THRAUPIDAE Piranga olivacea y inches

Scarlet Tanager
No other bird in North America has the breeding males unique plumage
of a rich scarlet body with black wings and tail. When the male arrives
on the breeding grounds, he perches at the tops of tall trees and
sings to defend his territory and attract a mate. In the molt
following the breeding season, the male retains his black bright scarlet

wings and tail, but his plumage becomes a mixture of 01

green, yellow, and red patches, later becoming dull

green and yellow, appearing similar to the female
^
and tail
bird. Juveniles and first fall males are similar in
appearance to the adult female.
• SONG A breathy course series of 4-5 notes,
somewhat rapidly delivered, querit-queer-
query-querit-queer. Pattern is sing-song
and back-and-forth, somewhat like a
robin with a sore throat. Has call

of chip-burrr.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or
in pairs. May forage for
food on ground but
more often high in tops of
trees. Eats insects, including
wasps, bees, and caterpillars.
Also takes berries and fruit.

Gleans food from branches

and foliage and frequently
lemon-yelh
hawks insects. Frequents
underparti
drier forests, often pine
and pine-oak.
• BREEDING Monogamous; solitary or
in pairs. Male displays by perching below Similar Birds
female, opening his wings and showing off his scarlet back. Western Tan v,i r

• NESTING Incubation 13-14 days by female. Young altricial; 3 Male has additional
yellow upper wing bar
brooded by female; stay in nest 9-11 days, fed by both sexes. • females and winter
1 brood per year. in. ilcs .ire similar to

• POPULATION common in deciduous and mixed

Fairly their counterparts but
have white wing bars.
conifer-hardwood forests. Some recent declines. Casual in West.

• FEEDERS Will come to feeders for mixture of bread crumbs,

cornmeal, and peanut butter.
Flight Pattern • Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Vulnerable
to loss of habitat and forest
fragmentation, as it requires
large areas of forest for
Swift rapid flight with quick wing strokes.
Sallies forth to take insects in flight.
breeding. Fairly common host
to cowbird parasitism.

Nest Ide ntificatio n Forbs, grasses, sticks, rootlets, and tw igs, w ith lining of soft grasses and conifer
needles • far out on limb, 5-70 feet above ground • built by female • 2-5 bluish
greenish eggs, marked w ith brown, often w reathed; oval to short oval,
Shape Location <£h g,^
0;9 \ 0.7 inches.

Plumage Scxcs diffcr ,

Habitat
^^ Migration
Migratory Weight
j ()

DATE TIME LOCATION

 r
BIRDS OK NORTH AM K RICA • 633

Family Species Len &lh 7.25 Wingspan

THRAUPIDAE piranga lufiovidana inches , { _, ,
mchcs

Western Tanager
One of only two North American tanagers with distinct wing bars, this bird
frequents the coniferous forests of the western mountain region, where it is one of
the most colorful species present. It has on rare occasions hybridized with its close
cousin, the Scarlet Tanager. In the molt after the breeding season, the male's
red head fades to a yellowish color with fine streaking on the
red head, throat,
crown. The female's olive-gray back
yellow uppertail and upper breast
contrasts sharply with the yellow-green coverts, rump, and
rump, uppertail coverts, and nape • lower back

Juveniles resemble females but

creamy pinkish
with head and body
orange bill with
streaked dark brown. dark ii Iin en
i

• SONG A hoarse
• uPPer
vireo-like series
yellow and
of 3-4 phrases, black tail lower white
che-ree, che-ree, che-weeu wing bars
cheweeu. Call is pit-ick, pri-tick-tick. yellow
n dci parts
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs
ii

Forages in trees and on ground,

gleaning food from bark, limbs, Male
foliage, and soil. and Eats fruit
insects, including wasps and bees.
Winter
Hawks insects in flight. Bathes MA! I

in birdbaths. Frequent
singer often first
Similar Birds

detected by FLAME-( lOLORED

vocalizations. pale Inote a •
Tanager 9
eye ring
In postbreeding Dark bill; dusky
auriculars; bolder
season, often thin white and
w tiitish wing bars; u hire
yellow wing bat
joins mixed- rail corners; darkly
species foraging flocks. streaked back.

• Breeding yello wish S Scarlet Tanager

underparts Females and winter
Monogamous. Solitary.
males are similar ro
• Nesting incubation
9 their counterparts but
13 days by female. Altricial young brooded by female; stay in hav e olive backs and

nest 13-15 days, fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year. lack the wing bars.

• POPUEATION Fairly common in coniferous and pine-oak

forests, particularly in mountain canyons. Casual in East in winter.
• FEEDERS Fresh oranges,
Flight Pattern dried fruit, bread crumbs.
• Conservation
— Neotropical migrant.
Uncommon cowbird host.
Swift direct flight on rapidly beating Vulnerable to loss of habitat and
wings. Sallies forth from perch to take- forest fragmentation.
insects in flight.

Nest Identification Rootlets, sticks, and moss, with lining of plant dow n and mammal ha
on branch, 6-65 feet above ground • built mostly by female • 3-5 bl

Shape marked with browns, often wreathed; oval to short subelliptical,

Location
-
0.9 x 0.66 inches.

Plumage
Sexcs diffef Habitat
^ A Migration
Migratory Weight
j q (>uncc

DATE TIME LOCATION

634 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
THRAUPIDAE Species
Spindalis zena
Length
5. 8 _ 6 .75 inches Wingspan j_ 12 jnches
j

Western Spindalis
black head with two
Formerly called the Stripe-headed Tanager,
broad white stripes
is a native of the West
this colorful bird £/ac£ uppei on each side
Indies. Occasionally, especially in the
summer months, these birds wander
to southeastern Florida and the rufous collar
Florida Keys. Its habit of perching and chest
and remaining well inside the
canopy, coupled with its high thin black to
notes, which are not readily noticed, olrci back

make this species difficult to observe

and easily overlooked. The juvenile ocherous tawny
is similar to the female, with a pale rump and
lemon belly and undertail coverts. uppertail
coverts
• SONG A high thin weak trilling
Song increases
zee'-tit-zee'-tittit-zee' .

and is quite melodious

in intensity
when heard from nearby. Call is
seeip or tsee. Male
• Behavior pale
Solitary or in pairs. eyebrow
Sometimes in small
groups, especially in
fruiting trees. Forages for
food in foliage of trees and
shrubs. Eats insects and fruit.
Male has singing display
flight; he begins at the top of
a tree and circles around with
slowly beating wings, singing
throughout, then dives down to
the same perch or another perch.
• BREEDING Monogamous.
Solitary nester.
• NESTING Breeding biology
poorly
Fhmali:
known. Estimated incubation 12-14 days by
female. Altricial young brooded by female; stay in nest
estimated 12-15 days, fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• Population Rare in

Flight Pattern Florida and the Florida Keys.

• Conservation
Vulnerable to habitat loss due to
development, logging, and
hurricanes, especially loss of
Swift direct flight on rapidly beat ing wings. fruiting trees. Degree of
cowbird parasitism unknown.

Nest Identification
Twigs and plant material, with lining of finer materials • on branch of tree • built
by female • 2-3 bluish w hite eggs, with flecks of brown; oval to short oval,
Shape 0.9 x 0.65 inches.

Plumage Sexes differ Habitat^ ^ Migration

NonmigriUory Weight
0j

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 635
Family Species Len £ th Wingspan
EMBERIZIDAE Sporophtla torqueola 4.5 inch( 8jnch(

White-collared Seedeater
A native of Mexico and Central America, this bird has a small
nesting range in southern Texas, one that decreased early black
in the 20th century. In local grassy habitats, weedy white crescent

fields and overgrown lots, canebrakes, and similar under eye

habitats near the river in the lower Rio Grande partial

buff collar
Valley, small groups of this little seedeater,
with its stubby swollen bill, can still be black upperpart
thick short
found. It can sometimes be seen with and wings
curved bill
large flocks of other seed-eating birds.
In flight it shows a white base to the
primaries. Females are duller in 2 white
color with buffy underparts, brown
upperparts, and paler wing bars
and lack the collar and cap.
Juvenile males have the pattern
of the males with the
coloration of the females. buff-white
• SONG A 2-part song underparts

with first notes high-

pitched, followed by
series of lower notes, sweet
sweet sweet sweet wit-wit-wit-wit, tawny brown
often ending in a buzzy trill. Call upperparts
is a high-pitched wink.
brownish black
• BEHAVIOR In pairs or small groups. wings with cinnamon
More gregarious after the breeding edgingand 2 thin

season, forming flocks and often foraging wing bars

with other species. Eats seeds and
insects. Males often sing from exposed
perches on weed stalks, cane, fences, and
utility wires. Some populations found in
overgrown weedy and grassy lots in small towns.
Frequents marshes with dense stands of grass.
buffy
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. underparts
• NESTING Incubation 13 days by female. Young altricial
brooded by female; leave nest at 9-11 days, fed by both sexes.
1-2 broods per year.
• Population Rare and
Flight Pattern local inlower Rio Grande Valley
of Texas.

V • Conservation Declines
with loss of habitat due to land
Weak bouncy
and
clearing, agriculture,
fluttering flight, with series
of rapid wing strokes alternating with development. Uncommon host
wings pulled to sides. to cowbird parasitism.

Nest Identification Sticks, rootlets, plant stems, and grass, of" plant down and mammal
with lining
hair • in fork of bush weeds, 3-5 feet above ground • built by
or small tree or in

Shape female • 2-4 pale blue to pale gray eggs, with brown markings, concentrated at
larger end; subelliptical toward elliptical oval, 0.64 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei § ht 0.3 on

Sexes differ Nonmigratory

DATE TIME LOCATION

636 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
EMBERIZIDAE Species
Tiajis 0nvacea
Length Wingspan
4 75 inchcs 6Z S inches

Yellow-faced Grassquit
On rare occasions, stragglers of this Mexican and
golden yellow
Caribbean species have found their way to North
eyebrow
America and have been spotted in southern Florida
stubby cone-shaped
and southern Texas. This tiny bird frequents open • black bill
fields, brushy thickets, and shrubs rather than trees.
The olive plumage and yellow face markings are
distinctive. Females and juveniles have less black face,
yellow on the throat and above the eye and breast, and
upper belly
lack the black on the face and breast
• SONG A buzzy high-pitched
>
golden yellow
square throat
insectlike trill, siiiiiiiiiiiiiir. Call is
patch
high sharp tsi or sik.

• Behavior in pairs or
small groups. Forms pale/' olive uuderparfs
flocks to forage after
the breeding season,
often with other species.
Forages by scratching in ground Male
for food; gleansseeds from grasses paler yellow
weeds, and trees. Eats mostly lores and squat

seeds but also some berries, small throat patch

fruits,and insects. Often flutters

up and grabs a grass seed head olive
and pulls it to the ground, upperparts
Similar Birds
where it eats it like corn
on the cob; or rides a , Black-faced
Grassquit
grass stalk to the ground
^HHL Lacks yellow throat,
and stands on it, eating
the seed head.
^ Tib
v c-lliiv. sub-eyebrow,
and crescent below eye
• males have blackish
• Breeding 9 underparts; black head,
Monogamous. Solitary. V JBk tail, and wings; and dark
olive upperparts
• NESTING Breeding biology ll&k
-Z ^^. • females and juveniles
poorly known. Estimated incubation
FEMALE have olive-brown
10-13 days by female. Young upperparts, gray heads,

altricial; brooded by female; leave and pale grayish white

underparts.
nest at estimated 9-12 days, fed by
both sexes. 1-2 broods per year.

Flight Pattern
• Population Accidental in
North America in southern
Texas and southern Florida.
• Conservation Not of
special concern. Populations do
Weak fluttering bouncy flight with well in disturbed areas with
alternating series of rapid wing heats
followed by wings pulled to sides;
grasses and weed cover.
repeated.

Nest Identification Rootlets, grasses, and twigs, with lining of finer materials • set in vines,
sheltered by bank, in grasses, or low in shrubbery • built by female •

2-4 bluish white eggs, flecked with gray and brown; subelliptical to oval,
Shape
|g 0.7 \ 0.5 inches.

Plumage Scxcs Habitat Migration

Nonm gratory
Weight
3 ou
differ j () .

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 637
Family Species Len Sth Wingspan
EMBERIZIDAH jiaris bkolor 4.5 inch es 7

Black-faced Grassquit
This tiny bird, common in the West Indies,
sometimes visits southern Florida, although black head
these may be escaped cage birds. It
frequents open areas of tall grasses and
scrub, gardens, fields, undergrowth,
dark olive
and roadsides - almost anywhere it
upperparts
can find small grass seeds. The
sooty appearance of the small
dark male is unlike that of any
North American bird within its

vagrant range into southern Florida.

Although this small bird is
unadorned by stripes, spots, or showy
flash marks and is small, unobtrusive,
and easily overlooked, it is nonetheless
distinctive. Juveniles resemble females.
• SONG An insectlike tik-tink-tink-tzeeeeee,
which is often repeated. Has a soft call of teep.

• BEHAVIOR In pairs or small groups. After

breeding season forms larger flocks and often
joins mixed foraging flocks. Forages in
grass and shrubbery. Eats mostly seeds;
also fruits, berries, and insects. May MALI
obtain seeds by riding grass stems
to ground, standing on them,
and stripping the seeds from
the seed heads, or may leap Similar Birds
from ground to pull seed
yellow-faced
head down to eat. Grassquit
• Breeding pale gray Golden yellow throat,

underparts eyebrow, and crescent

Monogamous. Small below eye; olive body;
colonies. During courtship, black on face and uper
male displays by flying with belly only • females and
juveniles are olive
vibrating wings and singing.
overall with yellow
• Nesting Breeding M M \i ! restricted to lores and
biology poorly known. Estimated throat.

incubation 10-13 days by female. Altricial young brooded by

female; leave nest at estimated

Flight Pattern
9-12 days, fed by both sexes.
1-2 broods per year.
• Population Casual in
North America southern to
Florida. Populations do well i

Bouncy flight, weak and fluttering. Rapid

wing beats alternating with wings being
disturbed habitats in grasses
pulled to body. and brushy growth.

Nest Identification Grass, rootlets, and twigs, with lining of finer grass • low in bush, small tree,
grasses, or in bank, usually less than 20 feet above ground • built by both sexes
• 2-3 whitish eggs, marked at thick end with pale reddish brown; subelliptical
Shape
^ to oval, 0.66 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage 'ration Wei § ht 0.3

Sexes differ Nonmigratory ounce

DATE IME LOCATION

 -

638 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA

Family Species Len Sth Wingspan 9 inches
EMBERIZIDAE Arremonops rufivirgatus 6.25 inches

Olive Sparrow
A native of Mexico, this bird has a small
nesting range along the lower Rio Grande
Valley in southern Texas. It is difficult to

spot, as it often remains hidden in low vide brown stripe on

each side of crown
thickets and dense undergrowth. It

may be first detected by its noisy

towheelike scratching in the leaf
litter or by its accelerating song,
likened to a bouncing ball.

The male sings only from a

low concealed perch.
Juveniles have streaked
dark brown upperparts
and pale buff underparts
streaked with dark
brown, except on the
whitish belly and throat.
• SONG A repetitive buff breast, sides,
accelerating series of chip flanks, and
notes, preceded by one or undertail coverts

two introductory notes, chip,

chip, chip -chip-chip -chip -chip
chip. Call is an insectlike speeeee
or a sharp tsik.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs.

Skulks on ground and in underbrush.
Forages low in trees, bushes, and on the
ground, gleaning, scratching, and picking food off ground. Eats
Similar Birds
seeds and insects.
Green-tailed
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. TOWHEE
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known; species virtually Larger; reddish cap;
blackish line borders
unstudied Estimated incubation 10-12 days by
in the field.
white mustache and
female. Young altricial; brooded by female; stay in nest separates it from

estimated 9-1 1 days, fed by both sexes. 2 broods per year. white throat; gray
head and underparts;
• POPULATION Common in thickets, especially riparian
lacks eye stripe.
thickets, and thorn scrub, although numbers are decreasing due
to loss of habitat.
• Conservation
Flight Pattern Infrequent cowbird host.
Vulnerable to habitat loss
because of clearing of riparian
forests, brushlands, and
scrublands for agriculture,
Short flights with series of rapid wing
beats alternating with wings pulled to grazing, and development.
sides for brief periods; repeated.

Nest Identification
Dried grasses, sticks, stems, leaves, and bark pieces, with lining of mammal hair
and finer material • entrance on side • in bush or cactus, 2-5 feet above ground
Shape ^ Location 4^ or on ground • built by female • 2-5 white eggs, unmarked; ovate, 0.7 inch long.

Plumage Sexes simi ar ,

Habitat
^^ ^_ Migration
Emigratory Wei § ht 0.8
ounce

DAI E IME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 639

Family Species Length Wingspan

EMBERIZIDAE pipilo chiorurus 7 2 5 inches 1() inchcs

Green-tailed Towhee
The smallest of the towhees, this bird lives in the low brush of high
mountain plateaus in southwestern North America. If an intruder approaches
its nest, it leaves the nest and scampers through the undergrowth like a
small mammal, hoping to distract the predator. Its habit of staying on or
near the ground sometimes makes it a difficult species to observe,
'ddish cap
but males do choose prominent perches to deliver their
territorial songs. Juveniles are streaked overall and
have buffy white underparts and brownish white Ion

upperparts with two faint wing bars.

gray fa
• SONG A varied series of chip
notes, chu-weet-chur, cheee-chui\ olive-green
accelerating to a trill. Calls a nasal upperparts
hite throat
meew and chink. Somewhat bordered by a dark
similar to Fox Sparrow. and a white stripe

wings and tail edged

with yellow-olive gray breast

buffy flanks

• Behavior Solitary or
in pairs. May form loose flocks
with other species in winter.
Forages for food on ground by
scratching under foliage with both feet
simultaneously, which is called double-scratch
feeding. Eats seeds, fruit, and insects and their larvae. Secretive and easily overlooked. May be
detected by the loud noises it makes rustling leaves on the ground as it scratches for food.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary.
Similar Birds
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Estimated
incubation 11-13 days by female. Young altricial; brooded by Olive Sparrow
Smaller; brown-striped
female; stay in nest estimated 10-12 days, fed by both sexes.
crown; buff breast; dark
2 broods per year. thin eye line • inhabits
• POPULATION Fairly common in mountain thickets, lower Rio Grande
Valley.
chaparral, scrublands, and riparian scrub. Casual across the East
• FEEDERS Visits feeding stations that have seed, grains, and
bread crumbs.
Flight Pattern • Conservation
Neotropical migrant.

TA
Uncommon cowbird host.
Vulnerable to habitat loss
Rather rapid bouncy flight, alternating because of land clearing,
between several quick wing beats and grazing,and development.
wings pull to sides; repeated.

Nest Identification Sticks, bark chips, and grass, with lining of hair and fine plant materials • on
ground, near base of bush or low in shrub or cactus, less than 28 inches above

Shape ground • built by female • 2-5 white eggs, flecked and dotted with brown; short
Location
oval, 0.9 x 0.65 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simjlar Habitat
A Migration
Migratory Weight j o

DATE TIME LOCATION

640 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length
7_ ? s
Wingspan 1(M
EMBERIZIDAE pjpi/o macu latus ; nches j inches

Spotted Towhee
This bird is the western counterpart of the
Eastern Towhee, and until recently they were Male
considered one species, the Rufous-sided
Towhee. The white spotting on the
upperparts, wings, and tail

shows geographical
variation. The white
on the undersides
of the tail corners
flash in flight.
black tail with whih
Juveniles are
tipson underside of bite belly and
brown with two outer tail feathers
median underparts
white wing bars
and darker brown
streaking on the
upperparts and underparts.
• SONG Interior populations dark brown head,
give 2 introductory chip notes, neck, breast, and
upperpart.
followed by a trill, similar to dark brown tail
Bewicks Wren. Pacific Coast
white spotting
with white tips on
underside of outer
birds deliver a fast or slow trilling
tail feathers
Call is slurred nasal mewing guee.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs.
Small family groups stay together
after nesting season. Males sing from
Female
elevated perches. Forages by double-
dark brown wings
scratching in leaf litter on ground beneath
mth 2 white wing ban
dense thickets, pulling both legs sharply uid white spots
Juvenile
backward at the same time. Eats insects,
caterpillars, spiders, seeds, and fruit; sometimes small lizards or Similar Birds
snakes. If approached too closely, female scurries from nest in Eastern Towhee
the manner of a small rodent to distract intruder. Lacks white spotting on
back and scapulars
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. • male has blacker

• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by female. Young altricial; upperparts • female has

brooded by female; stay in nest 9-1 1 days, fed by both sexes, paler brown head,
breast, and upperparts.
but mostly by male. 2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Common to fairly common in chaparral, brushy
thickets, and forest edge.

Flight Pattern • FEEDERS Mixture of oats,

suet, and flax seeds.
• Conservation
Vulnerable to loss of habitat due
Short bounding flights with several to land clearing, grazing, and
rapid wing strokes followed by wings development. Fairly common
pulled to sides. hbst to cowbird parasitism.

Nest Identification Twigs, leaves, rootlets, grass, and bark • lined with grasses • on ground,
sheltered by bush or grassy tussock, occasionally in low shrub or tree • built

by female 2-6 gray-brown or creamy white eggs, flecked and dotted with
•
Shape
purple, red-brown, and gray; ovate, 0.95 x 0.7 inches.

Plumage Sc xcs differ Habjtat Migration Weight

ft*_ g ome migrate Undetermined

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AM K RICA • 641

Species Wingspan
7 _ 7<5 inches
Family Length _ n jnches
EMBERIZIDAE pipUo erythrtiphthalmui 1()

Eastern Towhee
Sometimes called a Ground Robin in the South, this is the
eastern counterpart of the Spotted Towhee. Until recently
these birds were classified as one species, the Rufous-sided black upperparts

Towhee. The two species hybridize where their ranges and hood 1

overlap along rivers in the Great Plains. The smaller Floridi

race has whitish eyes instead
of red like most other races.
Male
In flight the white undertail
corners flash conspicuously.
Juveniles are brown overall with
pale chins and dark streaking on
tawny buff
underparts and upperparts. rufous side*
undertail
• SONG A clear whistled drink- coverts

your-teeeaaa, with the "tea" trilled. white

underparts
Much individual variation, with
distinct white patch at •
some birds leaving off the
introductory note and some omitting
base ofprimaries and
distinct white tertial edges
i
the ending trill. Has calls of toe -
WHEEE and che-wink or wank. brown upperparts
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs.
Secretive; stays low in underbrush
and on ground. Frequents brushy
thickets, woodland edges, and
riparian areas. Males are conspicuous
white patch at
when singing, often choosing an base of pi 'in/a n / 'S

exposed perch. Usually detected by and white tertial

the rustle of dry leaves on ground; edges

forages by double-scratching, pulling Fem ai Juvenile

both legs sharply backward at once. Eats
insects, caterpillars, small salamanders, fruits, and seeds. Similar Birds
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. Courting male chases Spoi i ed Towhee
female and fans tail to show off white spots on outer feathers. Extensive white
spotting on back and
• NESTING Incubation 12-13 days by female. Young altricial; scapulars • female
brooded by female; stay in nest 10-12 days, fed by both sexes, shows darker browns
more by male. 2-3 broods per year. head, breast, and
upperparts.
• POPULATION Common to fairly common. Major decline in
Northeast in last half of 20th century.
• FEEDERS Mixture of oats,
Flight Pattern suet, and seeds.
• Conservation Declines
in Northeast poorly understood;
vulnerable to loss of habitat,
Short bouncy flights with tail spread; clearing of land, development,
series of rapid w ing beats alternating with and pesticides in food chain.
w ings pulled to sides; repeated.
Frequent cowbird host.

Nest Identification Sticks, rootlets, grass, I rk,and leaves, with lining ot soft grasses • on ground
sheltered by grassy tus ck or bush, occasionally in low bush or tree. 1—5 feet
Shape above ground (but up 20 feet) • built bv female • 2-6 creamv white or gra\
0.9 x 0.66 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat^ Migration
Norther n birds migrate Weight
L5

DATE TIME .OCATION

642 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan 9 inches
EMBERIZIDAE j\l mopliila cassinii 6 inch(

Cassin's Sparrow
When another male invades its territory,
this drab-looking sparrow will rise from
its cactus perch and perform its grayish head with
brownish streaking
exquisite fluttering territorial song
on crown
flight some fifteen to thirty feet grayish upperparts
above the ground. In flight with black and
the white tips on its outer -toned bill brownish streaks

tail feathers are with straight

dark gray
conspicuous. Adults long rounded
culmen
are similar to dark grayish
brown tail
juveniles but have
i

whitish gray chin

whiter underparts and throat,
with less streaking bordered by thin
dark malar mark
on the breast, sides,
and flanks.
• Song Slightly
buffy white
quivering sweet trill,
underparts
preceded and followed by
2 notes. Call note is pit.

Fluttering skylarking display

flights. Sometimes sings at night.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Small groups after nesting
season. May join mixed
foraging flocks in winter. Except when
singing, skulks and forages under cover of tall grasses and
bushes. Forages by scratching on ground, gleaning food from Similar Birds
grassy vegetation and substrate. Eats seeds, insects, caterpillars, BOTTERI'S SPARROW
and flower buds. Like some other species living in arid regions, Rusty brown-streaked
gray upperparts; black
it apparently gains all the water it requires from its diet.
streaking on uppertail
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. coverts; buffy wash on
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Estimated breast, sides, and flanks,
lacking streaks; lacks
incubation 12-14 days by female. Young altricial; brooded by white tail tips.

female; remain in nest estimated 9-11 days, fed by both sexes.

Brewer's Sparrow
1-2 broods per year. Smaller; more slender
• POPULATION Fairly common in arid grasslands with body; cleft tail; smaller
pinkish bill • western
scattered thorn shrubs and cacti. Casual in the far West and the
range.
East in migration.

• FEEDERS Ground corn, sorghum, and other grains.

• Conservation
Flight Pattern Neotropical migrant.
Uncommon host to cowbird
parasitism. Vulnerable to habitat
loss due to overgrazing, land

Short flights on rapidly beating wings, clearing for agricultural use, and
alternating with brief periods of wings for development.
pulled to sides.

Nest Identification
Forbs, grass, and occasionally flowers, with lining of soft grass, rootlets, and hair
• on grassy tussock sheltered by bush or low in cactus or bush • up to 1 foot
Shape above ground • built by female • 3-5 plain white eggs; oval, 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Migration Weight

Sexes Mj sratory q j Qunce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 643

Family Species Len §th 6 inches Wingspan 8

EMBERIZIDAE Amop// ;/a aestj V a/is\ |

Bachman's Sparrow
thin dark line
In the early spring, the male bird's lovely territorial
extending back
flightsong contrasts with its drab coloring. This from eye
large-bodied sparrow skulks and forages on
buffy gray
the ground, hidden in the brushy sides of head
understory of the dry wooded areas of
the South. Easiest to locate by the gray upperparts with
heavy chestnut-bro
male's song, birds often drop
streaking
down into the underbrush
and remain out of sight
when approached,
not responding to
pishing sound
by birders.
Juveniles have
buffy washes on
the face, chest, and
underparts, are streaked
on the throat, breast, and sides,
and show a distinct pale eye rin| Juvenile
• SONG A pure fluted introductory note followed by a Similar Birds
warbling or trilled melody, varied in pitch. Successive songs by
Field Sparrow
the same male are pitched in different keys, and the song's
Smaller; smaller pinkish
musical quality has been favorably compared to that of the bill; gray head; brown
Hermit Thrush or the pattern of a Bewick's Wren. Call is a crown; brownish ear
patch; white eye ring;
snakelike hiss.
2 white wing bars; gray
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Secretive. Often difficult to underparts with buffy
see, because birds flushed from groundcover tend to fly only a wash; notched tail.

very short distance before dropping back into cover. Male sings Grasshopper
from a low exposed perch. Forages for food on ground. Eats Sparrow
Chunkier; light buff
mostly insects. Also eats seeds, snails, and spiders.
crown stripe; much
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. shorter, notched tail;

• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by female. Young altricial;

buffy underparts; buffy
lores; buffy streaking
brooded by female; stay in nest 10-11 days, fed by both sexes. and feather edging on
2-3 broods per year. back; white eye ring
• different habitat, lives
• POPULATION Uncommon. Declining in most of northern
in meadows.
range due to loss of habitat. Frequents open dry woodlands,
especially pines with grassy or scrub palmetto undergrowth.
• Conservation
Flight Pattern Uncommon cowbird host.
Vulnerable to habitat loss due to

\T Tv logging, development, land

clearing, and ecological
Short erkv flights of brief duration with
succession. National Audubon
rapidl ^ bea ting wings briefly alternating Society Blue List. Listed as
with \ ings pulled to body. threatened in many states.

Nest Identification
Grass and forbs, with lining of plant down, grasses, and hair • on ground or
grassy tussock, sheltered by tall grasses, vines, or shrub • built by female
Shape • 3-5 plain white -eggs; ovate, 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage
Sexe§ similar Habitat
^ _f ^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei § ht 0.7 ounc

DATE TIME LOCATION

644 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length 6
mchcs Wingspan 9 jnches
gMBERIZIDAE Aimophila botterii

Botteri's Sparrow
This large sparrow is a native of Mexico
itspermanent range extending into>
southernmost Texas and its breeding
range in summer into southeastern
Arizona. Spending most of its grayish upper parts

time on the ground, it

with rufous and
p black streaking
often will run rather
than fly to escape-

danger. It can be
distinguished large bill with
decurved
from Cassin's
0 ,
. ail ii 1 1' ii
Sparrow by its
long brown tail

and whitish
breast, and when
flushed, by the lack of
white in the tips of its
outer tail feathers.
Juveniles are huffier oven
and have buffy underparts
with streaking on the breast,
sides, and flanks.
• SONG A high abrasive series
Similar Birds
of hesitant chips, followed by a
bouncing-ball trill. Call is a thin chick. ( : \ssi\\ sparrow
Dusky tail; white tips
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Small groups after nesting on outer tail feathers;
season. Shy, elusive, and retiring. Hard to see. When flushed, dusk\ streaking on
flies short distance before dropping back into cover. Forages on Hanks; bill with straight
culmen; dark spots and
ground for food. Eats insects and seeds. Males sing from low
subterminal dark
exposed perches and sometimes on the wing between perches. barring on upperparts;

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. grayer underparts.

• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Estimated Grasshopper

Sparrow
incubation 12-14 days by female. Young brooded by
altricial;
Chunkier; buffy ioral
female; stay in nest estimated 1 days, fed by both sexes. region; short tail; huffier
1-2 broods per year. underparts; buffy
streaking on upperparts.
• POPULATION Uncommon in grasslands with scattered
shrubs and bushes. Declining due to loss of habitat, especially in
southern Texas. N
sJ[fX^
Flight Pattern • Conservation
Neotropical migrants in western
Tx population. Extent of cowbird
parasitism unknown. Population
declines due to overgrazing
Short flights on rapidly beatin] wings ,

alternating with brief periods f wings <

from as early as 1880s, land
pulled to sides. clearing, and development.

Nest Identification
Grasses and rootlets, ith lining of finer materials • on ground or grassy tussoek,
usually sheltered by II grass or shrub • built by female • 2-5 plain bluish white
Shape esiKs; oval to short o\ . 0.8 x H.57 inches.

Plumage
Scxes similar Habitat
^ Migration
Texas bjrds do n()t migrate
Weight
q.7 „ U nce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 645

Family Species Len Sth 6 Wingspan

EMBERIZIDAE Aimophila ruficeps inches 9 inches

Rufous-crowned Sparrow
The black "whisker" lines on each side of its
conspicuous
face,white eye ring, and lack of a white whitish eye ring
supercilium distinguish this bird from rufous line

the similar Chipping Sparrow. extending back

rufous crown
from eye
The wary Rufous-crowned gray-brown
Sparrow will run and upperparts with
hide from danger, reddish streakin,

rather than fly.

Despite this
tendency the
sparrow is often
conspicuous
and easily
observed when not
approached too
closely. It will,
however, come out into
the open in response to a Juvenile
gray underjfarts •
squeaking noise. Juveniles
have buffier upperparts and
Similar Birds
underparts, with streaking on
the breast, and often show two narrow white wing bars. Chipping Sparr< >\\

Conspicuous black line

• SONG A series of quick gurgling chip-chip notes, accelerating
through eyes; w hite
at the end. Call is an abrasive deer. line over eyes; two

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs or small family groups.

white winn bars;
notched tail; upperparts
Forages for food on ground or low in shrubs. Hops rather than heavily streaked with
walks. Eats insects, caterpillars, seeds, and grain. Male sings dark brow n; lacks dark

from exposed perch. Pair gives high-pitched squealing duet malar mark.

when reunited within breeding territory. Female gives feigned kl I oi S-WINGED

injury display when disturbed on nest by intruder. SI 'ARROW

Rufous shoulder patch;

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. reddish postorbital line;

• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Estimated dark mustache and

malar mark; reddish
incubation 11-13 days by female. Young altricial; brooded by
forecrown; dark brown-
female; stay in nest estimated 8-10 days, fed by both sexes. streaked nape. back,
1-2 broods per year. and back of crown
• western ranee.
• POPULATION Common locally on dry rocky hillsides with
scattered grasses, shrubs, and brush.
• Feeders Baby chick
Flight Pattern scratch feed.
• Conservation Extent of
V cowbird parasitism unknown.
Vulnerable to habitat loss due to
Short flights with rapidly beating wings grazing and development.
alternating with brief periods of wings
pulled to sides; repeated.

Grass, sticks, and bark pieces, with lining of grasses and mammal hair • on
Nest Identification
ground, atop grassy tussock or sheltered by ridge of rock, bank, or tree roots
Shape Location • sometimes low in_tree or bush, 1-3 feet above ground (but up to 25 feet)
• built by female • 2-5 pale bluish white or white eggs, unmarked; oval,
0.8 inch lone.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Scxcs simUar Nonmieratorv () j

DATE TIME LOCATION

646 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family species Len Sth Wingspan 9 75 inches
EMBERIZIDAE Spizella arborea 6.25 inches

American Tree Sparrow

After nesting near the frigid tundra regions,
flocks of these sparrows migrate south and
can be found primarily in the United States rufous crown

during the winter. Sometimes traveling gray head

in flocks of thirty-five to forty birds,
and nape
but often smaller, they scout out dark upper and
rufous stripe
yellow lower
food supplies and willingly come behind eye
mandibles
to outdoor feeders. Males often
winter farther north than • gray chin,

females and juveniles. black and rufous throat, breast,

streaking on back and underparts
Males sing during
and scapulars
courtship and also to
claim territory.

dark central
white trim on spot on breast
outer webs of
outer tail feathers

ufous patches
on sides of breast,
sides, and flanks

Juveniles have paler upperparts and streaking on

the head, breast, and sides. These birds spend their
summers in open landscapes and their winters near
the forest edge.
• SONG Several long clear introductory notes followed by a
variable trilled melody. Has a call of tweedle-eet, tweedle-eet.
• BEHAVIOR In pairs on breeding grounds. In flocks in winter. Juvenile
Relatively tame and conspicuous. Forages for food by scratching
on ground, foliage, or snow. Eats mostly seeds. Also eats insects
Similar Birds
and caterpillars in summer, as well as some berries and catkins
of willow. ^ Field Sparrow
Smaller; pink upper and
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. lower mandibles; clear
• NESTING Incubation 12-13 days by female. Young altricial; buff breast lacks black
central spot.
brooded by female; stay in nest 8-10 days, fed by both sexes.
1 brood per year.

• Population Fairly
Flight Pattern common in weedy fields, open
areas of brush and scattered

«T v T \T v trees, groves of small conifers,

mixed conifer-deciduous groves,
and marshes.
Short flight on rapidly beating wings
alternating with brief periods < »f wings
• FEEDERS Feeds on wild
pulled to sides; repeated. birdseed mixture.

Nest Identification Stems, bark pieces, moss, and grass, with lining of feathers, fur, and hair • atop
clump of grass or moss, rarely low in shrub or tree • 1-5 feet above ground
Shape — 4gt i
• built by female • 3-7 light blue or greenish white eggs, with brown spots and

flecks; oval, 0.75 x 0.56 inches.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Scxcs similar Migratory ()J ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 647

Species Len Sth Wingspan

Family
EMBERIZIDAE Spizella passerina 5.5 inchc 8_9 mchcs

Chipping Sparrow
Its bold chestnut cap, bordered by a long white superciliary
stripe during breeding season, helps identify this tiny
sparrow. Named for its song and call, it sings
from its high perch during the day, and h estn lit cap
sometimes even at night, or calls
gray nape
forages c c ,

as it tor rood in trees, and cheeks kite supercilium

gardens, and backyards.
One of the tamest
black bill
light brown
sparrows, it will take
upperparts with
food from human black or brown
hands. Juveniles streaking

lack the white black line

extends from
eve brow and
bill through
eye to ear

long slightly
notched tail

Winter
gray underparts Juvenile Plumage

Similar Birds
chestnut cap but have a streaked crown and nape, streaked
underparts, and buffy wing bars. Winter birds have brown- Clay-colored
Sparrow
streaked crowns, brown faces, and dark lores.
Black-streaked brown
• SONG A repetitive series of trilled chip notes, chip-chip-chip- ^ crown with gray center
chip-chip-chip-chip, all the same pitch. Has a call of seek. m stripe; buffy brown
cheek patch bordered
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. In small family groups after by dark postocular
breeding season. May join mixed-species foraging flocks in stripe and dark
mustache mark; pale
winter. Forages on ground and picks off foliage. Eats seeds,
grayish eyebrow;
insects, their caterpillars, and spiders. whitish chin and
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. A few males polygynous. submustachial stripe-

separated by buffy
• NESTING Incubation 11-14 days by female. Young altricial; malar mark; whitish
brooded by female; stay in nest 8-12 days, fed by both sexes. underparts with huffy
2 broods per year. wash on breast.

• POPULATION Common and widespread in open mixed

coniferous-deciduous forests,
Flight Pattern forest edges, gardens, lawns,
and short-grass fields.

• FEEDERS Comes to feeders

for breadcrumbs and seeds.
Typically, short flights with rapidly bea
• Conservation
wings alternating with brief periods of Neotropical migrant. Common
wings pulled to sides; repeated.
host to cowbird parasitism.

Grass, forbs, weed stalks, and rootlets, with lining of mammal hair and grass • on
Nest Identification
branch or vine tangle, rarely on ground • most often 3-1 1 feet above ground (but
up to 60 feet) • built by female • 2-5 bluish green eggs, marked with dark
Shape
^ browns, blues, and blacks, often wreathed; subelliptical to short subelliptical,
0.7 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat^ _j Migration
Migratory Weight
QA Qunce

DATE TIME LOCATION

648 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len §th Wingspan g nches
KMBKK1Z1I )AK spizella pallida 5.5 inches ;

Clay-colored Sparrow
The male bird perches to claim its territory
while singing its buzzy insectlike Song

across the grasslands. Wintering

primarily in the highlands of brown crown with
central Mexico, this tiny white hidi k streaks
supercilium
bird flies north to summer
in the prairies of Canada
and the northern United
States. In flight this
frequent visitor to
backyard feeders shows
a dark buff rump.
Juveniles have a gray
nape, buffy brown
drown eai
cheek patch, and patches
streaked underparts.
• SONG Insectlike pale gray -white
underparts with
\

re p e t i t i v e bzz % - bzzzz UK-

huffy wash on
zeee. Has a call of chip or sip breast
white wine, ban
• Behavior in pairs
during breeding season. Small
family groups prior to fall
Similar Birds
migration. Males vigorously defend
small territory. Sings often and well into the heat of July. Chipping sparrow
Winter adults have gray
Forages on ground or low in trees. Mats seeds and insects. May
rump; brown crown
join mixed-species feeding flocks with other sparrows in winter. with black streaking
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. and whitish central
crown stripe; gray
• NESTING Incubation 10-12 days by both sexes, but female underparts • first winter
does more. Young altricial; brooded by female; stay in nest birds have buffy
8-9 days, fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year. underparts.

