Analog Communications j i & ee | A. P, Godse P : U. A. Bakshi ES Technical Publications Pune”Table of Contents : Chapter 1_: Introduction to Communication Systems 4-1) to (1-26) Chapter 2_: Amplitude Modulation 2-1) to (2-42) ter 3_: Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier Modulation (3 - 1) to (3 - 14) ‘Chapter 4: Single Sideband Modulation (4 = 1) to (4 - 28) Chapter 5 _: Angle Modulation 5 + 1) to (5 + 56) Chapter 6__: Noise 6 - 1) to (6 - 26) Chapter 7__: Radio Transmitters 7-1) to (7-24) Chapter 8: Receivers (8- 1) to (8 - 68) Chapter 9_: Pulse Modulation (9-1) to (9-28) Appendix - A : Hilbert Transform (A- 1) to (A - 12)Ss (set Analog Communications ISBN 9788184311402 All rights reserved with Technical Publications. No part of this book should be reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage and retrieval system without prior permission in waiting, from Technical Publications, Pune. Published by : ‘Technical Publications Pune? ‘#1, Amit Residency, 412, Shaniwar Peth, Pune « 411 030, India. Printer = ‘Avert DT Painters Srna, 10/3,Sinhagad Roed, Base - 411 0415.6 Transmission Bandwidth of FM Wave ... §.8.1 Deviation Ratio 5.7 Constant Average Power... 5.8.2 Direct FM 5.9 Demadulation of FM Waves .. 5.9.1 Slope Detection 5.9.2 Balanced Slope Detector... ‘5.9.3 Foster-Seeley Discriminator (Phase-Shift Discriminator) 6.9.4 Ratio Detector ........... 5.9.5 Comparison of FM Demodulator 5.9.6 Zero Crossing Detection ..... 5.10 Phase Locked Loop (PLL)... 5.11 Nonlinearity and its Effects in FM Systems ..... 5.12 Comparison of FM and AM Systems 5.13 Comparison of FM and PM Systems Solved Examples... Review Questions... University Questions .. Chapter: Noise 6.4.1 Signal-to-Noise Ratios... 6.4.2 Noise in AM Receivers using Envelope De Detection 6.5 Noise in FM Receivers ... 6.5.1 Capture Efecto. ee cece eee eect cane eee ee tence ee ee tere eee eee eee eeee ewes 6-15 GREG RG hee SS Ta a6.5.2 FM Threshold Effect... 0.2. e cee cee cece et eect cree eee e nee B= 16 7.22 Transmitter Topologies .... o eevee ceepeceeeceseeerereereesees sees D3 T23LowLevel Modulate tg 7.2.4 High Level Modulator... 7.5 AM Broadcast Transmitters .... 6 EM Transmitters 7.6.1 Directly Modulated (Variable Reactanca Type) FM Transmitter 7-16 7.62 Frequency Stability using AFC eee so 7+ 19 7.6.3 Indirect (Phase) Modulated FM Transmitter... sesso ese sees eee 7220 8.1 Introduction. 8-4 8-1 8.2 Functions of Receiver. 8.3 Receiver Types .. 8.3.1 Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver ........ 2.0 cccsees beeestaeeeereseeens 8-1 $3.2 Problems in TRE Recsivers 0 8,3.3 Superheterodyne Receivers . 8-3 SOAS8.4 Receiver Characteristics... 8.4.1 Selectivity .. 8.4.2 Sensitivity ... 8.4.3 Fidelity. feces 8.4.4 Image Frequency andits Rejection... eee eeeeeee eee teeeterece ere BB 8.4.5 Double Spotting 8.5 Receiver Sections... 85.1 RF Amplifier. . 8.5.2 Mixer or Frequency Changer/Converter . 8.5.3 Tracking. 0.2... veineee 8.54 Local Oscillator... Seevaes 8.5.5 Intermediate Frequency Amplifier 8.5.6 Choice of Intermediate Frequency . .. 8.5.7 Adjacent Channel Selectivity 8.5.8 Automatic Gain Control (AGG)... BS81Simle AGC... 85.8.2 Delayed AGC 8.5.9 De-Emphasis 8.6 AM Detection 8.6.1 Envelope Detector. 8.6.1.1 Distortion in Envelope Deletos BB12Practina DindeNetoniog 8.6.2 Synchronous Detector... 8.6.6 Communication (Double Conversion) Receiver ..........-- 8.7 FM Detection Be BT 8.7.1 Phase-Shift Discriminator (Foster-Seely Discriminator) ...............esseeee see 8.7.2 Ratio Detector ...... 8.7.3 Amplitude Limiting, . 8.7.4 Comparison of FM Detectors LET SEE8.8 FM Receiver . 8.9 EM Stereo Receiver 9-47 Solved Examples. - 50 Review Questions. - 66 Chaar 8 lee MBAR? TS? (waa 9.1.1 Sampling Process. . 9.1.2 Sampling Theorem . 9.2 Pulse Amplitude Modulation .... 9.2.1 Generation of PAM . 9.2.2 Transmission Bandwidth of PAM Signal .. 9-5 9.2.3 Analysis and Frequency Spectrum of Naturally PAM 9-7 9.2.4 Analysis and Spectrum of Flat Top PAM... 2.2.22 OD 9.2.5 Aperture Effect . a see sseaee 9-13 9.2.6 Reconstruction of Original Sina i. 9-13 9.2.7 Comparison of Sampling Techniques of PAM. 9-14 9.2.8 Merits and Demerits of PAM... . veseeneees oo 915 8.2.9 Classification of PAM Based on Signal Polarity... 0.0... seeeceee = 916 9.3 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). 913.1 Generation of PWM Signal ......... - 9.3.2 Demodulation of PWM Signal .... . . pee teeeeteceeeeteeeeeeenen ene ee DOAd 9.3.3 Advantages of PWM eee eee ee ee ee ee O22 9.3.4 Disadvantages of PWM. 9-22 9.3.5 Frequency Specirum for PWM Wave 9-22 9.4 Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)... ssi O - 23 9.4.4 Generation of PPM Signal... ...:......ssses sess cesseeseeeseeseseessetesseee 9 24 9.4.2 Damodulation of PPM Signal .......... 9-26 9.4.3 Advantages of PPM. . 9-26 0.44 Datiantages of PPM. eee eee eee cece ee eee eee 9G 9.5 Comparison of PAM,PWM and PPM Systems... Review Questions... SERS GRRE a ES RG SY ceAppendix A Hilbert Transform: A2 Pre Envelope A.3 Canonical Representations of Band-Pass Signals ... »A+6 SIRS SS (SERSIntroduction to Communication Systems 1.1 Introduction The field of electronics can be roughly classified into three major classes : computers, communications, and control. The computer field is the youngest of the three, while communications industry is the oldest, since electronics really started with radio communications. The communication is concemed with electronic equipment used for the transfer of information between two or more points. That information may be voice, television pictures, computer data, or some other form of electronic information. Communication is the basic process of exchanging information. It is what people do to convey their thoughts, ideas, and feelings to one another. People have been communicating with one another from the beginning of humankind. As soon as new infant is born, it starts crying and starts communicating with its mother. Most humans communicate through spoken word, yet a considerable amount