• POPULATION Fairly common

brushy weedy fields,
in Brewer's Sparrow
,acks whitish crown
riparian thickets, and forest edges. Slight decline over recent
I

stripe; blacker streaking

decades due to loss of habitat after human populations increased on upperparts; paler
in the North and East. Rare to casual visitor in migration and brown ear patch lacks

winter on both coasts, the Southwest, and southern Florida. black outline; whitish
eye ring.
• FEEDERS Will come to feeding stations for breadcrumbs,
cracked corn, sunflower seeds, and millet.
• Conservation
Flight Pattern Neotropical migrant. Common
host to cow bird parasitism.
V ulnerable to habitat loss due to

development and land clearing

Typically, short flight on rapidly beating
for agriculture.
wings alternating with brief periods of
w ings pulled to sides.

Sticks, grass, forbs, and rootlets, with lining of mammal hair and rootlets
Nest Identification
• atop grassy tussock, on ground sheltered b\ bush, or low in branch of shrub
or tree • less than 5 feet above ground by female 3-5 bluish green
Shape <jp Location _ 4^ ^ eggs, marked with dark brow ns and
0.67 x 0.5 inches.
• built •

blacks, often wreathed; ovate,

Plumage Habitat
f _a_ Migration Weight
Sexes imi j i. Migratory

DATE TIME .OGATION

 BIRDS OK NORTH AMERICA • 649

Family Species Length Wingspan

EMBERIZIDAE Spizella pusilla 5 j5 inches 8 s inchcs
_

Field Sparrow
This sparrow stays near the ground in fields and open woodlands. W hen
defending its male flies from tree to tree singing a melody that
nest, the
accelerates like the bouncing of a dropped rubber ball. The clearing
of the primeval eastern forest provided thousands
of acres of habitat ideally suited for this grayish brown
rusty back with
dark streakim

pink bill

ino. bars
gray sides of head

buff breast, sida

and flanks.

Juvenile
small sparrow. Now, as the old farms become suburbs or succumb to the
woodlots brought on by ecological succession, this bird is declining in this range.
• SONG A pleasant seea-seea-seea-wee-wee-wee, which begins with
separate clear whistled notes and accelerates, either ascending, Similar Birds
descending, or staying on the same pitch. Call is abrasive chip.
Clay-colored
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs in breeding season. In small
Sparrow
family flocks after nesting. In winter, forms flocks that may join Brown crown with
mixed-species foraging flocks. Forages on ground or low in central stripe; buffy
cheek patch; buffy
shrubbery for insects, caterpillars, seeds, and spiders. Tame and
brow n malar mark; gray
curious; responds to squeaking and pishing by birders. nape; buffy edges and
• BREEDING Monogamous. Sol itarv. streaks on upperparts;
whitish underparts with
• NESTING Incubation 1()-17 days by female. Young altricial; buffy wash on chest
brooded by female; stay in nest 7-8 days, fed by both sexes. and flanks; 2 buffy

Male tends and feeds fledglings while female incubates second wing bars.

clutch. 2-3 broods per year.

• Population Fairly
Flight Pattern common in old fields, open
brushy woodlands, thorn scrub,
^ 1 X, >^"'T "V and forest edge. Casual in West
Uncommon in the Maritimes.
Short flights with rapid wing beats
• FEEDERS Small grain.
alternating with brief periods of wings • Conservation Common
pulled to sides; repeated.
host to cowbird parasitism.

nd dried grass, with lin ng of mammal hair and rootlets

Nest Identification
y tussoel jtclump of vegetation, sometimes in vine or bush • less
ibove gr md • built b\ female • l-b creamy pale greenish bluish
Shape marked" ith brow ns, occasional!' w reathed; short subelliptical,
ches.

Plumage Migration Wei 2 ht

Sexcs simi , ar Northern birds migrate 0.4 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

650 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan 1()_1
EMBERIZIDAE Pooecetes gramineus 5.5.6.75 inches 1.25 inches

Vesper Sparrow brown ear patch

This bird is namedtime of day it usually
for the bordered behind and
sings its best and most continuous'choruses, below with whiti
which is at twilight when many other
songbirds have become silent. Its song is not
limited to the vespers hour, however, for
kite
during nesting season, it sings throughout upperparts
the day from the highest perch available streaked
in its territory. This sparrow, with gray-brown
chestnut lesser coverts on its shoulder
grayish
and white outer tail feathers, has a brown
vast geographical distribution, its chestnut patch streaking on
home habitats ranging from dry at bend of breast, throat,
wing, with row and sides
grasslands and farmlands to
of black spots
sagebrush flats. Juveniles resemble beneath
adults but have more extensive
streaking on the underparts.
• SONG Two drawled clear notes
followed by two higher notes, then
a short descending trill. Call is a
high thin tssit.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs.

May form small family groups after
breeding season. May join loose
flocks in winter. Walks on ground.
Runs from danger instead of flying.
Forages on ground, in grasses, and
in low shrubbery for insects and
seeds. Very fond of dust baths.
Neither bathes in nor drinks water, long
notched tad Sa\ \\\ \n Sparrow
meeting all internal water needs through diet
Shorter tail; yellow
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary or loose colonies. supercilium; pale

• NESTING Incubation 11-13 days by both sexes, but female r : ;- c .

central crow n stripe;
central "stickpin" spot
does more. Young altricial; brooded by female; stay in nest on chest; lacks chestnut
7-14 days, fed by both sexes. Fledglings tended and fed by lesser coverts; lacks

male while female starts another nest. 1-3 broods per year. white eye ring and
outer tail feathers.
• POPULATION Uncommon to fairly common. Numbers
declining in the East as habitat is lost to development and because
logged areas become older and
Flight Pattern less suitable for nesting.

• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Common
host to cowbird parasitism.
Nesting sites are being lost due
Short flights on rapidly beating w ings
alternating w ith brief periods of w ing: to agricultural mowing and
pulled to sides; repeated. other operations.

Nest Identification Dry grasses, weed stalks, and rootlets, lined with finer grasses and animal hair
• in scraped-out depression on ground • hidden under vegetation, in field,
near tall grass clump, on sand or dirt • built by female • 2-6 creamy w hite or
Shape Location
pale greenish white eggs with brow n markings; oval, 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar j
Habitat
^ ^ Migration
Migratory Wei S ht 1.0 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 651

Family Species Length 5.75_6.75 inches Wingspan a5 _ n

EMBERIZIDAE Qhondestes grammacus , inches

Lark Sparrow
This sparrow, with its harlequin head pattern, has a lovely voice
and sings from the ground, a perch, or while flying, sometimes
even at night. Frequenting the open prairies and other open
habitats, mostly west of the Mississippi River, it can be black, white, and
identified by the dark spot in the center of its breast and the chestnut-brown
stripes on head
long rounded tail with extensive white edging. Juveniles
are similar to adults but more washed-out with an i

defined head pattern, huffier coloration, dark brown

streaking on the w hite throat, and white underparts chestnut ear
with a buffy wash on the sides of the breast. patches

• SONG Long, pleasant bubbling melody, brown and black

beginning with Z loud clear notes streaking on bark
followed by series of chips, buzzes, and
^
trills. Call is repetitive sharp metallic

Hk, often given in flight.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs.
Gregarious. Feeds in flocks, even during
breeding season. Forages for food on
ground and low in trees and shrubs.
Eats seeds, insects, and caterpillars.
Females on nest perform distraction
display when disturbed, scurrying
away with wings fluttering and tail

spread. Prior to copulating, male

often passes to female a twig or
grass stem, which she holds.
• BREEDING Monogamous.
Occasionally polygamous.
Often in loose colonies. Male
displays while swaggering on the ground in front of female, his tail

spread, showing off its white feathers.

• NESTING Incubation 11-12 days by female. Young altricial; Juvenile
brooded by female; remain in nest 9-10 days, fed by both sexes
Similar Birds
1 brood per year.

• POPULATION Common in cultivated areas, fields, pastures, Head pattern is distinctive; not likely
to be confused with other sparrows.
and savanna. Range has declined east of the
grassland, prairie,
Mississippi River due to loss of habitat. Casual to East coast.
• FEEDERS Small grains.
Flight Pattern • Conservation
Neotropical migrant.
Uncommon cowbird host.
Vulnerable to habitat loss due to
Short fluttering flight on rapidly beating land clearing, development,
wings alternating with brief periods of overgrazing, and nest losses to
wings pulled to sides.
agricultural operations.

Sticks, grass, and forbs • lined with rootlets and grasses • atop grassy
Nest Identification
tussock shaded by bush, or low sometimes in shrub or bush or in
in tree,
abandoned nest • 3-30 feet above ground • built by female •
Shape
«w i > --
3-6 creamy to grayish white eggs, marked with dark browns and blacks,
often wreathed; oval, 0.8 x 0.62 inches.

Plum a §e Habitat Migration Wei 6 ht

Sexes similar Jt Migrato»rv 1.0 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

652 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Ampluspiza bilimata Len 6th Win S s P an 8.5
EMBERIZIDAE 5.5 inches inches

Black-throated Sparrow
Its bold black throat and the white stripes above
itseye extending from its bill are good clues for
grayish head •
identifying this sparrow. As long as it is able to
get water from its diet, it thrives in the desert
white eyebroz
country, surviving long periods of time
hire mustache
without drinking water. Accessible water is
necessary, however, in the heat of the
brownish gray
summer through autumn, until the upperparts «i
rains begin and green vegetation
develops. It has not adapted
well to the transition of
habitats assome of its
range has been developed
into suburbs. Juveniles
lack the black chin,
throat, and breast of
adults and are streaked • rounded black tail
with brown on the breast with white trim on
outer tail feathers
and sides.
and white tips
• SONG A high bell-like song
with 2 introductory notes followed by
a trill queat-queat, toodle-oodle-oodle\ variable.
Call is an abrasive chip or high sweet tinkling twitters.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Sometimes forms small
Similar Birds
family groups after nesting season. Joins mixed-species foraging
flocks in winter. Fairlytame and curious. Responds to pishing Sage -Sparrow
by Forages for food on ground and in low vegetation.
birders. Juvenile similar to
juvenile Black-throated
Eats seeds, spiders, and insects. Walks or runs, often with tail Sparrow • white
cocked upward. Timing of breeding varies annually, apparently eyebrow stripeand
based on seasonal rainfall amounts and food availability. white eye ring; sandy
gray-brown crown,
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. nape, and back: fine
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Estimated dusk} streaks on chest;
traces of central dark
incubation 12-15 days by female. Young altricial; brooded by
spot on chest; tail lacks
female; stay in nest estimated 10-11 days, fed by both sexes. white edging and tips;
2 broods per year. brown streaking on
sides and flanks.
• POPULATION Fairly common in desert and semidesert
scrub, especially on rocky uplands. Declining in some areas due to
development of habitat.

Flight Pattern Accidental in the East.

• CONSERVATION
Neotropical migrant.
I ncommon host to cowbird
parasitism. Vulnerable to habitat
Typically, short-duration flights on rapidly
beating wings alternating with brief i>>ss caused by combination of
periods of w ings pulled to sides; repeated. land clearing and development.

Nest Identification
1 orbs and grass, with lining of mammal hair and plant fibers • in middle of bus
or cactus, less than 10 feet above ground • built by female • 2-4 plain white or
Shape Location pale blue eggs; oval, 0.7 x 0.52 inches.

Plumage Scxcs
similar
Habitat
^±^ Migration
Northern birds migrate Wei § ht 0.5 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AM K RICA • 653

Family
EMBERIZIDAE Species
j „lf)/lisI)hz(t M/j Length
6 ?s inches Wingspan 8 2S
j
| inchcs

Sage Sparrow
This shy sparrow of coastal California and the Great Basin area west of the
Rocky Mountains most often skulks and hides under dense scrub. It
often flicks w alks on the ground; when it runs, it usually
its tail as it

holds its tail its back, wrenlike. Males perch

perpendicular to
to sing conspicuously on the top of a bush. The white eye ring
and supraloral gray head
coastal subspecies Bell's Sparrow has much
y htt dark streak
darker gray upperparts with more distinct gray upperparts,
facialmarkings than the paler interior race, with or without white i lmi
dusky streakim and throat
with sandier upperparts with faint
its

streaking. Although the species is • brown to /dark

primarily migratory, the coastal race is malar mark borders
white submustachial
not. Juveniles are duller overall and
stripe
have more heavily streaked
upperparts and underparts. black central
pot on breast

dusky
streaking on
sides and
• SONG A jumbled series of flanks
Juvenile
phrases with a seesaw rhythm, twee-si-
tity-slip, fcTc-si-f?l)'-s/ip, high, thin, and Similar Birds
tinkling. Has a high faint call note of/// or tik-tik.
Lark Sparrow
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Small flocks Brown ear patches;
after breeding season. Inconspicuous and wary. harlequin head pattern;

Difficult to observe. Often found near water. Stays low in

shrubbery or on ground, except to sing. Forages mainly on
ground. Eats insects, caterpillars, and seeds. Male twitches tail
while singing and when scolding intruders. Runs or flies away
4 white
spot in
tail

chest; does not

Black-throated
Sparrow
corners; black
center of white
bob tail.

low over or within vegetation. Juvenile similar to

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. juvenile Sage Sparrow

gray head, nape, and
• NESTING Incubation 12-16 days by female. Young altricial; ir patch; white

brooded by female; stay in nest 9-11 days, fed by both sexes. supercilium; white
throat and broad
2 broods per year.
mustache; brown-
• POPULATION Common and widespread in the Great Basin streaked breast and
in sagebrush and alkaline flats. Coastal subspecies fairly sides; white edges and
otiter tips to tail.
common to common in montane chaparral. Accidental in East.
• FEEDERS Will come to feeders for baby chick scratch feed.
• Conservation
Flight Pattern Uncommon host to cowbird
parasitism. Vulnerable to habitat
loss due to land clearing and
development, overgrazing by
Short flights close to ground, NV j c li r.
cattle. The endemic San
wing beats alternating w ith brief pei Clemente Island (California)
of w ings pulled to sides; repeated.
subspecies is endangered.

Nest Identification Twigs, grass, and bark chips, w ith lining of grasses, forbs, feathers, fur, and se<

• set deep in shrub, less than 4 feet above ground • sometimes in scrape on
ground, sheltered by bush • built by female • 2-5 bluish white eggs, marked
Shape
with dark browns and black, occasionally wreathed; ovate, 0.8 x 0.65 inches.

Plumage
Sexes similar Habitat
^ A Migration \
j ost migrate Weight
QJ ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

654 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Fami| y Species Length Wingspan
EMBERIZIDAE Calamospiza melanocorys 7 inches j { mcht

Lark Bunting
In the spring hundreds of these birds fly in choreographed circles
and shapes like a rolling wheel of birds. As they move across the
prairie, birdsfrom the rear fly to the front over birds settling
into vegetation. They remain in flocks as they return to
their nesting grounds on the sagebrush plains. Males
and females have similar winter plumage, but males
show black primaries. Juveniles are similar to
winter adults. This is the state bird of Colorado black or slate-
• SONG Flutelike warbling melody of full gray overall i

whistles and trills. Often sings in groups.

Call is hoo-ee.
• BEHAVIOR In pairs or flocks. Gregarious;
in flocks most of year. Forages on ground
and in low vegetation. Eats insects,
caterpillars, and seeds. Territorial
males ascend 20-30 feet with
white wing patches flashing,
pour out song, and descend
with jerky butterfly
movements to ground.
Neighboring males often
join in display flights.
• Breeding
Monogamous. Some are
polygynous. Loose colonies.
Displaying male fluffs out
feathers and crest and sings.
• Nesting incubation unstreaked •
11-12 days by female; some belly

males help. Altricial young

white underparts
brooded by female; stay in dusky streaking
nest 8-9 days, fed by both
Bobolink rf
sexes. 2 broods per year.
White on back, rump,
• POPULATION Common in grasslands, dry plains, prairies, uppertail coverts, and
wings; buffy ocher
sagebrush flats, and meadows. Rare to casual on Pacific Coast in
hindneck.
fall and winter. Casual in the East in fall and winter.
• FEEDERS Occasionally attends feeders that supply small grains
and seeds.
Flight Pattern • Conservation

\ T v T \ T^
Neotropical migrant.
Uncommon host to cowbird
parasitism. Historical population

Strong flight with shallow wing beats declines in northern and eastern
alternating with brief periods of wings parts of breeding range caused
pulled to sides. by loss of prairie habitat.

Nest Identification
Grass, forbs, and fine roots • lined with hair and plant down • in grassy
depression • built 3-7 pale blue or greenish blue eggs,
by female •
Shape 3p occasionally spotted with reddish browns; oval, 0.9 inches long.

Plumage Sexes differ Habitat ^^ Migration

Migratory Weight
11

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 655

Family
EMBERIZIDAE Species
passercu ius sandwichensh Len Sth 5.25-6.25 inches w <ngspan 8_ 9 5 jnches

Savannah Sparrow
Named tor the city in Georgia where it

was first wide

spotted, this bird has a
range, living in grassy marshes and
""^
wet meadows to grasslands
slands and 1
*

cultivated grass to tu ndra. It also / V

has considerable vari
between the many races
ces that
wluUshorpalei
me(l
.'«» < r™»
|?«
,7
^
U jO*5 X> i
dark brown-
streaked upperparts
make up the species
many sparrows, it spends

most of its time on the

central "stickp
ground;
disturbed,
when
it scurries
on chest Wl
through the grasses,
running mouselike
rather than flying away.
But if hard-pressed it
flies up a short
distance then drops buff to white
underparts with
back into the grasses.
brown streaking
• SONG Begins with
2-3 chip notes followed
by 2 buzzy insectlike
trills, tip-tip-seeeee-saaaay.
Song Sparrow
Call note is seeep. Longer rounded tail

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in
without notch; hei
streaking on the
pairs. May form small family underparts; large
groups after breeding season. central "stickpin" on

Gregarious; forms flocks in migration and chest in most races;

lacks yellow in lores
winter. Forages for food on ground, sometimes
and supercilium.
scratching in dirt and foliage. Eats seeds, insects,
Vesper Sparrow
spiders, and sometimes snails. Roosts in small tight groups on Gray-brown streaking
the ground. on upperparts, throat,
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. Some marsh-dwelling breast, and sides; wing
has chestnut patch at
populations tend to be polygynous. Sometimes loose colonies.
bend; white outer tail

• NESTING Incubation 10-13 days by both sexes, but female feathers; white eye

does most. Young altricial; brooded by female; stay in nest ring; brown ear patch.

7-14 days; fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year.

• Population Abundant
Flight Pattern and widespread in open grassy
landscapes and tundra. May be
extending range farther south in
the southern Appalachians.

Short flights with rapidly beating wings

• Conservation
alternating with brief periods of wings Neotropical migrant.
pulled to sides. Uncommon cowbird host.

Nest Identification Moss and dried grasses • lined with fine hair, fine grasses, and roots • in

depression or scrape, sheltered by vines, grasses, or dune • built by female

Shape ^ Location
• 2-6 pale greenish blue or whitish eggs, marked with brown, sometimes

wreathed; ovate to short ovate. 0.8 x 0.57 inches.

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei § ht 0.8

Sexe§ simi , ar Moratory ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

656 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family s P ecies Am modram us savanna rum Len eth 4.75-5.5 Wingspan 8 _ 85 jnches
EMBERIZIDAE I inches

Grasshopper Sparrow
These birds are named for their insectlike dark crown ////

song. The male claims his territory by pale stripe

through rente/ yellow lore
singing from a low exposed perch
during the day. Hidden in tall
grasses, this bird runs rather
white
than flies from danger.
Because it nests on the gray-brown
streaking on buff breast, sides,
ground in cultivated
upperpart. flanks, and
grasslands, lives are lost undertail coverts
when the crop is mowed;
yellow at
after mowing, predators take bend of wings
eggs, young, and adults. Juvenile
• SONG High thin
Similar Birds
insectlike buzzing with
Baird's Sparrow
2 notes then a trill, pit-

dusk may sing with

more squeaky buzzy
At
tuck, zeeeeeeeeeeeee.
notes and trills. Call
is soft insectlike
4 Buffy orange crown and
supercilium; dark spot
in each rear corner of
ear parch; blackish
malar mark; necklace of
dark brown streaks on
risk. breast; chestnut

• Behavior scapulars with pale

edging forming scaly
Solitary or in pairs.
appearance on
May form small upperparts.
family groups after Henslow's Sparrow
breeding season. Greenish buff head and
Forages on ground nape; blackish crow n
stripes; black-bordered
and from low vegetation. Eats insects, worms, snails,
ear patch; rusty browrt
seeds, and grains. Males sing from any exposed perch. When upperparts edged
disturbed on nest, female flutters away in distraction display. whitish and streaked
black; dark brown
• BREEDING Monogamous Loose colonies. streaking on breast,
• NESTING Incubation 1-12 days by female. 1 Young altricial: sides, and flanks
enile is paler and
• ju\
brooded by female; stay in nest 9 days, fed by both sexes.
more washed with buffy
2-3 broods per year.
head, nape, upperparts,
• POPULATION Common in cultiv ated fields, grasslands, and underparts; faint
dusky streaking on
prairies, savanna, and palmetto scrub. Declining in eastern part
sides • eastern range.
of its range.
• CONSERVATION Neotropical migrant. Uncommon host to
cowbird parasitism. Declining
Flight Pattern due to changes in grasses grown
and losses to agricultural
operations. Threatened or
endangered in Florida and parts
of the Appalachian Mountains.
Flies close to the ground with a fluttering
rapid undulating flight, similar to a wren.

Nest Identification Dried grass with lining of rootlets, hair, and grass, partially domed on one
side • in slight hollow on ground, sheltered by tall passes • built by female
• 3-6 creamy w hite eggs with flecks and dots of reddish brown, occasionally
Shape qgp
wreathed: ovate, O.N x 0.56 inches.

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat

_j Migration \|j ora Wei g ht
0.8 ounce

! ) ATI- TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 657

Family Species
hmmodramus Length c c Wingspan 8>5
EMBERIZIDAE bairdii inches

3.
Baird's Sparrow
On nesting grounds males establish territories by perching on a

tussock or shrub and singing. In the 1870s this bird was one of the
most abundant in the prairies of its region, but remnant
populations now cling to the habitat remains. When frightened it hort spiky tail
scurriesmouselike through the grass and hides. The best field ith pale edges

marks on this elusive sparrow are the broad buff-ocher central

crown stripe and the necklace of brownish black streaks
across the chest.

flat ocherous crown

with black stripes
and wide ocher
center stripe

large bill

black mustache

Similar Birds

Grasshopper
Sparrow
Plain buff face and

band of fine black chest; pale narrow

streaks on breast central crown stripe;

dark postocular.stripe;
auriculars outlined
"**
above and on rear with
dark border • juvenile
Underparts are has buffy w ash on
white. Juveniles are more streaked breast and
washed out and paler with less streaking on the underparts. sides.

• SONG Silvery tinkling bell-like 2-3 notes, then lone warbled Savannah Sparrow
note, then trilling zip-zip-zip-zr-r-rrrrrrrr. Call More extensive
is abrasive chip.
streaking on underparts;
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Difficult to observe unless large central "stickpin"

singing. Flushed birds

up and drop, running
fly to hide. Forages on chest (typically);
conspicuous white to
on ground. Eats seeds, insects, and spiders.
yellow narrow crown
• BREEDING Monogamous. Loose colonies. stripe; yellowish to

• NESTING Incubation II-I2 days by female. Young altricial;

white supercilium.

brooded by female; stay in nest 8-10 days, fed by both sexes.

1 brood per year.

Flight Pattern • Population Uncommon

and local on short-grass prairie
and grasslands. Declining.
Accidental on both coasts.
Short flights low over grasses v fith rapid • Conservation
w ing beats alternating with brief periods Neotropical migrant. Vulnerable
of wings pulled to sides.
to loss of prairie.

Nest Identification
Dried grass and forbs, w ith lining of mammal hair and soft grass • in slight
depression, set in tall grasses or near bush • built by female • 3-6 w hite to
Shape grayish w hite eggs;- with lilac and reddish brow n markings; oval, 0.8 inch long.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat Migration
\Hgratory We '£ ht 0.8 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

658 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Length Wingspan
Species
? _ 7>5 inches
Family
EMBERIZIDAE kmmodramus henslowii 4.75_5 -2 5 inches

Henslow's Sparrow
Upon arrival at the nesting grounds, the male
begins singing day or night, rain or shine, flat greenish ocherous '

perched or concealed. He cocks his tail down, head with black stripes

elevates his head, and expels with a bodily

shutter one of the shortest songs of any green wash on
songbird. Occasionally, these sparrows neck and nape
large grayish bill
battle one another in defense of
Their plumage serves as
territory.
camouflage in the marshes
and meadows. Juveniles reddish wings ~~*
buff-green
resemble adults but are and back with mustache, bordered
black streaking
buffier and paler and black on both sides
and white to
have only faint streaking buff edgut
on their underparts. f-r$-
— • conspicuous
streaking on
• SONG Sings f/ee-LICK breast and sides
like an explosive bird
hiccup, with emphasis
• whitish underparts
on the second note.
with bu ff wash on chest,
Call is a thin high tsip sides, and flanks

JUVENIL
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Unobtrusive, secretive, and
easily overlooked, except for the persistent song of the male, Similar Birds
from low concealed or higher exposed perches. Singing males Grasshopper
allow reasonably close approach. Forages and skulks on ground Sparrow
Brown to buffy head;
among vegetation. Eats insects, caterpillars, and seeds.
pale central crown
• BREEDING Monogamous. Loose colonies. stripe; dark postocular
w ash on
• NESTING Incubation ll days by female. Young altricial; stripe; huffy
white underparts,
brooded by female; stay in nest 9-10 days, fed by both sexes. particularly on chest,
2 broods per year. sides, flanks, and
crissum; lacks streaking
• POPULATION Uncommon in weedy meadows, grassy fields
on underparts.
(especially wet), and reclaimed strip mine benches in pine-grass
savannas in the West. Declining, particularly in the Northeast.
• Conservation Some
Flight Pattern concern has been recorded.
Uncommon host to cowbird
parasitism. Vulnerable to habitat
loss due to grazing, agricultural
Weak fluttering flight with jerking of tail,
mowing operations, land
low over vegetation. Alternates rapid
series of wing beats with brief periods of
clearing, and development.
wings pulled to sides; repeated.

Nest Identification Grass and forbs, with lining of fine grass and hair • on ground in slight hollow or
sheltered by grassy clump or weeds • built by female • 3-5 creamy or pale
greenish white eggs, matked with reddish browns, often wreathed; oval,
Shape <^
0.7 x 0.55 inches.

Plumage Sexes simi

ar ,
- Habitat Migration
Migratory We 'S ht 0.5 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 659

Family Species Length Wingspan

EMBERIZIDAE hmmodramus teconteii 4 i5 _5.25 inches 6.5-7.25 inches

Le Conte's Sparrow
One of the smallest sparrows, this bird
is most often found in prairie
white central
wetlands. A secretive bird, crown stripe
Le Conte's Sparrow often
scurries mouselike in thick bright broad buff-
orange eyebrows
cover when flushed,
rarely flying, and only a thin bill
few feet at a time when
it does. The species has
declined in some parts grayish ear
of its range with the patches

disappearance of
damp fields and other
dark bro wn -streaked
similar habitats. This orange-buff breast
sparrow ismigrant
a casual and sides
in the Northeast and West,
traveling only short distances
off the main migration
pathways. Juveniles are buffier
overall and are heavily streaked on their Similar Birds
underparts. Nelson's Sharp-
• SONG Call resembles a short shrill grasshopper-like buzz. TAILED Si 'ARROW
Broad blue-gray crown
High-pitched and thin, it has a short squeaky introductory note stripe;unstreaked bine-
followed by a buzzy trill and ending with a final chip note. Call gray nape; less color
note is a thin 1stp. contrast on upperparts;
olive-brown body with
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Secretive. Skulking. Walks whitish streaks;
and runs on ground to forage within matted vegetation, often in frequents marsh habitat.
wet grasslands and bogs. In winter months, combs ground for grasshopper
seeds from grass and weeds. During summer, eats wide variety Sparrow
of insects, seeds, and spiders. Territorial male sings from Whitish to buff
eyebrows; brown, black,
exposed perch, with head pulled back and bill pointed skyward.
and buff nape; brown
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. auricular patch with
dark borders; whitish
• NESTING Incubation 12-13 days by female. Young altricial;
underparts with buffy
brooded by female; stay in nest estimated 8-10 days, fed by wash on chest and
both sexes. 1-2 broods per year. sides; lacks streaks on
breast and sides.
• POPULATION Fairly common and somewhat local in wet
meadows, bog, and marsh edges. Declining in parts of range.
Conservation
Flight Pattern Uncommon host to cowbird
parasitism. Vulnerable to loss of
V habitat due to draining of
wetlands and development of
Alternates of rapid wing beats w ith brief habitat for agriculture.
periods of wings pulled to sides; flies short
distances before dropping back nto grass.

Nest Identification
Grass, rushes, and stems, lined with fine materials • usually on or near ground
• built by female • 3-5 grayish white eggs with brown spots; ovate,
Shape 0.7 x 0.53 inches. -

Plumage
Sexes simj , ar
Habitat^ te Migration
Migratory Wei § ht 0.5
ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

660 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan J25 jnches
EMBERIZIDAE h mitiof//Y//////s nelson i 4>75 jnches

Nelson's Sharp-tailed Sparrow

Its streaked plumage serves as camouflage in
the dense freshwater marsh grasses it

inhabits in Canada, the northern prairie

plain gray
marshes of the IIS, and parts of
/////it ii inl

Maine. When frightened, it ear patch

scampers mouselike, with its buff to light
head held low, and does not brownish
fly. It recently was determined
upperparts with
hii n kish streak i n,
to be a separate species from
the Saltmarsh Sharp-tailed
Sparrow; both were formerly • gray to dark-brown
streaked ocherous buff
lumped together under the
//reus/, sides, and flanks
name Sharp-tailed Sparrow.
Adults show whitish or gray
streaking on scapulars.
Juveniles have buffier
underparts and buffy heads lute belly

without the gray auriculars

Juvenile
and nape and lack streaking
on the breast and flanks. Similar Birds
• SONG An explosive wheezy ,e Conte's Sparrow
descending p-tssssshh-uk, like the Bold dark brown stripes
on sides; white median
sound of cold water tossed on hot metal.
crown stripe; gray nape
• BEHAVIOR In pairs or small groups. Secretive. Difficult with chestnut streaking;

toobserve unless male is singing, which it does from straw-colored streaking

on back and scapulars;
conspicuous perches. Curious, and will come up in vegetation lives in prairies
and draw closer to pishing and squeaking by birders. Walks • juveniles have heavily
around on ground and picks up food or gleans from vegetation. streaked underparts.

Eats insects, their caterpillars, various seeds, and small snails. Sali \i \usii sharp-
Males loosely Flushed birds usually
territorial or nonterritorial. tailed Sparrow
Larger orange-buff facial
fly short distance before dropping back down into dense cover.
triangle contrasts sharply
• BREEDING Polygamous. Loose colonies. with body; larger bill;

• NESTING Incubation ll days by female. Young altricial; black-streaked

supercilium behind eye
brooded by female; stay in nest 10 days, fed mostly by female. • juv eniles have heavily-
1 brood per year. streaked underparts
eastern range.
• POPULATION Fairly common in w et meadows, freshwater
•

marshes, and tule beds. Numbers decline with habitat drainage.

• Conservation Rare host
Flight Pattern to cowbird parasitism.
Vulnerable to loss of habitat due
to marsh draining and
agricultural practices, including
cattle grazing.
Short flights low over vegetation, w ith

rapid wing beats alternating with brief

periods of w ings pulled to sides; repeated.

Nest Identification
Dried grasses and stems • atop grassy tussock or on pile of reeds built by
female • 3-7 light green eggs, with heavy brown spotting; oval,
Shape 0.76 x 0.57 inches.

Plumage Sexcs simi ar |

Habitat Migration
j^jj
Weight
Undetermined

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 661

Family Spccies Len S th Wingspan

EmBERIZIDAE Ammodramus caudacutus 5 inches 7 s |nchcs

Saltmarsh Sharp-tailed Sparrow

1 his bird was formerly lumped in one-
species, the Sharp-tailed Sparrow, with
u list ret iked
the Nelson s Sharp-tailed Sparrow, Irs
blackish cap
recent taxonomic split gives it the ocher-orange
distinction of tying for the longest eyebrow, streaked
black behind eye large bill
English name of any bird species
in North America. Making its

home in the Atlantic coastal gray earpatche

gray-brown back
marshes, walks on the
it with lizht streaks
ground in search of food rich buff triangle
on side oj face
and scurries through the
grasses, head down and
mouselike, when
frightened. If flushed
harply streaked
into flight, it flutters
pale bu ff breast,
weakly, with its tail sides, and flanks
jerking, for a short
Juvenile
distance before Similar Birds
dropping back down
Nelson's Sharp-
into dense cover.
tailed Sparrow
• Song a soft Shorter bill; head n les

flat; less defined

insectlike ts-ts-ssssss-
markings on head and
tsik. Call is a sharp chuck. around eye; more
• Behavior in pairs or intense ocherous buff
on breast, sides, and
small groups. Males are weakly
flanks • juveniles are
territorial and sometimes do not defend territory at all. Skulking buff} overall, with the
and somewhat secretive. Males sing from exposed perches. much reduced streaking

Curious, this bird will investigate squeaking or pishing by on underparts restricted

to sides.
birders. Forages on ground and in dense vegetation to glean
food from surfaces. Eats insects, caterpillars, seeds, small Seaside sparrow
Larger; darker graver
crustaceans, and snails.
upperparts; longer
• BREEDING Polygamous. Colonial. heavier bill; yellow
supraloral patch; dark
• NESTING Incubation ll days by female. Altricial young malar stripe separates
brooded by female; stay in nest 10 days, fed by female. 2 broods white mustache from
per year. white throat; bn udK
streaked underparts.
• POPULATION Uncommon to fairly common and somewhat
local primarily in saltwater marshes. Declining.
• Conservation Rare host
Flight Pattern to cowbird parasitism.
Destruction of coastal salt
marshes by draining and
because of development has
significantly reduced
Short flights with rapidly beating wing;
alternating with brief periods of wings populations of this species.
pulled to sides; repeated.

Nest Identification
Reeds, grasses, and seaweed, w ith lining of finer materials • on ground, set in
grasses or reeds •-built by female • 3-7 pale greenish eggs, marked w ith reddish
Shape browns; short ovate to ovate, 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Habitat Migration \[j<r

Sexe§ simikr ra 0.7

DATE TIME LOCATION

662 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family >pecies Length Wingspan 8 _g_ 5
EMBERIZIDAE h mmodramus maritimus 5.25-6.5 inches mches

Seaside Sparrow
This shy bird makes its home in the salt marshes of the eastern
yellow
coasts. Like many sparrows, the male perches atop reeds, grasses,
supra/oral
or fences to sing his territorial song. Walking or running on the long bill with
streak
ground, its large feet prevent it from sinking in the soft thick base and

marsh mud. There is much variation in size and color spiky tip

across the range, but the most widespread grayish olive

race, A. m. maritimus, is pictured here. upperparts
with streaking
Another race, A. m. nigrescens, is darkest, with
hite throat
the heaviest streaking on the underparts, and
was formerly recognized as the species Dusky
dark malar
Seaside Sparrow. Found only near Titusville, if stripe separating
Florida, it became extinct in 1987. Another throat and white
species, A. m. mirabilis, called Cape Sable mustache

Sparrow, also found only in the Florida \ white or buff

Everglades, is listed as federally breast with dusky
endangered. All races show gray streaking

rufous greater primary coverts.

Juveniles are duller with finer
streaking on the underparts.
• SONG Harsh buzzy oka-
cheee-weee, reminiscent of
Red-winged Blackbird. Call note is chip.

• BEHAVIOR In pairs or small groups. Forages on ground,

gleaning food as it walks upright, like a small rail; also wades,
rail-like, in shallow water. Eats small snails, terrestrial and
Juvenile
aquatic insects, crabs and other small crustaceans, and some
seeds. Males fly 20-30 feet high in fluttering skylarking display
flights and slowly descend back down to a perch singing all — Similar Birds

the while. SALTMARSH sharp-

tailed Sparrow
• BREEDING Monogamous. Loose colonies. Smaller; paler; buffier in
• NESTING Incubation 12-13 days by female. Young altricial; overall color; ocherous
orange triangle frames
brooded by female; stay in nest 8-10 days, fed by both sexes.
gray ear patch; whiter
1-2 broods per year. underparts with sharper
• POPULATION Fairly common in coastal salt marshes but dark streaking on breast,
sides, and flanks; black
declining from destruction of this habitat.
crown patch; gray nape.
• CONSERVATION Rare host to cowbird parasitism.
Destruction of coastal marshes, application of in the 1970s, DDT
and flooding of marshes for
Flight Pattern mosquito control led to the
extinction of one race and
contributed to the near
extinction of another in Florida,
as well as the significant decline
Short flights low over vegetation on
rapidly beating wings alternating with of other populations.
brief periods of wings pulled to sides.

Nest Identification Dried grass and sedges • lined with soft finer grasses • attached to marsh reeds
or set on clump of grass, from 9-1 1 inches to 5 feet above mud (but up to
14 feet) • built by female • 3-6 white to pale greenish eggs, marked with
Shape
11 reddish browns; short ovate to elongated ovate, 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Sexes simi ar ,

Habitat Migration
Northern birds migrate We 'S ht 0.8 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AM K RICA • 663

Family
EMBERIZIDAE Species
Passerell(l ;iiaca I
Length
6 7 s_7.5 inches
. I
Wingspan 1() ^, -
/s jnchcs
,

Fox Sparrow
Named for its rufous coloring, particularly on the rump and tail, the Fox
Sparrow is one of the largest of all sparrows. There is much variation in size
and coloration over the wide breeding range. The most richly plumaged
birds breed in the boreal forests from Alaska to Newfoundland and
are the forms seen in winter in the southeastern US, such as stout conical bill
the P. i. zaboria pictured here. In the western with darker upper
mandible
mountain races, birds have gray heads and
grayish nape
backs, while northwestern Pacific
and upper bach
coastal races are sooty brown with
dark brown rumps and tails.

While mostly solitary, reddish wings

this sparrow sometimes
is observed associating
large rufous to
with other sparrows. brown spot on
Migrates in late central breast

March and early

November, generally
undci parts heavily
traveling at night.
marked with
• SONG Each male has a triangular spots

large repertoire of songs,

singing one after the other until
his entire suite is exhausted before

beginning again. Rich flutelike sweet

melody in northern reddish races; other races
include grating trills. Variable, each phrase rises in pitch
then falls on closing notes. Call is loud smack or drawn-out stsssp.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs in breeding season. Small Similar Birds

flocks in migration and on wintering grounds. Forages by Hermit Thrush
double-scratching, towheelike, on ground and digging small Reddish tail; lacks
holes by kicking backward with claws. Eats weed seeds, wild streaking on brownish
back; brown to gray-
fruits and berries, insects, spiders, millipedes, and small snails.
brow n upperparts;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. whitish gray undcrparts;

• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by female.Young altricial;

thin bicolored
dark tip and creamy
bill with

brooded by female; stay in nest 9-11 days, fed by both sexes. pinkish yellow base;
2 broods per year. spotted breast, sides,
and
• POPULATION Uncommon to common
deciduous orin
flanks.

conifer forest, undergrowth, chaparral, montane thicket, and riparian

woodland. Declining in East.
Flight Pattern • FEEDERS Birdseed and 5^9
breadcrumbs attract it to ground
underneath feeders.
• Conservation Rare

Short flights on rapidly beating wings cowbird host. Vulnerable to

alternating with brief periods of wings habitat loss due to logging
pulled to sides.
operations and development.

Nest Identification Lichen, roots, bark, leaves, twigs, grass, feathers, and animal fur • lined with
grassand moss • on ground or in shrub, rarely on branch of tree • 0-3 feet above
Shape ground (rarely up to 20 feet) • built by female • 2-5 pale green to greenish white
eggs, with reddish brown markings; oval, 0.9 inch long.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
m^ A ^ Migration
Migraatory Weight
j |

DATE TIME LOCATION

 .

664 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA

Family
EMBERIZIDAE Species
Melospiza melodia len &h 5.75-7.5 inches Wingspan 8
2 5_i 2.5 inches

Song Sparrow
Even with its drab plumage, this bold songbird is
broad grayish
easy to spot when it perches in the open,
eyebrow
trilling its pleasant melody. In flight it brownish, grayish, or
pumps its tail up and down. brownish gray upperparts,
usually streaked
Inhabiting a wide range, this
bird found throughout
is

most of North America dark malai

long rounded
and is perhaps the stripe holders
tail
white throat
continents most
v ariable species, streaking on sides
w ith approximately and breast meet
in center and
thirty-one
form "stickpin"
subspecies
recognized. The • whitish
pinkish feet
Aleutian race, .1/. underparts
and lei's
nt.maxtma, is so

\
large and dark it looks like a
different species. Because of the work
of Ohio bird biologist Margaret Morse Nice, the biology of this bird
may be the best-know n of any songbird on the continent. Juveniles
are similar to adults but appear buffier overall with finer streaking. Aleutian
• SONG Whistles 2-3 clear introductory notes, followed by a rage
trill. Much v ariation in each individual's song and between
Similar Birds
individuals. Call is chimp or what and a high thin ssst.
Savannah Sparrow
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. May be in small loose flocks
Yellowish above eye;
in w inter, often w ith other species of sparrow s. Forages in trees, shorter notched tail;

bushes, and on ground by picking food off foliage, grass, and pinker legs; finer

streaking on
soil; on ground. Eats insects, larvae, grains, seeds,
also scratches
upperparts; central
berries,and some fruits. Coastal species take small mollusks and "stickpin" on chest.
crustaceans. Males sing from exposed perches to claim territory.
INCOLN'S SPARROW
• BREEDING Monogamous. Polygynous in some cases. Male Smaller; buff wash on

vigorously defends territory and battles with other males. Often chest; more distinct
markings; finer
chases invading birds from territory.
streaking on throat,
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by female. Young altricial; breast, sides, and
flanks; lacks central
brooded by female; stay in nest 9-16 days, fed by both sexes.
"stickpin" on chest.
2-3 broods per year (occasionally 4 in southern parts of range).
• POPUEATION Widespread and abundant to common in brushy
areas, thickets, riparian scrub,

Flight Pattern weedy fields, urban/suburban

lawns, and forest edge.
• FEEDERS Birdseed.
• Conservation Species is

Short flights close to ground, tail pumping one of the most frequent
up and down. Alternates rapid wing beats v ictims of parasitism by the

w ith brief periods of w ings pulled to sides. B r o vv n - h e a d e d C w b r d 1() i

Nest Identifu at ion w ith lining of fine materials • usually on

Grass, forbs, leaves, and bark strips,
ground, sheltered b\ grassy tussock or reeds • sometimes in bush or tree,
2—1 feet abov e ground (but up to 12 feet) • built by female • 2-6 greenish white
eggs, marked with reddish browns; oval to short oval, O.K x 0.61 inches.

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat

Jt t*_ _A_ «ss _ Migration
Northern birds migrate Wei § ht 0.7
ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 665

Family Species Length Wingspan

EMBERIZIDAE Melospiza lincolnii 5>2 5_6 inc hes 7 . 2 5-8.75 inches

Lincoln's Sparrow
I his inhabitant of northern bogs and
mountain meadow lands is skittish, often
wash
buff-colored
raising its slight crest when disturbed. It on back and
issometimes overlooked because of its shoulders, with
black streaking «l broad gray
furtive habitsand similarity to the
* eyebrows
Song Sparrow, with which it may
compete when nesting territories buff wash an
overlap. This sparrow can be • musta the

distinguished by its sweet

gurgling melody that sounds
similar to that of a House • buff wash
Wren or Purple Finch, and and fine s7rcah
on b/rast. sides,
by the buffy band crossing
andflanks
the chest and separating the
white chin and throat from
the white lower breast and
belly. Juveniles are paler and unstreaked
buffier overall with more whitish belly

streaking on their underparts

• SONG Features rapid bubbling trilled notes, with last notes Similar Birds
harsher, louder, and lower in pitch, chur-chur-chur-wee-wee-wee-
S< >ng Sparrow
wee-wah. Alarm call is a flat-toned repetitious tschup. ("alls also
Longer tail; thicker bill;
include a sharp buzzlike zeee. thicker malar. stripe;

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Sometimes joins mixed- heavier streaking on

underparts; central
species foraging flocks on wintering grounds. Secretive. Skulks
"stickpin" on chest;
low in thickets or on ground. Kicks
backward with both feet like w hite underparts lack
a towhee as it scratches among leaves on the ground; feeds on buffy w ash on chest;
brow n upperparts w ich
insects and small grains, as well as seeds from weeds and
rufous and black
grasses. In migration, often found in brushy tangles near water. streaking.
Often sings from a concealed perch during spring migration.
sw wii' Sparrow
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. Duller breast w ith

thinner blurry streaks;

• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by female. Young altricial;
gray head; rufous-brown
brooded by female; stay in nest 9-12 days, fed by both sexes. crown w ith gray central
1-2 broods per year. stripe; unstreaked white
throat; rufous wings and
• POPULATION Uncommon to fairly common in bogs, wet primary coverts.
meadows, riparian thickets, and mountain meadows.
Uncommon to fairly common in thickets and weedy fields in winter.
• FEEDERS Attracted by
Flight Pattern seed, particularly in migration.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Rare host
to cowbird parasitism.

Short flights with rapid w ing beats Vulnerable to loss of habitat

altern ating with brier periods of win^ because of logging operations
pulled to sides; repeated.
and development.

Nest Identification
Grass or sedge lined, sometimes with hair • often built in grass, hollow
depressions, or rfioss • built by female • 3-6 pale green to greenish white
Shape Location with reddish brown markings; oval to short oval, 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage
Sexes sjmilar Habitat^ A _j ,, Migration
jyjj gr
We| g nt 0.H
ounce

DATE TIME UOCATION

666 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Melospiza georgiana Length Wingspan 7 5 _g inches
EMBERIZIDAE i 4.75.5,75 inches _

Swamp Sparrow
This small stocky sparrow will nest
anywhere within range where
its
deep rufous,
there is sufficient emergent upperparts with
dense vegetation in p black streaking
marshes, bogs, wet deep rufous
wings
meadows, or sluggish
streams. As nestlings
gray face
learn to fly, they
must stay above the
water, so as not to vhite throat i
be eaten by turtles,
gray /'/ cast «
Adult
frogs, or fish.
females are similar •—
whitish helix
to males but have
brown-striped crowns.
Juveniles are buffy with
reddish wings and tails and
heavily streaked underparts Juvenile
Immatures resemble winter
adults with rich buff sides, gray Similar Birds
central crown stripe, and buffy wash overall. White-throated
• SONG A bold slow melodious musical trill of either sharp SPARROW
Stockier; larger; yellow
single-note or slurred double-note phrases, peat-peat-peat-peat-
supraloral spot; whitish
peat-peat-peat. Has a call of zeee or chip. or buff supercilium;

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs in breeding season. May form two whitish wing bars;
gray underparts; white -
loose flocks in winter. Secretive and skulking in dense
and-black- or brown-
vegetation or on ground. Curious, it will come to pishing or and-tan-striped crown.
squeaking by birders. Forages by wading in water and picking Lincoln's Sparrow
up food with bill or by gleaning prey from vegetation or ground. Buffy back and
Eats insects and seeds. Male sings to claim territory. shoulders with black
streaking; buffy breast
• BREEDING Monogamous. Loose colonies. Male often feeds band, sides, and flanks;
incubating or brooding female while on nest. black streaking on

• NESTING Incubation 12-15 days by female. Young altricial; throat, breast, sides,
and flanks; broad gray
brooded by female; stay in nest 11-13 days, fed by both sexes. supercilium; brown
2 broods per year. crown with black
streaks; buffy eve
• POPULATION Common in marshes, bogs, and riparian
ring.

stands of reeds, cattails, and sedges. Rare in the West. Some

population declines due to loss
Flight Pattern of marsh habitat.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Common
host to cowbird parasitism.
Vulnerable to habitat loss due to
Short flights low over vegetation on
rapidly beating wings alternating with draining of wetlands, livestock
brief periods of wings pulled to sides. overgrazing, and development.

Nest Identification Dry thick grasses with lining of finer grasses • set in reeds, usually 0-5 feet
above water • in some areas, in bush near water, 1-6 feet above ground • built
by female • 3-6 greenish white eggs, marked with reddish browns; short
Shape
subelliptical, 0.8 x 0.57 inches.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Q 8 ounce
Sexes djffer i lN
f
igratory

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 667
Family Species Length Wingspan 8<75 _
EMBERIZIDAE Zonotrichia albicollis 6- 25-7.5 inches 1()inch

White-throated Sparrow black or brown

The song of the White-throated Sparrow is borders crown stripes
and eye line
heard in the Canadian wilderness and in the
northeastern US where it breeds in
rusty brow
woodland undergrowth, clearings, and
upperparts
gardens. Distinguishing marks include
a broad yellow eyebrow, or supraloral

stripe in the front of the eye, which

tapers to either white or tan, and a
sharply outlined white throat.
Although it is common and
widespread, sightings of this
bird are rare in the West.
• SONG A thin whistle,
starting with 2 single notes
followed by 3 triple notes:
poor-sa/n-peabody,
peabody, peabody or pure-
sweet-Canada, Canada, White-crowned
Sparrow
Canada. Calls include a
lack-and-white-
grating pink and a drawled lisping striped crown; pink
tseep. Territorial birds often sing at night. bill; lacks whitish
throat contrasting with
Some black-and-white-striped females sing.
gray breast; lacks
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. In winter joins flocks of yellow supraloral spot;
other White-throats and mixed species. Hops on ground or tertials lack bright

rufous coloring.
forages in shrubs and trees. Scratches among leaves for food.
Eats mostly weed seeds, fruit from trees, tree buds, and insects. Harris Sparrow
Winter adult and
May hawk by pishing and squeaking
insects in midair. Attracted
juvenile • slightly
by birders. Two adult color morphs are based on head striping: larger; pink bill; crown
black-and-white-striped and brown-and-tan-striped. Field varies from tan with
studies show that white-striped males tend to mate with tan- black stippling, to
black with white
striped females, and tan-striped males tend to mate with white-
spotting, to black; face
striped females. buffy tan; chin varies
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. from white to
blackish; throat white,
• NESTING Incubation 11-14 days by female. Young altricial; black-and-white, or
brooded by female; stay in nest 7-12 days, fed by both sexes. black; blackish band
crossing upper breast.
1-2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Common and widespread in conifer and mixed-
conifer forest, forest edge and
Flight Pattern clearings, and thickets. Rare in
the West.
• FEEDERS Seeds and grains.
• Conservation
Relatively short flights with rapid wing Uncommon host to cowbird
beats alternating with brief periods of parasitism. Vulnerable to habitat
wings pulled to sides; repeated.
loss due to logging.

Nest Identification Lined with coarse grass, wood chips, twigs, pine needles, roots, and other fine
materials • often found at edge of clearing • 0-3 feet above ground • built by
female • 3-6 greenish, bluish, or cream-white eggs with reddish brown markint
Shape Location
subelliptical or long elliptical, 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage
Sexes s; mi , ar
Habitat
m^ ^ Migration
Migratory Weight
0 9 Qunce
.

DATE TIME LOCATION

668 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Zonotrichia querula Length Wingspan 10.25-1
p MBERIZIDAE 6.75_7J5 nches j 1 .75 inches

Harris's Sparrow black crown,

This large sparrow is named after Edward face, and bib
Harris, one of John James Audubon's black auricular
expedition partners. Where it spot

nested was one of the great

brown back and sides,
ornithological mysteries of streaked blackish broz
the early 20th century.
buffy to white
The nest was seen and
wing bars
documented in 1931,
making this the last
songbird to have its

nesting information
recorded. In winter,
breeding plumage is
replaced by a buffy face, al
or mostly black crown, black
chin, and throat that varies from al
black to having a white band through it.
Similar Birds
The amount of black on the winter bird is
under hormonal control and signals social White-crowned
Sparrow
dominance; the more black the higher its rank
Black-and-white-
in the pecking order of the flock. Juveniles are Juvenile striped crown; pink bill;

similar to winter adults but show less black on mostly gray underparts;

the crown and upper breast and have a white brown upperparts with
blackish brown streaks
throat bordered by a black malar mark.
on back and shoulders;
• SONG Repeated clear tremulous whistles in 1 2 white wing bars;
brown rump • juvenile
pitch, followed at an intervalby several clear
similar to adult but
notes in another pitch. Calls sound like a loud with gray-and-brown-
metallic spink and a drawn-out tseep. striped head.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. Shows faithfulness to White-throated

wintering Forages on ground by kicking and
territories. Sparrow
Distinctly outlined
scratching among and dry weed stalks. Bulk of diet
leaf litter is
white throat; dark bill;
wild fruits, grains, and seeds from grass and weeds; also eats black-and-white- or
insects, spiders, and snails. Breeds among stunted trees and brown-and-tan-striped

shrubs in taiga-tundra ecotone. crow n; broad eyebrow

yellow in front of eye,
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. remainder is white or
• NESTING Incubation 12-15 days by female. Altricial young tan; 2 w hite wing bars.

brooded by female; stay in nest estimated 7-12 days, fed by

both sexes. 1 brood per year.

Flight Pattern
• Population Common to
fairly common on restricted
breeding and wintering
grounds. Rare to casual in
winter elsewhere.
Series of rapid wing beats alternating
with brief periods of wings pulled to
• FEEDERS Grains, mixed
sides; repeated. birdseed, suet, breadcrumbs.

Nest Identification
Lined with and coarse roots • in depression on ground under stunted
grass
woody vegetation or moss hummock • built by female • 3-5 white to greenb
Shape white eggs with brown markings; ovate to elliptical ovate, 0.9 x 0.7 inches.

Plumage Sexes simi ar ,

Habitat
m _ Migration
Migratory Weight
j 4

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 669

Family
EMBERIZIDAE Species
Zonotrichia leuco[)hrys Len Sth 6.5-7.5
inches Wingspan 9.25-10.25
I
I I inches

White-crowned Sparrow
1 his bold bird easy to identify, with conspicuous
is

black snipes on white crown, a pink to

its
^ white crown
dull yellow bill, and a pale gray throat. supercilium with bold
lake many sparrows, the male black postocular
black stripe:

sings to claim its territory and stripe

duels to defend its ground. pink to dull

H is son gs may ev en brownish upperparts yellow bill

J
, . . wttn blackish brown
continue into the night. streaking whitish
As is usual with gray throat
JlVKNILE
wide geographica
range, there is grayish
morphological underparts
become white
and behavioral First winter
on belly
variation. The
most striking
Similar Birds
subspecies
differences include white-throa1 ed
Sparrow
bill color and white versus black
More rufous-brown
have heavily streaked
supralorals. Juveniles upperparts; mostly
underparts and a brown-and-buff-streaked head. Immatures dark bill; well-defined
w hite throat patch;
have a brown-and-tan-striped head and unstreaked underparts.
yellow spot between
• SONG A melancholy whistled poor-wet-wetter-chee-zee. Has call eve and bill; gray

note of pink or sharp tseek. underparts; two w hite

w ing bars; black-and-
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. In small family groups after white- or brow n-and-
breeding season. Forms flocks in winter. Males sing from tan-striped cap.

exposed perches; sometimes in spring on wintering grounds. Harris's Sparrow

Gleans food from vegetation; hops on ground and forages by Winter adult and
juvenile • slightly
scratching. Eats seeds, insects, caterpillars, and parts of plants.
larger; pink bill; crow n
• BREEDING
Monogamous. Individuals in some nonmigratory varies from tan with
populations may pair for life. Some polygynous. black stippling, to
black with white
• NESTING Incubation 1 1— 14 days by female. Young altricial;
spotting, to black; face
brooded by female; stay 7-12 days, fed by both sexes.
in nest buffy tan; chin varies
Male continues to feed young while female starts another nest. from w hite to blackish;
throat white, black-
Z-A broods per year (largest number of broods in southern
and-white, or black;
populations; 1 brood in far north). blackish band crossing
• POPULATION Common to fairly common in woodlands, upper breast.

thickets, wet meadows, and chaparral.

• Feeders Baby chick
Flight Pattern scratch and seeds.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant.
Uncommon host to cowbird
Short flights on rapidly beating parasitism. Vulnerable in the
alternating with brief periods of West to habitat loss because of
pulled to sides; repeated.
land development and logging.

Grass, sticks, rootlets, and forbs • lined with soft grasses, feathers, and hair
Nest Identification
• on clump of grass or moss, sheltered by bush, or in small tree • 0—5 feet

above ground (but up to 30 feet) • built by female • 2-6 light blue or green
Shape eggs marked with reddish browns; ovate to short ovate or long ovate,
0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Wei ^ ht 1.0

Sexes simi , ar
Habitat
i^. jk_ A Migration
Northern birds migrate ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

670 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len Sth Wingspan
EMBERIZIDAE Zonotrichia atricapilla 7 inche 9J5 inches

Golden-crowned Sparrow
When miners worked along the Alaskan gold trails, this Pacific
Coast sparrow was known as "Weary Willie" because of its
song, which sounded to them like I'm so weary. The
yellow patch on the dark-bordered crown is present
all year. In the winter, it often flocks with its

close cousin, theWhite-crowned Sparrow,

Winter adults have browner faces, are
paler and more washed-out overall,
and show varying amounts of black
black crown
on the crown. The juvenile has a with broad
yellow wash on its streaked rV/oa" median

crown, dark brown-streaked

underparts, and is similar to
the winter adult but has
fainter yellow steaking
on the forecrown.
• Song a
plaintive whistled
descending oh-
dear-me or I'm so dusky pink
upper mandibh
weary. Has a call and paler
of tseep and a loud lower mandibh
metallic chik. Sings
continuously in summer. White-crowned
Sparrow
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. In small family groups
Juvenile • pink to
after nesting season. Forms winter flocks with other species, orange bill; brown- and
especially White-crowned Sparrows. Relatively tame and tan-scriped head; tan
back with rufous-brown
curious, it will come and squeaking by birders.
to pishing
rump;
streaking; tan
Forages for food on ground and in low foliage. Eats seeds, grayish underparts; buff-
insects, flowers, buds, small seedlings, and some fruits and washed supercilium.
berries. Flocks show site fidelity to wintering territory. Hoi se Sparrow 9
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. Shorter tail; lighter
sandy brown overall;
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Estimated single white upper wing
incubation 11-14 days by female. Young brooded by
altricial; bar; black streaking on

female; stay in nest estimated 7-12 days, fed by both sexes. back; buffy eyebrow; no
yellow crown patch.
1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Fairly common in montane thickets, boreal
bogs, dwarf conifers, and brush}
Flight Pattern canyons. Winters in brushy
thickets and woodland tangles.
Casual in the East in winter.
• Feeders Will attend
feeders for seeds.
Short flights with rapid wing beats
alternating with brief periods of wings
pulled to sides; repeated.

Sticks, rootlets, moss, grass, leaves,and bark • lined w ith feathers, grass, and
Nest Identification
mammal hair • on ground, hidden in foliage and vines, sometimes on branch of
small tree or bush • 0-3 feet above ground • built by female • 3-5 creamy or
Shape qp — 4fr pale bluish white eggs, with
0.9x0.7 inches.
brown splotches; subelliptical to long subelliptical,

Plumage A Migration Weight

Sexes ilar _A_ ft*. Migratory j j

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 671

Species Length 5.75_6.5 Wingspan

Family
EMBERIZIDAE junco kyemalis inch< 9i25 _ 1()inche

Dark-eyed Junco dark gray

hood
In 1973 the American Ornithologists' Union grouped gray
upperparts
under one heading what was once considered five
different junco species. Thus, the Dark-eyed
Junco is composed of geographic races that differ
in color and range but are closely related and

have similar habits. All races of the species

complex have white outer tail feathers; a
black, gray, or brown hood; and white
lower breast, belly, and undertail
coverts. All have similar songs;
all but one have a pink

bill. Females tend to be

paler and sometimes

browner on the back.
Juveniles have
streaked upperparts
and underparts.
• SONG Melodic trill,

varied in pitch and

tempo and from dry
chip notes to tinkling
bell-like sounds, similar
to Chipping Sparrow. Call
is abrasive dit produced with
sucking smack. Twitters in flight.
White-winged GRAY-HEADED
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs. In small family groups male MALE
after breeding season. In spring and fall may join mixed-
Similar Birds
species foraging flocks; forms flocks in winter. Forages by
gleaning from vegetation and scratching on ground. Hops. Eats YELLOW-EYED JUNCO
seeds, grains, berries, insects, caterpillars, and some fruits; Yellow eyes; black
lores; rufous-trimmed
occasionally hawks flying insects. The larger males often winter
greater coverts and
farther north or at higher elevations than juveniles and females.
ITS* tertials; gray head and

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. nape; gray throat and

underparts paler than
• NESTING Incubation 11-13 days by female. Altricial young head; white belly
brooded by female; leave nest at 9-13 days, fed by both sexes. • limited southwest
range.
1-3 broods per year.
• POPULATION Common to fairly common in coniferous and
mixed conifer-deciduous forests
Flight Pattern and bogs; winter habitats vary.
• FEEDERS Breadcrumbs,
nuts, and seeds.

Short flights with white outer

• Conservation
tail feathers
flashing conspicuously. Alternates several Uncommon cowbird host.
rapid w ing beats with brief periods of Vulnerable to habitat loss due to
w ings pulled to sides. logging operations.

Grass, weeds, and leaves, with lining of fine grass, hair, and feathers • on ground,
Nest Identification
sometimes in cavity, sheltered by bush, tree roots, log, occasionally in shrub or
tree, 0-20 feet above ground • male gathers materials and female builds
Shape • 3-6 whitish to bluish white eggs, with markings of brown and gray, sometimes

concentrated at larger end; oval to short or long oval, 0.8 x 0.56 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat^ ^ A Migration
Northern birds migrate Wei § ht 0.7 ou

DATE TIME LOCATION

672 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len §tn Wingspan 10 jnches
EMBERIZIDAE Calcarii/s mccownii 6 inches

MCCOWN'S LONGSPUR
During years of heavy rainfall, this inhabitant of arid short-grass
plains will desert its nesting grounds. A monogamous species,
males and females are often together, walking side by side.
Winter males are similar to breeding females but
show deeper chestnut in the median coverts MALE
and more black in the breast band.
buff- and brown
Winter females are buffy with broad streaked
buffy eyebrows. Juveniles are paler u[)perparts
with a scaly-backed look and
streaked heads and underparts. All chestnut
plumages show a white tail with a wing bat
black inverted T-shaped pattern.
• SONG High-spirited
warbling and twittering
on breeding grounds.
Call sounds like dry
rattle or double-noted
churrip-churrip.
• Behavior in pairs
on breeding grounds.
Forms large flocks in
on
winter. Forages
ground and makes daily
visits to water,
buff-tippedfeathet
including irrigation produce scalloped
reservoirs, with effect on brown
breast
other species. Eats
weed seeds, variety of Similar

and caterpillars.
insects, Female ( IM S I \l T-COLLARED
Frequents drier prairies and stubble I,' INGSPUR
fields
White tail with black
than other longspurs.
triangle • breeding male
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. has black belly and
chestnut collar winter
• NESTING Incubation 12 days by female. Altricial young
birds buffy overall;
•

brooded by both sexes; stay in nest 10-12 days, fed by both male with black
sexes; remain with parents 3 more weeks. 2 broods per year. mottling on breast and
white spot on shoulder.
• POPULATION Fairly common locally. Stable, increase
possible on dry short-grass prairies. Ranges have shrunk since 1800s
Casual to California coast and
Flight Pattern southern Oregon. Accidental
to East Coast. Rare in interior
California and Nevada.
• Conservation
Series of rapid wing beats alternating
Uncommon cowbird host.
with brief periods of wings pulled to Vulnerable to habitat loss.
sides; repeated.

Nest Identification
Grass lined with occasional weeds, roots, and lichen • in scrape on ground
• scratched out by both and built by female • 2-4 white to pale olive eggs, with
Shape ^ Location brown and lavender markings; oval, elliptical, or pyriform; 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Sexes differ Habitat

_ Migration
Migratory Weight
0 8
.

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 673

Species Length Wingspan 10

Family
EmbERIZIDAE Calcarius lapponicus 6_ 7 inches .5-U.75 inches

Lapland Longspur black crown, /ores, heehs.

In winter this bird is commonly in the company of throat, (ii/d I> red st

Horned Larks, Snow Buntings, and other reddish

longspnrs on barren snow-swept fields throughout brown nap,

the north and central US, sometimes in large

flocks. Resembling a House Sparrow, it is seen
broad white
often. In all plumages the outer two ta
stripe extends
feathers are partly white and partly black from eye to sides
Females are duller in color with rufous of breast
greater wing coverts and edging on the
tertials, and a bold dark triangle outlines

buff ear patches. Juveniles are similar to white

females but with heavy streaking on underparts with
black streaking
the head, back, and underparts.
on sides and
• SONG Liquid warbling flanks
Bobolink-like song given in flight.
Call is melodious tec-lee-oo or tee-die
or dry rattling drit-ri-it.
• BEHAVIOR In pairs or small
family groups in summer.
Forages on ground for insects
and spiders; also eats seeds
from grass and sedges; mostly
weed seeds in winter. Migrates
in flocks in late fall and early
spring. Flocks number in the
Winter
chestnut nape
Female
thousands on US wintering with blackish

grounds. Courting tundra male strea ^ng

may sing while chasing female
Smith's Longspur
on ground; gives skylarking Winter • rich buff nape
flight song, rising from ground in unci underparts; thin

front of female, singing above her, dusky streaking i in

underparts; white
and gliding back down with tail and shoulder patch, often
wings spread. hidden; 1 white outer
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. tail feathers tipped
black on distal third of
• NESTING Incubation 10-14 days by female. outer web; small thin
Young altricial; brooded by female; stay in nest 8-10 days, fed bill; huffy supercilium.

by both sexes. Fledglings are divided equally between the

sexes; each tends its half of the
brood. 1 brood per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Common to
abundant on arctic tundra in
summer; prairies, grassy fields,
stubble fields, and dune areas
Rapid \ ig beats alternating with brief along shorelines. Widespread.
periods w ings pulled to sides.

Nest Identification
Fine grass and feathers • lined w ith grass and moss • in scrape or shallow
depression • built by female • 4-7 greenish white to pale gray-green eggs, with
Shape Location brown and black markings; elliptical to oval, 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei § ht

Sexes differ Migratory 1.0 ounce

DATE TIME UOCATION

674 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len ^th Wingspan
EMBERIZIDAE Calcarius pictus 5.75-6.5 inches 10_j x jnches

Smith's Longspur
This birdmost often observed during winter
is black-and-white head
with wh ite ear patch
months, foraging in pastures and ofher open
entirely bordered by black
areas, including airports, in the Midwest and
farther south. Winter flocks often do not
buff-colored nape
closely associate with other foraging longspurs, and underparts «
pipits, or Horned Larks. Smith's Longspur is

not wary and allows close approach, but if

pushed to flight the birds fly up in a zigzag,

giving clicking call notes. The white outer
tail feathers bordering the black tail are
conspicuous in flight.

• SONG Generally heard in spring

migration and around breeding
grounds. Series of rapid sweet
melodious warbles ending in
wee-chew!, like theending of a
Chestnut-sided Warbler's song.
Call sounds like a dry tickling rattle
• Behavior in pairs on
breeding grounds in arctic tundra.
In small flocks, pairs, or as
individuals on wintering
grounds. Somewhat
secretive but tame thinbrown
malar mark
and easily approached.
On tundra, eats seeds,
insects, and spiders.
Feeds mostly on seeds Lapland Longspur
in winter. Seldom Winter plumage • white
seen by biologists or buffy underparts * underparts; black legs
with thin dark and feet; thick pinkish
birders due to high brown streaking bill with black tip;
arcticbreeding range rufous greater coverts;
and inconspicuous flock outer 2 tail feathers
black-and-white
size', so its biology is known
poorly
• winter male has
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. scalloped blackish bib;

• NESTING Incubation 11-13 days by female. Young altricial; streaked black crown.

brooded by female; leave nest at 7-9 days, with flight 14 days

later, fed by both sexes. 1 brood

per year.
Flight Pattern
• Population Generally
* \ \ A \ uncommon, especially in
migration and winter. Casual
Swift erratic zigzag flight when flushed, vagrant to the Atlantic Coast.
then undulating flight with series of rapid
Casual to California.
wing beats alternating with brief periods
of wings pulled to sides.

Nest Identification Lichen, animal and feathers • lined with grass and sedge • on ground in
hair,

shallow depression by female • 4—6 pale tan to pale green eggs, with
• built

lavender and dark brown markings, or grayish eggs, marked with dark brown
Shape ty
and lavender; subelliptical to short subelliptical, 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Sexes differ Habitat Migration

jyjj gratory
Weight
j o

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 675

Family Species Len £th 5.75-6.5 inches Win § s Pan

EMBERIZIDAE ca icaru,s ontattis I I 10-10.75 inches

Chestnut-collared Longspur
All the longspurs are named for the long claw on their hind
toe. The male conspicuous as it rises from the ground,
is

circles and sings above its territory, then glides

down on rapidly beating wings, hanging as if chestnut
to land with wings extended above its
back. Males may repeat this several uppcrpt/i7j
times before landing. In flight the streaked with
black, buff,
white tail with its black terminal
//uel brown
triangle is distinctive.
• SONG Soft sweet tumbling whit <

\£'i>/<r />///
warble, similar to song of
Western Meadowlark, given
very short
only on breeding grounds. primary
Call is nasal kit-tal, kit-tal. projection

• Behavior in pairs or
small family groups in
summer. Flocks can number
more than 100 birds in winter,
often including pipits and
Horned Larks. Eats weed seeds
and insects. Males may attack
Similar Birds
other birds and ground squirrels
that approach the nest. Female MCCOWN'S LONGSPUR
has unique distraction display Gray hindneck; white
face with black malar
when intruders close to nest, mark; black crescent on
fluttering 2-3 feet into air in buff upperparts chest; white underparts;

aerial "jumps." with brownish chestnut wing bar;

streaking white tail with inverted
• Breeding black T; larger heavy
Monogamous. Solitary. pink bill; longer primary
whitish buff projection • females
• Nesting incubation underparts and winter-plumaged
10-13 days by female. with faint birds have tail pattern
Young altricial; brooded streaking #- of breeding male; white
underparts without
by female; stay in nest
streaking; buffy wash on
10 days, first flight at FEMALE sides and flanks
9-14 days, fed by both • winter male has
sexes. 2 broods per year. mottled blackish chest.

• POPULATION Fairly common in moist upland prairies;

winters in grassy and stubble
Flight Pattern fields. In migration, casual east
and west of range.
• CONSERVATION
Uncommon host to cowbird
parasitism. Vulnerable to habitat
Swift flight on rapidly beating wings
alternating with brief periods of win] lossdue to agriculture and
pulled to sides. development in habitat.

Nest Identification Grass • lined with finer grass and sometimes with feathers and hair • in

hollow on ground, usually hidden in grasses • built by female • 4-5 whitish

eggs, marked with" brown, black, and purple, occasionally wreathed; oval,
Shape Location
0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Habitat Migration Wei S ht

Sexes differ Mjgra{ 0.7 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

676 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
EMBERIZIDAE Species piectrophenax nivalis Len Sth
6.25-7.25 inches Wingspan 12 _ 13 inches

Snow Bunting white head and

This bird can survive temperatures *as low as ^ shoulders

fifty-eight degrees below zero and often

tunnels in the snow in the shelter of
black back
grass tussocks or shrubs to keep ^ ^
warm. When
seen in flight from bill

below, it often appears completely

Male
white, like a large snowflake. Males have long black-and-
a white rump. Nonbreeding females have white wings
a cinnamon rump and shoulders.

• SONG Series of bold repetitive high

trilling musical notes. Sings only on
breeding grounds, usually in fluttering
display flight and from the ground. Call is

whistling ten.

• BEHAVIOR In pairs on breeding

grounds. Fledged young quickly
form foraging flocks when brownish
gray-black streaking on
independent of
upperparts white head Similar Birds
parental care. long black tinged with
and-white brown McKay's Bunting
Gregarious after
wmgsm^ Alaska range
breeding, often • breeding male
roosting, traveling, completely white
and feeding in large except for fine black
streaking on forecrown;
flocks. Frequently
black tips to central tail
bathes in snow. Forages feathers; black distal
on ground for seeds, half of primaries and
tertials; heavy black bill
insects, and caterpillars.
• breeding female is
Coastal birds also feed on sma similar but shows black
crustaceans and mollusks. Joins other chevrons on shoulders;
open-landscape bird species in winter, including black spot on nape;
more black on central
Lapland Longspurs and Horned Larks. VENILE
tail feathers • winter
• BREEDING Monogamous. Pairs. plumage similar to
breeding plumage but
• NESTING Incubation 10-16 days by female. Young w ith cinnamon crown,
brooded by female; stay in
altricial; nest 10-17 days, washes of cinnamon on
fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year; birds in the
\\ INTER upperparts, and yellow-
PLUMAGE orange hill.
southern limits of range occasionally have 2 broods.
• POPULATION Fairly common in summer on arctic
rocky shores, dry
Flight Pattern tundra, cliffs, and talus slopes;
winters in stubble fields, grassy
and on coastal beaches
fields,
and around sand dunes.

Swift flight cm rapidly beating wings

• BlRDHOUSES Will build
alternating w ith brief periods of wings nest in birdhouses.
pulled to sides.

Nest Identification Grass and moss with lining of grasses, mammal hair, and feathers • under grassy-
tussock or in crevice of rock or cliff; in nest boxes, buildings, empty oil barrels,
Shape and other artificial structures • built by female • 4-7 whitish to light blue-green
|g
eggs w ith brow n and black markings: subelliptical, ().'* \ 0.7 inches.

Plumage Scxcs Wei S ht

differ Migrator\ 1.5 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 677

Family
CARDINALIDAE Species
Rfiodothraupis celaeno
Len ^th
8.5 inches
Wingspan u ; nches

Crimson-collared Grosbeak
This bird is easy to identify by the male's bold crimson
collar contrasting with its black head and chest, but
its shy manner makes it difficult to spot. A native
of northeastern Mexico, it sometimes winters
in the lower Rio Grande Valley of southern

Texas. Juveniles are similar to adult females

but the sooty black is primarily restricted
to the face and throat. By their second
spring juvenile males show olive
upperparts and a black face and chest
similar to that of the adult female, but
the underparts have reddish pink and
black patches and the tail and tertials

show some black.

• SONG Rich slightly burry warble
with upslurred ending, twit-twert-teer-
twerty-dur, similar to that of the
Northern Cardinal. Call is thin shrill
up-and-down see-i-ya.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs

May join mixed foraging flocks.
Shy; retiring. Forages high to
low in second growth and
brushy woodland. Skulks on
ground or in low vegetation. Audubon's Oriole
Gleans from ground, Similar to female
( irimson-collared
twigs, flowers, and
Grosbeak • larger; long
foliage. Eats seeds, wings thin dark hill; black
berries, fruits, insects, and tail upper mandible and
blue-gra} lower
and larvae. May raise
mandible; black head
feathers on back of crown. and chest; yellow-olive
oik v - iv llowish /owe?
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary du st and underparts upperparts; rich lemon-
\cllow underparts;
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Estimated black w ings w ith thin
incubation 11-13 days by female. Young altricial; brooded b\ w hite w ing bar; long
female; stay in nest estimated 9-12 days, fed by both sexes. black tail; bine-gray legs
and feet.
1-2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Uncommon in native range. Casual in the lower
Rio Grande Valley area in the

Flight Patten southeastern part of Texas.

• Conservation
Vulnerable to habitat loss due i

agricultureand development.
Short flights within vegetation and below
Extent of cowbird parasitism
canopy; rapid wing beats alternating with remains undetermined.
brief periods of wings pulled to sides.

Nest Identification
Bulky • grasses" and twigs, with lining of finer materials • in bush, tangled vines,
or sometimes low in tree • built by female • 2-3 light grayish blue eggs, with
Shape ^ Location flecks of brown; oval, 0.85 x 0.66 inches.