of communication is nonverbal. Body movements and facial expressions are effective communication tools. People write letters for communication. Although the bulk of human communication today is still oral, a large volume of information is exchanged by means of the written word, may be in the form of letters, newspaper, books etc. In the beginning, communication over long distances posed the problem. Most human communication in the beginning was limited to face-to-face communication (conversation). However, long distance communication was attempted by blowing a horn, lighting a signal fire, or waving a flag. But despite these long distance communication attempts, transmission distances were limited. Long distance communication was extended by the written word, Messages and letters were transported from one place to another by human runner, horseback, ship, and later by trains. The communication took a dramatic tum in the late nineteenth century when electricity was discovered. The telegraph was invented in 1844 and the telephone in 1876. Radio was demonstrated in 1895. From this point, the exchange of information took a great leap in forward direction. Marconi demonstrated transatlantic radio transmission in 1901. (i- 1)Analog Communications 1-3 Introduction to Communication Systems any given message is measured in bits or dits. To have a better communication system, selective, but ail information must be communicated with no redundancy since we know no real information can be conveyed by a redundant message. 4.4.1.2 Transmitter The transmitter is a collection of electronic circuits designed to convert the information into a signal suitable for transmission over a given communication medium. Most of the times message that comes from information source is non-electrical and therefore it is not suitable for immediate transmission. Such messages need to be coded or processed before transmission and also require suitable transducers to convert them into electrical signals. The built-in cireuitry such as decoders, encoders, transducers, ete. in the transmission makes incoming information suitable for transmission and subsequent reception. The most of the transmitters have built-in amplifier circuits. These circuits amplify the incoming signals (information) before transmission which help in faithful reception of the transmitted information at the receiver end. 1.4.4.3 Communication Channel The communication channel is the medium by which the electronic signal is transmitted from one place to another. The communication medium can be a pair of conducting wire, coaxial cable, optical fibre cable or free space. Depending on the type of communication medium the communication system can be classified as, * Wire communication or Line communication, © Wireless communication or Radio communication. ‘Types of Communication Channels : Conducting Pair of Wires In its simplest form, the channel may simply be a pair of wires that carry the signal from one end to another. The common examples are telegraphy and telephony, where actually two physical wires or conductors are run between the transmitter and receiver. Now-a-days, the communication chanhel for telephony is a fiber-optic cable, carrying the message on a light wave. Coaxial Cables The coaxial cables are preferred over a pair of wires that carry the signal from one end to other. They provide greater bandwidth, lower losses and much lower crosstalk. The coaxial cable system consists of a tube carrying a number of coaxial cables together with repeaters and other ancillary equipment. Separate cables are used for the two directions of transmission and a pair of spare cables is also provided for protection in case of failure. The number of cables per tube may be as low as four in smaller systems or as high as 22 in major systems as shown in Fig. 1.2. The typical number of channels per cable varies from 600 in a 3-MHz system to 3600 in an 18-MHz system.Analog Communications 1-4 Introduction to Communication Systems The coaxial cable consists of a solid-center conductor surrounded by a plastic insulator such as Teflon, Over the insuletor is a second conductor, a tabular braid or shield made of fine wire, as shown in Fig, 1.2, An outer sheath protects and insulates the braid. (Fine-wire braid shield) Outer conductor P_-Outer plastic insulation Foil Teflon or plastic insulation ‘Solld copper inner ecnductor Fig. 1.2 Fiber-Optie Cables Fiber-optic cables are used for light and infrared transmissions. They carry light rather than electrical signals. The two most commonly used light sources in fiber optic systems are LEDs and semiconductor lasers. A fiber-optic cable is a long thin strand of glass or plastic fiber. Most fiber cables have a circular cross section with a diameter of only a fraction of an inch. Some fiber-optic cables only have a diameter the size of a human hair. A light source is placed at the end of the fiber, and light passes through it and exits at the other end of the cable. The fiber-optic cable can carry information such as voice, video and computer data. Voice and video signals are converted into binary or digital pulses before being transmitted by a light beam. At the receiving end the light beam is converted into binary or digital pulses and then into original voice or video signals. 4} Water blocking yam Dielectric COM Loose buffer tube Optical fiber ‘Water blocking tape ‘Water blocking tape — Dielectric strength memberAnalog Communications 1-5 Introduction to Communication Systems The fiber-optic cables are mainly used in telephone systems. The main advantage of these cables is that they provide large bandwidth. The bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies which a cable will carry. The communication system with fiber optic cables are interference, unlike coaxial cables. They are also cheaper than systems with coaxial cables. Fiber-optics cables are smaller, lighter and stronger than electric cables. The Table 1.1 summarizes the benefits of fiber-optic cables over conventional electrical cables. 