Plumage
Scxcs differ
Habitat
^^ Migration
Nonmigratory We 'g nt Undetermined

DATE TIME LOCATION

678 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan _ 12 nches
CARDINAL DAK Cardinalis cardinalis 7. 5 _9. 25 inches 1() i

Northern Cardinal accentuated

The official bird of seven US states sings a variety of crest

cheerful melodies year-round. The male fights other birds to

defend and sometimes tries to attack his own
his territory
black mask
reflection inwindows, automobile mirrors, chrome, and through eyes
hubcaps. Having adapted to suburban areas, these birds cone-shaped
visit backyard feeders regularly and sometimes take reddish bill

food from the hand. Juveniles resemble the adult

black patch
female but have a blackish instead of reddish bi
at base of bill
• SONG Variable. Variety of gurgling and clear extends onto
whistled melodies. More than 25 different songs. throat

Best-known phrases include whoit cheer, whoit cheer,

cheer-cheer-chcer; < lire/: whoit-whoit-whoit-whoit; wheat
wheat-wheat-wheat; and bir-dy, bir-dy, bir-dy, bir-dy.
Female in courtship duets with male red overall

after territory is established and

prior to nesting. Call is ed tip • Male
abrasive metallic chip or pik. dusky lores
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or and patch at
base of bill*.
in pairs during breeding
season. Gregarious at other
Female
times, forming flocks in
winter or joining mixed-
species foraging flocks. buff-brown
underparts
Forages in trees, bushes,
and on ground. Eats insects, Juvenile
seeds, grains, fruits, and snails.
Drinks sap from holes drilled by Similar Birds
sapsuckers. Hops rather than walks on ground. 'yrrhuloxia 9
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. Male feeds Resembles female and
juvenile Northern
female during courtship and while incubating.
Cardinal; stubby sharply
• NESTING Incubation 12-13 days, mostly by female. Young curved yellowish bill;

altricial; brooded by female; stay in nest 9-11 days, fed by both red eye ring; red tip to
long gray crest; grayish
sexes. Male may continue to tend fledglings while female
upperparts; red edging
begins incubating new set of eggs. 2-4 broods per year. to primaries; reddish

• POPULATION Abundant and widespread in woodland wash on throat and

underparts.
edges, undergrowth, thickets, and residential areas. Range has
expanded north in the last century, partly due to increase of
feeding stations. Casual in West.
Flight Pattern • FEEDERS Cracked corn,
sunflower seeds, birdseed. Will
bathe in birdbaths.
• Conservation Common
Short flight just above vegetation or belo\ covvbird host, especially in the
canopy; rapidly beating wings alternate central portion of its range.
w ith brief periods of wings pulled to side;

Twigs, weeds, grass, bark strips, and leaves • lined with hair and grass • in
Nest Identification
fork of low tree or bush or set in tangled twigs or vines • usually less than
5 feet above ground (but up to 15 feet) • built by female • 3-4 pale greenish,
Shape Location bluish, or grayish eggs with dots and flecks of gray, purple, and brown; oval,
1.0 \ 0.7 inches.

Plumage Sexes differ Habitat

^ Migration
Nonmigratory We 'g nt 1.6 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 679

Species Len Sth 8.75 inches Wingspan

Family
CARDINALIDAE (]ardinalis sinuatus 1L2 5 inches

PYRRHULOXIA
This long-crested bird of southwestern North America
and Mexico looks like a gray cardinal with a parrotlike
conspicuous
bill. Both the male and female aggressively defend their red-tipped
two- to three-acre territory until it is established, gray crest
whereupon it becomes the duty of the male to

maintain it. The female is similar to the male but

thick stubby
has a buffy gray breast, a red tip to her gray crest, sharply curved
red washes on her throat and the midline of her gray head, back, yellow bill
and upperparts •
breast and belly, and red edging to her
primaries. In winter the yellow bill of both dark gray wings
sexes turns grayish yellow. In flight the with red edging
on primaries •
underwing coverts flash red.
• SONG Varied series of rich loud
whistles, chewee, chewee, chewee; red mottling
from throat to
wheet-wheet-wheet, very
i enter of helix
similar to Northern
Cardinal. Call is

sharp metallic
plik or chink.
pale gray
• Behavior Solitary underparts
or in pairs during breeding
season. Gregarious at other Male
times, forming flocks in
winter. Often joins mixed-
species foraging flocks in
winter. Forages for food in Similar Birds
buff-gray
trees, bushes, and on
breast and Northern Cardinal?
ground but spends much underparts Female and juvenile
time on ground, where it hops have huffy olive
upperparts; red wings,
instead of walks. Eats flower
wing coverts, and tail;
spikes, various fruits, berries,
buffy olive crest with
seeds, insects, and larvae. Male reddish tip; dusky lores

sings from exposed perch. and patch at base of bill;

buffy brown underparts

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. • female has cone-shaped
• NESTING Incubation 14 days by reddish bill • juvenile has
cone-shaped blackish bill.
female. Young brooded by female;
altricial;

leave nest at 10-11 days, fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Fairly
Flight Pattern common in thorn scrub, arid
brushlands, mesquite thickets,
and ranchlands.
• Feeders Will come to

Short flights low over vegetation, with

feeders and birdbaths.
rapid wing beats alternating with brief • Conservation
periods of wings pulled to sides.
Uncommon cowbird host.

Nest Identification Thorny twigs, weeds, grass, and bark pieces, lined with rootlets and fine
materials • in shrub or thicket • 5-15 feet above ground • built by female

Shape • 3-4 grayish white or greenish white eggs with brown dots and flecks;
oval, 1.0 x 0.7 inches.

Plumage Habitat
Sexes differ lonmigratory

DATE TIME LOCATION

680 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len §th 7-8.5 Wingspan ?_i 3
CARDINALIDAE pheucticus ludovicianus inches j i nches

Rose-breasted Grosbeak
This bird's clear notes are delivered in robinlike phrases, but
the song sweet. Males sing constantly, even while sparring
is

to win a female. In flight the male shows rosy red wing

hite or buff-
linings and white rump; females flash yellow wing olored bill
males have less streaking on
linings. First fall white shout
underparts than females, buffy wash across
the breast, and rose-red wing linings white wing
patch
First spring males are similar
black uppertail black throat
to adult males but with
(averts boldly
brown edges to the tipped bh
black plumage.
white underparts with
• SONG Rich warbled rosy red triangular
melodious phrases patch on breast
interspersed with
call notes. Squeaky
abrasive call, eek.
black tail with
• Behavior white inner webs to
Solitary or in pairs outer tail feathers
in breeding season.
Flocks in migration
and winter. Forages brownish
upperparts with
in trees, shrubs, and
• dark streaking
on ground. Eats seeds, J broad white wing
insects, caterpillars, bars with yellowish
• wins: finings First spring
tree flowers, fruits, and
male
berries. Hover gleans
high in treesat branch
Similar Birds
tips;females more Female
often than males. Black: headed
Grosbeak 9
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary.
Buff to white
Male and female rub bills to display affection during courtship supercilium; pale
• NESTING Incubation 13-14 days by both sexes. Altricial cinnamon chest with
fine streaking on sides
young brooded by both sexes, more by female; stay in nest and flanks; upperparts
9-12 days, fed by both sexes. Male may tend while female have buffy mottling and
begins second nesting. 1-2 broods per year. streaking; lemon-yellow
underwing coverts.
• POPUEATION Common to fairly common in deciduous
forest, woodland, and second growth. Rare migrant in West. Rare to

Flight Pattern California coast.

• FEEDERS Use increases

«Tv T \Jv .
during migration.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Common
Swift flight on rapidly beating wings with
cow bird host. Vulnerable to
brief periods of wings pulled to sides.
habitat loss due to logging.

Nest Identification Twigs, weeds, and leaves • lined w ith fine tw igs, rootlets, and mammal hair • in

vines, low tree, or shrub. 5-15 feet above ground (but up to 50 feet) • built

Shape ^ Location &r

^ mostly In female, but
w ith reddish brow
male helps • 3-5 light greenish or bluish eggs marked
n; oval, 1.0 \ 0.7 inches.

Plumage
Sexes diffcr Habitat^ ^ Migration
M gratory
i
Weight
{ 6 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 681

Species Len §th 7-8.5 Wingspan

Family CARDINALIDAE p/ieuctjcus melanocephalus inches 12 _U ihch<

BLACK-HEADED GROSBEAK
Easily observed in western woodlands, this tame
bird attends feeders and sometimes takes food
from the hand. Both sexes aggressively
defend their territory from other grosbeaks.
Lemon wing linings are conspicuous in
large dark
flight. First fall males have rich
conical bill
cinnamon-buff underparts, blackish
brown cheek patches, white eyebrow 2 white
and mustache, and white tips to tertials. wing bars
• SONG Rich back-and-forth series of white patch at
warbled phrases, robinlike. Similar to base of primaries

Rose-breasted Grosbeak but lower

pitched. Female sings less with more ci n nam 011
variations. Call is high squeaky plik. underpart.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs

in breeding season. Gregarious in brown head and
migration and winter; may form upperparts with
flocks. Forages in trees, bushes, dark streaking

and on ground. Eats seeds, white median

crown stripe black tad with white if
insects, caterpillars, berries,
inner webs to outer
and fruits. Some hybridize white supercilium tail feathers
ind mustache
with Rose-breasted
2 white
Grosbeak where
pale cinnamon wing bars
ranges overlap in
throat and
Great Plains. Both underparts
sexes may sing
"whisper" songs lemon wash
while incubating on belly
Similar Birds
and brooding.
• BREEDING
fine bro wn
streaks on sidi
«f
mm^ I IMA!
>»H'*rt<iU
Rose-breasted
Grosbeak 9
Monogamous. Solitary and flanks I

1 lea\ ier streaked white

• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by both sexes. Altricial to butty underparts;
darker upperparts;
young brooded by both sexes, more by female; stay in nest
brown edging to
1 1-12 days, fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year. feathers on back; gray to
• POPULATION Common to fairly common in open pale creamy pink bill;

paler upper mandible.

woodlands, especially pine-oak and oak, forest edge, and
riparian woodlands. Casual in migration and winter to the Midwest
and the Hast.
Flight Pattern • FEEDERS Various seeds.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant.
"T Uncommon cowbird host.
Short fligh s with rapid wing beats Vulnerable to habitat loss due to
alternating with brief periods of wings logging and fires.
pulled to s des.

Nest Identification Sticks, weeds, rootlets, and pine needles, lined with finer materials • in dense
part of tree or shrub, usually near w ater, about 4-25 feet abov e ground • built by
female • 3—4 light greenish or bluish eggs dotted with reddish brown; oval,
Shape
1.0 x 0.7 inches.

Plumage
Scxes diffef Habitat
^^ Migration
Migratorv Wei S ht 1.5
ounce;

DATE TIME LOCATION

682 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len §th Wingspan g
CARDINALIDAE Qyanocompsa pareUina 5.5 inch es 5 jnches
_

Blue Bunting n
hl blue forecrown,
• paler f

Strays of this tropical bird /supercilium, malar

occasionally find their way to
the lower Rio Grande Valley of
southern Texas during the
winter months. The lack of
chestnut wing bars and
its smaller size set ... deep blue
..... r thick strongly
,

from
this bird apart
curved bill
overall

the Blue Grosbeak;

the darker and more MALE
contrasting colors combined
with a thicker bill with a strongly
curved culmen distinguish it from the
Indigo Bunting. Except for call notes,
these winter visitors usually are silent,
making them more difficult to detect in
the scrubby thickets and brushy
woodlands they frequent. Males
have a paler blue forecrown,
supercilium, malar mark,
shoulder, and rump. Juveniles thick strongly
• curved bill
are similar to adult females.
Similar Birds
• SONG Varied plaintive trilling
of seeyou, seeyou, seeyee-suee-si-si-see, • warm brown Bli e Grosbeak
with 1-2 introductory notes overall with Larger; chestnut wing
slightly darker bars; heavy conical bill.
followed by a trill then fading upperparts
away. Call is metallic chink. Indigo Bunting
Smaller, less curved bill
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs • male shows less
Shy and retiring. Spends time low contrast in colors, being

in the brushy forest understory, brighter. blue overall

with dark lores • female
dense scrubby thickets, and on
and juvenile are brown
ground. Forages for seeds, overall; paler underparts,
! I-MAI.K pale cinnamon
insects, and insect larvae. brown underparts especially on chin and
belly; faint streaking on
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. with paler throat
underparts; 2 indistinct
and belly
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known wing bars.

Estimated incubation by female 11-13 days. Altricial young

brooded by female; stay in nest estimated 10-12 days, fed by
both sexes. 1-2 broods per year.

Flight Pattern
• POPULATION Rare in
North America in south Texas
V along the Mexican border.
• FEEDERS Small seeds.
Typically, short flight with rapid wi ng
• Conservation Extent of
beats alternating with brief periods of cowbird parasitism has not been
wings pulled to sides. well documented.

Nest Identification
Grasses and rootlets, with lining of finer materials • in bush or low in small
tree • built by female • 2 plain pale bluish white eggs; oval to short oval,
Shape Location 0.7 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage >+ Migration *^

onmigratory Weight
Sexes differ Q5

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OK NORTH AM K RICA • 683

Family Species Length Wingspan n ^

caRDINALIDAE Guiraca caerulea 6.25-7.5 inches j .5 inches

Blue Grosbeak black lores and

Often seen flocking in southern fields in spring, this face around
grosbeak, with its deep blue plumage, may appear Malh base of bill

black bom a distance or on a cloudy day. Not shy, it

hops on the ground, wagging or spreading its tail,

and sings from a conspicuous perch. In nesting
season the male attacks other pairs to defend blackish

its territory. Females may be mistaken for

thick conical
female Brow n-headed Cowbirds, but the bill with blackish
large triangular bill and brown wing bars uppe r inaudible
arc distinctive, as is their behavior of and silver-gray
lower mandible
raising a slight crest and flicking and
spreading their tails. Females have a
~
gray-brown rump that can show
bluish cast.
• SONG Series of deep rich
slightly scratchy warbles
and fall in pitch,
that rise
resembling the Purple darhr brQwn
Finch. Call is explosive streaking on back
metallic pink.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary
or in pairs during
breeding season. paL
More gregarious
inother seasons;
forms flocks. Hops
cinnamon buff
on ground to forage; underparts
gleans from weeds,
bushes, and low in trees.
Eats mostly insects in summer; also
FEMALE
fruits, seeds, grains, and land snails. May fly considerable
distances across fields from one song perch to the next.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary.
• NESTING Incubation 11-12 days by female. Young altricial;

brooded by female; leave nest at 9-10 days, fed mostly by

female. 2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Uncommon to fairly common overgrown
in
brushy
fields, riparian thickets,

Flight Pattern rural roadsides, and woodland

edges. Range is expanding in
central and northeastern US.
• FEEDERS Seeds and grains.

Swift flight with rapid wing beats

• Conservation
alternating with brief periods of wings Neotropical migrant. Fairly
pulled to sides.
common cowbird host.

Nest Identification Twigs, weeds, rootlets, snakeskin, leaves, bark, bits of paper, and string, with
lining of finer materials • low in tree, bush, or weed clump • 3-12 feet above
ground • built by female • 3-5 light blue eggs occasionally marked with brown;
Shape
isi fife oval, 0.9 x 0.7 inches.

Plumage
Sexcs djffer Habitat
^_ ^ Migration
Migratory Wei § ht 1.0
ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

684 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species
passeruui amoena Len Sth Wingspan g_ 9 inches
CARDINAL! DAE 5.25-5.75 inches

Lazuli Bunting bright turquoise

This small turquoise bird is the western counterpart to throat, haul, and
upperparts
the Indigo Bunting of eastern North America. Seen in
open forests, riparian thickets, chaparral, and arid
thick
brushy canyons, the male sings to claim his territory
conical bill
and spreads and flutters his wings r.o show off his Male black lores
plumage and attract females. The winter plumage
of the male shows the blue on its head and 2 broad :

upperparts heavily washed with brown. wine, hm

• SONG Various phrases, some paired and
somewhat buzzy, see-see-sweet, sweet-zee-see-zeei
Call is "wet" plik.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs during

breeding season. Gregarious at other
times, in flocks and mixed-species
foraging flocks with other buntings
and sparrows. Forages on
ground and low in trees
and bushes. Eats mainly
seeds; also insects and
caterpillars, especially
in summer. At end
of breeding season
many join flocks and
move to higher
elevations. Hybrids
occur where range
overlaps with Indigo
Bunting. Aggressively [ndigo Bunting
\1 \l Male bright blue overall
defends territory. I I I

blai kish wings • female lacks pale

• Breeding Mostly and tad with wing bars; w arm brown
monogamous; some white underpart. blue-edgedflight to pale buffy brown

f<a fliers underparts; dusky

males polygamous.
streaking on chest.
• NESTING Incubation 12 days by female. Young altricial; Varied Bunting 9
brooded by female; stay in nest 10-12 days, fed by both sexes, Stubbier bill; lacks buff
but female does more. 2-3 broods per year. wash on flanks; lacks
pale wing bars.
• POPULATION Fairly common. Logging and agricultural
change in 20th century promoted range and population expansion.
Casual throughout the East.
Flight Pattern • Feeders ( :omcs for small

seeds and grains.

• Conservation
Neotropical migrant.
Typically, short flights on rapidly beating
Uncommon host to parasitism
w ings alternating w ith brief periods of by cowbirds. Disappearing due
wings pulled to sides. to development.

Nest Identification
(irass.w eeds, and leaves, w ith lining of finer grass and mammal hair • in fork of
bush or small tree • 2-4 feet above ground (but up to 10 feet) • built by female
Shape i-.
• 3-5 plain pale bluish white eggs; short oval to oval, 0.8 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage Scxcs diffcr Habitat^ A ^ ^ Migration

Migratory Weight
q g ()unce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 685

Species Length cs.75_5.75 Win S s P an 8-9

Family CARDINALIDAE pmscrilla cyane(l I
j nc h cs inches

Indigo Bunting blue-purple

The male's distinctive plumage looks blue in sheen to head
sunlight and almost black in shade or backlighting
Populations are expanding with the creation of
disturbed habitat after logging, highway and
pow er line construction, and farmland deep-colored bright
blue overall
abandonment. Its breeding range now
includes much of the Southwest.
• SONG Series of varied measured strident
phrases, usually paired, sweet-sweet, sweeter-
sweeter, here-here, often with an added trilled
ending. Call is a "wet" spit or plik.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs during

breeding season. Gregarious at other times;
in flocks in winter, often with other
buntings, sparrows, and finches. Forages
in trees, shrubs, and on ground. Eats
variety of insects and larvae, especially
in summer; also dandelion seeds,
weed seeds, grass seeds, small
grains, and wild berries. Males
brown head and
defensive of territory; often upperparts
engage in colorful chases 2 tawny buff
with other males. f wing bars
Similar Birds
• Breeding
Monogamous. BLUE GROSBEAK
Solitary. Some Larger; large triangular
bill; tan w ing bars.
males polygynous
when outnumbered
huffybrown Varied Bunting
by females. washed eh est <
tertials edged with q
Olive-brown to tawny-
• Nesting and flanks with contrasting buff
brown overall; brown
dusky streaks rump; bill with more
Incubation 12-14 days darker brown
by female. Young
Female wings and tail with decurved culmen;
narrow er tertial edges
altricial; brooded by
blue-edged feathers
with less buffy contrast;
female; leave nest at 9-12 days, fed lacks streaking on
underparts; lacks brown
mostly by female; some males bring food. 2 broods per year.
w ing bars.
• POPULATION Fairly common to common. Abundant in
some deciduous forest edges, old fields, clearings, and agricultural
areas. Expanding.
Flight Pattern • FEEDERS Comes for small
seeds and grains.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Common
Short flight low over vegetation w ith rapi
host to cowbird parasitism.
wing beats alternating with brief periods Some habitat loss due to
of w ings pulled to sides.
maturation of cut-over forests.

Nest Identification Weeds, bark, and fine materials, lined with grass and leaves • in weed clump,
dense shrub, or low tree • 1-15 feet above ground • built by female • 3^4 pale
bluish white to white eggs, sometimes with brown or purple spotting; short ova
Shape
to short subelliptical, 0.8 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
SeX£S differ Habitat^ ^ _j Migration
Migratory
Wei g ht
0.5 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 ^

686 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA

Family Species
CARDINALIDAE passenna vers

Varied Bunting
If this bird is seen in the open on a sunny day.
the exquisite colors in the male's breeding
plumage are striking: varied reds,
slightly curved
violet-blues, -deep purples, and grayish bill
blacks. When
seen from a distance pr
in poor light, however, it appears black
overall. In the molt to basic plumage
following the breeding season, males
show brownish rather than plum-colored
plumage, and the red nape is faded and
washed with browns, while the forecrown,
face, and rump retain some blue. Juveniles
resemble females but show narrow buff win
bars and a brighter brown body.
• SONG Various high-pitched slightly scratchy
thin warbles similar to the song of the Painted
Bunting. Call is a "wet" spik.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs

during breeding season.
Solitary or in small groups
at other times. Shy and faint /finish sheen on
wings and tail
secretive. Remains hidden Lazuli Bunting 9
in thickets close to ground Gray-brown head and
upperparts; white
and often distances itself
underparts; buffy wash
from human habitation. pale buff
on throat and breast;
underparts
Forages in low dense gray-blue rump; 2

vegetation or on ground. narrow buffy white

wing bars.
Takes some insects but major diet is
seeds. Bonded pairs spend much time Indigo Bunting 9
FEMALE Brown head and
together. Male sings from exposed perch.
upperparts; blue-tinged
Natural history is poorly studied. rump; tertials edged
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary with buff; 2 tawny buff
wing bars; whitish
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. throat and underparts;
Incubation 12-13 days by female. Young altricial; chest and flanks washed
buffy brown with dusky
brooded by female; stay in nest estimated 12 days,
streaks.
fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Common locally in mesquite
chaparral, dry washes, and arid

Flight Pattern thorn scrub, often near water.

• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Rare host
to cowbird parasitism.
Vulnerable to habitat loss from
Short flights close to vegetation, with
rapid wing beats alternating with brief agriculture and development.
periods of wings pulled to sides.

Nest Identification Stalks, grass, cotton, snakeskin, and paper, with lining of rootlets, grass, and
hair • in fork of low tree or bush, usually 2-10 feet above ground • built by
both sexes • 3^4 white to light blue eggs, characteristically unmarked; short to
Shape
*± JS *« oval subelliptical, 0.7 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes diffe]
. Habitat
A ^ Migration
Migratory Weight
0>4 Qunce

DATE TIME. LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 687

Length Wingspan 8 _ 5inches

Family CARDINALIDAK Species
passerina ciris 5 _5t5 inch( 8 _

Painted Bunting
Flaunting one of the most brilliant plumages of all North
deep blue-violet
American songbirds, the male is easy to identify by the head and
dark blue head, lime-green back, and red rump and hindneck
underparts. The green and yellow-green coloring of
red eye
the female and juvenile serves as camouflage in ring
the dense riparian thickets, woodland edges, and bright lime-
green back «
scrubby brushy areas. Males can be highly
aggressive and sometimes kill one another in
territorial battles. Their striking colors and
warbled song have made them a popular
cage bird in Mexico, Central America, and
the Caribbean. Before laws prevented it,
they were sold as cage birds in the
United States, sometimes under the
name "nonpareil." The first spring
male is similar to the female but
is brighter overall and has a
bluish wash on the head.
• SONG High-pitched
musical measured warble
pew-eata, pew-eata, I eaty
you too. Call is 2-note chip
or a "wet" plik.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or
in pairs during breeding
season. Gregarious in other
seasons, forming flocks and Female
joining mixed-species foraging
flocks. Shy, secretive, and often yellow-green
difficult to see. Male sings from exposed underparts
perch. Most often hops on ground. Forages olive-washed
flanks and chest
on ground and low in trees and shrubs. Eats
seeds, insects, and caterpillars.
• BREEDING Mostly monogamous, but some males polygynous.
• NESTING Incubation 11-12 days by female. Young altricial; brooded by female; stay in nest
12-14 days, fed by both sexes, but female does more. 2-3 broods per year.
• POPULATION Common in riparian thickets and shrubby
habitats. Casual north of range.

Flight Pattern • FEEDERS Birdseed and

Typically, short flight low over vegetation,
with rapid wing beats alternating with
brief periods of wings pulled to sides.
sunflower seeds; uses birdbaths.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Common
cowbird host. Declining on the
East Coast, where losing habitat
to development.

Nest Identification Stalks, leaves,and grasses, with lining of rootlets, snakeskin, and animal hair • in
dense part of bush, in low tree, or in vines or moss • 3-6 feet above ground (but
Shape up to 25 feet) • built by female • 3-5 pale blue eggs marked with reddish brown,
concentrated at larger end; oval to short oval, 0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage
Sexes djffer
Habitat
^^ Migration
Mi gratory Weight
q g ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

688 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
CARDINALIDAE Species
$pj%a americana
Length
6 _ 7 jnches
Wingspan 9 _ n inches

DlGKGISSEL yellowish eyebrow thick stout bill

This bird is named for its song of dick-dick-dick-cissel. becomes whitish with blackish
Often flying Hocks over grassy prairies, the
in behind t
upper mandible K?_
Dickcissel, with its black bib and yellow breast,
vhite chin
looks like a small meadowlark. Females are
brown auricular dim blackish
similar to males but lack the black bib and patch (i nd crown
malar stripe
have duller chestnut wing patches.
brown
• SONG Staccato dick-dick-dick-cissel. Has upperparts black bib

an insectlike call oibzzrrrt.

bold yellow breast
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs during
breeding season. Gregarious at other chestnut wing cove
times, forming wintering flocks
numbering thousands of birds. Joins
communal roosts after breeding season.
Male sings from exposed perches and
in flight. Forages on ground. Eats
JUVENIL1
grains, seeds, and insects.
• BREEDING Polygamous, although
some birds are monogamous.
• NESTING Incubation 12-13 days
by female. Altricial young brooded
by female; stay in nest
7-10 days, fed by female
1-2 broods per year.
• POPULATION
Common to abundant
in grasslands,
meadows, savannas, Similar Birds
and fields. Local
1 1( )i se Sparrow 9
and irregular east Similar to female
of Appalachians. Dickcissel • stubbier

Rare in migration yellowish bill; buffy

supercilium; brown
on Atlantic and
postocular stripe; single
white chin,
Pacific Coasts. white wing bar; lacks
mustache,
Casual in winter and throat pale throat with dark

in the East. malar stripe; lacks

streaking on flanks.
• FEEDERS Birds in northern dusky whitt
yellow breast underparts
part of range come to feeders.
• Conservation
Flight Pattern Neotropical migrant. Frequent
host to cowbird parasitism.
Nests and young lost annually
to the mowing of fields for hay.
Series of rapid wing bears alternating wi
brief periods of wings pulled to sides.
Thousands are killed annually
Often flies in large flocks in compact on wintering grounds for the
undulating formation. protection of rice plantations.

Nest Identification Grasses, stems, and leaves, with lining of soft rootlets, grasses, and hair • low
in tree or bush, sometimes atop grassy tussock or on ground in field • 0-6 feet
above ground • built by female • 3-5 plain pale blue eggs; oval to long oval,
0.8 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Sexes differ Habitat

^ Migration
M j gratory
Weight ,
0 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NOR H AMERICA
T • 689

Length Wingspan 10.25-1,

Family
[ C TERIDAE Species
DoUchony \ oryzivon/s 6-25 _ 8 inches inch<

BOBOLINK
In northern meadows and farmland, this bird is
known for its cheerful bubbling bob-o-link song
and handsome plumage. It is said the male
wears his breeding plumage upside down, as black fact
he has black underparts with a buff nape and tiiid crown
hindneck and white scapulars and rump. In
all plumages, birds are adorned with sharply

pointed tail feathers, unusual for songbirds.

All fall-plumaged birds and juveniles are
similar to the female but have brighter
M ALL
yellow-buff underparts with less streaking.
SONG Lively bubbling cascade of notes,
arting with low reedy notes and rollicking black underpart,
)\\ ard, bob-o-link, bob-o-link, pink, pink, panic, and wings
id\ Call is clear pink.
buff-edged
BEHAVIOR Gregarious; in flocks numbering wing coverts
and tertials
up Males sing from perch or in
to thousands.
flight display, circling low over fields. In summer eats
insects and caterpillars, grass and weed seeds, and
grains; eats seeds and grains in migration and winter.
• BREEDING Strongly polygynous.
• NESTING Incubation 13 days blackish brown crown
with h " fi central pinkish bill
by female. Altricial young
J
.

•
_ , , ? crown stripe
brooded by female; stay in
nest 10-14 days, fed by both black streaking on \Y vri k
i

back, rump, sides,

sexes. 1 brood per year. Male
and flanks
• POPULATION Fairly
common to common in
tall grass, wet meadows, Similar Birds

prairie, hay fields, and Lark Bunting cf

grain fields. Decline in the Entirely black except
for large w hire shoulder
East during 20th century.
patches, white edging
Rare in the fall on West Coast. to tertials and inner
• CONSERVATION secondaries, and white
tips to outer tail
Neotropical migrant. Rare cowbird
feathers.
host. Vulnerable to destruction of nests and
young by mowing of hayfields. Has declined in the Southeast from
former 19th-century market
Flight Pattern hunting for food and from
continued destruction to protect
T v rice plantations. Similar killing
currently exists on expanding
Strong undeviating and slightly undulating
rice plantations on wintering
flighton rapidly beating wings. Male has
display flight with shallow w ing strokes on grounds in South America.
rapidly fluttering wings.

Coarse grasses and weed stalks, lined with finer grasses • in slight depression
Nest Identification
on ground in tall grass, weeds, or clover, sometimes in rut made by tractors and
combines • female digs scrape and then builds nest • 4-7 eggs, irregularly
Shape blotched with browns, purple, and lavender; oval to short oval,
0.82 x 0.62 inches.

Plumage Migration Weight

Sexcs diffcr Mjg ratory j 7

»ATE TIME. LOCATION

690 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan 12-14.5 inches
ICTERIDAE i\geja ; us phoeniceus 7 _5_9i 5 inches

Red-winged Blackbird
Believed one of the most numerous land birds in
red shoulder patch
North America, the Red-winged Blackbird is known (epaulettes) with
for aggressively defending its territory from intruders. broad buff-yellow
Many geographical races exist across its extensive distal tip.

range. Females, identifiable by dark*brown upperparts

and heavily streaked underparts, sometimes show a
red tinge on wing coverts, chin, and throat. Males black
resemble females at a year old but have less streaking overall,
including
and some red on their epaulettes; they develop glossy
wings
black plumage after their second year. and tail
• SONG Gurgling reedy konk-la-ree or gurr-ga-leee.
Calls: low clack, sharp nasal deekk, and metallic tiink.

• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Small breeding colonies

insummer. Winter flocks often segregated by sex
and age. Runs or hops while foraging on ground.
Eats mostly seeds, grains, berries, and wild fruit;
in summer also eats insects, caterpillars, grubs,
spiders, mollusks,and snails. Male's social
dominance is proportional to
^
amount of red displayed. cm
• Breeding dusky tan
broad dusky tan
supercilium
Colonial. Some face First year
males polygynous. male
• Nesting Similar Birds
Incubation
1 1-12 days by
Tricolored
Blackbird
female. Altricial dark brown
Longer, more slender
young brooded postocular
body • male's red
stripe
by female; stay epaulettes have whitish
borders • females have
in nest 10-14 days 2 th in tan darker bodies; heavier
fed mostly by wing bars streaks on underparts;
female. 2-3 broods blackish bellies; lack

per year. chestnut and buff edges

to upperparts; lack pink
• Population underparts heavily
coloring on throat
streaked with brown
Abundant to common in FEMALE • West Coast only.

fields, riparian thickets and

scrub, freshwater and brackish marshes.
• FEEDERS Breadcrumt
Flight Pattern and birdseed.
• Conservation
Vulnerable to pesticides in food
chain and to habitat loss due to
Strong flight on rapidly beating wings;
the drainage of wetlands. Nests
displaying males fly with slow stiff shallc and young are destroyed by
wing beats with epaulettes raised. mowing operations.

Dried cattail leaves and sedges, lined with and rushes • fastened to
fine grasses
Nest Identification
stalks or twigs with plant fibers • in cattails, bushes, trees,
dense grass, or on
Shape ground, preferably near or over water • built by female • 3-5 (usually 4) pale
^ blue-green eggs spotted or with zigzag lines of black, browns, and purple; oval,
Location 0.97 x 0.75 inches.

Plumage Habitat Migration

Migratory Wei § ht
ounces
Sexes diffe , 2.3

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 691

Family
ICTERIDAE Species
Age/ajus humeralis Length
7,5_s.5 inches
Wingspan
U -\ 3 inches

Tawny-shouldered Blackbird
A native of the West Indies on the large island
countries of Cuba, where
western Haiti, where it is uncommon
and local, this bird makes its home
it is common, and

tawny shoulder
B
patches with
only in the lowlands near woodland long pointed ellowish buff
edges, arid lowland scrub, pastures, black bill ' edging
rice fields, urban habitats, and
swamps. Occasionally, vagrants find
their way to the Florida Keys. The
glossy black male iswith its
striking,
black wings
long pointed bill, which is as long as its
head, and its large tawny shoulder
patches, which are most visible when
the bird is flying. The
female is similar
to the male, but her shoulder patches are
duller in color and smaller in size and her glossy black •

body has a brownish wash. Juveniles overall

resemble females but have much smaller

tawny shoulder patches.
• SONG A long muted buzzy whaaaaaaaaaa.
Call is a brief strong chic-chic or chuck. Also has
various soft wheezing utterances, weeee-weeee-weeee.
short, almost
• BEHAVIOR In pairs during breeding season. squared tail
Gregarious during other seasons, forming flocks. Breeding
birds not territorial, defending only immediate area around
nest. Flickswings and jerks tail. After nesting season, often Similar Birds
forages and roosts in flocks with other blackbirds and grackles.
Red-winged
Eats seeds, fruits, pollen, flowers, nectar, lizards, and insects. Blackbird d"
Not a blackbird of
croplands,
•
open
marshes,
forests,
it frequents drier habitat, including
and areas around human habitation.
BREEDING Monogamous. Semicolonial.
i Male

black
different •
• larger;

overall; long
bill;
black
pointed
voice very
when
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Estimated perched or feeding on
ground, the red
incubation 11-13 days by female. Young altricial; brooded by
epaulettes may be
female; stay in nest estimated 10-14 days, fed by both sexes. hidden so that only the
1-2 broods per year. buffy to yellowish
border is visible.
• POPULATION Accidental to the Florida Keys. Fairly
common in Cuba in open woodlands, farmlands, and open areas in

Flight Pattern threatened in Haiti.

• Conservation
-% Vulnerable to habitat loss,

especially in Haiti. Fairly

common host to Shiny Cowbird
Strong flight with slight swoops on rapidly
parasitism in Cuba.
beating wings.
\ (

Nest Identification Dried grasses, twigs, hair, feathers, and moss, with lining of finer material • low
in palm and other trees, bush, outdoor lamp fixture, or epiphyte • built by both

Shape Location tip

^ sexes, but female does more • 3-4 white eggs, with a bluish or greenish tint,
with dark brown spotting concentrated at large end; oval, 0.9 x 0.7 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simUar Habitat
^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei § ht 1.3

DATE TIME LOCATION

692 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species
magna Len £ th 9-1 Wingspan 3 5 _j j inchcs
ICTERIDAE sturnella 1 inches ,

Eastern Meadowlark
A common inhabitant of fields and meadows,
the Eastern Meadowlark often is observed black-and-white-
flicking its tail open and shut while striped crown •
walking through grass and weeds and -^/i ire face vitlt
along roadsides. Clearing of forests black postocular
brown upperparts
tripe
in eastern North America has led streaked with buff

to the expansion of its breeding and black

range. Fall-plumaged birds
show narrow buffy mottling in ye/low breast

the black breast band and a and belly with

broad black V
buffy wash on the face, on chest
supercilium, flanks, and
undertail coverts.
juveniles have black
spotting on the chest, kite sides and
sides, and flanks. white outt flanks with black
tailfeathe spots and streaks
• SONG A plaintive
tee-you, tee-airrr, or
spring- 0 'the-year. Call
given on ground or in
flight is high buzzy
zzzzrrt, and a nasal

sweeink also is given in flight.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pair:

during summer. Gregarious during other seasons, forming Similar Birds
small flocks in winter. Eats mostly insects, especially in
summer. Also eats grains, weed and grass seeds, and tender Western
Meadowlark
sprouts of spring plants. Paler upperparts lack
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. Some males polygynous. dark centers in most
feathers; yellow of
• NESTING Incubation 3— 4 days by both 1 1 sexes. Young throat, especially that of
altrrcial; brooded by female; stay in nest 11-12 days, fed by both breeding males, extends
sexes, but female does more. Male may take over brood while into submustachial
region; sides ofcrown
female starts second nest. 2 broods per year.
and postocular stripe
• POPULATION Common in meadows, fields, grasslands, and usually brownish; most
have less white in outer
savanna. Decline reported in the East during last quarter of the
tail feathers.
20th century.
• CONSERVATION Common host to cowbird parasitism. Nests
and young destroyed by
Flight Pattern mowing operations. Vulnerable
to habitat loss due to natural
succession of abandoned fields,
as well as from overgrazing,
development, and grassland
Several rapid shallow iff wing beats h abitat fragm entation.
followed by short did i close to land

Nest Identification Lined with grass, plant stems, and pine needles • domed or partially domed
• often next to dense clump of grass or weeds on damp or wet ground • built by
female • 3-7 white eggs, suffused with pink, with brown and lavender spots and
Shape
|p speckles; oval to short or long oval, 1.1 x 0.8 inches.

Plumage Sexes Migration Wei § ht 3.6

s; m ii ar
Habitat
j± Northern birds migrate ou

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 693

Family Species Length 9_j •he Wingspan 13.5-17

[CTERIDAE sturnella neglecta j inches

Western Meadowlark
Its distinctive song often is the only way to dark brown stripes
on crown
distinguish this bird from the Eastern
Meadowlark, which is strikingly similar
in appearance. Both birds are known
dark brown
to be interspecifically territorial and yellow of throat postocular stripe
nest in the same area, interbreeding extends well into
in regions where their ranges snlnn ustat h ial area

overlap. Under such circumstances

some males sing the songs of both /'-sX^r • chunky body
black I on eliest
species, creating a tricky
identification challenge for the
observer. Breeding adults show
bright yellow plumage from throat
to belly, with a black V on the
chest. Fall-plumaged birds show a black spots and streaks
pale buffy wash on the face, sides, on sides and flanks
and flanks, and the yellow in
submustachial regions is much
reduced or veiled, as is the black breast
band. Juveniles are paler and instead of
the black V show a streaked necklace.
short wide tail
• SONG Repeated bubbling flutelike notes
with white
<

varying in length, shee-oo-e-lee shee-ee le-ee, accelerating outer feathers

toward the end. Call is a low chuk. Flight note is a nasal whew.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs during breeding season.
Similar Birds
Gregarious at other times, forming small to large flocks in
winter, which forage and roost together on the ground. Walks on Eastern
Meadowlark
ground. Sings from ground or exposed perches, including fence Darker body; dark
posts, shrubs, trees, and Forages primarily in
utility wires. centers to feathers on
vegetation on ground. Eats mostly insects and larvae, spiders, upperparts; yellow of
throat generally does
and some snails; also seeds of grains, grasses, and weeds. Winter
not reach submustachial
birds often forage in shorter grasses along roadsides. area, barely does so on
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. Some males polygynous. males; more extensive
white on outer tail
• NESTING Incubation 13-15 days by female. Young altricial; feathers; black crown
brooded by female; stay in nest 11-12 days, fed by both sexes and postocular stripes;

but more by female. 2 broods per year. voice differs.

• POPULATION Fairly common to common in cultivated fields,

pastures, grasslands, and
Flight Patten, savanna. Range expanding in
the Northeast.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant.

Flies low over landscape, with series of

Uncommon cowbird host. Nest
rapid shallow stiff wing beats followed by and young destroyed by
short glide. mowing operations.

Nest Identification Dried grass and plant stems; domed or partially domed • lined with grasses and
pine needles • clump of grass or weeds • built by female • 3-7 white
against
eggs, suffused with pink, with brown and lavender spots and speckles; oval or
Shape
short to long oval, 1.1 x 0.8 inches.

Plumage Habitat^ Migration Weight

Sexes simi)ar Norther n birds migrate 40

DATE TIME LOCATION

694 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus Length Wingspan 14_17 inches
IcTERIDAE I
8 .75-ll inches

Yellow-headed Blackbird
Brilliant yellow plumage and white wing patches contrasting
with its all-black body make this robin-sized marsh bird easy to yellow head,
throat, and
Often nesting in colonies, it is highly aggressive in
identify.
breast • .
defending its grounds and will attack other birds and even
human intruders, especially if young are in the nest. The
song of the male considered by many to be the
is

poorest vocalization of any North American black body

songbird. Males are larger than females, and
the white wing patch is conspicuous in
Juveniles show dark brown
flight.
upperparts with cinnamon-buff edging
to the body feathers, pale buff
underparts with a cinnamon
wash on the flanks, an
ocherous buff head and
breast, a whitish throat, and
dusky brown auriculars.
• SONG High-pitched raspy honking gurgle,
ending with a descending buzz, klee-klee-klee-
ko-kow-w-w-w,w,w,w. Call is hoarse ka-aack.
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious; forms breedin
colonies and flocks outside breeding
season. Flocks forage and roost together
and range from small to enormous,
containing millions in winter. Males often
segregate from females and juveniles in dusky brown
separate winter flocks. Conspicuous. belly with white

Forages in mud near water and in fields. st/rakinn

Walks on ground. Eats insects, larvae, snails,

grains, and seeds.
• BREEDING Polygynous. Colonial. Female
• NESTING Incubation 1-13 days by female 1

Young altricial; brooded by female; stay in nest

9-12 days, fed by both sexes, but mostly by female. 2 broods per year
• POPULATION Common in freshwater marshes, reedy lakes and
irrigation ditches, and open farmlands. Rare to casual in migration
and in winter to the East Coast. Casual spring migrant to
southeastern Alaska.
Flight Pattern • Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Rare host
to cowbird parasitism.

Strong direct flight with rapid wing beats

Vulnerable to habitat loss due to
draining of freshwater marshes
an d wetlands.
m*4
Nest Identification Grasses, reeds, cattails, and bulrushes, with partial canopy that shrinks into tight
basket when dry • over water in marsh vegetation • 0.5-3 feet above surface

• built by female • 3-5 light gray or green eggs with brownish or grayish
Shape
12 markings; oval to long oval, 1.0 x 0.8 inches.

Plumage
Sexes djffer
Habitat
te ^ Migration
Migra tory Weight ?
g

DATE TIME. LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 695

Species Len £th 8.25-9.75 inches Wingspan

Family
I(:TK RIDAE Euphagus carolinus j 3 _j s inchcs

Rusty Blackbird faint iridescent

This bird is named wash on its fall and
for the rusty green on head r
winter plumage. Only birds in juvenile plumage have
dark eyes; older birds in immature plumage have
kid,
yellow eyes like adults, juvenile plumage black
overall
resembles that of winter adults. Fall
males have a blackish loral mask that black wings

contrasts with the rufous wash on the and tail with

bluish sheen •
rest of the plumage. The fall female
has a gray rump and cinnamon-gray
supercilium and underparts. Flying in
large flocks from their wintering
grounds, these birds will swoop down
to forage behind tractors and plows.
• SONG A high-pitched creaky koo-a-
lee-m-eek, koo-a-lee — eek. Has call notes
of chuck or kick.

• BEHAVIOR In pairs during

breeding season. Gregarious. After
nesting season forms small flocks that
forage and roost communally. Forms
large flocks in migration and winter
and joins mixed flocks with other
blackbird species and starlings.
Forages on ground of wet
woodlands and agricultural lands darker gray^ Similar Birds
wings and tail
or wades in marshes and small
with greenish
Brewer's Blackbird
pools of water. Eats insects, blue sheen
Most males are black
caterpillars, crustaceans, throughout year, with
small fish, salamanders, purplish gloss on head

and snails. Also eats and neck and blue-

green sheen on body,
grains, seeds, and fruits.
wings, and tail • female
• Breeding has dark eyes • some
Monogamous. Pairs. variant fall males have
buff-brown edging on
• NESTING Incubation 14 days head and body but
by female; male feeds incubating female never on wing coverts
or tertials.
on nest. Young brooded by female; stay
altricial;

in nest 11-14 days, fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.

• Population Fairly
Flight Pattern common in wet coniferous
woodlands, bogs, riparian
habitats, and swamps. Rare in
the West.
• Conservation Rare host
1
c
Vr
Strong direct flight on rapidh to cowbird parasitism.
beating wings. 1
•

Nest Identification Grasses, moss, and twigs, with inner cup of mud lined with soft grasses and
rootlets • over water in dense bush or conifer, usually 2-8 feet above ground (but

Shape up to 20 by female • 4-5 light blue-green eggs, with brown and gray
feet) • built
splotches; oval, 1.0 x 0.75 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ
Habitat
:= ^ igration
Migratory We 'S ht 2.3 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

696 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan 4 _i 6 inches
IcTERIDAE Euphagus cyanocephalus 8.75-10.25 inches i

Brewer's Blackbird
purplish sheen on
Huge flocks can be seen flying P head and neck
over farm fields during plowing
season, and the species has
expanded its range and
abundance with the spread Male greenish blue sheen on
of agriculture. One of the body and wings
most common blackbirds,
the males plumage remains
glossy black year-round. In
fall, some males acquire FALL
buffy edging on the head MALI-:
and body feathers but
never on the wing coverts
or tertials. Juveniles
resemble females but
lack the green sheen
on wings and tail. ilar Birds
• SONG Breathy,
Brown-headed
creaky ke-see. Call COWBIRD 9
is gruff check. Smaller; slimmer; pale

• Behavior in
face pattern; shorter,
deeper-based bill;
pairs during shorter tail.

breeding season.
Rus i \ Blackbird
Gregarious. Forms green sheen on Faint greenish sheen on
large foraging and wines and tail head; longer bill

roosting flocks in • female slate-gray

overall with yellow eyes
migration and winter. • in winter, rusty edging
Often joins mixed-species foraging to feathers on back,
flocks with other blackbirds in winter. Nests in small to large wing and
coverts,
tertials • winter male
Head bobs forward while walking. Follows farm
colonies.
has black loral mask;
and plows. Forages on ground. Eats insects; caterpillars;
tractors shows cinnamon edging
and some fruits, seeds, and grains. to head, throat, breast,
supercilium, and
• BREEDING Monogamous. Some males polygynous. Can be
mustache • winter
loosely colonial. female has buff
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by female, guarded by eyebrow; gray rump;
buffy gray underparts.
male. Altricial young brooded by female; stay in nest
13-14 days, fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year.
• Population Common
Flight Pattern open habitats, shrub/scrub,
riparian woodlands, farms, and
around human habitation.
Extending range north and east.
• Conservation
ong swift di fligh ipidly Neotropical migrant. Common
iting wings.
cowbird host.

Nest Identification Conifer needles, grasses, and sticks, with inside cup of mud or cow manure,
lined with hair and rootlets• on ground in meadow or field or in marshes or
Shape trees, up abo\e ground • built by female • 3-7 light green or grayish
to 150 feet

Location _ green eggs, with blotches of grayish brow n; oval, 1.0 x 0.75 inches.

Plumage Scxcs diffcr Migration Weight 74

to Jk. Northern birds migrate

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 697

Family Species Length Wingspan

[CTERIDAE Qu jscafus quiscula n-13.5 inches J 7-18.5 inches

Common Gragkle
This gregarious bird has expanded its range by
adapting to suburban areas. Outside the nesting
season, noisy groups roost together at
faint iridescent
night, often w ith other species. purplish blue on head,
Juveniles are sooty brown with neck, and breast
dark brown eyes. faint iridescent
• SONG Grating squeaky purple or deep
long, sharply bronze on back
zoguba-leek, like a creaking
pointed black bill
rusty hinge. Call is a bold chuk.
• BEHAVIOR Conspicuous.
Nests, forages, and roosts in Male
groups or flocks all year. Large
postnesting season flocks can
damage crops, and winter flocks
may number in the hundreds of
thousands. Walks on ground.
Forages in trees, shrubs, grass,
and croplands; may wade into
water. Eats insects, worms,
caterpillars, fruits, grains,
seeds, small rodents, small pale
yelloi
fish, salamanders, and eggs
and nestlings of other
birds. Male displays by
long, sharply
fluffing out shoulder pointed black
feathers to make a bill

ruffled collar, drooping Great-tai

Gr \cki.i.
his wings, and singing. Boat-tailed Grackle
• Breeding Lack glossy contrast
between head and body;
Monogamous. Some
arger; longer tail
males polygynous. Colonial. • females have dark
• NESTING Incubation 13-14 days by >row nisli npperparts and
cinnamon or pale brow n
female. Young altricial; brooded by female; stay in nest
and buff underparts
16-20 days, fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year. • Boat-tailed Grackle

• POPULATION Abundant and widespread in open areas with ranges along Atlantic
and Gulf Coasts.
scattered trees, open woodlands, agricultural areas, parks, and
around human habitation. Casual in southern Alaska and in the
Pacific states.

Flight Pattern • Feeders Will come for

small grains and seeds.
• Conservation Rare host
tocowbird parasitism. Birds
Strong swift direct flight with rapid wing feeding on crops and making a
beats; holds tail folded in a V shape nuisance in large winter roosts
while flvine.
sometimes are destroyed.
Bulky mass of stems, and seaweed, with mud lining and softer
sticks, grasses,
Nest Identification
lining of feathers, grasses,and bits of debris • high in tree, in shrub, set in marsh,
Shape
^ in hollow of old tree, tinder eave of building, or among highway plantings,
usually 2-12 feet above ground (but up to 100 feet) • built by female • 4-7 light
brow n or light green eggs, with brown and lilac markings; oval, 1.2 x 0.82 inches.

Plumage Habitat Migration Weight

Scxcs differ jyj- 4.5

DATE TIME LOCATION

698 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family
IfjTERIDAE Species
Qu iscalus major
Length
n _ xl jnches I Wingspan 18 _ 3.5 inches
2

Boat-tailed Gragkle
This large noisy grackle travels, eats, sleeps, and nests in groups
It frequents saltwater marshes and, except in Florida, is never
iridescent blue-
found walks the beaches, large keel-shaped
far inland. It tail
black overall >

held high above back, wading into the water for food,
its

examining the wrack line, or gleaning seeds and berries

from dune vegetation. Brown eyes occur in western
Gulf Coast races east to Mississippi;
farther east adults have
yellow eyes. Males are
larger than females. Juveniles
have dark eyes and are similar
to respective adults; males
lack the iridescent sheen;
females have faint spotting
and streaking on the breast.
• SONG Abrasive loud
repeated jeebjeebjeeb. Calls a
noisy variety of harsh whistles,
chucks, guttural rattles, raspy
clicks, and wolf whistles.
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious.
Steals food from other birds.
Diet includes small fish, frogs,
aquatic and terrestrial
snails,
insects, shrimp, small birds,
eggs and nestlings of other
birds, small reptiles, fruit,
and seeds. Many in
berries, grain,
northernmost populations winter in Virginia.
Great-taii
• BREEDING Promiscuous. Loose colonies. Displaying male Grackle
perches, spreads tail and wings, then bows toward female. Does Larger; bright yellow
eyes; longer bill; flatter
not hybridize with Great-tailed Grackle in overlapping zone.
crown • inland west of
• NESTING Incubation 13— 1 5 days by female. Altricial young Mississippi River.

brooded by female; stay in nest 12-15 days, fed by female. Smooth-billed Ani
2-3 broods per year. Dark eyes; thick curved
long graduated
• POPULATION Common marshes and adjacent
in coastal salt
bill; tail.

open habitats, agricultural areas, and around human habitations;

inland in Florida around lakes,
Flight Pattern canals, and freshwater marshes
Northeastern range expanding.
• Conservation
Vulnerable to loss of habitat due
to draining of marshes for
Strong direct flight on rapidly-

beating wings with long keeled agriculture and development.

tail extended behind.

In marsh vegetation; bulky and built of dried stalks, grasses, and cattails, usually
Nest Identification
over or near water in marsh or on ground set in grass • in trees, built of Spanish

moss, feathers, mud, cow dung, and bits of debris, 3-50 feet above ground
Shape • built by female • 3-5 pale blue to blue-gray eggs with splotches of black,

brown, lilac, and gray; oval, 1.3 x 0.88 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ
Habitat
to sss Jt Migration
Northern birds m ig ra te Wei § nt 7.5
ounces

DATE TIME. LOCATION

 *

BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 699

Family s Pecies Quiscalus mexicanus Len ^th 10.5-18.5 Wingspan 13.5_25
IcTERIDAE "
inches inches

Great-tailed Gragkle
The Great-tailed and Boat-tailed Crackles were once
considered to be one species. Although these birds nest closely
in coastal eastern Texas and western Louisiana, they do not iridescent purple
on head and back
interbreed. This bird often walks on the ground with its large
keel-shaped cocked over its back. Walking in the open,
tail
black
males turn like weathervanes when a strong gust of wind overall
strikes their tails. Males are larger than females.
Juveniles are similar to females with a grayish brown
belly but with streaked underparts and dark eyes. • golden
yellow eyes
• SONG Loud chatters, squeaks, gurgles,
shrieks, and piercing ascending whistles;
high-pitched squeal of may-reee, may-
reee. Flight call is chak. iridescent purple

• BEHAVIOR Gregarious, on underparts

noisy; in groups and small

flocks. In winter, flocks Mali:
forage and roost together.
Forages walking on ground
and wading in water. Eats
insects, snails, small fish, buff-cinnamon supen ilium
frogs, shrimp, small birds,
and border to auriculars
eggs and nestlings, fruits, yellowish white eyes
berries, seeds,and grains. thin dark brow
faint iridescent
malar mark
Steals food from other birds; purple on plumage
females pilfer nesting cinnamon-buff
materials from each other. throat and Similar Birds
breast
• BREEDING Polygamous Boat-tailed
to promiscuous. Colonial.
Grackle
Smaller; rounder head;
Male claims territory within FKMALK smaller smaller
Q bill;

colony and displays and sings tail •brown-eyed

in front of a group of females. birds occur where
ranges overlap • only
Female chooses male.
in the East.
• Nesting incubation
Common Grackle
13-14 days by female. Young Smaller; shorter tail;

brooded by female; stay in nest

altricial; smaller bill • female is

20-23 days, fed by female. 1-2 broods per year. dull black.

• POPULATION Common in open areas with scattered trees

cultivated areas, marshes,
Flight Pattern riparian thickets, parks, and
around human habitation.
Agricultural irrigation in arid
regions helping expand range.
• Conservation Removes
Strong direct flight with rapid wing beats
cowbird eggs from nest.
and long keeled tail trailing behind.

Nest Identification In marsh vegetation, bulky and built of cattails, grasses, and dried rushes, less
than 2 feet above water • in trees, built of Spanish moss, mud, cow dung,

Shape ^ Location
feathers, and bits of debris, 5-15 feet above ground • built by female • 3-4
gray to light blue eggs, with reddish purple markings; oval, 1.3 x 0.9 inches.
light

Plumage
Sexgs differ
Habitat^ fe Migration
Northern birds migrate Wei S ht 6.7 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

700 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Molothrus bonariensis Len Sth Wingspan
ICTERIDAE 7.5 inches j 2 inc h es

Shiny Gowbird
Originally a species of South America, this bird's range expanded to
southern Florida in 1985 after island hopping through the West Indies.
Now records
range, it
are scattered from
travels singly or in
Maine Oklahoma.
to
small flocks and roosts in
large mixed-
In its native purplish sheen on
head and back
_
species flocks with up to thousands'of birds, including other
blackbirds. No large numbers have been recorded in blackish overall
North America, only individuals and small groups.
Like all cowbirds it is a brood parasite, laying its
eggs in the nests of other birds. Juveniles are
similar to females, but upperparts are
edged with brownish buff and
underparts are yellow-buff and
streaked.
• SONG Series of bold sheen on breast

musical bubbling warbles,

sometimes interspersed Mali:
with harsher piercing
whistled notes and often
followed by trills. Calls
are harsh notes. Often
sings in flight. palest gray
broken on
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in
throat
small groups during breeding Female
season. Forms small foraging
flocks after breeding season and
may roost with other birds in large • pale gray -
brown underparts
communal roosts. Walks on ground with tail

slightly cocked above back. Forages on ground

Similar Birds
for food. Eats insects, caterpillars, seeds, and rice.
Brown-headed
• BREEDING Promiscuous. Male displays by singing,
COWBIRD
vibrating wings, and lifting bill up and down with neck feathers Shorter, less pointed
puffed up. In flight display male flies up to about 3 feet above bill; shorter tail • male
glossy black overall with
ground and makes circles around watching female.
chocolate-brown head
• NESTING Incubation 11-12 days by host. Altricial young • female has ashy gray-

often hatch before young of host species and often outcompete brown upperparts and
paler gray underparts.
host'syoung, which often succumb; tended by host. Female
usually lays 1 egg in each host nest; may lay eggs in 5 different
nests per season; sometimes
destroys eggs of host.
Flight Pattern
• POPULATION Rare to

\ uncommon
• FEEDERS Soaked
in North America.
bread.
• Conservation Naturaih
Rapid swooping direct flight on quickly
invading nonnative species.
beating wings.

Nest Identification
Lays eggs in nests of other species • usually 1 egg per nest • 1 whitish to light
blue or light pink egg, sometimes unmarked or with flecks and dots of brown
Shape Brood parasite
and gray; spherical, 0.8 x 0.66 inches.
Location Active nests of other birds

Plumage Sexes differ Habitat

j± ^ Migration
Migratory Wei £ nt 1 .4 ounces

DATE j_ TIME. LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 701

Family Species Length Wingspan

[CTERIDAE Molothrus aeneus 6 .5_8.75 nc h es
i 13 inches

Bronzed Gowbird bronze-greenish

Both male and female have small sheen on head and
upper body
neck ruffs, w hich fluff during
breeding season and give the bird a
reel eyes
hunchbacked look. Formerly called
the Red-eyed Cowbird, this erectile ruff

characteristic is visible only at close on bail of neck

large
range. Flocks often follow cattle to long bill
bluish sheen on
eat insects that are kicked up. In
wings a nel tail
the eastern race, the dark-eyed
purplish
juveniles are blackish brown and sheen on
similar to the female but lack the seapillar

bluish sheen on upperparts. In

black
the western race, the dark-eyed
overall
juvenile is paler brown than the
female, which has gray-brown
upperparts, paler gray-
brown underparts, and
an even paler gray-
brown throat. Birds Similar Birds
inhabiting the dull blackish
brown or gray- Brown-headed
southernmost tip of Cowbird
brown overall
Texas do not migrate. Smaller; dark eyes;
smaller slimmer
• SONG Low guttural distinctrounded
bill;

wheezy insectlike glug-glug- forehead • male glossy

g/ee. Call is abrasive chuk. black overall with
brown head • female
• Behavior Solitary or
usually more ashy
groups
in pairs or small brown overall with trace
during breeding season. of pale face pattern.

During other seasons, forages in flocks and uses communal shim Cowbird
roosts. Males perch and sing from exposed sites to attract Smaller; dark eyes;
smaller bill • male-
females. Turns over rocks with bill to find insects. Eats insects,
glossy black with purple
seeds, and grains. Often found near human habitation. sheen on head, back,
• BREEDING Polygamous. Promiscuous. and breast • female has
gray-brown upperparts;
• NESTING Incubation 1()-12 days by host. Altricial young paler underparts; paler
often hatch earlier than young of host
tended by host.species; throat; faint pale gray

Female usually lays 1 egg in each nest; lays 8-10 eggs per year; eyebrow.

may destroy host's eggs and any eggs laid in the nest by
previous female cowbirds.

Flight Pattern • Population Common

and local in open country with
brushy scrub, agricultural areas,
wooded canyons, and around
human habitation.
Swift somewhat swooping
on rapidly beating wings.
direct flight • FEEDERS Small seeds and
various grains.

Nest Identification
Lays eggs in nests of other species • generally 1 egg in each nest • female lays
Shape Brood parasite
8-10 eggs per year • eggs usually glossy light blue-green, unmarked; spherical to
oval, 0.8 x 0.68 inches.
Location Active nests of other birds

Plumage
Sexes djffer Habitat
A Jt Migration
Most migrate Weight
2A ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

702 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Molothrus ater Len §th 7-8.25 Wingspan 11.75_13.75 nc h es
IcTERIDAE I inches I i

Brown-headed Cowbird
This common cowbird travels and roosts in large flocks with other
blackbirds after breeding season; winter mixed-species flocks can number
in the millions. Originally of the Great Plains, where it associated with
bison, this species has expanded its range east and west,
with the fragmentation of the eastern forest and the black overall with
increase in range cattle and ranching. Like all faint green she

cowbirds it is a brood parasite and lays

its eggs in the nests of other birds.

Juveniles resemble females but

are paler overall;
upperparts have pale ,
-
edging, giving a scaly
effect; underparts
are streaky and
throats gray-white.
• SONG Gurgling
liquid glug-glug-glee,
with tail spread,
wings drooped,
and a forward
bow. Females
harsh rattle.
call is
Bronzed Cowbird
Male in flight has high Slightly larger; much
slurred ts-eeeul longer, larger bill; red
• BEHAVIOR Solitary, in pairs, brown underparts eyes; ruff on nape
with faint streaking • male has bronze-green
or small groups during breeding
sheen on head and
season; otherwise gregarious, foraging and roosting in flocks. upper body • female is
Calls and displays from the ground or high exposed perches. 1!^ dull blackish brown
overall.
Walks on ground to forage. Holds tail cocked over back. Eats
insects, caterpillars, spiders, and various grains, seeds, and fruits cT Shiny Cowbird
Male glossy black
• BREEDING Promiscuous. overall with purplish
• NESTING Incubation 10-13 days by host. Altricial young sheen on head, back,
T' :
and breast • female has
usually hatch before host's young and often outcompete them; ....

gray-brown upperparts;
tended by host. Female usually lays 1 egg in each nest; faint gray eyebrow; pale
10-36 eggs per year. gray-brown underparts;
paler gray throat.
• POPULATION Common in woodlands, forest edge,
agricultural areas, and around human habitation.
• FEEDERS Attends for small
Flight Pattern seeds and grains.
• CONSERVATION
Neotropical migrant. Numbers
reduced Michigan by
in
trapping to protect endangered
Swift somewhat swooping direct flight on
Rutland's Warbler in jack pine
rapidly beating wings.
barrens nesting grounds.

Nest Identification
Lays eggs in nests of other species • usually 1 egg per nest • up to 36 eggs laid
per female per nesting season • light blue eggs, often with brown flecks; oval,
Shape Brood parasite
0.84 x 0.64 inches.
Location Active nests of other birds

Plumage Sexes differ Habitat^ ^^ Migration

Northern birds migrate Wei ^ nt 1.7
ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 703

Species Length Wingspan

Family
[CTERIDAE hterus spurius I
6 _ 7 J5 inches I
9> 25-10.25 inches

Orchard Oriole
This small oriole with its burnt-orange underparts is found in
most of eastern North America in summer. It spends most of
black hood, back,
its time in trees in suburban and rural open stands and is
and wings »
often unwary when approached. Juveniles
resemble females, and first spring males
Male
are similar to females but have a
white-edged
black chin and throat. Leaves flight feathers
breeding grounds in early fall on wing

• SONG Loud rich varied

whistled notes, accelerating
into a jumbled ending with a curved
bill with black
slurred wheerl, sounding like chestnut
upper mandible
look here, what cheer, wee yo, and blue-gray
what cheer, whip yo, what lo wer mandible
wheerl Calls sharp musical black tail
with narro
chuk and a dry chattering
white tip
chuh-huh-huh-huh.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in
pairs during breeding season.
In small family groups after
nesting. Vocal and often
conspicuous. Relatively
approachable. Forages at
First spring
middle to high levels in
male
trees and shrubs, often at
tips of branches; hops from imilar Birds
branch to branch. Eats
MALE: No other North American
insects; also berries, flower songbird is extensively black above
parts, nectar, and fruits.
Female and chestnut below.

• BREEDING Monogamous Hooded Oriole 9

Female and juvenile are
Solitary and loose colonies. larger; longer tail; longer
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by female. Altricial young bill; thinner lower wing
bar; undertail coverts
brooded by female, some by male; stay in nest 11-14 days, fed
often washed yellow-
by both sexes. Mates often divide fledglings and care for them orange • juvenile male
separately, but family group remains intact until fall migration. has more extensive
1 brood per year. black bib.

• POPULATION Common to fairly common in open

woodland, farmlands,
Flight Pattern scrub/mesquite, shade trees,
and orchards. Declining in parts
of western range.
• FEEDERS Fruit and nectar.
• CONSERVATION
Swift slightly swooping direct flight
on rapidly beating wings.
Neotropical migrant. Common
host to cowbird parasitism. ;

Nest Identification Intricately woven pouch of grasses with lining of plant down • hanging from fork
of tree or bush, often hidden in cluster of leaves, 6-20 feet above ground (but up

Shape -g<- Location ^ &z to 50 feet) • 3-7

oval, 0.8 x 0.57 inches.
light blue or gray eggs, splotched with gray, purple, or brown;

Plumage
Sexes djffer Habitat^ ^_ jj, _ Migration
Migratory
Weight
qj ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

704 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length
7 _H
Wingspan
JcTERIDAE laerus cucuuatus inches , i .25— 1 2 inches

Hooded Oriole
This bird flits from creetop to treetop and sometimes
hangs upside down like a chickadee. It is associated
with palm trees in its breeding range, most often
nesting in them. The breeding male's orange-
yellow head, black lores and bib, and white
long black
wing bars are distinctive. There is color
slightly curved
variation in the males of different bill with blue-

races, ranging from bright orange gray base of

lower mandible
to bright yellow. Juveniles are
similar to adult females. First » black wings with
spring males resemble 2 white wing bars
and vhite-edged
females but have black flight feathers
lores and bib.
• SONG Throaty
warbled whistles graduated black tail

interspersed with with narrowly white-

^» orange-yellow
tipped outer fail feafhe/
chatter notes. Call is
underparts
ascending whistled
wheeat; also series of chatters. pale yellow-
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in green head 9 long slightly curved
pairs or small groups. Originally dark gray wings with blue-gray lull
2 white wing bars
a riparian species; it now is and white-edged Female

V
often found around human flight feathers
habitation. Forages in trees I— • olive-

and bushes. Eats insects and greenish gray

upperparts
caterpillars. Uses bill to ingest
nectar, piercing the flower's base • yellow-green
underparts
and bypassing its stamens and style, Winter
thus not acting as a pollinator. MALE
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary.
olive tail Similar Birds
Displaying male chases female and bows
to her from branches. Orchard Oriole 9
Female and juvenile
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by female. Young altricial;
male • smaller; shorter
brooded by female; stay in nest 14 days, fed by both sexes. bill; wider lower w hite
2-3 broods per year. wing bar • juv enile
male has smaller bib.
• POPULATION Common woodland, palm groves,
in riparian
arid'scrub/mesquite, and around human habitation. West Coast
range expanding northward
Flight Pattern with planting of palms and
ornamental landscaping plants.
• FEEDERS Bread and fruit;

also drinks sugar water mixture.

• Conservation
Strong rapid direct flight on
beating w ings.
Neotropical migrant. Common
cowbird host.

Leaves and moss, with lining of moss, grasses, wool, hair, and feathers • hanging
Nest Identification
from branch, surrounded by Spanish moss or mistletoe, in palm, palmetto, or
yucca, 12—45 feet abov e ground • built by female • 3—5 w hite, light yellow, or
Shape
9t± pale blue eggs, w ith dots of gray, brow n, and purple; oval to long oval,
0.9x0.7 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ
["Habitat
^ Migration
Migratory Weight
0.8 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 705

Family Species Len eth 8.25-9.5 inches Wingspan inches

[ C TERIDAE jcterus p ect0 ra/is

Spot-breasted Oriole
black lores, throat,
The black spots on its bold orange breast set this bird apart
11 nd center of chest •
from other North American orioles. Originally a native of
southern coastal Mexico and Central America, it
yellow-orange
was introducd into southeastern Florida in the Id bright

late 1940s, where it is now established. It orange head

most often makes its home in suburban
black back
areas. In flight it shows large white long straight
orange black bill with
patches in the wings and a yellow-
shoulder patch blue base to
orange to bright orange rump and lower mandible
uppertail coverts. Woven in less
than a week, its pendant nest • black spots on side:
blin k wings with
of upper breast
is a pyriform pouch of plant extensive white h
fibers and thin rootlets up to secondaries mid
base of primarie.
eighteen inches long, with
the opening at the top.
Immatures are similar to yellow-orange to
brig/it orange
adults but have a dusky
underparts
olive back and often lack
the breast spots. Juveniles
resemble immatures but
are more yellow overall
and lack the breast
spotting and black lores
and bib.
• SONG A liquid series of
7
Juvenile
rich clear slow whistles,
Similar Birds
whee ch-wee\:hu-u. Male noted
for his song. Female also sings. C 'here no bright orange oriole with
is

an orange head, black bib, and breast

sometimes repeated jerkily.
spots in introduced range during
• BEHAVIOR In pairs much of the year. In family groups breeding season.
following nesting. Forages in shrubs and trees, where it gleans Baltimore Oriole 9
insects, prying open rolled leav es. Fats fruit and berries. I ses Wintering female and
sharp bill to pull flowers off stems and drink nectar. juvenile • 2 white wing
bars; blue-gray bill;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. unspotted breast; lacks
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Estimated white patches in

secondaries.
incubation 12-14 days by female. Young altricial; brooded by
female; stay in nest estimated 12-14 days, fed by both sexes.
2 broods per year.

Flight Pattern
• POPULATION Uncommon
and local in parks, suburbs, and
gardens. Numbers declining in
Florida since the 1980s.
• Conservation Cause of
Strong swift direct flight ith rapid decline in the introduced
w ing beats.
population is undetermined.

Nest Identification Grasses, stems, and fibers, with lining of finer material • hangs across tree
branch • 20-60 feet above ground • built by female with some help from male
• 3-5 light blue to white eggs, scrawled with black and lilac markings; oval to
Shape Location <§t
long oval, 0.9 x 0.7 inches.

Plumage Scxcs
similar Habitat^ ^ ^_ Migration
Non migratory We 'g ht 1 .6 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

706 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species icterU c gularis Length
9 _ 10 inch£ Wingspan 13 5 _ 15 inches
JcTERIDAE .

Altamira Oriole
The largest of the North American orioles, this yellow-orange
bird intricately weaves a two-foot-long pendant head

shaped nest. A native of Mexico, it has a

small range in the southern tip of Texas,
where it is a year-round resident. It

resembles a larger version of the black wings with white wing

Hooded Oriole but with a larger bar, white base to primaries,

billand an orange shoulder and white edging on tertials

and secondaries
patch in adults. A white wing orange shouldei
patch shows in flight. The pa frizes
female is duller overall than the
male. The immature is similar to yellow-orange yellow-orange
the adult female but has an olive underparts ump
brown back and tail and a white
shoulder bar. The juvenile is similar to
the immature but lacks the black lores
and bib. This bird was formerly called
Lichtenstein's Oriole.
• SONG Rapid series of 2-4 clear flutelike
whistles, chee-choo \ chee-choo\ repeated. Male tips to outermost
and female sing often. Call is nasal yehnkl tail feathers

• BEHAVIOR In pairs for much of year. In family

groups after breeding. Often with other orioles.
Forages high in trees and in shrubs. Eats insects,
caterpillars, and fruits and berries. The 14- to 26-inch-long, 6-inch
diameter pendant nest may take the female 18 days to build and is the
Juvenile
longest fibrous nest built by any bird north of Mexico. The
entrance is at the top, and nest hangs in the open near the tip of
Similar Birds
a drooping branch from middle levels to high in a tree.
Sometimes attached to a utility wire. Hoodkd Oriole
Smaller; more narrow
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. bill; more extensive
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Estimated black bib • winter
adults have olive-brown
incubation 12-14 days by female. Young brooded by altricial;
backs with fine black
female; stay in nest estimated 12-14 days, fed by both sexes. barring • all plumages
Male takes over feeding of first brood while female begins and ages have white
shoulder patches.
construction of second nest. 2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Uncommon to fairly common and local in riparian
woodlands, open woodlands,
Flight Pattern arid scrub, and mesquite in the
lower Rio Grande Valley of
southeastern Texas.
• Conservation Frequent
cowbird host. Vulnerable to
Swift strong flight on wings that ai
habitat loss due to clearing for
rapidly beating.
agriculture and development.

Nest Identification by
irassesand plant fibers, suspended from branch of tree or utility wire • bu: It

miale • 3-4 white eggs, heavily marked with browns; oval to long oval,
Shape -g< * is
.16 x 0.75 inches.

Plumage Sexes similar Habitat

m^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei S ht 2. 1 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 707

Family Species Length Wingspan n.5-14.5

IcTERIDAE [cterus graduacauda 8.5-9.5 inches inches

Audubon's Oriole
A tropical species almost entirely restricted
to Mexico, this bird has a limited
straight black bill
US range, along with the Altamira
with blue-gray hast
greenish ye/low back,
Oriole, along the lower Rio Grande to lower mandibh rump, and
Valley in southern Texas. It most f uppertail coverts

often stays hidden in dense black wings with single

treesand thickets. The male white wing bar and white-
rn edged flight feathers
and female are usually
together and may stay that
way throughout the year.
Formerly called the Black- black hood to J
upper breast
headed Oriole, this species
is little known biologically.
bright lemon
Females are similar to males
yellow underpart.
but appear slightly duller. The
immature resembles the adult
female but shows an olive tail
and gray-brown wings. The juvenile is
similar to the immature but lacks the black black tail with
hood and has an olive-green crown. white tips to outer
tail feathers
• SONG Soft series of 3-note warbles, peut-pou-it, each
note on a different pitch, with second note higher. Given
infrequently. Call is a nasal yehtik, yehnk!, often repeated.
• BEHAVIOR most of the year. In small family groups
In pairs
following breeding. Somewhat shy and secretive. Spends much time
Juvenile
foraging on ground. Eats insects and some fruits. Joins mixed foraging
flocks with other orioles, jays, and tanagers.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. Similar Birds
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Estimated No other adult yellow oriole with
incubation 12-14 days by female. Young altricial; brooded by black hood in its limited US range.
female; stay in nest estimated 12-14 days, fed by both sexes.
1-2 broods per year. Hooded Oriole
Juveniles similar
• POPULATION Uncommon and local in the lower Rio • curved culmen;
Grande Valley of southern Texas. Frequents riparian thickets, 2 white wing bars;
undertail coverts washed
scrub, forest undergrowth, and semiarid pine-oak woodlands.
with yellow-orange.
Population decline since the 1920s is a combination of habitat
loss and related increased cowbird parasitism.

Flight Pattern nectar feeders and fruit such as

sliced oranges.
. Conservation Frequent
f •
host to cowbird parasitism.
Vulnerable to habitat loss due to
Swift direct flight with rapid wing beats,
low under the canopy.
land clearing and alteration for
agriculture and development.

Nest Identification Woven of fresh green grass • hangs attached by top and side from small vertical
terminal branch, 6-14 feet above ground • built by female • 3-5 light blue or
grayish white eggs, speckled with browns or purples and scrawled with black
Shape
^ Location ^§fc
lines; oval to long oval, 0.97 x 0.71 inches.

Plumage
Sexe§ simiJar Habitat
^_ ^ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei S ht 0.8 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 i

708 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA

Family Species Length
7 _ H25
Wingspan
ICTERIDAE lctgrus gaWula inchcs j j z $-\ ?.S inches

Baltimore Oriole black hood

The and Inick
eastern counterpart to Bullocks Oriole was once
thought conspecific with it and called the Northern Oriole.
It is the state bird of Maryland. The male is the only bright
straight blue-gray bill
orange-and-black oriole north of Florida. Some winter it// blackish culm en
along the southeast Atlantic Coast and may find black upper
food in backyard feeders and gardens. narrow breast

Juveniles are similar to females but show white lower

wing bar i orange-yellow
a yellow-orange wash on the head and \^ houlder patch
breast and grayish to whitish underparts.
Juvenile males have more orange. black wings with
_ n„- T ^ r-w • •
it white edging • orange-yellow
• iSONG i

Disjointed measured 2-note

feath ers underparts and rump
whistled melodic phrases, some with
long pauses, hue-lee, hue-lee, hue-lee. Call
Male
is rich hue-lee. Also a series of rattling
chatter, caw-caw-caw-caw-caw.
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs in
breeding season. In family groups after Fall Fall
nesting, although some males remain I MM VI I KE IMMATl RE
black tail with orange- MALI: FEMALE
solitary. May join mixed foraging yellow patches on distal
flocks in winter and migration. half of outer tad feathers
Forages in bushes and trees, ilar Birds

often high in canopy. Eats variableamount of Hi lock's Oriole

i.

insects, caterpillars, random black marking; Male has bright orange

on head and throat head, underparts, rump,
berries, and fruits.
and outer tail feathers;
Sips nectar. black crown, nape, eye
Upperparts
• Breeding 2 whitt
line, throat, wings, and

tail; large white wing

Monogamous. wing ha
ellow-olive
patch • female and
Displaying
Solitary. ? rump ju\ enile female have

male spreads tail orange dark i;ra\ ish eye line;

yellow ish head, throat,
and wings, bows underparts
and breast; grayish
to female.
FEMALE white underparts; 2 thin
• Nesting may \\ hue wing bars; olive-

gray crown, nape, and

Incubation 12-14 days by gray ish wash
upperparts • first spring
female. Altricial young brooded by female; male resembles adult
stay in nest 12-14 days, fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year. female but shows black
lores and bib.
• POPULATION Common deciduous woodlots, riparian
in
woodlands, woodland edges and clearings, and around human
habitation. Uncommon in

Flight Pattern winter in the Southeast. Rare in

the West in migration.
• FEEDERS Oranges, peanut
butter and suet, or nectar.

Swift strong direct flight 01

• CONSERVATION
beating wings; orange-yell< Neotropical migrant. Infrequent
tail flashes during flight. cowbird host (may eject eggs).