1, Wider Bandwidth ; Higher information carrying capability, Lower loss ; Less signal attenuation over long distance, Light weight : Useful where low weight is critical i.e. aircraft Small size : More cables can be placed in a smaller place. Strength : More stronger than electrical cables and hence can support more weight. Security : Fiber-optic cables cannot be tapped as easily as electrical cables, and they do not radiate signals, Interference immunity : Fiber-optic cables do not radiate signals as some electrical cables do and cause interference to other cables. They are also immune to pick-up of interference from other sources. Greater safety : Fiber-oplic cables. do not carry electricity. Therefore, there {sno shock hazard. They are also insulators so are not susceptible to lightning strikes as electrical cables. Table 1.1 Table 1.2 summarises the applications of fiber-optic cables. Applications Local and long-distance telephone systems, For transmission of video signal from TV studio to transmitter, eliminating microwave radio link, Used in clase-circuit TV systems, Secure communication systems at military bases. Used in wide area and local area computer networks. Shipboard and aircraft communications and controls. Interconnection of measuring and monitoring instruments in industries and laboratories, Used in data aquisition systems and industrial process control systems for signal communication. Table 1.2Analog Commynications 16 Introduction to Gommunication Systems Transmission Lines The electrical lines which are used to transmit the electrical waves along them are called transmission lines. The practical examples of the electric waves, which are transmitted along the transmission lines are the electrical power signals and the telephone messages. The electromagnetic waves transmitted by transmitter radiate in the free space. The energy associated with these waves radiate over a wide area at large distances. But this radiated energy is not guided, thus the transmission of power and information becomes inefficient. For efficient point to point transmission of power and information, the radiated energy must be directed or guided. Thus transmission lines and waveguides serve as guided structure used to guide the propagation or transmission of energy from the source to the load. The transmission lines are most commonly used in power distribution and in communications. A transmission line basically consists of two or more parallel wires which are uniform throughout their whole length. The common examples of the transmission lines are open-wire line, parallel plate line, co-axial cable, microstrip line etc. The open wire lines are generally used for transmission of electrical power and telephonic signals. Generally co-axial cables are used for transmission of high voltage levels. The microstrip line is important in integrated cireuits where metallic strips connecting integrated elements are deposited on dielectric substrates. Each of the above lines consists of two conductors in parallel. Waveguides Similar to the transmission lines, waveguides are also used to guide electromagnetic waves from one point to other ile. from source to load. A waveguide is considered as a special case of the transmission line, In general, waveguides are hollow conducting tubes having uniform cross-section. The most commonly used waveguides are rectangular waveguide and circular waveguide. Eventhough a waveguide is a special case of a transmission line, there are some notable differences between the two. Firstly, the transmission line can support only transverse electromagnetic wave (TEM wave), while a waveguide can support many different possible field configurations. Secondly, a transmission line becomes inefficient at microwave frequencies (3-300 GHz) due to skin effect and dielectric losses. But waveguide is used at that same range of frequencies to achieve larger bandwidth and lower signal attenuation. Lastly a transmission line may operate from dic. (frequency = 0) to a very high frequency. While a waveguide can not transmit d.c. and below microwave frequencies it becomes excessively large. Radio Communication Radio is the broad general term applied to any form of wireless communication between two points. Radio communication is a wireless communication, requiring no physical wires between transmitter and receiver to carry the signal; on the contrary, the signal is sent theough free space or air. Radio communication essentially requires two antennas, one at transmitting end and the other at the receiving end. Using transmitting antenna, the transmitter transmits the signal, over a carrier wave, into the free space. The1-7 Introduction to Commiiiii¢ation Systems receiver picks up the signal by means of receiving aerial and separates the’signal from the carrier. The medium attenuates the signal and causes it to appear much lower in amplitude at the receiver. Considerable amplification of the signal, both af the transmitter and the receiver, becomes essential for successful communication. Radio communication makes possible communication over very very long distances, even from earth to moon, 4.4.4.4 Noise Noise is random, undesirable electric energy that enters the communication system via the medium and interferes with the transmitted message. Sime noise is also produced in the receiver. Noise can be either natural or man-made. ‘Natural noise includes noise produced in nature, e.g. from lighting during rainy season, or noise due to radiations produced by the sun and the other stars. Man-made noise is the noise produced by electric ignition systems of cars, electric motors, fluorescent lights, etc. Noise is one of the serious problems of electronic communication. It cannot be completely eliminated: However, there are ways to deal with noise, and reduce the possibility of degradation of signal due to noise, 4141.5 Receiver A receiver is a collection of electronic circuits designed to convert the signal back to the original information. It consists