Intricately woven from plant fibers, horse hair, yarn, cloth, and string • lined
Nest Identification
\\ nil urass, wool, and hair • hanging from end of drooping branch in deciduous
tree, rarely in conifer, 25-30 feet above ground (but up to 60 feet) • built by
Shape -g^
£ I. female • 4 grayish white or light blue e<;.<;s, blotched and scrawled

with blacks and browns; oval to long oval, 0.9 x O.hl inches.
at large end

Plumage Sexes differ Habitat ^^ Migration

Migratory Wei S ht
1.2 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 709

Species Length Wingspan

Family
[ C TERIDAE hterus bu u0CkU 7 _g_ 25 inches 1L25 _i 2.5 inches

Bullock's Oriole
Once

male
considered the same species as the Baltimore Oriole
with which it hybridizes in the Great Plains, this bird was

formerly called the Northern Oriole. The bright orange

differs from other orioles in its face
its large white wing
black cap,
//ape, bib,
eye stripe
and
Q
straight blue-gray
pattern and in
black back
Ml with blackish
patches that flash in flight
black tail
cu In: en

• SONG Measured outer fa

clear whistled
singleand
double notes » orange face
with some gruff
or scratchy notes.
Has rongh nasal call of » black wings with
cheah, given singly or in huge white patch and
series. Also has a loud rattle. edging to feathers

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs

gray legs
during breeding season. In small family
and feet
groups after nesting. Pairs spend much
time together and both will attack
predators. Noisy and conspicuous. olive-brown
Frequents river valley and crown and
dusky First spring
nape f yellow face, throat.
agricultural areas. Forages eye line male
.. ,

olive-brown y» and breast

in trees and bushes. Sips back and wings
nectar. Eats insects,
Similar Birds
caterpillars, berries,
and fruit. blackish Baltimore oriole
brown wings Male has hooded
•Breeding with 2 white appearance due CO more
Monogamous; • olive tail
wine bars extensive black on head
also solitary. and throat; orange
upper wing bar; white
• Nesting low er w ing bar; orange
Incubation 12-14 days FEMALE buffy gray bell) distal half to outer tail

by female. Young altricial; rump, sometimes feathers • female shows

wash d yellow-orangt
i various degrees of
brooded by female; stay in nest
black, olive, and orange
12-4 days, fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year. on head; lacks eye
• POPULATION Common in open areas with shade trees and stripe; orange or orange-
washed underparts.
in foothill oak forests. Uncommon in winter southern
in
California; casual vagrant to the East in migration and winter.
• Feeders Suet, sliced
Flight Pattern orange, and nectar water.
• Conservation
Neotropical migrant. Frequent
host to cowbird parasitism.
Range increasing near man-
Swift strong direct fli ;ht with rapid
w ing beats.
made watercourses planted with
shrubs and trees.

Plant fiber, horse hair, string, and bark, with lining of moss, plant down, wool,
Nest Identification
and hair • hanging from end of branch, often in cottonwood or willow, or in
clump of mistletoe, 6-15 feet above ground • built by female, with some help
Shape Location £b jg. from male • 4-5 light blue or pale gray eggs with dots of brown, gray, or black,
scrawled with purplish black line; oval to long oval, 0.93 x 0.63 inches.

Plumage
Scxes djffcr Habitat
^ _J A I
Migration
Migratory Weight
u ()unccs

DATE TIME LOCATION

710 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species
pringMa Length Wingspan Q
FRINGILLIDAE coelebs 6 inchc 5 inches
_

Common Chaffinch blue-gray

A sparrow-sized Palearctic species commonly seen in parts and nape
of Asia, and perhaps the most common finch in Europe,
this bird occasionally visits the northeastern United
States and the Maritimes. It is widely scattered as far
asNorth Africa, western Asia, southern Russia,
pinkish brown
and western Siberia. Outside the upperpart.
breeding season, the male's pinkish
white bases to
back, face, and underparts become primaries and
brownish. In flight the white bar broad wing bai
at the base of the primaries and
secondaries and the white gray-green
"""^
lesser coverts contrast with
the blackish wings and the
blackish tail with its
conspicuously flashing white
outer tail feathers. Juveniles
resemble adult females but
are paler overall.
• SONG A bold warbling
fyeet, fyeet, lya-lya-vee, chee-
yew-keak. Call is pink-pink\
has flight call of cheup.
BEHAVIOR
'

• Solitary or
pairs during nesting season
groups and small flocks after
breeding. Gregarious in winter;
often joins mixed-species
foraging flocks. Forages for food
in trees and bushes. Eats mainly
seeds and insects. Found almost
anywhere with scattered shrubs
and trees, orchards, farmlands,
parks, gardens, and suburbs.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary.
• NESTING Incubation 10-16 days by female; male sometimes
feeds female on nest. Altricial young brooded by female; remain
in nest 11-18 days, tended by both sexes, but female does more.
1-2 broods per year.

Flight Pattern
• Feeders Will come to
feeders for seed.
• POPULATION Accidental in
the Maritimes and in the US in
Massachusetts and Maine.
Somewhat bounding flight with rapid
wing beats alternating with brief periods Other reports are thought to be
of wings pulled to sides. of escaped cage birds.

Nest Identification Grasses, lichen, moss, rootlets, and feathers, held together by spiders' webbing
and lined with finer materials • decorated with bits of lichen • in fork of tree or
shrub • built by both sexes, but female does more • 3-6 light pink or pale gray
Shape
eggs, with various brownish red markings; oval to short oval, 0.78 x 0.6 inches.

Plumage Sexes djffer Habitat Migration

Miigratory We| g ht
0.8 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 n

BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 711

Len Sth 5.5-6.25 inches Wingspan

Family
FRINGILLIDAE Species
Fringilla montifringilla 8 5 _ 10 inches

Brambling black head

This Eurasian native occasionally makes and back
visitsduring migration to the western
islands of Alaska. It is casual in the fall and
orange shoulder
winter across coastal and southern Canada patches, throat,
and the northern US to California. Females m and breast
are similar to males in fresh fall plumage
but are duller in color with an olive-brown
black media
head and back. Winter males have orange- coverts bordered
buff shoulders and chests, a white shoulder buff-white white above and

bar. and black spotting on the flanks. In flanks with tawny orange below
black spotting
flight the long white wing stripe and white
rump are distinctive. Juveniles are similar
to adult females but are paler with heavier white
streaking on the back. uinp

• SONG Bold grating dzhweeeeee. Flight call

is nasal check-check-check. Call is harsh tweerk.

• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs while
nesting, but in flocks for rest of year; joins
mixed foraging flocks in winter. Forages in
trees,bushes, and on ground. Eats seeds and
insects in summer; seeds in winter. Nests
in northern forests with birch
olive-brown head
trees. Winters in woodlands
and back
and weedy fields tawny orange lot
• Breeding wing bar and white
upper wing bar
Monogamous.
Stays in pairs.
• Nesting
Incubation brownish orange
shoulder patches,
1 1-12 days by
throat, and breast
female. Young
altricial; brooded by
female; stay in nest
1 1-13 days, fed by both
Female
sexes. 1-2 broods per year.
• Population Rare to casual
except western islands in Bering Sea, where it is fairly common in

"t 1> — )-> — '

-* — —
Flight Pattern least once on Attu Island.
Scattered fall and winter records

< Tv T A T X from coast

Canada and northern US
to coast in southern
to
California.
Somewhat bounding flight with rapid
wing beats alternating with brief periods • Feeders Will come to
of wings pulled to sides. feeders for sunflower seeds.
1
Nest Identification Grass, hair, birch bark, and moss, held together with spiders' webbing and lined
with hair, wool, down, and feathers • adorned with bits of lichen • low in tree

Shape ^ Location
^ and near trunk • built by female •

markings; subelliptical to oval, 0.76 x 0.57 inches.

5-7 pale blue eggs, with pink and reddish

Plumage
Sexes diffcr
Habitat^ ^ j£ Migration
\|j Kratory
Wei S nt 0.8
ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

712 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMP:RICA
Family Species Len Sth 5.75-6 Win gspan 9 _ 9 5
FRINGILLIDAE Uucosticte tephrocotis inches inches

Gray-crowned Rosy-Finch black patch on forehead

Flying in large flocks, these birds sometimes migrate as far dforecrown

as the Great Plains during the winter months. Like all
Rosy-Finches, during nesting season these birds /,/t/( ./,

develop a gular pouch in the upper throat with an bill

opening to the floor of the mouth*. This helps

them carry large amounts of seeds to their
young. These birds inhabit barren rocky
places nestled among glaciers or above
timberline in montane subalpine
tundra. Populations living on the silvery gray

Pribilofand Aleutian islands

are larger, darker, and
show more gray on their
faces than continental
forms. Females are
similar but not as
pink on the wings
and body as males.
underparts
The black bills of JUVEMLK
adults become yellow in
winter. Juveniles are gray-brown.
Similar Birds
• SONG Long series of high chirps, similar to that of a House
Sparrow chorus. Has calls of high lisping chew, an abrasive pert,
Black Rosy-Finch
Hark blackish brown
and a high-pitched peent. hack, head, throat, and
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Lives in flocks and loose colonies all breast; rosy pink rump,
wing patch, and
year.Males weakly territorial. Forages in shrubs, grasses, and on
underparts; black
ground, hunting in crevices, among rocks v around tundra and forehead and forecrown;
snow pools, and along glaciers. Walks rather than hops. Eats gray head band • only

mostly seeds but actively takes insects, sometimes hawking in the West.

them in flight. In many populations, males greatly outnumber Brown-capped

females, and competition during courtship can be vigorous. Rosy-Finch
Dark brown cap; rich
Mountain populations descend to lower elevations in winter. brown back, nape, face,
• BREEDING Monogamous. Colonial. Female chooses throat, and chest;
reddish pink
territory while male follows and defends her from other birds.
underparts, wing patch,
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by female. Young altricial; rump and uppertail
brooded by female; stay in nest 16-22 days, fed by both sexes. coverts • western range.

1 brood in the mountains; 2 broods elsewhere.

• POPULATION Common
Flight Pattern and widespread in Alaska and
northwestern Canada. Locally
common on alpine tundra over
remaining range. Casual in
winter to the Midwest and
Somewhat bounding flight with several
southern California; accidental
rapid wing beats alternating with brief
period of w ings pulled to sides. to Ontario, Quebec, and Maine.

Nest Identification Grass, rootlets, lichen, and moss, lined with fine grass, plant down, and
occasionally feathers • in ridges of rocks and cliffs, sometimes in cave or eave of
building • built by female • 4-5 white eggs, occasionally dotted with reddish
Shape
brown; short pyriform, 0.9 x 0.61 inches.

Plumage Sexes differ Habitat

A Migration
S()me m ;
We 'S ht Undetermined

DATE TIME LOCATION

 •

BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 713

Species Length Wingspan 13.75-15

Family
p RI NGILLIDAE ptn {co ia enucleator 9_9>75 inches inches

Pine Grosbeak
red-tipped plumage
The largest of the grosbeaks makes its home in
on head, back, rump,
coniferous forests with an abundance of fruiting and uppertail coverts
shrubs and trees. This stout, tame bird is easily
% stu/d>\ blackish
approached and may allow itself to be touched
by human hands. Like many in the finch
family, the male and female develop gular 2 white wing
pouches during nesting season to transport sometimes w

food to nestlings. Except for populations

pink wash I Male
in the mountains of several western states
and some in New England forests, most blackish wings * • pink
of its range is north of the US-Canada with white edgin underparts
border. Irruptive flights in some winters to tertials

bring birds into the northeastern

pink edging to <

states. Juveniles resemble adult prima ries and

females but are duller, with washes secondaries

of dull yellow on the head, back,

and rump instead of the females
yellowish or reddish coloring.
• SONG Brief clear musical warble, yellowish oi-
similar to that of the Purple Finch. Call reddish head
is whistled pewi, pewi, pewi. Alarm note
is chee-uli.
blackish wings with
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in pairs J while wing bars
stubby blat kish
during nesting season. Tame. and pinkish edging
f curved bill
to flight feathers •
Gregarious. Forms large flocks soon
after juveniles become independent
• mostly
Forages on ground and in trees.
grayish overall
Eats mainly seeds; also takes buds,
some fruits, and insects. Male M \l \ l l

feeds female as part of courtship

ritual. Mostly sedentary, not often
moving south of southernmost breeding ranges in winter.

• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary.

• NESTING Incubation 13-15 days by female. Young altricial; brooded by

female; stay in nest 13-20 days, fed by both sexes. 1 brood per year.
• POPULATION Fairly common in open coniferous forests and along
edge of forest. Winters in mixed coniferous-deciduous woodlands,
deciduous forests, second
Flight Pattern growth, and in shade trees in
villages and in suburbs.
• Feeders Seeds.
• Conservation
Shallow undulations with series of rapid Vulnerable to loss of habitat due
wing beats alternating with brief periods to logging operations.
of wings drawn to sides.

Nest Identification Twigs, weeds, and rootlets, with lining of soft grass, rootlets, moss, and liehen
• on limb of tree or bush, usually 2-25 feet above ground • built by female

Shape •2-5 blue-green eggs with dots of blaek, purple, and brown; oval to long oval,
Aft *t 1.0x0.72 inches.

Plumage
Sexes diffcr
Habitat
^ Migration
Northern birds migrate Wei § ht
2.0 ounces

DATE II ME LOCATION
714 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length 5.5_ Wingspan 9.25-10.5 inches
FRINGILLIDAE Carpodacus purpurem 6 .25 inches

Purple Finch bright rosy

Male
The male is easy to identify by its raspberry- red head
rosy
colored plumage, brightest on the head superci/ium
rosy red plumage with

rump, and chest. Foraging in winter brown streaking on

back and cro wn
flocks, these birds depend on
feeders when food supplies are pinkish edging to
scarce. Juveniles are similar wings and 2 pinkish
bro wn loral
to adult females; both have 'white wing bars
mask extending
two white wing bars. onto auriculan
• SONG Rapid high-
pitched rising and falling
warble. Late winter/early
spring males may sing in • bright rosy

chorus. Call is chur-lee. Flight red rump

brown loral mask and
notes are sharp tuck or pit. kite belly
extending onto undertail coverts
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or auricular
in pairs in nesting season.
Male sings from exposed
brown-gray upperparts
perch. Gregarious, tame. In with whitish streaks
flocks after breeding; joins
Similar Birds
mixed-species foraging
flocks in winter with a, ( :assin's Finch cT
mu

A
grayish white Longer bill with
siskinsand goldfinches.
underparts W straighter culmen; nape
Forages in trees and with brown ' often slightly crested;
hopping on ground. Eats streaking gray-brown back; wings
deeply
seeds; some fruits, insects,
edged with pale pink;
FEMALE notched tail long primary projection;
and caterpillars in summer. streaked undertail
• BREEDING Monogamous. Male displays by dancing around coverts; distinct streaks
on sides and flanks
female and vigorously flapping his wings until he ascends to a
• western range.
foot above the ground.
House Finch d"
• NESTING Incubation about 13 days by female. Altricial Slender not chunky;
young brooded by female; stay in nest 14 days, fed by both >
^* less pointed bill with
sexes. 1-2 broods per year. decurved culmen;
indistinct facial pattern;
• POPULATION Fairly common in open coniferous and mixed brighter red on crown.
coniferous-deciduous forests, in forest edge, and in suburbs; in rump, and
throat,

Pacific states, in oak canyons and lower mountain slopes. breast; dusky streaked
underparts; squared tail.
Declining in the East.

• FEEDERS Millet and sunflower seeds.

Conservation
Flight Pattern Uncommon cowbird host.
Vulnerable to habitat loss due to

A T A
logging. Decrease in
England due competition
to
New

Swift bounding flight with rapid wi is

with House Sparrow; recent
beats alternating with brief periods of declines in East suggest same
wings pulled to body. with House Finch.

Nest Identification Twigs, weeds, rootlets, strips of bark, and string, with lining of moss, soft grasse;
moss, and hair • on branch or in fork of tree, 6-40 feet above ground • built by
female • 3-5 pale green-blue eggs, marked with black and brown; oval to short
Shape
oval, 0.8 x 0.57 inches.

Plumage Sexes differ Habitat

m ^_ A Migration
Northern birds migrate Wei ^ ht 1.2 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OK NORTH AMERICA • 715

Family Species Length Wingspan cA7S inches

FRING1LLIDAE Qarpodacus mexicanus 6 inches

House Finch bro wn cap

Originally confined to the West, this fine brown upperparts

w as called a Linnet and introduced as a with paler brown
streaking
cage bird on Long Island, New York, in
the 1940s. became abundant in the
It
bright red ? narrow white
East, surpassing the House Sparrow. to orange wing bars
Today, it is among the most widely bib and
front of squared
distributed songbird species in North
head tail
America. It often feeds with the M \! !

Purple Finch, especially in winter.

Some male variants are orange or brown-streaked • \s,
yellow instead of red. Juveniles underparts
resemble adult females.
• SONG Varied rich high- grayish brown-
streaked
pitched scratchy warble upperparts i

composed chiefly of 3-note

narrow
phrases; many end with rising whitish buff Orange
inflections.Both sexes sing, wing bars « variant male
but male's song is longer,
more complex, and more
Similar Birds
frequent. Call is nasal chee
or chee-wheet; in flight a Pi rple Finch cT
sharp nasal nyee-ah. Chunkier; notched tail;
brown-streak distinct rosy eyebrow
• Behavior Solitary whitish buff and submustachial
underparts
or in pairs during nesting I i:m ai i:
stripe; white crissum
lacks streaking; crown
season. Gregarious. Forms
does not contrast with
small family groups when young become independent. Larger face and nape • male
foraging flocks in winter may join with other finches. Actively shows raspberry-red on
forages on ground, in fields, and in suburban areas. Eats mostly head, breast, and rump.

seeds but in summer takes insects and fruits. Drinks maple sap. Cassin's Finch cf
Males are conspicuous and sing often. Studies indicate that the Larger; notched tail;
long straight bill; nape
redder the male's plumage, the more desirable he is to females.
often slightly crested;
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. W bright red crown; pale
pink-edged wings;
• NESTING Incubation 12-14 days by female. Altricial young streaked undertail
brooded by female; stay in nest 1 1-19 days, fed by both sexes. coverts; distinct
1-3 broods per year. streaking on sides and
flanks • western range.
• POPULATION Abundant over much of North America in a
w ide variety of habitats, from arid scrub, wooded canyons, cultivated
fields, and open woodlands to

Flight Pattern suburban yards and urban areas.

• FEEDERS Thistle, millet,
sunflower, and other seeds.
• Conservation Rare
Swift somewhat bounding flight with cowbird host in the West; fairly
rapid wing beats alternating with brief common host in the East.
periods of wings pulled to sides.

Nest Identification Twigs, grass, leaves, rootlets, bits of debris, and feathers • in tree hollow, cactus,
on ground, under eaves of building, in bird boxes, abandoned nests, shrub, tree,
Shape
etc. • built by female • 2-6 light blue eggs, spotted with lilac and black, often

±m concentrated at larger end; oval to long oval, 0.8 x 0.57 inches.

Plumage
Sexes differ Habitat^ ^ A "7 Migration
Some migrate Weight
0J ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

716 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len ^th 5.5-6.5 Wingspan 10-10.75 inches
FRINGILLIDAE Loxia curv irostra inches

Red Crossbill
Crossbills take their name from the overlapping tips
of the upper and lower mandibles. A resident of
evergreen forests, they insert the crossed
mandibles into conifer cones, forcing the
scales apart while the tongue scoop's the
^
seed into the mouth. Nestlings have crossed at tip.

straight mandibles that cross gradually about

three weeks out of the nest. Having abundant
food year-round, this species begins nesting as
early as January. Juveniles have weakly crossed
mandibles, gray-olive upperparts heavily
streaked dark brown, dark brown-streaked
whitish underparts with yellowish wash, and
buff-yellow rump. Subspecies of this bird vary
in size, bill size, and vocalizations and may
vhitish gray
represent up to nine separate species.
center to belh lark undertail
• SONG Series of 2-note phrases followed coverts with
by trilled warble, jitt, jitt, jitt, jiff, jiiaa-jiiaa- whitish edging

jtiaaaaa. Calls vary among subspecies.

• BEHAVIOR In pairs during breeding
season. Gregarious in small to large flocks v buff-

most of year. Forages primarily in conifers, overall

some on ground. Eats mostly seeds; also

insects and caterpillars. Clings under
branches and cones chickadee-like or
Female
crawls across limbs and cones like a
small parrot, using bill and feet. Eats
bits of mortar and is attracted to salt licks and to
Similar Birds

winter salt on the sides of roadways. Individuals and White -.winged

flocks fly high and are generally detected by their flight calls. ( :r( issbill
White wing bars in all
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. Displaying male flies seasons • male pinkish
above female, vibrating wings and delivering flight song as he red overall • female has

soars in circles overhead. dusky mottled olive-

yellow upperparts;
• NESTING Incubation 12-18 days by female. Altricial young yellow rump; grayish
brooded by female; stay in nest 15-20 days, fed by both sexes. underparts w ith

1-2 broods per year. yellowish wash.

• POPULATION Fairly common n conifers and mixed forests.

Wanderers, often depend on
Flight Pattern cone crop. Irruptive flights to
Gulf states some winters.
• FEEDERS Sunflower seeds.
• Conservation
Swift bounding flights, sometimes high
Vulnerable to habitat loss due to
above ground, on rapidly beating wings logging operations.
with brief periods of w ings pulled to sides.

Nest Identification Twigs, pieces of bark, grass, and rootlets, with lining of finer grasses, feathers,
fur, hair, and moss • on tree branch far out from trunk, 6-40 feet above grounc
• built by female • 3—4 light green or blue eggs spotted with browns and lilacs
Shape
oval to long oval. 0.8 \ 0.58 inches.

Plumage Scxes
differ
Migration
Nonmigratory We 'g nt 1 .4 ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 717

Species Length
6 _ 6JS inches Wingspan o.5__ ,.5 inchcs
Family
FRINGILUDAl I oxja ieucop tera I
I

White-winged Crossbill
Frequenting a northern range, White-winged
Crossbills rarely are observed in large numbers
in the US, exeept during food shortages
and periods of overpopulation. Males are
bright pink with a dusky band on the
lower back, but plumage pales during
winter months. Juveniles resemble ad nit
females but are bnffy tan overall with
heav\ brown streaking.
• SONG Vigorous musical warbles and
chatters, sweet, sweet, sweet, on different
pitches and often issued during display
flight on hovering wings. Call is rapid
harsh repetitive series of chif-chif-chif
notes and plaintive peet.

• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. Tame.

In pairs during nesting season
from early winter to spring. black wings with
2 broad white
Forages in small flocks most
wing bars
of year. Principal diet is

conifer seeds; also eats seeds

from other trees, weeds, Female
grasses,and sunflowers. Takes
some insects. Attracted to salt
licks and salt on surfaces of
winter highways. Like Red
Crossbill, uses mandible tips to
Red Crossbill
spread cone scales while removing seed Male brick-red overall;
with tongue. Climbs over branches parrotlike using feet and bill. dark brow nish black
wings without wing bars
• BREEDING Monogamous. Solitary. • female has dusky
• NESTING Breeding biology poorly known. Incubation yellow upperparts with
12-14 days by female. Altricial young brooded by female; stay in dusky mottling; yellow
rump; brownish black
nest estimated 15-20 days. Both sexes regurgitate milky seed
wings lack wing bars;
pulp mixture to nestlings. 1 brood per year. dull yellow underparrs

• POPULATION Fairly common but erratic in conifer and lack streaking or

mottling.
mixed coniferous-deciduous forests. Irregular wanderer;
irruptive southward migration dependent on cone seed crops.
Western populations expanding
Flight Pattern range southward.
• FEEDERS Sunflower seeds.
• Conservation
Vulnerable to habitat loss due to
Swift bounding flight with rapidly beating logging operations. Heavy
wings alternating with brief periods of mortality in winter due to traffic-
wings pulled to sides.
on salted roadways.

Nest Identification Grass, bark, lichen, moss, and hair • lined with twigs and weeds • on
horizontal tree limb far out from trunk, 3-70 feet above ground • built by-

female • 3-5 whitish to pale blue-green eggs with brown and lavender spotting
Shape
at larger end; oval to long oval, 0.86 x 0.62 inches.

Plumage
Sexes djffer Habitat
m^ ^_ Migration
Nonmigratory Wei § ht 1.0 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

718 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length
5 _5-5 inches Wingspan
FRINGILLIDAE Carduelis flammea 8 2 5_q i nc h es
_

Common Redpoll
This is most commonly observed in the tundra,
finch
but during some winters, foraging flocks migrate to Male
southern Canada and the northern US. It is a
tame bird that allows close approach and
ovmin ^ rh harp conical bill is
does not fight over territory. The best heavy brown streaking buff with black tip
field mark is the red to orange cap on nape and back
black ch in
and black chin combined with the
bright rose-pink
streaked rump, uppertail coverts,
breast and sides
sides, and crissum. Although blackish brown
primarily nonmigratory, the wings with 2 narra
white wins, bars •
northern populations do migrate.
• SONG Trills, then bubbling
twittering including chit notes
of flight song, a rattling chit-

chit-chit-chit. Call is swee-ee-et.

• BEHAVIOR Gregarious.
Tame. Lives in flocks all
year. Loosely territorial or
nonterritorial, with
k brown streaks
breeding pairs nesting on sides, flanks, and
close to one another. brown hindcrown undertail coverts
and nape
Forages chickadee-
red or orange-
like, clinging to
red cap
branch tips and
weed tops for seeds,
mainly from birches, Similar Birds
alders, willows, and
Hoary Redpoll
weeds. Also forages on Paler frostier body;
ground for weed and slightly smaller hill;

grass seeds. Eats faint, minimal, or absent

streaking on rump,
insects during summer.
sides, flanks, and
whitish overall
• BREEDING Monogamous Female with brown streaking
crissum • male's breast

Solitary to loose colonial. is generally a paler pink

and is restricted to
• NESTING Incubation lO-ll days by female. Young altricial; sides, but pink may be
brooded by female; stay in nest 9-14 days, fed mostly by absent in winter

female, but sometimes by male and by additional male helpers. plumage.

1-2- broods per year.

• Population Fairly

Flight Pattern common, breeding in tundra

scrub, scrubby areas, and
subarctic forest. Winters in
brushy areas. Irregular in the
US south of Canada border.
Moves relentlessly in undulating flight,
with series of rapid wing beats alternating
• FEEDERS Thistle, millet,
with brief periods of wings pulled to sides. sunflower seeds.

Moss, feathers, plant material, and animal fur • lined with twigs and grass
Nest Identification
• generally hidden in dense low shrubs, occasionally in crevices in rocks or

rocky outcroppings • built by female • 4-7 pale green or blue-green eggs,

Shape ^ Location
^ with purplish to reddish brown spots concentrated at larger end; oval to
short oval, 0.7 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage Sexes differ Habitat Migration

Nonmigratory Wei S ht 0.5 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 719

Family Species Len §th 5-5.75 inches Win g s Pa" 8.5-9.25

FRINGILLIDAE Carduelis hornemanni inches

HOARY REDPOLL
Breeding along the arctic coast, this bird closely
resembles its cousin, the Common Redpoll,
but has little or no streaking on its rump
and crissum and has silvery white light brown
streaking
plumage, presenting a more on bark pale buff-grayish
frosted appearance. Not wary of to whitish

humans in the manner of uppe/parts <

main high arctic species,

it will sometimes land
on a shoulder or come
to thehand for food.
During the winter, this tubby

bird is almost always in

the company of
Common Redpolls.
The female is similar white crissum and
to the male but lacks rump with little or
no streaking
the pink wash on the ,

breast and the faint

streaking on the sides.
Juveniles resemble females
but lack the black chin and red
cap and show more streaking on
whitish underparts
the underparts. with pinkish wash
• SONG A trill followed by a slow twitter, on breast

zzzzzz-chee-chee-chee-chee Call . is a plaintive tweet.

• BEHAVIOR Tame. Gregarious year-round. Nests in
Similar Birds
loose colonies with pairs close together and males apparently
not defending territories. Forms foraging flocks after breeding Common Redpoll
when young become independent. Joins mixed-species flocks Conspicuous streaking

with other finch species in winter. Forages for food on ground

and in bushes and trees. Eats seeds and insects. Regurgitates
'A on rump, flanks, and
undertail coverts;
heavier brown streaking
milky mix of seeds and insects to nestlings. Forages in brushy on nape and upperparts;
slightly larger bill
and weedy habitats in winter. • male shows rosy pink
• BREEDING Monogamous. Semicolonial. on breast and sides
extending onto cheeks.
• NESTING Incubation 9-12 days by female. Young altricial;

brooded by female; stay in nest 9-14 days, fed by both sexes.

1-2 broods per year.

Flight Pattern • POPULATION Fairly

common on scrubby tundra.
This bird is irregular in winter
south of Canada.

Swift bounding flight on rapidly beating

• Feeders Will come to

wings alternating with brief periods of feeders for thistle, millet,

wings pulled to sides. sunflower, and other seeds.

Nest Identification Twigs, grass, and rootlets, with lining of soft grass, feathers, and hair • in
middle of low bush or on ground sheltered by rocks or vegetation • built by
Shape female • 4—6 light green to bluish green eggs, dotted with reddish brown,
usually concentrated at larger end; oval to short oval, 0.7 x 0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexe§ differ
Habitat Migration
N orthern birds migrate
Wei § ht 0.5 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

720 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Length Wingspan 8 _ inchcs
FRINGILLIDAE Carduelis spinas 4 75, 5 9 _

Eurasian Siskin
Vagrants of this widespread Eurasian black crown
greenish yellow
species occasionally cross the Bering dud chin
upperparts with
Strait to Attu Island in the Aleutians, black streaking
and in the East they have been yello w stripes on
observed in southern wings and base
of

Ontario, Massachusetts, outer tail feather

ported Ml
and New Jersey. The
yellow face,
male's black crown and
throat, and
chin, greenish upperparts, and breast
yellow rump and underparts
clearly distinguish this small bird
from its North American cousin, black-streaked
yellow sides
the Pine Siskin, as well as any other
,

North American finch species. In

andflanks ^ \ white belly
and crissum
flight the yellow rump and long
yellow stripe at the base of the
blackish flight feathers are
'1 llowish s it pen din in
conspicuous. Juveniles are similar
to females but have more heavily
streaked underparts that are not blai k-stt caked gt i v m ish
gray upperparts
washed with yellow.
I l\I W.V.
• SONG Pleasant rapid
warbling twittering of tsee-vee, yellowish wash on
tsee-vee, tsee-vee. Call is bold tee- dark-streaked underparts
white belly
ee-lee-tee and single metallic tsa. and crissum
Similar Birds
• BEHAVIOR Solitary or in
pairs in nesting season. Small Pink siskin
Brow n upperparts
family groups after breeding.
streaked dark brow n;
Tame and gregarious. Forms
blacki. w lute underparts with
flocks in winter; often joins other yellow base to brow n streaking;
finches. Forages in trees, brush, outer tail.Jeathe brow nish wings with
yellow upper and white
weedy fields, and on ground for
!i p\\ ei w ing bar; yellow
seeds, some Sometimes hangs upside down when
insects. at base of primaries and
pulling seeds from conifer cones. Nomadic; follows food supply secondaries forms wing
stripe in flight; notched
• BREEDING Monogamous. Male displays by singing, 1)1. k kish tail \\ ith yellow
ascending, and flying around female in circles. base to outer feathers.

• NESTING Incubation 11-14 days by female. Altricial young

brooded by female; stay in nest
12-15 days, fed by both sexes.
Flight Pattern
2 broods per year.
• POPULATION Accidental in
Aleutians, southeast Canada,
and northeastern US.
Swift and v ery bounding flight with rapid
wing beats dternating with brief pe riods
• Feeders Seed.
of wings pu lied to sides.

Nest Identification Twigs, moss, grass, and wool • lined w ith hair, wool, down, and rootlets • high i

tree near end of limb • built by female, w ith some help from male • 3-5 glossy
light blue eggs, heavily marked with reddish browns, purples, and pinks;
Shape ^gp
in subelliptical, 0.64 \ 0.4.S inches.

Plumage Sexes differ Habitat

m^ Migration
Mj„ ratory Weight
a5 Qunce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 721

Family Species Len Sth 4.5-5.25 inches Wingspan 8S _ Q

FRINGILLIDAE Carduelh pinus I I inches

Pine Siskin
In and winter this is a common visitor to northern
fall

forests, where it forages in flocks that may include

several thousand birds. When food is scarce upperparts with ii

dark brown streaking f

these daytime migrants may travel as far
south as Florida and central Mexico,
brownish black
flying in tightly formed flocks. In flight wings with white
the yellow wing stripe at the base of the lower and yellow
flight feathers and the yellow base to f upperwing bars
the outer tail feathers are conspicuous.
Females are similar to males but with
more washed-out yellow plumage.
Juveniles resemble females but show white underpart.
with brown
a yellowish wash overall.
streaking
• SONG Husky canary-like
twittering warble, rising and falling in
pitch and interspersed with a rapid
ascending ZZZzzzzzzzzzzrree!, sounding condarit

like the equivalent of a bird with a

chainsaw. Call is rising tee-ee. Flight note is

hoarse descending chee.

• BEHAVIOR 'Fame, may allow close approach. notched blackish tail
Gregarious. In small groups or flocks year-round. Weakly with yellow base to
outer tail feathers
territorial or not at all, with pairs nesting close to one another,
often in the same tree. Forages on ground and in trees for seeds
from alders, birches, spruce, and other trees. Also eats thistle
Similar Birds
seeds and weeds, some insects in summer. Nomadic in fall and
w inter. Attracted to salt licks and salt-treated w inter highways. House Finch 9
Feeds on sap at drill wells created by sapsuckers. Mountain Stubbier thicker bill;

longer tail with squarish

populations descent to lower elevations prior to winter onset. narrow white w ing
tip; 1

• BREEDING Monogamous. Semicolonial. bars; lacks yellow at

base of tail, primaries,
• NESTING Incubation 13 days by female. Young altricial;
and secondaries.
brooded by female; stay in nest 14-15 days, fed by both sexes.
C()\!\K)\ REDPOLL 9
2 broods per year.
Red cap; black chin; 2
• POPULATION Widespread and abundant in coniferous and narrow w hite wing bars;
lacks yellow plumage
mixed conifer-deciduous forests, in woodlands, parks, weedy
on wings and tail.
fields,and near human habitation. Erratic irruptions in some
winters bring large numbers far south of normal w intering range.
• Feeders Mixed seed.
Flight Patten thistle, and black sunflower
oil

seed. Also will bathe and drink

in birdbaths.

• Conservation Fatalities
high in winter; birds attracted to
Flight is high and swift in compact flocks
with long undulating sweeps.
salt on roads become reluctant
to fly.

Bark, moss, feathers, and animal fur • lined with grass and twigs
Nest Identification
• usually hidden in conifer, placed far out from trunk • 10-50 feet above
ground • built by female • 3-5 pale greenish blue eggs, with brown and
Shape black spots concentrated on larger end; short oval to short subelliptical,
0.7x0.5 inches.

Plumage
Sexes simi , ar
I Habitat
m •Migration
Migratory Weight
{)>5 oimce

DATE TIME LOCATION

722 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Len 2th Wingspan 8 inches
FRINGILLIDAE Carduelis psaltria 4.5 inches

Lesser Goldfinch black cap \

Smaller than the American Goldfinch, this bird

is welcome in the Southwest because of its
dark greenish
pleasant song and the amount of weed seeds it olive
upperpartsm long conical
consumes. It can be distinguished from other
blackish bill
goldfinches by the white patch at the base of
the primaries, which shows as a white wing
vhite wing bar
stripe in flight. All adult males have a black
crown, but the color of the back varies onspicuous white
with range: black-backed birds in the East wing patch at base
ofprimaries
and green-backed birds in the West.
Juvenile males are similar to females bright yellow-
but have a black forehead and black green underparts

streaking on the crown.

• SONG Complex warbling
twittering exuberant series of swee
notes. Call is mewing tee-yee and
Juvenile
drawn-out nasal zweeir.
Male
•

weedy

Eats
BEHAVIOR
flocks. Gregarious.
flocks in brush, shrubs,
fields.
birdbaths and faucets
weed
In pairs or small
Forages

Frequents

seeds, other
and
in

blackish
V
Black-backed
male
wings with
seeds, and insects. Similar Birds
2 white
• Breeding wing bars American
Monogamous. Pairs Goldfinch
dull yellowish Larger; stubby pinkish
stay together in
green underpart. bill; whitish undertail
winter; may mate for coverts; blackish wings

life. Male displays with with 2 whitish to buff

white tips to
wing bars and white
singing flight song; feeds
tertials ana" white
edging to tertials and
female during courtship. secondaries; lacks white
base
• NESTING Late nester. patch across base of
primaries • in winter
Incubation 12 days by female, fed by male. Altricial youn^
has brownish
brooded by female; stay in nest 11-15 days. Both sexes feed upperparts; grayish
regurgitated milky seed pulp. 1-2 broods per year. white underparts with
buff wash on flanks.
• POPULATION Common in open habitats with scattered
trees, brush fields, and woodland borders, especially near water and
near human habitation. Casual

Flight Pattern in the Great Plains. Accidental

in the East.
TV • FEEDERS Thistle, mixed
seeds, and sunflower seeds.

High bouncy swift flight with rapid wing

• Conservation Rare
beats alternating with brief pe riods of cowbird host.
wings pulled to sides.

Nest Identification Plant fibers, grasses, and bark pieces, w ith lining of feathers, cotton, and plant
down • usually cradled across limb of tree or bush or occasionally set in tall

weeds 2-30 feet above ground • built by female • 3-6

• light blue eggs, usually
Shape Location
unmarked; ovate to rounded ovate, 0.61 x 0.45 inches.

Plumage Sexes djffer Habitat Migration

Northern birds migrate Wei S ht 0.3 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 723

Species Length s Wingspan 8

Family
FRINGILLIDAE (;(/n/!lrIis fmtis I
inchcs I

75 _ 9 jnchc

American Goldfinch
Often called the "wild canary" in the Southeast, the bright
male in breeding plumage is a bright canary yellow. yellow
The female is more dull overall, while the young have
whitish cinnamon wing bars and rump. Adult males in
winter look more like the females and juveniles.
• S()NG A jumbled series of musical
warbles and trills often witha drawn-out

baybeee note. Flight song sounds like

pcr-chick-oree or po-tato-chips.
• BEHAVIOR Occurs in flocks
in nonbreeding season. In
spring, feeds on the sma
seeds from dandelions.
In the late summer
breeding season
males engage
in aerial
displays of
exaggerated
roller coaster-like
flights across the sky,
singing po-tato-chip with
each downward glide. Female Male
• Breeding JUVENIL winter plumage winter plumage
Monogamous.
olive upperparts
Among the very Similar Birds
latest songbirds Yellow Warbler $
to nest each year. ,acks wing bars and
j|| I

Territorial black wing and tail

• breeds throughout
defense and
pah' much of the North,
mate selection yellow, Southwest.
begins in late underpart.
Lesser Goldfinch c?
summer and Yellow undertail co\ cits
continues into early fall. • ranges in the
Northwest, Rockies, and
• Nesting incubation
much of the Southwest.
10-12 days by female.
Young stay in nest

Flight Pattern 11-17 days, fed by both sexes.

1-2 broods per year.

<* v T x T v • Population Common.

Declining in eastern North
America; stable in the West.
Undulating roller coaster-like flight with
several rap d
,

wing beats and a pause.

• Feeders Black (oil)
sunflower seeds, thistle.

Nest Identification Pliable vegetation lined w ith plant down • caterpillar webbing and spider silk

often used to bind outer rim • usually along the edge of an open area • built by
female • extremely well woven • 4—6 pale blue or bluish white eggs;
Shape
subelliptical to oval, 0.6 inch long.

Plumage
Sexe§ differ Habitat^ ^ Migration
Migratory Wei S ht
0.5 ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

724 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species Coccothraustes vespertinui Length
7 <75 _ 8 _5
Wingspan i^UJS
FRINGILLIDAE inches inches

Evening Grosbeak yellow forehead

Since the century the breeding range of this
late 19th * and eyebrow
chunky bird has expanded eastward, supported by
seed from new trees and by increased feeding
stations. Fall migratory patterns are erratic; birds
only leave breeding ranges when food
supplies fail or populations become
sizeable. Flocks may arrive in a region large white 0/
one winter and not return the next. greenish yellow
roil ical bill
In flight the short notched tail and
large wing patches are distinctive.
• SONG Series of clipped warbled
phrases, ending in shrill whistled note.
Calls are loud piercing c/ee-ip, peeer and
chirp.Flocks sound like chorus of
amplified House Sparrows.
• BEHAVIOR Gregarious.
Tame. Noisy. In groups and
flocks during breeding
season; pairs nest
black
closely. Eats insects,
malai
including spruce mark
budworm, while
white chin if,
nesting; also eats
and throat
buds, sap, and seeds
Juvenile
from trees and gray-buff
shrubs; fruits and underparts
Similar Birds
and rump
berries. In winter
American
looks for salt and drinks %
Goldfinch c"
water from melting snow. FEMALI Smaller; black cap; pink

• Breeding black uppertin I

conical bill; bright
yellow upperparts and
Monogamous. Semicolonial. coverts with
underparts; white
white tips notched tail
• Nesting incubation with -white tip undertail coverts; black
wings; 2 white wing
11-14 days by female; male feeds
bars; white edging to
incubating female on nest. Young altricial; brooded by female; tertials; notched black
stay in nest 13-14 days, fed by both sexes. 1-2 broods per year. tail with white tips on
inner webs.
• POPULATION common
breeding season in conifers
Fairly in
and mixed woodlots; in mountains in West. Irregular in winter in
woodlots, parks, second growth,
Flight Pattern suburban areas.
• FEEDERS Sunflower seeds;
frequents birdbaths.
• Conservation Rare

Swift shallow bounding flight with rapid

cowbird host. Many killed on
wing beats alternating with brief periods salt-treated highways in winter.
of wings pulled to sides.

Frail structure of twigs, grass, moss, roots, and pine needles • lined with fine
Nest Identification
materials • built on horizontal branch of tree far out from trunk • usually
20-60 feet above ground (but up to 100 feet) • built by female • 3-5 pale blue
Shape to bluish green eggs, with brown, gray, and purple spotting; oval to short oval,
1.0x0.8 inches.

Plumage
Sexe§ differ Habitat
^ ^_ A Migration
Some m j grate
Weight 7.1
ounces

DATE TIME LOCATION

 .

BIRDS OF NOR TH AMERICA • 725

Family Species Length 5,5_ Wingspan 9 _ 1() jnchc

PASSERIDAE Passer domestical 6< 5 i nc h ( 5 _
,

House Sparrow nape jo ins

lu st n ut
This bird was introduced in New York t

postocular stripe
City from Europe in the 1850s. By
the early 20th century it was
buff-brown bark
established over most of the and wings with
continent. With the popularity black streaking.

of cars it began to decline;

few er horses meant less
white submustach
Male
undigested grain to be gleaned joins white half-
from horse manure. Sometimes collar
called the English Sparrow, it is
the world's most widespread songbird.
Juveniles resemble females but have
browner upperparts, buffier underparts
and a pinkish bill.

• SONG Twittering series of chirps.

Gall is monotonous repeated dusky postocular
cheep - cheep - cheep stripe below buff

• BEHAVIOR Aggressive - Wbrow blackish-streaked

buff-brown
and noisy. In pairs
upperparts
during nesting season;
family groups and , , , ...

a ie u a-
dusky bill, l l MAI I
Winter
flocks after breeding, with yellowish MALE
Feeds and roosts in base to lower \

huge flocks. Hops. mandible

Similar Birds
Forages on ground, in white «
trees and shrubs, in urban wing bar Eurasian Tree
and rural areas. Eats insects, Sparrow
Reddish brow n crow n;
caterpillars, seeds, grains, and
white cheek with black
fruits. Inspects car grilles for insects. arch; black loral mask
Usurps nesting cavities from other species. and chin: black-
streaked brownish
• BREEDING Monogamous. Some promiscuous. Males form upperparts; w hire w ing
circle around female and aggressively battle with each other. bar has black upper
border; dusky brow n
• NESTING Incubation 10-14 days by both sexes, mostly by
underparts • locally
female. Altricial young brooded by female; stay in nest 14-17 common only in and
days; both sexes feed by regurgitation. 2-3 broods per year. around St. Louis,
Missouri, and Illinois.
• POPULATION Abundant and widespread in urban and
cultivated areas and around human habitation; gradually declining.
•Feeders and
Flight Pattern BIRDHOUSES Will come to
feeders for small seeds and
grains; nests in bird boxes.
• Conservation Rare
Swift somew hat bounding flight with
cowbird host. Out-competes
rapid wing beats alternating with brief other secondary-cavity nesters
periods of w ings pulled to sides.
but loses to European Starlings.

Grass, straw, weeds, cotton, bits of debris, twigs, and feathers • in tree hollow,
Nest Identification
under eaves of building or other sheltered areas, or in bird boxes; abandoned
Shape

Location
©$tB WF nests of other birds • on the backs of highway signs and billboards in the
• built by both sexes • 3-7 light green or blue eggs, dotted with grays and
West

j£ ^ brow ns,concentrated toward larger end; oval to long oval, 0.9 x 0.7 inches.

Plumage
Scxcs diffcr I
Habitat
^_ ^ ^ I Migration
\ onm j gratory I
Wei § ht 1.0
ounce

DATE TIME UOGATION

726 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Family Species
passer montanus Length
5 5 _ 6 inches Wingspan 9_9 5
pASS ERIDAE mches

Eurasian Tree Sparrow chestnut crown

This small bird was introduced from Germany into
and nape
St. Louis, Missouri, in 1870, and from there it has
black pah h on
spread only into east-central Missouri and ear coverts
western Illinois. Today it is common but
local and stable in its limited range* gray-brown
back with black
Distinguished from the House
st/raking
Sparrow by its brownish red
crown, this bird usually makes
its home near farmland and

suburban gardens. Less

aggressive than the white wing ha 1
with black
House Sparrow, this
upper borde
bird chooses not to
compete for
roosting or nesting
territory, which may
limit its distribution.
Juveniles are paler
than adults and have
grayish black chins and
auriculars and black streaking
on the forehead and forecrown. • dirty white or
• SONG Series of chirps and cheeps, gray belly and sides
with double chissick, similar to House Sparrow
but harsher and higher pitched. Flight note is quick chip, chip and teck, teck.

• BEHAVIOR Gregarious. In pairs for nesting but forms family groups and flocks after
breeding. Shy but it often allows closer approach than House Sparrow. Not aggressive toward
other birds or competitive over occupied nesting sites. Forages on ground and in trees. Eats
seeds, grains, and insects. May join House Sparrows in mixed-species foraging flocks.
• BREEDING Monogamous. Small loose colonies.
• NESTING Incubation 13-14 days by both sexes. Young
altricial; brooded by female; stay in nest 12-14 days, fed by both Similar Birds
sexes. 2-3 broods per year. House Sparrow cf
• POPULATION Common in its range where House Sparrows Gray crown; gray cheek
patch; black bib
are scarce, in farmlands, parks, suburbs, and areas of human
extends onto chest.
habitation. Accidental elsewhere in North America.
• FEEDERS AND BlRDHOUSES Will nest in bird boxes and
come for small seeds and grains.
Flight Pattern • Conservation No
known brood parasitism by
v cowbirds. Out-competed for
nesting cavities by other species
Swift somewhat bounding flight with in its range.
rapid wing beats alternating with brief
periods of wings pulled to sides.

Nest Identification Straw, grasses, feathers, weeds, and bits of debris • in cavity in tree hollow,
under eaves of building, in bird box, in crevice of cliff, etc. • built by both sexes
Shape
^0: • 4-6 light gray to white eggs, with brownish spots; subelliptical,

0.8 x 0.55 inches.

Location
^
Plumage Sexe s similar Habitat Migration
Nonmigratory Wei § ht 0.8
ounce

DATE TIME LOCATION

 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 727

ACCIDENTAL SPECIES
These rare birds, which have been recorded in the area covered by this
field guide, have not been profiled on full pages in this book. Included
here is a list of these accidental species and those occurrences that have
been reliably documented by the American Ornithologists Union (AOU)
Check-list of North American Birds, 7th edition, with multiple locations
separated by semicolons.

Kermadec Petrel, Common Cuckoo,

Pterodroma neglecta: PA Cuculus canorus:
Martha's Vineyard, MA
Mottled Petrel,
Pterodroma inexpectata: NY Red-naped Sapsucker,
Spliycapicits nuchalis:
White-chinned Petrel, KS;OK;LA
Procellaria aequ'moctialis:
Galveston Co., TX; NC Pygmy Nuthatch,
Sitta pygmaea:
Mongolian Plover, IA; KS; TX
Charadrius mongolus:
NJ; LA; RI Siberian Rubythroat,
Luscinia calliope: ON
Wandering Tattler,
Heteroscelus incanus: Brewer's Sparrow,
ON; MB; TX; MA Spize/la breweri:
MB; NS; IL; MA
Terek Sandpiper,
Xenns cinereus: Scott's Oriole,
northeast MB; MA Icterus parisorum:

ON; LA; MN; WI

Temminck's Stint,
Calidris temminckii: TN Black Rosy-Finch,
Leucosticte atrata: OH
Broad-billed Sandpiper,
Limicola falcinellus: Cassin's Finch,
NS; New York, NY Carpodacus cassinii: MN
Tufted Puffin,
Fratercula cirrhata: ME
728 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA

GLOSSARY
• Aerie • Alternate • ARBOREAL
A nest located on a cliff Plumage A tree-dwelling bird.
or high place, usually See Breeding Plumage.
built by a raptor, a bird • AURIGULARS
of prey. • Altitudinal Feathers along the sides
Movements of the ears, often called
• Agave (Vertical migrations) A ear coverts or ear
A desert plant with a birds regular seasonal patches.
spikelike flower, similar vertical movement, often
to a Yucca plant. from the mountaintops • AXILLARIES
in summer lower to Rigid feathers along the
• Air Sag regions or valleys during underside of the wings
A series of thin-walled winter, with a return to where they connect to
sacs, typically eight or higher elevations the the body, corresponding
nine (but ranging from following spring. to the underarm area in
six to fourteen, depen- a human.
ding on the species) that • Altricial
in conjunction with the Term for young birds • Basic Plumage
paired lungs comprise that hatch in a helpless See Winter Plumage.
the bird's respiratory state, usually naked with
system. eyes closed, and are • Breeding
totally dependent on Plumage
• Alar Bar the parents. (Alternate plumage)
A contrasting line (bar) Seasonal alterations in
of plumage beginning in • Alula appearance to attract
the alar region of the A small group of feathers birds of the opposite
wing (where the wing that protrude from the sex, such as changes in
bends at the wrist and on outermost joint of the color or the addition of
the leading edge) and wing. It has its own ornamental ruffs. This
running from that point group of muscles and is accomplished by a

at an angle toward the moves independently feather molt from

birds body, stopping from the flight feathers. the basic, or winter,
where the back of the By adjusting the angle of plumage.
wing joins the body. The the alula, the bird is able
effect is a patch or line of to regulate the air flow • Cambium
feathers that differ from over the top of the wing, Plant tissue near the
the color of the wing allowing it to alight or inner bark of a tree that
feathers around it, thus land at slower speeds produces lateral growth.
producing a visible bar without stalling.
on the top of the wing. • Catkin
Sometimes the bar runs • Anhedral A spike of flowers such
from the alula to the The downward curve of as those found on a
base of the wing on the a birds wings when willow or birch tree.
front side (leading edge). in flight.
 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 729

• Gere • Creche • Dabbling

The fleshy area on top of An aggregation of Method of surface
the base of the upper bill hatchlings of a nesting feeding by a relatively
that contains the nostrils. colony, living together short-necked short-
Present on the bills of while they are in a legged duck. It tips up
some bird species, dependent state and fed the and body, then
tail

particularly among and tended by the dips and neck

its bill

birds of prey. adult birds. into water. These ducks

are called dabblers. See
• Clutch • Crepuscular Tipping-up.
The total number of Birds that feed and
eggs laid during a single are active during • Decurved
nesting period; some birds twilight hours. Sloped downward,
lay several clutches in a usually referring to
nesting season. • Crissum the bill.

Feathers covering the

• Colonial base of the undertail, • Detritus
The pattern of nesting usually a different color Small particles of dead
close together with birds from the rest of the organic matter.
of the same species. underparts. Also called
Sometimes only a few undertail coverts. • Dihedral
nests packed close Wings held in a shallow
together constitute a • Crop V while bird is in flight.
colony, but some may Where food is stored in
hold hundreds or thou- the esophagus for later • Distal Band
sands of nesting pairs. digestion, or to be A strip of color near the
regurgitated and fed to end of the tail, end of
• CONSPECIFIC hatchlings. Some birds, wing, or on the lower
Birds that are members such as pigeons and part of the leg.
of the same species. doves, have a
two-chambered crop • Diurnal
• Congeners that produces special Birds that feed and are
Distinct bird species that milk to nourish active during the day.
one
are related to their young.
another by being in the • Eclipse Plumage
same genus. • Crown Dull-colored plumage,
Top of the head between similar to that of the
• Coverts the forehead and the female, into which many
A covering of feathers back of the head or male ducks briefly molt
overlaying the upper and occiput. in summer.
lower part of the wings,
covering the bases of the • CULMEN • Extirpated
flight feathers (wing Top ridge of the upper Exterminated or
coverts); also on top of mandible, darker on destroyed from a part of
the tail feathers some birds than the side a species range.
(uppertail coverts and of the bill.

undertail coverts).
 I

730 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA

• Eye Ring • Gular Sac • Lamellae
A circle around the A large or small pouch Miniature ridges inside
eve lisnallv of a in the upper throat that the bill of a duck or
contrasting color. helps a bird regulate water bird that
body temperature and resemble the teeth of a
•Eye Stripe or sometimes holds comb and serve as
Eyebrow undigested food. In a a strainer during
See Supercilium. few species, such as feeding.
the Magnificent
• Field Marks Frigatebird, the pouch • Larder
Plumage or anatomical greatly expands for A place where a shrike
textures of ;i bird rhnt courtship display. impales and stores its
help to distinguish it from prey on sharp branches
other similar species. • Hawking or wire.
I

The act of catching

• Flashmark prey, usually insects, in • Lek
Color or marking on Generally done
flight. A communal gathering
plumage that is visible with the bill. Typical of place during breeding
only when the bird is flycatchers. season where males of
in flight. some species of birds
• Heronry display to attract the
• Fledge (Rookery) The colonial females. It contains
The act of a young bird nesting site for herons, numerous territories,
(nestling) leaving the egrets, and ibises. each guarded by a
nest. Also fledging. different male.
• Hindneck
• Fledgling The bird s nape or back • Lores
A young bird that has of the neck. Space between the eyes
feathers and is old and the base of the
enough to have left the • Humeral upper part of the bill on
nest but is still T he niirch of fe;irhers rhe side of the
L11V JIUC 111V bird
V 'I'll VI
1 s1
•

dependent on adult birds overlying the bone near face.

for care and feeding. the upperwing or
shoulder area. • Malar
• GONYS Refers to the cheek area
A ridge on the lower • Jizz along the side of the
mandible of a gull that The abstract face. F ield mark here is

causes the midline to combination of a bird s called malar mark or

appear angled. posture, plumage malar stripe.
Sometimes shows 'A red pattern, shape, size,
patch during breeding and behavior that • Mandible
season. allows an experienced The lower half of the
birder to recognize a bill. Maxilla
is the

• Gorget species instantly upper half; both

A small iridescent patch without further halves collectively
on the throat of a examination. are called
hummingbird. mandibles.
—

1
 BIRDS OK NOR TH AMERICA • 731

• Mantle • New World • Orbital Ring

The feathers covering Earth's Western See Eye Ring.
the back and npperwing Hemisphere; includes
coverts; feathers of the North, South, and • Palearctic
back and folded wings. Central America. Faunal region
surrounded by the
• MANUS • Nocturnal Atlantic, Arctic, and
The portion of a bird's Birds that feed and are Pacific Oceans;
wing that corresponds to active at night. encompasses Asia north
the hand of a human. of the Himalayas,
The fused bones of the • Non-passerine Europe, and Africa north
palm and reduced digits Any of the birds that are of the Sahara desert.
bear the primary feathers not Passerines, which are
and the alula. the songbirds or • Passerines
perching birds. Includes Any of the birds
• Melanistig loons, waterfowl, owls, belonging to the order
A bird that has a surplus shorebirds, hawks, Passeriforms, which
of dark pigment in its woodpeckers, and doves. comprise more than fifty
plumage. percent of the world's
• Nuchal Patch birds. Highly evolved,
• Mimic Thrush A patch of contrasting these birds are able to
A member of the family color located on the back sing and have three
Mimidae, which includes of the bird's neck or forward-pointing toes
thrashers, catbirds, and nape. adapted for perching.
mockingbirds.
• Occipital Patch • Peep
• MORPH A patch of color located Birder's name for a group
When same
birds of the high on the back of the of small, similar-looking
species have two or more head. Higher on the sandpipers; may have
different colored head than the nuchal been derived from their
plumages, that are patch. high-pitched calls.
independant of season,
sex, age, or breeding. • Occiput • Pelagic
Color phases may or may The area on the back of Birds that spend most of
not be related to range a bird's head between their time at sea and
and climate. the nape and the crown. rarely are seen from
shore.
•Neotropical • OCOTILLO
The New World A spiny desert shrub • Piebald
tropical region that with red flower clusters Plumage that shows two
encompasses the at the tips of its contrasting colors.
northern portion of the branches.
Mexican rain forest and • Pishing
the Caribbean islands, • Old World Sound produced by
and extends to the Earth's Eastern birders to attract birds;
nontropical regions of Hemisphere; Europe, made by clinching the
South America. Asia, and Africa. teeth together and
732 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
forcing air out through located distally to the feathers located between
the teeth and lips to secondaries and joined to the body and the
create a noise that the manus of the wing. primaries and joined to
sounds like pish-pish-pish. the part of the wing that
• Promiscuous corresponds to the
• POLYANDROUS Birds, male or female, forearm of a human.
When female bird has that come together solely
two or more mates; for mating purposes and • Semialtrigial
female often larger, has leave within a few hours Term for young birds
brighter plumage, and to mate with other birds. that hatch with eyes
defends her territory. either open or closed, are
Male of the species • Pyriform down-covered, and are
usually incubates and Pear-shaped; often used incapable of leaving the
tends young. to describe shape of egg. nest; fed by parents.

• POLYGYNOUS • Raptors • Semicolonial

When a male bird takes A name applied to birds Nesting pattern in which
two or more mates. of prey - the hawks, several birds of the same
falcons, eagles, kites, species nest close to one
• Polygamous and owls. another, often within
When both male and sight of each other's
female of a species may • Rectrices nests and do not behave
take two or more mates. The principal feathers aggressively toward one
that make up the tail. another.
• POSTOGULAR They range in number
Stripe from eight twenty-
to • Semiprecogial
A from
line that leads four,but the average in Term for young birds
behind the bird's eye to songbirds is twelve. that hatch with eyes
the auricular or open, are down-covered,
ear patch. • Remiges and able to leave the
Refers to flight nest soon after hatching,
• Pregogial feathers - primaries, but remain in nest and
Term for young birds that secondaries, and tertials. are fed by parents.
hatch with their eyes
open, are down-covered, • Riparian • Skylarking
and are able to leave the Located on or near a Elaborate territorial
nest within two days of river bank,stream bank, display flight given by a
hatching. These or other body of water. male songbird. It sings
hatchlings may be either and often flutters in
partially or not at all • Scapulars circles before swooping
depend-ent on the Feathers joined to the back to earth.
parents for care shoulder area of the bird
and feeding. and covering the top of • Spatulate
the folded wing. A long rounded
•Primaries spoonlike shape;
One of two sets of flight • Secondaries sometimes used to
feathers, or remiges, One of two sets of flight describe bill or tail.
 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 733

• Speculum • Tarsus • Vane

A small area of The top of the foot Contoured flight feather
contrasting iridescent behind the toes, often that acts as a propeller. It

feathers located on the called the shank. Usually
secondary feathers of the either bare or covered
wings. Often seen in with scales, plates, or
ducks. sometimes feathers.
• Squeaking •Tertials
Sound produced by The group of secondary
birders to attract birds; feathers closest to the
made by pursing the lips body; often a contrasting
tightly together and color.
sucking air in to make a
high-pitched sound. This • TlPPING-UP
can be amplified by Method of surface
placing the lips on the feeding by a duck,
back of the hand and goose, or swan in which
sucking in a kissing it raises its tail and dips
fashion. its bill, head, and neck
into the water. See
• SUPERCILIUM Dabbling.
Line above each eye; an
eyebrow. Also called a • TOTIPALMATE
superciliary stripe. All four toes joined
together by webbing.
• SUPERSPECIES
Closely related species • Tympani
that are often separated (Tympaniform
from each other by membranes) Valves
geographic barriers. the vocal organ of a bird
Without these barriers that produce sound.
the two species probably
would interbreed and • Underparts
become one. The plumage and
coloring on the breast,
• SYMPATRIC belly, sides, flanks,
Birds that inhabit the undertail coverts.
same range but remain
distinct and separate • Upperparts
species. The plumage and
coloring on the nape,
• TAIGA back, shoulders, rump,
Subarctic coniferous and upper part of tail.
consists of a central shaft
surrounded by an inner
and outer web.
• Vent
The opening of the
cloaca, or anus;
sometimes refers to a
contrasting patch of
feathers in this area.
• Wattle
Fleshy piece of brightly
colored skin that hangs
from the lower bill;
associated with turkeys
and some chickens.
• WlLDTYPE
A biological term based
in genetics that describes
the form that most
individuals in a wild
population take;
description includes
shape, color, patterns,
in and size.
• WlNGSTRIP
A distinct line on the
wing, usually of a
contrasting color.
and • Winter Plumage
(Basic plumage) Seasonal
alteration in a bird's
appearance produced by
the fall molt.

forests.
734 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
i
INDEX
References to full-page species profiles are shown in boldface type. AW denotes a species
that does not range east of the 100th meridian, which is the line of demarcation used in
creating this book. Full-page profiles on these species can be found in the DK Smithsonian
Handbooks: Birds of North America, Western Region.

A bairdii 657
raudacutus 661
A uthraco thorax prevostii 398
Accipiter
henslowii 658 rubescens 571
cooperii 167
leconteii 659 spragueii 572
gen tilis 168
maritimus 662 Aphelocoma
stria tus 166
nelson i 660 californica 491
Accipitridae (family)
savannarum 656 coerulescens 490
157-83
Amphispiza Apodidae (family) 392-96
Actitis maailaria 248
belli 653 Aquila chrysaetos 183
Aechmophorus
bilineata 652 Aramidae (family) 218
clarkii 48
Anas A ramus guarauna 218
occiden talis 47
acuta 131 Aratinga holochlora 359
A ego /ins
americana 123 Arch iloch us
acadicus 384
bah a men sis 130 alexandri 407
funereus 383
clypeata 129 colubris 406
Aeronautes saxatalis 395
crecca 133
Agelains
cyanoptera 128 85
691
humera/is
disco rs 127 herodias 84
phoeniceus 690
fu/vigula 126 Ardeidae (family) 82-95
Aimophila
penelope 122 Arenaria interpres 258
643
aestivalis
platyrhynchos 125 Arremonops rufivirgatus
botterii 644
querquedula 132 638
cassinii 642
rub ripes 124
ruficeps 645
strepera 121 flam mens 382
Aix sponsa 120
Anatidae (family) 36, 0/&f 380
Ajaia ajaja 100
106-156 stygius 381
Alaudidae (family) 500
Anhinga 79 Asturina nitida 170
Albatross
Anhinga anhinga 79 Athene cunucularia 376
Black-browed 49, 50
Anhingidae (family) 79 Auk, Great 36
Yellow-nosed 49, 50
Ani i4 uriparus flaviceps 519
A Ira torda 336
Groove-billed 366, 367 Avocet, American 237, 238
Alcedinidae (family)
Smooth-billed 366, Aythya
414-16
367, 698 affinis 139
Alcidae (family) 36,
americana 135
333-40
minutus2>31 collaris 136
A lie a/le 333
stolidus 330 137
Amazilia yucatanensis 401
m arila 138
Amazon a viridigenalis 361
tf/^jfaww 109 valisineria 134
Am modramus brachyrhynchus 108
 1

BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 735

Brotogeris versicolurus 360 ornatus 675

B Bubo virginian us 371 pictus 674
Baeolophus bicolor 518
Bubulcus ibis 92 Calidris
Bananaquit 629
Bucephala acuminata 270
Bartramia longicauda 249
albeola 148 alba 260
Basileuterus
clangula 149 alpina 272
culicivorus 626
islandica 150 bairdii 268
rufifrons 627
Budgerigar 357 canutus 259
Becard, Rose-throated
Bufflehead 143, 148, 152 ferruginea 272
466
Bulbul, Red-whiskered fuscicol/is 267
Bittern
534 him a //top us 274
American 82, 94
Bunting ma ritin/a 271
Least 82, 83
Blue 682, 683 mauri 262
Blackbird
Indigo 682-684, 685, melanotos 269
Brewer's 695, 696
686 minuta 264
Eurasian 551
Lark 654, 689 miuutilla 266
Red-winged 690, 691
Lazuli 684, 686 pusilla 261
Rusty 695, 696
Tawny-shouldered 691
McKay's W
676 ruficoUis 263
Painted 687 temminckii 265
Tricolored W
690
Snow 676 Callipepla squamata 203
Yellow-headed 694
Varied 684-86, 686 Calliphlox evelynae 404
Bluebird
Burhinidae (family) 222 Calonectris diomedea 56
Eastern 541
Burhinus bistriatus 222 Calothorax lucifer 405
Mountain 542
Bushtit W519 Calypte anna 408
Western W 541, 542
Buteo Campephilus principalis 35
Bobolink 654, 689
albicaudatus 178 Camptorhynchus
Bobwhite, Northern 203,
albonotatus 179 labradorius 36
204
brachyurus 176 Camptostoma imberbe 43
Bombycilia
jamaicensis 180 Campy lorhynchus
cedrorum 574
lagopus 182 brunneicapillus 524
garrulus 573
lineatus 174 Canvasback 134, 135
Bombvcillidae (family)
magnirostris 173 Caprimulgidae (family)
573-74
platypterus 175 385-391
Bonasa umbel/us 196
regalis 181 Caprimulgus
Booby
swain soni 177 cam I'm en sis 390
Blue-footed 69-72, 70
Buteogallus anthracinus vociferus 391
Brown 70, 71
171 Garacara, Crested 185
Masked 69-71, 69, 73
Butorides virescens 93 Caracara plancus 185
Red-footed 71-73, 72
Cardellina rubrifrons 624
Botaurus lentiginosus 82
Brachyramphus perdix 338
G Cardinal, Northern 631,
Cairina moschata 119 678, 679
Brambling 711
Calamospiza melanocorys Cardinalidae (family)
Brant 112-114, 113
654 677-88
Branta
Calcarius Cardinalis
bernicla 113
lapponicus 673 cardinalis 678
canadensis 112
mccownii 672 sinuatus 679
leucopsis 114
 1 1

736 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA

Carduelis montanus 234 Coereba f/aveo/a 629
flammea 718 semipalmatus 231 Coerebidae (family) 629
hornemanni 719 vociferus 233 Colaptes auratus 429
pinus 721 wilsonia 229 Co/ibri thalassinus 397
psaltria 722 Chat, Yellow-breasted Colin us virgiuiauus 204
spinus 720 628 Columba
tristis 723 fasciata345
Carpodacus caerulescens 110 flavirostris 344
mexicanus 715 rossii 111 leucocephala 343
purpureus 714 Chickadee to 341
Catbird Black-capped 515-17, squamosa 342
Black 560 516 Colnmbidae (family) 37,
Gray 559, 560 Boreal 516, 517 341-56
Catharacta. See Carolina 515, 516 Colurn bin a
Stercoral! us Gray-headed W 517 iuca 351
Cathartes aura 104 Chlidonias passerina 352
Cathartidae (family) hybridus 328 talpacoti 353
103-104 leucopterus 327 Contopus
Catharus 329 cooperi 434
aurantiirostris 544 Chloroceryle americana416 sordidulus 435
bicknellihAl Chondestes grammaeus 65 virens 436
fuseeseens545 Chondrohierax uncinatus Conuropsis caro linen sis 37
guttatus 549 158 Coot
minimus 546 Chordeiles American 214-17, 217
ustulatus 548 acutipennis 385 Eurasian 216
Catherpes mexicanus 526 gundlachii 387 Coragyps atratus 103
Gatoptrophorus minor 386 Cormorant
247
semipalmatus Chuck-will's-widow 390, Brandts W 76, 77
Cepphus grylle 337 391 Double-crested 76-79,
Certhia americana 523 ChukarW 194 77
Certhiidae (family) 523 Ciccaba virgata 377 Great 77, 78
Ceryle Ciconiidae (family) Neotropic 76, 77, 79,
a ley on 415 101-02 119
torquata 414 Cinclidae (family) 533 Corvidae (family) 485-99
Chachalaca, Plain 193 Cinclus mexicanus 533 Corvus
Chaetura Circus cyaneus 165 brachyrhynchos 495
pelagica 393 Cistothorus ^/y/.v 499
tv//a7 394 palustris 532 crypto leucus 498
Chaffinch, Common 710 plate fisis 53 imparatus 496
Charadriidae (family) Clangula liyema/is 147 monedula 494
223-34 Coccothraustes vespertinus oss ifragus 497
Charadrius 724 Coturnicops noveboracensis
alexandrinus 228 Coccyzus 205
hiaticula230 a merican us 363 Cowbird
melodus 232 erythropthalmus 3 62 Bronzed 701, 702
mongolus 727 minor 364 Brown-headed 696,
 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 737

700-02, 702 yncas 488 Key West Quail- 355,

Shiny 700-02, 700 Cygnus 356
Cracidae (family) 193 buccinator 116 Mourning 37, 341,
Crake Columbian us 117 347-50, 350, 354
Corn 207 cygnus 118 Rock 341-45, 341
Paint-billed 212 olor 115 Ruddy Ground- 352,
Crane Cynanthus latirostris 399 353
Common 220 Ruddy Quail- 355, 356
Sandhill 84, 219-221,
219
D
Delichon urbica 514
White-tipped 354
White-winged 348,
Whooping 219, 221 Dendrocygna 350, 354
Creeper, Brown 523 autumn a lis 106 Zenaida 349
Crex erexx 207 bicolor 107 Dovekie 333
Crossbill Dendroica Dowitcher
Red 716, 717 caerulescens 591 Long-billed 276, 278,
White-winged 716, 717 casta'tiea 604 279
Crotophaga cerulea 606 Short-billed 277, 277,
ant 366 chrysoparia 594 279
sulctrostris 367 coronata 592 Dryocopus pileatus 430
Crow discolor 602 Duck
American 495, 497-99 dominica 599 American Black 124,
Fish 495, 497 fusca 598 126
Mexican. See Crow, kirtlandii 601 Harlequin 143
Tamanlipas magnolia 589 Labrador 36
Tamaulipas 496 nigrescens 593 Long-tailed 147, 151
Cuckoo occidentalis 597 Masked 155, 156
Black-billed 362, 363 palmarum 603 Mottled 126
Mangrove 363, 364 pensylvanica 588 Muscovy 119
Yellow-billed 362-64, petechia 587 Ring-necked 135-37,
363 p/»ay 600 136
Cuculidae (family) striata 605 Ruddy 148, 155, 156
362-67 tigrina 590 Tufted 136, 137
Curlew townsendi 596 Whistling. See
Bristle-thighed W 250 vireus 595 Whistling-Duck
Eskimo 52 Dickcissel 688 Wood 120
Eurasian 251, 252 Diomedeidae (family) Dumetella caroliueusis 559
Long-billed 250, 252, 49-50 Dunlin 260, 272, 273
253, 257 Dipper, American 533
Slender-billed 251 Dolichonyx oryzivorus 689 E
Cyanocitta Dove Eagle
cristata 487 Common Ground Bald 157, 163, 164, 183
stelleri 486 351-53, 352 Golden 104, 163, 183
Cyanocompsa parellina Eurasian Collared 347, Steller's Sea- W 163,
682 350 164
Cyanocorax European Turtle 346 White-tailed 164
morio 489 Inca 351, 352 Ectopistes migratorius 37
 1 1

738 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA

Dusky 441-44, 444,

Egret
Cattle 85, 88, 92
F 450
Falcipennis canadensis 197
Great 85, 86, 88,91,92,
Falco
Dusky-capped W 450
102 Fork-tailed 464, 465
columbarius 188
Little 86 Gray 443, 444
fern oralis 189
Reddish 85, 89-91, 91 Gray Silky- 575, 576
mexicanus 192
Snowy 85, 86, 88, 92 Great Crested 451-53,
peregrin us 191
Egretta 451
rusticolus 190
caerulea 89 Hammond's 441, 442,
sparverius 187
garzetta 86 444
tinnunculus 186
git Ia ris 87 La Sagras 453
Falcon
rufescens 9 Least 438, 441,442
Aplomado 189
thula 88
Collared Forest- 184
Nuttings W 450
tricolor 90 Olive-sided 434
Peregrine 188, 190-92,
Eider Pacific-slope 445
191
Common 36, 141, 142 Scissor-tailed 464, 465
Prairie 189, 191, 192
King 36, 141, 142 Sulphur-bellied 455,
Falconidae (family)
Spectacled W 141, 142
184-92
456
Steller's 140 Variegated 456
Fieldfare 552, 553
Elaenia Vermilion 448, 449
Finch, tf/w Bullfinch;
Caribbean 432, 433 Western. See Flycatcher,
Chaffinch;
Greenish 432, 433 Cordilleran;
Greenfinch;
Elaenia martinica 433 Flycatcher, Pacific-
Hawfinch; Rosefinch
Elanotdes forficatus 159 slope
Elan us leucurus 160
Black Rosy- W
712
Willow 438-41, 440
Emberizidae (family)
Brown-capped Rosy- W Yellow-bellied 432,
712
635-76 437, 445
Cassin's W714, 715
Empidonax Fratercula
Gray-crowned Rosy-
alnorum 439 arctica 340
712
445
difficilis cirrhata 1Z1
House 714, 715, 721
flaviventris 437 Fregata
Purple 714, 715
hammondii 442 arielSl
Flamingo, Greater 100,
minimus 44 maguificeus 80
105
oberholseri 444 Fregatidae (family) 80-81
Flicker
trailli 440 Frigatebird
W
-

Gilded 429
virescens 438 Great 80
Northern 429
wrightii 443 Lesser 81
Flycatcher
Empidonomus varius 456 Magnificent 80, 81
Acadian 437-39, 438,
Eremophila alpestris 500 Fringilla
441
Eudocimus coe/ebs 710
Alder 438-41, 439
albus 96 montifringi/la 711
Ash -throated 450-53,
/7/A?/~ 97 Fringillidae (family)
450
Eugenes fulgens 403 710-24
Brown-crested 451, 452
Euphagus Fulica
carolinus 695
Buff-breasted 431 W americana 217
cyanocephalus 696
Cordilleran W
437, 445
tf//77 216
 1

BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 739

Fulmar, Northern 51 Goldfinch Grus

Fulmarus glacialis 5 American 722-24, 723 a merican a 221
Lesser 722, 723 canadensis 219
G Goose
Barnacle 112-14, 114
grus 220
Guillemot
Gadwall 121
Galium la chloropus 215 Bean W 109 Black 337
Gallinule, Purple 214, Canada 112-14, 112 Pigeon W
337
217 Emperor W 109, 110 Guiraca caerulea 683
Gannet, Northern 69, Greater White-fronted Gull
71-73, 73, 75 108, 109 Band-tailed 296, 298
Garganey 132 Pink-footed 108 Black-headed 293-95,
Gavia Ross's 110, 111 294
adamsit 41 Snow 109-11, 110 Black-tailed 296, 298
immer 40 Goshawk, Northern 168 Bonaparte's 292-294,
pacif/ca 39 Grackle 295,311
stellata 38 Boat-tailed 697-99, 698 California 299-300,
Gaviidae (family) 38—41 Common 367, 697, 699 301
Geococcyx californianus Great-tailed 496, Franklin's 291, 292
365 697-99, 699 Glaucous 304, 308, 309
Geothlypis Grassquit Glaucous-winged
poliocephala 620 Black-faced 636, 637 307-09, 308
trichas 619 Yellow-faced 636, 637 Great Black-backed
Geotrygon Grebe 296. 305, 310
355
chrysia Clark's 44, 45, 47, 48 Herring 299-303, 302
montana 356 Eared 44, 46 Iceland 304, 305, 309
Geranospiza caerulescens Horned 44, 46, 47 Ivory 314
169 Least 42, 43 Kelp 297
Glaucidtum brasilianum Pied-billed 42, 43 Laughing 291, 292
374 Red-necked 45 Lesser Black-backed
Gnatcatcher Western 44, 45, 47, 48 297, 306,310
Black-capped W 537, Greenshank, Common Little 293, 313
538 240, 241, 244 Mew 299
Black-tailed 537, 538 Grosbeak Ring-billed 299-302,
Blue-gray 537, 538 Black-headed 680, 681 300
Godwit Blue 682, 683, 685 Ross's 313
Bar-tailed 254, 256 Crimson-collared 677 Sabine's 311, 312
Black-tailed 254, 255, Evening 724 Slaty-backed 306
256 Pine 713 Thayer's 304, 305
Hudsonian 254, 255, Rose-breasted 680, 681 Western 305-08, 307
257 Grouse Yellow-footed W 307
Marbled 253, 255-257, Blue W 196, 197 Yellow-legged 303
257 Ruffed 196, 197 Gyrfalcon 190, 191
Goldeneye Sharp-tailed 195, 200,
Barrow's 149, 150
Common
201
Spruce 196, 197
H
Haematopodidae (family)
149, 150
Gruidae (family) 219-21 235-36
740 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Haematopus Tricolored 89, 90 Icterus
237
mexicanus Western Reef 87 bullockii709
ostralegus 235 Himantopus mexicanus 237 cucullatus704
pa Hiatus 236 Hirundinidae (family) galbula 708
Haliaeetus 501-14 graduacauda 707
albicilla 164 Hirundo rustica 513 gular'is 706

163
leucocephalus Histrionicus histrionicus pecto rails 705
Harrier, Northern 161, 143 spurius 703
162, 165 House-Martin, Common Ixobrychus exilis 83
Hawk 514 Ixoreus naevius 557
Broad-winged 170, Hummingbird T
173-75, 175 Allen's 411, 412
J
Common Black- 169, Anna's 408 Jabiru 101
171, 179 Black-chinned 405-08, Jabiru mycteria 101
Cooper's 166-68, 167, 407 Jacana, Northern 239
184 Blue-throated 397, 398, Jacana spinosa 239
Crane 158, 169 402, 403 Jacanidae (family) 239
Ferruginous 178, 181, Broad-billed 398-400, Jackdaw, Eurasian 494
182 399 Jaeger
Gray 170 Broad-tailed 409, 410 Long-tailed 285, 290
Harris's 172 Buff-bellied 401 Parasitic 285, 287-89,
Red-shouldered Calliope 409, 410 289
172-75, 174 Costa's W 405, 407, 408 Pomarine 285, 288, 288
Red-tailed 177, Lucifer 405 Jay
180-182, 180 Magnificent 402, 403 Blue 415, 486, 487, 490
Roadside 173, 180 Ruby-throated 406, 407 Brown 489
Rough-legged 165, Rufous 401, 409, 411, Florida Scrub- 487, 490
180-82, 182 412 Gray 485, 492
Sharp-shinned 166, White-eared 399, 400 Green 488
167, 187 Hydrobates pe/agicus 64 Mexican W 491
Short-tailed 176, 177 Hydrobatidae (family) Pinyon W491
Swainson's 176-78, 62-66 Steller's 486, 487
177, 180 Hylocharis leucotis 400 Western Scrub- 487,
White-tailed 178 Hylocichla musteliua 550 491
Zone-tailed 104, 158, Junco, Dark-eyed 671
T
171, 179 I Junco hyemalh 671
Helmitheros vermivorus Ibis
610
Heron. See also Night-
Glossy 96, 98, 99, 218
Scarlet 97, 100
K
Kestrel
Heron White 96-98, 96, 102, American 186-89, 187
Great Blue 84, 85, 219 218 Eurasian 186
Green 83, 93 White-faced 96, 98, 99 Killdeer 229, 233
Green-backed. See Ictinia mississippiensis Kingbird
Heron, Green 162 Cassin's 458^60, 459
Little Blue 85, 87-93, Icteria virens 628 Couch's 457-60, 458
89 Icteridae (family) 689-709 Eastern 446, 462-63, 461
 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 741

Gray 461-63, 462 atricilla291 Lophodytes cucullatus 152

Loggerhead 463 belcheri296 Loxia
Tropical cachinrtans 303 curvirostra 716
457-460, 457 californicus 301 leucoptera 717
Western 457-60, 460, canus 299
464
Kingfisher
crassirostris 298
delawarensis 300
M
Magpie
.