of amplifier, detector, mixer, oscillator, transducer and so on. 1.1.2 Baseband Signals Although digital transmission can be made up of signal that originated in digital form, such as computer data; analog signals can be converted into digital form and then transmitted, Regardless of whether the original information signals are analog or digital, they are all referred to as “baseband signals”. In a communication system, the original information signals (baseband signals) may be transmitted over the medium. Putting the original signal directly into the medium is referred to as “baseband transmission”. The common. example is telephony, especially for the local calls. Here the voice signal, converted into electrical form, is placed on the wires and transmitted over some distance to the receiver. In some computer networks, the digital signals are applied directly to coaxial cables for transmission to another computer. Limitations of Baseband Transmission ‘There are many instances when the baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission over the medium. For example, voice signals cannot travel longer distances in air, the signal gets attenuated rapidly. Hence for transmission of baseband signals by radio, modulation technique has to be used. -Analog Communications 1-8 Intraduction to Communication Systems 1.2 Need for Modulation and its Advantages We have seen that baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission over the medium and therefore we have to use modulation technique for the communication of baseband signal. The advantages of using modulation technique are as given below : © Reduces the height of antenna © Avoids mixing of signals Increases the range of communication * Allows multiplexing of signals © Allows adjustments in the bandwidth ‘© Improves quality of reception 1, Reduces the height of antenna The height of the antenna required for transmission and reception of radio waves in radio transmission is a function of wavelength of the frequency used. The minimum height of the antenna is given as 2/4. The wavelength 2 is given as wherec is the velocity of light and Fis the frequency. From the above equation it can be easily noticed that at low frequencies wavelength is very high and hence the antenna height. For example, consider the baseband signal with f= 15 kHz. Then . ¢ Height of antenna = $= 75 3x108 15x 103x4 = 5000 meters This 5000 meters height of a vertical antenna is unthinkable and unpracticable. On the other hand, if we consider a modulated signal with 1 MHz frequency in the broadcast band the height of antenna is given as Es ¢ Height of antenna = = 957 3108 Tx108x4 = 75 meters This height of antenna is practical and such antenna can be installed.Analog Communications. 1-14 Introduction to Communication Systems eel heeds = Baseband signal uf i: : fe Eee ys Periodic sequential. pulses Ee Minimum lamplitude, Fig. 1.9 Pulse amplitude modulation 1.3.5 Pulse Duration Modulation In pulse duration modulation, the duration of periodic sequential pulses are varied in accordance with sample values of the baseband signal. It is also known as pulse width modulation (PWM). 1.3.6 Pulse Position Modulation In pulse position modulation, the position of periodic sequential pulses are varied in accordance with sample values of the baseband signal. Fig. 1.10 (b) shows the pulse position modulated signal. 1.4 Multiplexing More efficient communication system can be obtained if a station transmits more than one “message” on the same cartier and on the same channel, or number of transmitters are transmitting simultaneously on the same channel. This process is known as “multiplexing” and has been used for many years in long distance telephony. Multiplex transmissions have been used in commercial communications, not only for voice channels [wireless], butduration — Modulated signal Pulse position — modulated si Fig. 1.10 PDM and PPM signals also for facsimilie. Multiplexing has also been used since a long time for broadcasting. Remote data transmission (telemetry] would not be practicable were it not for multiplexing. There are two types of multiplexing : 1) Frequency Division Multiplexing [FDM] 2) Time Division Multiplexing [TDM]Analog Communications 1-16 Introduction to Communication Systems 1.4.1 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) Multiplexing requires that the signals be kept apart so that they do not interfere with each other, and thus they can be separated at the receiving end. This is accomplished by separating, the signal either in frequency or time. The technique of separating the signals in frequency is referred to as frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), whereas the technique ‘of separating the signals in time is called time-division multiplexing. In this section, we discuss frequency division multiplexing systems, referred hereafter as FDM. Fig. 1.11 shows the block diagram of FDM system. As shown in the Fig. 1.11, input action removes high-frequency components that do not contribute significantly to signal representation but may disturb other message signals that share the common channel, The filtered message signals are then modulated with necessary carrier frequencies with the help of modulators. The most commonly method of modulation in FDM is single sideband modulation, which requires a bandwidth that is approximately equal to that of original message signal. The band pass filters following the modulators are used to restrict the band of each modulated wave to its prescribed range. The outputs of band-pass fillers are combined in parallel which form the input to the common channel. At the receiving end, bandpass filters connected to the common channel separate the message signals on the frequency occupancy basis. Finally, the original message signals are recovered by individual demodulators. 