Belted 414-16, 415 dominicanus 297 Black-billed 493

Green 416 fuscus 306 Yellow-billed W 493
Ringed 414-16, 414 glaucescens 308 Mallard 121, 124-26,
Kinglet glaucoides 305 125, 129
Golden-crowned 535, hyperboreus 309 Mango, Green-breasted
536 man tins 310 398
Ruby-crowned 431, minutus 293 Martin
535, 536 Occidenta lis 307 Brown-chested 505
Kiskadee, Great 454 Philadelphia 295 Common. See House-
Kite pipixcan 292 Martin, Common
Black-shouldered. See ridibundus 294 Cuban 502
Kite, White-tailed thayeri 304 Gray-breasted 501, 503
Hook-billed 158, 169 Lateralius jamaicensis 206 Purple 501-04, 501
Mississippi 159, 160, Leptotila verreauxi 354 Southern 504
162 Leucosticte tephrocotis 712 Meadowlark
Snail 161 Limicola falcinellus 1Z1 Eastern 692, 693
Swallow-tailed 159 Limnodromus Western 692, 693
White-tailed 160, 162 griseus 277 Melanerpes
Kittiwake sco/opaceus 278 aurifrons 419
Black-legged 312 Lininoth/ypis swainsonii carolinus 420
Red-legged W 312 611 erythrocephalus 418
Knot Liinosa lewis 417
Great W 259 fedoa 257 Melanitta
Red 259, 260, 272 haemastica 255 fusca 145
lapponica 256 nigra 146
L liinosa 254 perspicillata 144
Lagopus Limpkin 218 Melan optila glabrirostris
lagopus 198 Longspur 560
mutus 199 Chestnut-collared 672, Meleagris gallopavo 202
Lanipornis clemenciae 402 675 Melopsittacus undulatus
Laniidae (family) 468-69 Lapland 673, 674 357
Lanius McCown's 672, 675 Melospiza
excubitor 469 Smith's 673, 674 georgiana 666
ludovicianus 468 Loon Uncolnii665
Lapwing, Northern 223 Arctic W 38, 39 melodia 664
Laridae (family) 285-332 Common 40, 41 Merganser
Lark, Horned 500 Pacific 38, 39 Common 125, 151-54,
Larus Red-throated 38, 39 153
argentatus 302 Yellow-billed 40, 41 Hooded 148, 151, 152
 1

742 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA

Red-breasted 125,
151-54, 154
sagrae 453
tyrannulus 452
O
Oceanites oceanicus 62
Mergellus a Wellus 151 Myioborus pierus 625
Oceanodrama
Mergus Myiodynastes
castro 66
merganser 153 luteiventris 455
leucorhoa65
serrator 154 Myiopagis viridicata 432
Odontophoridae (family)
Merlin 187, 188, 191-92 Myiopsitta monachus 358
203-04
Mtcrastur semitorquatus
184
Micrathene whitneyi 375
N
Neocrex erythrops 212
Oenanthe oenandie 539
Oldsquaw See Duck,
Long-tailed
Mimidae (family) 559-66 Night-Heron
Opororn/s
Mimus Black-crowned 82, 94,
agilis 616
562
gundlachii 95
form os us 615
polyglottos 561 Yellow-crowned 82, 94,
Philadelphia 617
Mniotilta varia 607 95
tolmiei 618
Mockingbird Nighthawk
Oreoscoptes montanus 563
Bahama 561, 562 Antillean 386, 387
Oriole
Northern 468, 543, 561, Common 385-88, 386,
Altamira 706
562 391
Audubon's 677, 707
Molothrus Lesser 385, 386, 388
Baltimore 705, 708, 709
aeneus 701 Nightingale-Thrush,
Bullock's 708, 709
ater 702 Orange-billed 544
Hooded 703, 704,
bonariensis 700 Noddy 706-07
Moorhen, Common 214, Black 330, 331
Northern. See Oriole,
215,217 Brown 330, 331
Baltimore; Oriole,
Morus bassanus 73 Norn onyx dominicus 155
Bullock's
Motacilla Nucifraga Columbian a 492
Orchard 703, 704
alba 569 Numenius
Spot-breasted 705
citreola568 americanus 253
Ortalis vetula 193
lugens 570 arquata 252
Osprey 157
Motacillidae (family) borealis 34
Otus
568-72 phaeopus 250
asio 370
Murre tenuirostris 251
flammeolus 369
Common 333-336, 334 Nutcracker, Clark's 485,
Ovenbird 612
Thick-billed 334-36, 492
Owl
335 Nuthatch
Barn 368, 372
Murrelet Brown-headed 522
Barred 378, 379
Ancient 339 Red-breasted 520-22,
Boreal 373, 383, 384
Kittlitz's 338 W 520
Burrowing 376
Long-billed 338 White-breasted 520-22,
Eastern Screech- 370
Marbled W 338, 339 521
Elf 374, 375
Myadestes townsendi 543 Nyctanassa violacea 95
Ferruginous Pvgmy-
Mycteria americana 102 Nyctea scandiaca 372
374, 375
Myiarchus Nycticorax nycttcorax 94
Flammulated 369
cinerascens 450 Nyctidromus albicollis 388
Great Gray 371, 378, 379
crinitus 45
 BIRDS OF NORTH AMR RICA • 743

Great Horned 371, 373, Tropical 585, 586 Phaethon

379, 380 Parulidae (family) 35, aethereus 68
Long-eared 371, 373, 577-628 lepturus 67
380-82, 380 Passer Phaethontidae (family)
Mottled 377 domesticus725 67-68
Northern Hawk 373 montanus 726 Phaetusa simplex 326
Northern Pygmy- W Passerculus sandwichensis Phainopepla 518, 575,
369, 374-75 655 576
Northern Saw-whet PasseTelHa i/iaca 663 Phainopepla nitens 576
370, 373, 383, 384 Passeridae (family) Phalacrocoracidae
Short-eared 368, 376, 725-26 (family) 76-78
382
380, Passerina Phalacrocorax
Snowy 372 amoena 684 auritus 11
Spotted W
378, 379 ciris687 brasilianus 76
Stygian 381 cyanea 685 carbo 78
Western Screech- W versicolor 686 Phalaenoptilus nuttallti
369-70 Pauraque, Common 385, 389
Whiskered Screech- W 388 Phalarope
369 Pelagodroma marina 63 Red 283, 285
Oxyura jamaicensis 156 Pelecanidae (family) Red-necked 282-284,
Oystercatcher 74-75 284
American 235, 236 Pelecanus Wilson's 283
Black W 236 erythrorhynchos 74 Phalaropus
Eurasian 235, 236 occidentalh 75 fulicaria 285
Pelican lobatus 284
P American White 74, 75, tricolor 283
Pachyramphus aglaiae 466 102, 221 Phasianidae (family)
Pagophila eburnea 314 Brown 75
74, 194-202
Pandion haliaetus 157 Perdix perdix 194 Phasianns colchicus 195
Parabuteo unicinctus 172 Perisoreus canadensis 485 Pheasant, Ring-necked
Paridae (family) 515-18 Petrel 195, 200
Parakeet Bermuda 53, 54 Pheucticus
Carolina37 Black-capped 53, 54, 57 ludovicianus 680
Green 359 Fea's 55 melanocephalus 681
Monk 358 Herald 52, 55 Philomachus pugnax 276
White-winged 358, 360 Storm. See Storm-Petrel Phoebe
Pardirallus maculatus White-chinned 727 Black 446
213 Petrochelidon Eastern 436, 446, 447
Parrot, Red-crowned 359, fulva 512 Say's 448
361 pyrrhonota 511 Phoenicopteridae
Partridge, Gray 194 Pewee (family) 105
Parula Eastern Wood- 434-36, Phoenicopterus ruber
a merican a 585 436, 447 105
pitiayumi 586 Greater W434, 435 Pica hudsonia 493
Parula Western Wood- 435, Picidae (family) 35,
Northern 585, 586 436 417-30
 1 1 1

744 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA

Picoides Pacific Golden- 224-26, Psittacidae (family) 37,
arctic us 428 227 357-61
borealis 426 Piping 228, 231, 232 Ptarmigan
pubescent 424 Semipalmated 229-33, Rock 198, 199
sea la lis 423 231 White-tailed W 198, 199
tridactylus 427 Snowy 228, 232 Willow 198, 199
villosus 425 Wilsons 229, 231, 233 Pterodroma
Pigeon Pluvialis arminjoniana 52
Band-tailed 341, 345 apricaria225 cahow 53
Passenger 37 dominica 226 feae 55
Red-billed 344 fulva 227 hasitata 54
Scaly-naped 342 squatarola 224 Ptilogonatidae (family)
White-crowned 342, Podiceps 575-76
343 an litus 44 Ptilogonys cinereus 575
Pinguinus impennis 36 grisegena 45 Puffin
Pinicola enucleator 713 n 'igricollis 46 Atlantic 340
Pintail Podicipedidae (family) Tufted 727
Northern 130, 131, 147 42-48 Puffin us
White-cheeked 130 Podilymbus podiceps 43 assimilis 6
Pipilo Poecile gravis 57
chlorurus 639 atricapilla516 griseus 58
erythrophthalmus 64 515
caro/itiens is Iherminieri 60
maculatus 640 hudsonica 517 puffin us 59
Pipit Polioptila Pycnonotidae (family)
American 500, 572, 571 caerulea537 534
Spragues 571, 572 melanura 538 Pycnonotus jocosus 534
Piranga 140
Polysticta stelleri Pyrocephalus rubinus 449
flava 630 Pooecetes gramineus 650 Pyrrhuloxia 678, 679
ludoviciana 633 Poorwill, Common 389
olivacea 632
rubra 63
Porphyrula martinica 214
Porzana Carolina 211
Q
Quail
Pitangus sulphuratus 454 Prairie-Chicken
Gambel's W 203-04
Plectrophenax nivalis 676 Greater 200, 201 Scaled 203, 204
P/egadis Lesser W
201 Quiscalus
phihi 99 Procellaria aequinoctialis
major 698
falcinellus 98 111 mexicanus 699
Plover Procellariidae (family)
697
quiscula
American Golden- 51-61
224-27, 226, 234
Black-bellied 224, 226
Progne
chalybea 503
R
Rail
Common Ringed 230, cryptoleuca 502
Black 206
231 elegans 504
Clapper 208-10, 208
European Golden- 225 subis 501
King 208-210, 209
Little Ringed W 230 tapera 505
Spotted 213
Mongolian 727 Protonotaria citrea 609
Virginia 208-211, 210,
Mountain 226, 234
213
 BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 745

Yellow 205, 206, 211 Rostrhamus son a bills 161 240-85

Rallidae (family) 205-17 Ruff 269, 275, 276 Scolopax
Rallus Ryncliops niger 332 minor 281
elegans 209 rusticola 280
Inn no Ia 210 S Scoter
Io)igiro $tr'ts 208 Salpiuctes obsoletus 525 Black 144-46, 146
Raven Sanderling 260 Surf 144-46, 144
Chihuahuan 496, 498, Sandpiper White-winged 144-46,
499 Baird's 266, 268 145
Common 495, 498, 499 Broad-billed 727 Sea-Eagle, Steller's W 163
Razorbill 36, 334-36, Buff-breasted 249, 275 Seedeater, White-collared
336, 340 Common W 248 635
Ren/ /virostra americana Curlew 259, 271-73, Seiurus
238 273 aurocapillus 612
Recurvirostridae (family) Green W 245 motacilla 614
237-38 Least 262, 264, 266, noveboracensis 613
Redhead 134, 135 267 Selaspl/orus
Redpoll Pectoral 269, 269, 275 platycerus 410
Common 718, 719, 721 Purple 271 rufus 411
Hoary 718, 719 Rock W
270-71 sasin 412
Redstart Semipalmated 261-63, Setophaga ruticilia 608
American 608 261, 265 Shearwater
Painted 625 Sharp-tailed 268, 270 Audubon's 59-61, 60
Slate-throated W 625 Solitary 242, 245, 246, Black-vented W 59
Redshank 248 Cory's 56, 57
Common 243, 244 Spotted 246, 248 Greater 54, 56, 57
Spotted 243, 244 Stilt 274 Little 60, 61
Redwing 552, 553 Terek 727 Manx 59-61, 59
Regulidae (family) Upland 249, 274-75 Short-tailed 58 W
535-36 Western 261-63, 262, Sooty 52, 58
Regulus 265-66 Shoveler, Northern 125,
calendula 536 White-rumped 267, 267 127, 129
satrapa 535 Wood 245 Shrike
Remizidae (family) 519 Sapsucker Loggerhead 468, 469
RJ/odostethia rosea313 Red-napedW 421-22 Northern 468, 469
Rhodothraupis celaeno 677 Williamson's 421 Sialia
Ridgwayia pinicola 558 Yellow-bellied 421, 422 currucoides 542
R /paria ripana 510 Saxicola torquata 540 sialis 541
R/ssa tridactyla 312 Sayornis Siskin
Roadrunner, Greater 365 nigricans446 Eurasian 720
Robin phoebe 447 Pine 720, 721
American 448, 554-57, saya 448 Sitta
556 Scaup canadensis 520
Clay-colored 554, 555 Greater 135-39, 138 carol'/nensis 521
Rufous-back 556 W Lesser 135-39, 139 pi/sil/a 522
White-throated 555 Scolopacidae (family) 34, Sittidae (family) 520-22
746 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
Skimmer, Black 332 660-62, 661 fitscata325
Skua Savannah 650, 655, hirundo 320
Great 286, 286 657, 664 maxima 317
South Polar 285-87, Seaside 661, 662 nilotica 315
287 Sharp-tailed. See paradisaea 321
Smew 151 Saltmarsh sandvicensis 318
Snipe Sharp-tailed; Nelson's Stilt

Common 279, 280 Sharp-tailed Black-necked 237, 238

Jack 279 Song 655, 664, 665 Black-winged 237 W
Solitaire, Townsend's Swamp 665, 666 Stint
543, 561 Vesper 572, 650, 655 Little264
Somateria White-crowned 667-70, Red-necked 263, 264
mollissima 142 669 Temminck's 265
specta bills 141 White-throated 666-69, Stonechat 540
Sora 205, 207,211,212 667 Stork, Wood 74, 101, 102
Sparrow Sphyrapicus Storm-Petrel
American Tree 646 thyroideus 421 Ashy W 65
Bachman's 643 van us 422 Band-rumped 62, 65, 66
Baird's 656, 657 Spindalis, Western 634 Black W 65
Black-throated 652, 653 Spin da lis zena 634 European 64
Botteri's 642, 644 Spiza americana 688 Leach's 62, 64-66, 65
Brewer's W 642, 648 Spizella White-faced 63
Cassin's 642, 644 arborea 646 Wilson's 62, 64-66
Chipping 645, 647, 648 pallida 648 Streptopelia
Clay-colored 647-49, passerina 647 decaocto 347
648 pusilla 649 turtur 346
Eurasian Tree 725, 726 Spoonbill, Roseate 97, Streptoprocne zonaris 392
Field 643, 646, 649 100, 105 Strigidae (family) 369-84
Fox 663 Sporophila torqueola 635 Strix
Golden-crowned 670 Starling, European 551, nebulosa 379
Grasshopper 643-44, 567 varia 378
656, 657-59 Ste/^idopteryx serripennis Sturnella
Harris's 667-69, 668 509 magna 692
Henslow's 656, 658 Stellula calliope 409 neglecta 693
House 670, 688, 725, Stercorarius Sturnidae (family) 567
726 longicaudus 290 Stum us vulgaris 567
Lark 651, 653 maccormicki 287 Sula
Le Conte's 659, 660 parasiticus 289 dacty/atra 69
Lincoln's 664-66, 665 pomarinus 288 leucogaster 71
Nelson's Sharp-tailed skua 286 nebouxii 70
659-61, 660 Sterna sula 72
Olive 638, 639 anaethetus324 Sulidae (family) 69-73
Rufous-crowned 645 antillarum 323 Surnia ulula 373
Rufous-winged W 645 casp ia 316 Swallow
Sage 652, 653 dougallii 319 Bahama 508
Saltmarsh, Sharp-tailed forsteri 322 Bank 396, 505, 509, 510
 BIRDS OF NOR TH AMERICA • 747

Barn 513 Falcated. See Duck, Swainson's 546-48, 54£

Cave 511-13, 512 Falcated Varied 557
Cliff 51 1-13, 511 Green-winged 120, 127, Wood 545, 549, 550
Northern Rough- 132, 133 Thryomanes bewickii 528
winged 503, 509, 510 'Fern Thryothorus ludovicianus
Tree 501, 506, 507-08, Arctic 319-321, 321, 527
510, 514 332 Tiaris
Violet-green 395, 506, Black 323, 327-29, 329 bicolor 637
507, 514 Bridled 324, 325 olivacea 636
Swan Caspian 316, 317 Titmouse, Tufted 518
Mute 115 Common 319-21, 320, Tityra, Masked 467
Trumpeter 116, 117, 322 Tityra semifasciata 467
118 Forster's 315, 320-22, Towhee
Tundra 115-18, 117 322 Eastern 640, 641
Whooper 118 Elegant W 316-17 Green-tailed 638, 639
Swift Gull-billed 315, 318 Spotted 640, 641
Antillean Palm 396 Large-billed 326 Toxostoma
Black W 394 Least 323 curvirostre 566
Chimney 393, 394 Roseate 319 longirostre 565
Vaux's 393, 394 Royal 316, 317 rufum 564
White-collared 392 Sandwich 315, 318 Tringa
White-throated 392, Sooty 324, 325, 330 erythropus 244
395, 507 Whiskered 328 flavtpes 242
Sylviidae (family) 537-38 White-winged 327, glareola 245
Synthliboramphus antiquus 328, 329 melanoleuca 241
339 Thalassarche nebula ria 240
chlororhynchos 49 solitaria 246

T
r t \

Tachornis phoenicobia 396

melanophris 50
Thick-knee, Double-
totanus 243
Trochilidae (family)
Tachybaptus dominicus 42 striped 222 397-412
Tachycineta Thrasher Troglodytes
bico/or 506 Bendire's W 566 aedon 529
cyaneoviridis 508 Brown 564, 565 troglodytes 530
thalassina 507 Curve-billed 563, 566 Troglodytidae (family)
Tanager Long-billed 564, 565 524-32
Flame-colored 633 W Sage 524, 563, 566 Trogon
Hepatic 630, 631 Thraupidae (family) Eared W 413
Scarlet 449, 632, 633 630-34 Elegant 413
Stripe-headed. See Threskiornithidae Trogon elegans 413
Spindalis, Western (family) 96-100 Trogonidae (family) 413
Summer 630, 631 Thrush Tropicbird
Western 632, 633 Aztec 558 Red-billed 67, 68
Teal 547
Bicknell's 546-48, White-tailed 67, 68
Blue-winged 120, Gray-cheeked 546^8, Tryngites subruficol/is 275
127-29, 127, 132-33 546 Turdidae (family) 539-5£
Cinnamon 127, 128, Hermit 544-45, 549, Turdus
132, 133, 156 550, 663 asstmilis 555
748 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
554
gray/ ruficapilla 581 vicin ior 474
553
iliacus virginiae 582 Vireonidae (family)
memla 551 Violet-ear, Green 397 470-84
migratorius 556 Vireo Vulture
pilaris 552 Bells 470, 472, 474, Black 103, 104, 171,
Turkey, Wild 202 584 185
Turnstone Black-capped 473, 478 Turkey 103, 104, 179
#

W
W
'
Black 258 Black-whiskered 481,
Ruddy 258 483
.

Tympanuehus Blue-headed 473, 478 Wagtail

cupido 201 Cassin's 476, 477 Black-backed 569, 570
phasianellus 200 Gray 472, 474, 476 Citrine568
Tyrannidae (family) Hutton's W 477, 536 White 569, 570
431-67 Philadelphia 479, 480, Yellow W 568
Tyrannulet, Northern 579 Warbler
Beardless- 431 Plumbeous 474, 476, Bachman's 35
Tyrannus 477 Bay-breasted 600, 604,
caudifasciatus 463 Red-eyed 481-84, 481 605
couchii 458 Solitary. See Vireo, Blue- Black-and-white 593,
462
dominicensis headed; Vireo, 605, 607
forficatus 464 Cassin's; Vireo, Black-throated Blue
melancholicus 457 Plumbeous 591
savatw 465 Thick-billed 471 Black-throated Gray
tyrannus 461 Warbling 479, 480, 579 593, 607
verticalis 460 White-eyed 470-72, Black-throated Green
vociferans 459 470 594-96, 595
7Vtf 368 Yellow-green 481,482, Blackburnian 598, 599,
Tytonidae (family) 368 484 606
Yellow-throated 470, Blackpoll 600, 604, 605,
U 475, 600
Yucatan 484
607
Blue-winged 577, 609
Uria
aalge 334 Vireo Brewster's 577
lomvia 335 altiloquus 483 Canada 623
atricapillus 473 Cape May 590, 592,
V bellii 472

cassinii 477
603
Cerulean 598, 606
Vane/Ins van ellu s 223
Veery 544, 545, 549, 550 erassirostris 471 Chestnut-sided 586,
Verdin 519 f/avifrons 475 588
Vermivora flavovirid/s 482 Colima 582, 583
bachmanii 35 gilvus 479 Connecticut 581,
580 griseus 470 616-19, 616
chrysoptera578 m agister 484 Golden-cheeked 594,
583
crissa/is olivaceus 481 595
/w 584 philadelphicus 480
piurn beus 476
Golden-crowned 626
Golden-winged 578
peregrina 579
pinus 577 solitarius 478 Hermit 596, 597
 1

BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA • 749

IP /iO 1 /OO
HoodedA
TT t

35, 621, 622 r ulvous Km, lu/ Xema sabini 311

Kentucky 61b
Kirtland's 601
Wigeon
American 122, 123
vI
t rir\ cot CO/4
Lucy s 519, 5o2, 584
'
Eurasian 122, 123 Yellowlegs
MacGilhvray s 618, Willet 241, 247 Greater 240-42, 241,
TIT"/
619 Wilsonia 247
\i ron /ai s 11
i ' J /C
623
0*2
Magnolia 589, 601, 623 canadensis Lesser 241, 242, 273,
Mourning 616-19, 617 citrina 62 282
Nashville 35, 580, 581, 622
pusilla Yellowthroat
616 Woodcock Common 615, 619, 620
Orange-crowned 579, American 279-81, 282 Gray-crowned 620
ron co*7 cm 626C^IC
hurasian 2ol, 282
boU, 58/, 591,
Palm 592, 603 Woodpecker Li
Pine 4/5, oUU, 6U2, Black-backed 4^/, <t£o Zenaida
V,,,.,,, All O/C AOA
604—U5 Downy
T
425-26, 4Z4 .

asia tica 348

Prairie 589, 590, 6U2 Golden-lronted 419, aurita 349
Prothonotary 577, AAA
D „
.i r-7-7
609 .

420 macroura 350

Ked-laced oZ4
M ,, 424-28,
Hairy O TO /IOC
/I
4Zi5 /I

Z^/;//.s- cine re us 111

Kurous-cappecl oz/ Ivory-Dillecl oo, 43U Zonotrichia

Swainson s 610, 611 Ladder-backed 423 667
albicollis
T A 1 1 1

lennessee 479, 480, Lewis s 41 / atricapilla670

579, 580, 591 Nuttall s 423 W leucophrys 669
Townsend's 596, Pileated 34, 430 querula 668
11 11* 1 4 4 Ci A ^ (\
597-98 Red-bellied 418-420,
Virginia s 581-84, 582 420
Wilson s 587, 621, 622 Red-cockaded 426
T\ 11 A 1 O 1
Red-headed 418
1

Worm-eating 610, 611

1 ^ i \ r- a\

Yellow 577, 580, 587, 1 hree-toed 425, 427,

609, 621-22, 723 428
\17 i I aA C\ A 1

Yellow-rumped 590, Woodstar, Bahama 404

592, 603 Wren
\ellow-throated 599 Bewick s 527, 528
ITT . ^1 1

Waterthrush Cactus 524, 563

T SA"\AAS''IA
*

Lousiana 612-14, 614 Canyon 525, 526

Northern 612-14, 613 Carolina 527, 528
Waxwing House 529, 530
Bohemian 573, 574 Marsh 527-28, 531, 532
Cedar 573, 574 Rock 525, 526
Wheatear, Northern 539 C^J
Sedge C31 532
b31, cio
w ni morei tou, Winter o^v, ooU
CDC—DJ
Whip-poor-will 389-91,
V
391 Xanthocephalus
Whistling-Duck xanthocephalus
Black-bellied 106, 107 694
750 • BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA
AC KNOWL EDGME NTS
The author would like to dedicate this book
to his father, Fred J. Alsop, Jr., and thank
wife, Cathi Alsop, for her support during the
writing of this book and for editing the final
proofs of the range maps.
Southern Lights would like to thank: Ron
Austing for photo coordination; Kristi Tipton
for research on species profiles and range
maps; Sandra Porter, Kristy Cuccini, Kelly
Buford, and Anne Esquivel for species profile
research; Mark Dennis and Fergus Muir, DK
Picture Library, for photo and illustration
research; Jenny Cromie and Nina Costopoulos
for editorial assistance; Holly Cross and R.
Clay White for copyediting; Denise Mclntyre
and Rebecca Benton for proofreading;
Marianne Thomas, Melissa Givens, George
Griswold III, Jim Larussa, Will McCalley,
Rick Tucker, and Christana Laycock for
graphic assistance; Catherine O'Hare,
Michelle Boylan, Taylor Rogers, Brad
Reisinger, and Beth Brown for administrative
support; and Charles (Chuck) Hunter of the
US Fish and Wildlife Service, John C.
Sterling, and Joseph DiCostanzo of the
American Museum of Natural History for
manuscript review and commentary.
Picture Credits
his Abbreviations: b = bottom, / = top, c =
center, / = left, r = right.
Plumage illustrations: Simone End, Carl
Salter. Profile illustrations: Svetlana
Belotserkovskaya 34, 35/;, 36/, 36c, 36b, 37b,
225, 326, 328, 342, 344, 381, 405b, 456, 496,
502/, 502^, 503b, 504/, 504b, 558b, 560, 636/,
637/, 637b, 695b, 697//. Lanny Chappelear
251. Ernie Eldredge 12/, 13r, 54, 56, 61, 63,
65, 184, 213, 392. Alice Pederson 14/, \4b,
15/, 17///, 53, 55, 81/, 212, 338, 394, 396, 398b,
467b, 508, 538/, 538b, 575/, 575b, 677/, 677/>,
682/>, 691.
Jacket photographs: Front: Ron Austing
hummingbird, jay, chickadee, meadowlark,
kestrel, turnstone, cardinal, goldfinch, wren.
Brian E. Small bunting. DK Picture
Library/Maslowski bluebird. Inside
photographs: Fred J. Alsop III 22^/, 23/,
23b, 27/r, 80/, 100, 284/, 348, 551^, 721. Ron
Austing 2, 23r, 26//, 26/r, 26/;, 27c/, 28/, 30r,
31/, 3 lr, 46, 68, 69, 70, 79/;, 82, 83/, 83b, 84,
85, 88, 90, 91/, 91 /a 92, 93, 95, 96, 97, 102, 103,
110, 112, 118, 120/, 120/a 122/, 122/*, 123/,
120/, 120/; 127/, 128/, 130, 131/, 134/, \34b,
135/, 135/;, 136/, 137/, 137/>, 139/, 141/, \4lb,
142/, 148/, 148^ 149/, 149//, 150/, 150/;, 151/,
15U, 152/, 152A 153/, 1533, 154/;, 156/, 156/<,
157, 159, 165/, \65b, 166, 168, 174, 180, 182,
187/, 187b, 188/, 188^, 192, 195/, 195^, 197/,
202/, 202b, 204b, 209, 210, 21 1, 217, 218, 219,
226, 228/, 228/;, 229, 231, 233, 236, 238, 246,
247, 248, 249, 250, 253, 258, 266, 267, 268,
274, 276, 281, 290, 299, 301, 310, 317, 318,
320, 323, 332, 340, 341, 351, 362, 363, 368,
370, 371, 372/, 373, 374, 375, 376, 378, 379,
380, 383, 384, 386, 390, 391, 393, 399/, 399b,
406/, 406b, 407/, 408/;, 41 1/, 41 1/;, 415/, 415/;,
418, 420/, 420/;, 422, 424, 425, 429, 430/, 430b,
434, 436, 438, 440, 441, 451, 468, 469, 470,
472, 478, 479, 481, 487, 490, 495, 497, 500,
506, 509, 511, 513, 515, 517, 518, 519, 520/,
520b, 521, 524, 527, 529, 531, 532, 536/, 536b,
537/, 541/;, 545, 548, 550, 556/, 556b, 559, 561,
564, 566, 567, 572, 574, 577, 578, 580, 581,
585, 587/, 587b, 588/, 588b, 589/, 590/, 591/,
59\b, 592/, 592b, 595/, 598/, 599, 600, 601, 602,
603, 604/, 607, 609/, 609b, 610, 612, 614, 615,
617/, 617 b, 619/, 6\9b, 621 /, 62\b, 623/, 623b,

628, 631/, 631 //, 632/, 632£, 639, 641/, 64 b, 1
646, 647, 648. 649, 650, 651, 652, 655, 656,
658, 663, 665, 666, 668, 669, 673/, 673//, 674/,
678/, 678//, 680/, 680£, 683/, 683^ 685/, 687/,
687A 688/, 6S9A 690/, 690/;, 692, 696/, 698/,
698A 702/. 702//, 703/, 705//, 704//, 708/, 714/,
714/;. 715/. 715//. 717/, 717//, 723/, 723//, 724/,
724A 725//. Rick & Nora Bowers 109, 116,
119, 147/, 173, 189, 197//, 286, 369, 377, 397,
400/, 400A 416/, 416//, 452, 457, 473//, 512,
583, 584, 627, 630/, 657. Cornell Laboratory
of Ornithology/L. Page Brown 175, B. B.
Hall 705. Mike Danzenbaker 49, 57, 71, 78,
101, 114, 140/, 140//, 154/, 164, 169, 207, 216,
223, 230, 235, 240, 244, 245, 252, 254, 263,
264, 265, 279, 293, 297, 305, 306, 326, 339,
345, 388, 389, 403/>, 408/, 412/, 412//, 417, 435,
439, 443, 457, 467/, 494, 503/, 615, 533, 540/,
540//, 555, 557/, 569, 570, 598£, 625, 645, 682/,
686//, 696/7, 707, 710/, 710//, 719, 720/, 720//,
726. DK Picture Library/Dennis Avon 204/,
Simon Battersby 12/;; Peter
350, 534;
Chadwick Zla\ 28//, 29//-, 29*/, 29cr, 30//; Mike
Dunning 163; Frank Greenaway 183, 191;
Cyril Laubscher 94, 104, 185, 237, 358, 551/,
725/, Karl & Steve Maslowski 447, 461, 516,
523, 535A 541/, 542//, 664, 667, 689/; Jane
Miller 215; Kim Taylor 125/, 125//; Jerry Young
186//; 372/>. James R. Pisher 105, 161/.
Frank Lane Picture Agency/Frank
Andrewartha 568; Hans Dieter Brandl 220;
Richard Brooks 711//; S. C. Brown 324; Hugh
Clark 514; M. Gore 404£; H. Hautala 427;
John Hawkins 64; Steve McCutcheon 616^;
Mark Newman 221; P. Reynolds 337; Roger
Tidman 108, 278; John Tinning 132/, R. Van
Nostrand 385; Roger Wilmshurst 132//, 194/,
194//, 243, 346, 552, 553; Martin Withers 367.
Kevin T. Karlson 44, 67, 76, 80//, 89, 98,
115, 117, 121/, 127//, 128//, 129/, 129//, 133/,
133/;, 136//, 138/, 138//, 142/;, 146/>, 147/>, 158/,
161//, 167, 172, 178, 199/, 199//, 208, 241, 242,
284//, 287, 303, 315, 325, 327, 330, 331, 343,
347, 349, 353/, 353£, 354, 387, 413/>, 433, 453,
462, 463, 465, 471, 480, 484, 491, 498, 505,
535/, 562, 571, 576/, 579/, 579/;, 589/;, 590//,
613, 629, 634/>, 636£, 642, 654Z>, 659, 675/;,
700/, 700/*, 706. Naturescape Images/Julian
R. Hough 302. Brian E. Small 42, 58, 62, 75,
77, 79/, 86, 99, 111, 121//, 123/;, 131//, 139/;,
143/, 160, 162, 170, 177, 179, 181, 190, 200,
201, 205, 206, 224, 232, 234, 257, 260, 261,
262, 265, 269, 271, 273, 282/, 282£, 291, 296,
304, 314, 322, 352, 364, 382, 401, 402/, 402£,
BIRDS OK NORTI I AM I .RICA • 751
405/, 407£, 409/, 409/;, 410/, 410//, 413/, 414/,
414/;, 421/, 421//, 423/, 428, 431, 442, 444, 445,
448, 450, 452, 455, 458, 459, 464, 473/, 474,
475, 476,477, 483, 485, 489, 492, 493, 499,
501/, 501//, 510, 522, 525, 537//, 542/, 543, 546,
554, 557/;, 563, 573, 576//, 582, 586, 593/, 593/-,
595/>, 596/, 596//, 597/, 597//, 604//, 605/, 605//,
606/, 606£, 608/, 608/;, 611, 618/, 618//, 622/,
624, 630/;, 633/, 633/;, 640/;, 643. 644, 653,
654/, 660, 662, 670, 672/, 672//, 674//, 675/,
676//, 679/, 679//, 681/, 681//, 684/, 684Z>, 685/»,
686/, 701/, 701//, 704/, 708/;, 709/, 709//, 712,
713/, 713//, 716/, 722/, 722//. Tom Vezo 58, 39,
40, 43, 45, 47, 48, 50, 51, 72, 73, 74, 106, 107,
113, 126, 143//, 144/, 144//, 145/, 145//, 146/,
155/, 155//, 171, 186/, 193, 198/, 198/;, 203, 214,
227/, 227//, 255, 256, 259, 270, 277, 283/, 283/>,
288, 289, 292, 294, 298, 300, 307, 308, 309,
311,312, 313, 316, 319, 321, 334, 335, 336,
365, 366, 403/, 419, 423//, 446, 449/, 449/;, 454,
460, 486, 488, 528, 530, 539/, 539//, 549, 565,
622d, 638, 640/, 661, 676/, 693, 694/, 694//,
699/, 699/>. Vireo/R. & N. Bowers 526; John
Cancalosi 222; R. J. Chandler 275//; H. Clarke
561. 595; Rob Curtis 466/, 466//, 616/; R. S. &
Day 688/>; B.de Lange 280; J. Dunning 356,
544, 635/, 635//; H. & J. Eriksen 87, 295; M.
Gage 272; W. Greene 196; C. H. Greenewalt
329, 398/, D. Hill 41; T. Laman 66, 547; G.
Lasley 359, 620; M. Lockwood 594/, S. Maka
426; A. Morris 695/, J. P. Myers 268; T.
Pederson 360; C. Proce 52; D. Roby & K.
Brink 333; S. & S. Rucker 594//; K. Schafer
239, 285; D. Tipling 59, 275/, 711/; Doug
Wechsler 355, 404/, 482, 626, 634/, B. K.
Wheeler 158£, 176; D. & M. Zimmerman
558/. Kennv Walters 7//, 27/;, 29/;, 33/;.
 SMITHSONIAN
HANDBOOKS
Published in association with
America's preeminent authority,
the Smithsonian Institution
This comprehensive handbook to the birds of North America:
Eastern Region includes 706 species -
all birds known to breed east of the
100th meridian in the United States and
Canada, as well as regular visitors and vagrants
to this region. The Smithsonian Handbook is the
first identification guide that includes details of
the bird's life history in a concise and
user-friendly format.

Identification: Each full-page profile combines a precise description, annotated

photographs, and artworks to highlight the key field marks of the species in each
plumage. Similar species are shown and distinguishing characteristics are noted.

Life histories: Further information on the bird's habits describes the typical song
and other vocalizations, behavior, breeding, nesting, population, and conservation
concerns. Typical flight patterns and nest locations and shapes are described with
clear icons, and amplified in the text. Each bird's range during summer, winter, and
on migration is clearly shown on a map.
<tv>»

A visit to the Smithsonian's 16 museums and galleries or the National Zoo is an

adventure into the world's largest museum complex. The Smithsonian Institutution
holds more than 140 million artifacts and specimens in trust for the American peo-
ple. The Institution, also a center for research, is dedicated to public education,
national service, and scholarship in the arts, sciences, and history.

Frederick Joseph Alsop, III PhD is an ornithologist and a professor of biological sci-

ences at East Tennessee State University. He received his doctorate in zoology

from the University of Tennessee, and specializes in the ecology, distribution, life
and taxonomy of birds. An avid field biologist and birder, he has identified
history,
more than 3,200 species worldwide.

ISBN D-7fi m-71Sb-b

c

90 0 00

see our complete catalog at

9 '780789"471 567
www.dk.com
Printed in U.S.A. $24.95