4.414 Transmission Bandwidth Let us determine the transmission bandwidth required to transmit 24 independent voice message inputs. Assume bandwidth of 4 KHz for each voice message input. We know that, in SSB modulation, bandwidth required is equal to the bandwidth of the message signal. Therefore, the transmission bandwidth required to transmit 24 voice message signals is given as B = 24x4=96 kHz Using FDM for Telephone lines Let us consider a system based on FDM providing 960 channels, each occupying 4 kHz. Here, modulation is done in several cascaded stages. The stages are divided into pregroups, groups and super groups. Each pregroup modulator provides three carrier oscillators at 12, 16, and 20 kHz. Here, ‘USB (upper sideband) modulation is used. Thus, the first channel from baseband signal 0-4 kHz occupies the first channel slot from 12 kHz-16 kHz. The second channel goes in 16 kHz to 20 kHz slot and the third goes in the 20 kHz to 24 kHz slot. All these channels are added to form a pre-group and sent to one of the group modulator inputs. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.12 (a). A separate pregroup modulator is required for every three channel, so to accomodate 960 channels we require 960/3 = 320 pregroup modulators.Analog Communications 1-18 Introduction to Communication Systems Carrier 1 Carrier 2 Carier’3 O 4kHz 12kKHz 0 4 kHz 16 kHz 0 4kHz 20 kHz La La one a3 thor Cy $C 45 12 ir 16 Kr 20 wi 20 Kz pcmcia) 3-channels forming pregroup( 12 kHz) Fig. 1.12 (a) Formation of pregroup The group modulator provides four carriers at 84 kHz, 96 kHz, 108 kHz, and 120 kHz. Here, four pregroup signals are moved by LSB modulation into four consecutive frequency slots at 60 kHz to 72 kHz, 72 kHz to 84 kHz, 84 kHz to 96 kHz and 96 kHz to 108 kHz. Because of LSB modulation, the order of frequencies are reversed. Again all four carrier are suppressed and output from four modulators are added to form a group. The added output is then sent to input of the one of the super group modulator. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.12 (b). As shown in the 1.12 (b), the output frequency range of a group is 60 kHz to 108 kHz. From 3 channel pregroup (12 KHz) t Cy 2 Nor Nerdy] oN ad oN ad lady ad food ardent conn Tene re sonttz 109 kHz a0 Kez 12-channel group (48 kHz) Fig. 1.12 (b) Formation of group Each supergroup modulator provides carriers at 420, 468, 516, 564 and 612 kHz. Again LSB modulation takes place and it places the five group signals in the slots 312 to 360, 360 to 408, 408 to 456, 456 to 504 and 504 to 522 KHz. Again the order of frequencies within each slot is reversed by the LSB modulation and all carriers are suppressed. The five outputs are then added and sent to the input of master group modulator, each with frequencies from 312 to 552 kHz. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.12 (©).Analog Communications 1-19 Introduction to Communication Systems 12-channel_group (48 kHz) 312 360 408 420 456 468 «= 504516 552 564 612 kHz 60-channel super group (240 kHz) Fig. 1.12 (c) Formation of super group Each master group modulator provides 16 cartier, frequencies. These 16 carrier frequencies are again LSB modulated to given 16 supergroups. The output of these 16 supergroups are added to give master group. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.12 (d). 960-channels master group (3948 kHz) Fig. 1.12 (d) Formation of master group As shown in the Fig. 1.12 (d), the first three slots are separated by 12 kHz and the remainder by 8 kHz. All carriers are suppressed, and a single pilot carrier is transmitted at 60 kHz to provide demodulation synchronization. Therefore, complete signal contains 960 FDM channels each 4 kEiz. wide in a frequency range from 60 to 4028 kHz. 1.4.2 Time Division Multiplexing : (TDM) As the number of messages to be transmitted increases, the frequency-division technique presents problems. The number of subcarriers needed increases, and stability problems can arise. Additional circuitry is required, both at transmitting and receiving ends to handle each added channel. The bandwidth requirements increase directly with the number of channels. These problems are eliminated to a great extent by using time division multiplexing [TDM], together with pulse modulation. In TDM, each intelligence signal to be transmitted [voice or telemetry data] is sampled sequentially and the resulting pulse code is used to modulate the carrier. The same carrier frequency is used to transmit different pulses sequentially, one after other, us each intelligence, to be transmitted, has been allotted a given time slot. Since only one signalAnalog Communications 1-20 Introduction to Communication Systems modulates the carrier at any time, no added equipment and no increase in bandwidth is needed when mulliplexing. The number of sequential channels that can be handled is limited by the time span required by any one channel pulse and the interval between samples. Thus, in TDM, each signal occupies the entire bandwidth of the channel. However, each signal is transmitted for only a short period of time, as shown in Fig. 1.13. Time | soit 1 1+ ONE FRAME———»} — Teme Fig. 1.13 Time frame Here five signals are time division multiplexed. Each signal is allowed to use the channel for a fixed interval of time, called time slot. The five signals use the channel sequentially one after other, One transmission of each channel completes one cycle of operation, called a “frame.” Once all the signals have been transmitted, the cycle repeats again and again, at a high rate of speed. The Fig. 1.14 shows the block diagram of a TDM system which is used to multiplex the five signals. Signal 1-—— Signal 22—| Pulse Signal 30 modulation Pulse @ cman [atin —=P 4 Pulse | modulation 5 ‘Transmitter Receiver synchronizer} synchronizer] Fig. 1.14 Block diagram TDM systemAnalog Communications 1.21 Introduction to Communication Systems A rotating switch called a commutator connects the output of each channel modulator to the communication channel input in turn, The commutator is realized with electronic switches since it has to rotate at high speed. The commutator remains at each contact for a fixed interval of time, which is the times slot allotted for each channel. At the receiver, another switch, rotating in synchronism with the sending end commutator is used. This switch connects the pulses received to the appropriate demodulator circuits. For the proper operation of the system, absolute synchronism is very essential, between transmitter and receiver. mm Example 1.1: Calculate the maximum number of messages, each of bandwidth 4 kHz, which can be transmitted simultaneously on a single channel using binary PCM system with 256 quantum levels and pulse allocation width of 0.625 ps . Solution : With 256 quantization levels used, the number of pulses used in one group, P, is given by P = loge [No of levels] = loge [256] = log2 [ 25] =8 Each pulse has a pulse duration of 0.625 ps. Therefore, time required to transmit one code group, corresponding to one signal sample, is Time for each pulse group = [ 0.625 ps } [8] = 5 1 see As cach message is bandwidth limited to 4 kHz, we assume a Nyquist rate of sampling, i. we assume Sampling frequency = 2x fm =2%4kHz = 8 kHz Then time period between two samples = et 5 5 * Sampling frequency ~ dao ~ 17 4 Hence total number of messages which can be transmitted * Gps 75 Here each code group is using 8 pulses. Out of these 8 pulses, actually 7 pulses are used for coding and the 8" one is reserved for synchronization and checking. Similarly, out of 25 messages which could be transmitted, one is used for signaling and frame synchronization.Analog Commufiications 1-24 Introduction to Communication Systems. The Fig, 1.18 illustrates the basic principle of sample and hold circuit. It is a capacitor and switch. The circuit tracks the analog signal until the sample command causes the digital switch to isolate the capacitor from the signal, and the capacitor holds this analog voltage during A/D conversion. Fig.1.18 Principle diagram for sample and hold circuit 4.4.3. Crosstalk The interference of the adjacent channels or overlapping of information between adjacent channels is called crosstalk. For faithful communication crosstalk must be avoided. In TDM crosstalk may occur due to insufficent transmission bandwidth to preserve the shape of the TDM pulses. In FDM the crosstalk may occur when frequency response of filler is not sharp enough. To eliminate or to reduce crosstalk a guardband is provided between the adjacent channels. 4.4.4 Comparison of FDM and TDM The FDM and TDM, being multiplexing techniques, accomplish the same goal, i.e. transmitting more than one message, on the same channel. Thus they are dual techniques. Frequency Division Multiplexing requires modulators, filters, demodulators ; while Time Division Multiplexing require commutator at the transmitting end and a distributor, working in perfect synchronism with commutator at the receiving end. A perfect synchronism between transmitter and receiver is absolutely essential for proper operation of TDM system. Thus TDM synchronization is more demanding than that of FDM with suppressed-carrier modulation. For demodulating the SSB signal used in FDM, the carrier is locally generated in the receiver. This local carrier nvust be exactly identical to one used at the transmitting end with respect to frequency and phase. ‘There is no crosstalk in TDM if the pulses are completely isolated and non-overlapping since message separation is achieved by decommutation, rather by filtering as done in FDM. Actual pulse shapes, having decaying tails, do tend to overlap. However, the resulting crosstalk can be effectively reduced by providing guard-time between pulses, analogous to the guard bands in FDM. A practical TDM system has both guard times and guard bands, the former to suppress crosstalk, the latter to facilitate message reconstruction with practical filters. In PCM technique, pulse code modulated signals are converted into pulse amplitude modulated pulses, which are passed through low-pass filler to receive back the original modulating signal.‘Analog Communications 1-25 __ Introduction to Communication Systems The difference between TDM and FDM can be summarized as shown in Table 1.3. TOM FDM 1, | tis a technique for transmitting several In this technique (o transmit several messages messages on one channel by dividing time ‘on ono channel, message signals are domain siots. One siot for each message. distributed in frequency spectrum such that they do not overtap. 2. | requires commutator at the transmitting end | FOM requires modulator, fiters and and a distributor, working in perfect demodutators. ‘synchronization with commutator at the receiving end 3. | Perfect synchronization between transmitter | Synchronization between transmitter and and recelver is required. receiver is not required. 4. | Crosstalk problem is not severe in TOM. FOM suffers from crosstalk problem due to imperfect bandpass filter 5, | tis usually preferred for digital signal It is usually preferred for analog signal transmission. transmission. Ht does net require very complex circuity, It requires complex circuity at transmitter and receiver. Table 1.3 Comparison between TOM and FDM Review Questions 1. Write a short note on evolution of commurnication system, What are the basic components of any communication system ? Draw and explain the block diagram of the typical communication system. What do you sean by noise ? What are the different types of communication systems according to their communication media ? What are the typical channels used in the line communication ? What és baseband signal ? What is basebart transmission 2 What do you mean by bondwidth and how it is measured ? What is the necessity of modulation ? How modulation is achieves! ? What are the different types of modulation ? What is maltiptexing ? Explain frequency division multiplexing. Explain time division multiplexing. Compare FDM and TDM.Analog Communications 1=26 Introduction to Communication Systems University Questions 1. Why do we need modulation in comnunication ? Explain. [April/May-2004, Set-3] 2. What are the adcantages of Modulation ? [NovsDec.2004, Set-t] 3. Explain the need for modulation. [April/May-2005, Set-2; Nov sDec.2005, Set-1, 2 and 3] qaqaAnalog Communications 2-8 Amplitude Modulation Look at Fig. 2.5 we can write, Ly = 2(ActAm) L, = 2(Ac~Am) We can also write Ag, and A, in terms of L, and L2 as given below Li-k, = 2ActAm)J-PtAc- Aw] = 7A.+2Am-2A. t2Ag = 4Ang L,-Lz 4 Li thr = 2ActAm))+(Ac-An)] = 2Ac+2Amt2Ac—2Am 2 4A. Li ths 4 We know that modulating index is Aq over Ac , Am by -by/4 - He CK. "T4074 Ly =L TFL; (13) From above equation we can calculate modulati of AM wave by simply measuring values of L, and L; . index from the trapezoidal display Looking at the trapezoidal pattern we can immediately make out the conditions such as overmodulation and distortion. Fig. 26 shows the trapezoidal patterns for overmodulated and distorted AM waves. Ia“ Fig. 2.6 Trapezoidal patterns In case of overmodulation, the trapezoid becomes a triangle with a tail as shown in the Fig. 2.6 (a). Fig. 2.6(b) and Fig. 26(c) show the distortions on the diagonal sides of the trapezoidal waveforms.Analog Communications 2-9 Amplitude Modulation 2.5 Power Relations in AM Waves We have seen that, AM wave has three components : Unmodulated carrier, lower sideband and upper sideband. Therefore the total power of AM wave is the sum of the carrier power P. and powers in the two sidebands Psu, and Pisy. It is given as PL = Pe +Puss + Pisa we (4) 2 Acid? The average cartier power = (ae Ad = Rk w+ (15) where R is a characteristic impedance of antenna in which the power is dissipated. Similarly, average power for two sidebands can be given as Psp = Puse e/2) 1 = (Me?) yt (4) +8 2A? = WAS = Par + (16) AZ pRAZ wa The average total power, Pros = 3p + gee B aR = 7) Prot ze vs (18) This equation relates the total power of amplitude modulated wave with the power of unmodulated carrier. The maximum possible value of m in the amplitude modulated wave is 1, therefore from above equation it can be seen that the maximum total power of amplitude modulated wave is 1.5 P.. Using above equation we can represent modulation index in terms of Pro and Pe.Analog Communications 2-10 Ampiitude Modulation We know that sn (19) Fig. 27 shows the variations of carrier power and total sideband power with percentage modulation. As shown in the Fig. 2.7 as modulation index increases transmitted carrier power decreases, whereas sideband power increases. Percentage of total Fig. 2.7 Variations of carrier power and total sideband power with percentage modulation vm Example 2.3; An audio frequency signal 10 sin 2x 500¢ is used to amplitude modulate @ carrier of 50 sin 2.x x 10°. Assume modulation index = 0.2. i) Sideband frequencies ii) Amplitude of each sideband frequencies iii) Bandwidth required ip) Total power delivered to the load of 600 2 Solution: i) Sideband frequencies Given : O, = 2xx500 f_ = 500 Hz and we = xx 10%Analog Gommunications. Amplitude Modulation mm Example 2.6: The total antenna current of an AM transmitter is 5 A. If modulation index is 0.6, catculate the antenna current when only the carrier is sent. Solution: We know that Lyoat = = 460A um Example 2.7: The rms antenna current of an AM transmitter increases by 15% over its unmodulated value, when sinusoidal modulation by 1 kHz signal is applied. Determine the modulation index. Sol. : We know that, Ibis given that row = 1.15 Ie re ytey-|Analog Communications 2-15 Amplitude Modulation fer = 08 2.7 Modulation by Several Sine Waves Uptil now we have considered only one modulating signal but in practice there can be more than one modulating signals. Let us consider there are two modulating signals MC) = Aggy COS qi t MAH) = Ags COSMqs t Total modulating signal =m, (t) +ma(t) = Ag SIN t+ A a2 SIN Ome t and S(t) = (Ag + Age COS Bg, T+ Agg SIN Wy t) COS Wt = Ag (14H) cos Op t+ H12 COS mg t) COS @, t w+ (26) After expansion with trigonometric relation { c08 a cas b = Scos (a ~ b) ~ cos (a + b) j] we get, 5) = Ae cos a 1+ EAS cos (ag grt ~ BAS cos (0 + gr 1+ BPA cos (a ~ m2 - Ba 603 (0 + a2) t a 27) So with two modulating signals we get four additional frequencies, two upper sideband frequencies ( f. +f, and f, +f,2: ) and two lower sideband frequencies ( f. - fai and f. - f, Assuming fy, < fna we can draw the frequency spectrum of AM wave in frequency domain as shown in Fig. 2.8.Analog Communications 2-16 Amplitude Modulation telaa ef e tettm tet hme : Fig. 2.8 Frequency spectrum of AM wave with two modulating signals The total power in the AM wave can be given as Prout = Pe # Pusor + Pus + Poser + Prso2 (Af2P ue AE R&R where 1, ~ Modulation index for first modulating signal iy — Modulation index for second modulating signal R — Characteristic resistance of antenna AE Prot = FRE iz rl Al .- (28) Total modulation index can be calculated as follows + We know the equation for Prout for one modulating signal. It is given as 2 Proat = v. (14) We can modify this equation by writing y., instead of j1, and 12. For more than one modulating signals, equation becomes = BE Prot = re (i+ + Now comparing above equation and equation of total power for two modulating signals we get, ui 2 Hw a 2Analog Communications 2-19 Amplitude Modulation ‘Amplifier used Linear amplifier such as class A amplifier is used because all stages must be capable of handling amplitude variations caused by the modulation. ‘Ampiifiers used Transistors and Op-amps ‘Vacuum tubes and power ‘transistors. ‘Very high. Efficiency Lower than high levet modulators. Applications ‘Some times used in TV transmitters. Table 2.1 Comparison between low level and high level modulation In this section, we study how to generate a standard amplitude modulated wave suited for low level modulation. Specifically, we discuss the square-law modulator and the switching modulator. Both modulators use nonlinear element for their implementation and are well suited for low-level modulation purposes. High power broadcast AM transmitters, 2.8.1 Square-Law Modulator The square-law modulator consists of three elements : © Summer : It adds the carrier and the modulating waves. © Non-linear element : It is used to implement squarelaw modulator. * Band pass filter : It extracts desired term from modulator products. Fig. 2.9 shows the basic circuit of square-law modulator. Semiconductor diodes and transistors are the most common nonlinear devices used for implementing square-law modulator. Here, bandpass filter is implemented using a single or double tuned filter. If a nonlinear element such as diode is suitably biased and operated in a restricted portion of its characteristics, that is, the signal applied to the diode is relatively weak, then the characteristics of diode-resistor can be represented closely by a square law : va(t) = arva(t) + aavi(t) + BL where vi(t) is the nput voltage ‘sera Ag 005 (2m fet) Garrier signal Tuned to f, and acts as a band-pass filter Fig. 2.9 Square wave modulatorAnalog Communications 2-20 . Amplitude Modulation va(l) is the output voltage. a, and a, are constants. As shown in the Fig. 2.9, input voltage consists of the carrier wave plus the modulating wave, ie., vilt) = Accos(2nft) + m(t) w+. 32) Substituting value of v;(t) in equation (31) we get, valt) = a (Ac cos(2nfct) + m(t)) seat 2 (Ac €08(2mf.t) +m(Q))? = a, Accos(2mfet) + a, M(t) + ay A.? cos? (2mfet) + 2a A, cos (27f.t)m(t) + a, M(t) ayAc [ +2 me eos (2nf.t) 1 AN Wave +a, m(t)+ayA.? cos? (2nft)+aym?(t) «-. 83) Unwanted ere The equation (33) gives resulting voltage developed across the primary winding of the output transformer. The first term of equation (33) is the desired AM wave. In this equation K, = 2a, /ay, which is the amplitude sensitivity of the AM wave. The remaining terms in the equation are unwanted terms. These unwanted terms are removed by appropriate filtering. To remove unwanted terms in equation, filter should have following specifications : Midband frequency = f. Bandwidth = 2, f, > 3f, 2.8.2 Switching Modulator In this modulator, multiplication operation is replaced by a simpler switching operation. Fig. 2.10 shows a switching modulator. Here, diode is assumed to act as a ideal switch, that is, it presents zero impedange when it is forward-biased and infinite impedance when it is reversed biased. The diode switch is controlled by the carrier wave c(t}. When ¢() is greater than 0, diode is forward biased and when ¢(t) is less than 0, diode is reverse biased, because, in this circuit, amplitude of the carrier wave c(t) applied” to the diode is large. This illustrated in Fig. 2.10 (b).Analog Communications 2-21 Amplitude Modulation Cartier signal Diote acts % so agetesn pees omten eT Modulating erase mo) vat) 3a Yo) fo ay val=0 valtd= v(t) for (<0 for a> 0 — 0 vy (a) Switching modulator using diode (b) idealized input-output relation Fig. 2.10 4 mo) 4 (2) Modulating signal t To= Me ty (b) Carrier signal 4 mn(ett) (c) Resultant signal Fig. 2.11 (a), (b) & (c) Waveforms for switching modulator Fig, 2.11 shows the resultant waveform across R,. We know that, vi(t) = A-cos(2nfet) + m(t) where mt) << Ay The output voltage va(t) can be represented as vi), e(t}>0 vd {3 (<0 ~ GH) That is, the load vollage v2(t) varies periodically between the values v(t) and. zero at a rate equal to the carrier frequency {.. We can express equation mathematically as © vat) & [Ac cos(2nft}+m(t)]g,(t) vv (38)Analog Communications 2-2 Amplitude Modulation where g,(\) is a periodic pulse train of duty cycle equal to one half and period Ty = 1/ fe, as shown in Fig. 2.11 (4). Representing this g,(t) by its Fourier series, we have 12g¢cn Blt) = rae Troy 008 Pnfet(2n— 1] +2 cos(2af,t)+ odd harmonic components (36) 1 3 Therefore, substituting equation (36) in equation (35), we get the load voltage v,(t) is as follows : vit) = Ay[t ge mo ]eouatn s unwanted terms v= G7) The first term in equation (37) is the desired AM wave with amplitude sensitivity k,=4/nA,. The unwanted terms are removed form the load voltage v,(t) by using band-pass filter. (0 =Tp To To To 7a a Fig. 2.11 (d) Periodic pulse train 2.9 Detection of AM Waves A demodulator circuit accepts a modulated signal and recovers the original modulating information. These circuits are also known as detectors or demodulators. Here, we will discuss most widely used amplitude demodulators : Squarelaw detector and Envelope detector. 2.9.1 Square-Law Detector An AM signal can be demodulated by squaring it and then passing the squared signal through a lowpass filter as shown in Fig. 2.12. We know that the transfer characteristics of a nonlinear device is given as v(t) = ayv,(t) + av (t) + 38) where v,(t) and v,(t) are the input and output voltages , respectively, and a, and a, are constants. Here v,(t) represents AM wave and hence it is given as v(t) = A, {1 #K, m(O)] cost2x ft) += 39) Substituting v;(t) from equation (2) in equation (1) we get, vit) = afAc (1+ K, m(t) J cos(2x fet) + aafAc(+K,())cos(2nf) = aA, [1 + K, m(t)] cos (27 ft} aglA,? (14+ 2K, m(t)+ Ky?m? (t))cos? (2rft)]Analog Communications 2-27 Amplitude Modulation fuser = fe + Fm = 1000 107 + 800 = 1000.8 kHz = fe~ faa = 1000% 10 — 800 = 999.2 kHz fuss = fet tgs = 1000% 109 + 1000 = 1001 kHz = fen Pas = 1000% 10% - 1000 = 999 kHz. ump Example 2.14 © A 360 W carrier is sinultancously modulated by too audio waves with modulation percentages of 55 and 65, respectively. What is the total sideband power radiated? Solution : w= ye = {0557 + (0.65 a. = O85 Pep? Po = pS 300x (0.85)? 2 108.375 W mm Example 2.15 : When a broadcast AM transmitter is 50 percent modulated, its antenria current is 12 A. What will the current be when the modulation depth is increased to 0.9 ? Solution : Here, we first calculate the carrier current and then by keeping carrier current constant and changing modulation index calculate antenna current for the modulated wave. . . <5 oC aii age esAnalog Communications Amplitude Modulation = U3IA = 1341A imp Example 2.16 : The output current of 60 percent modulated AM generator is 15A. To what value will this current rise if the generator is modulated additionally by another audio wave, whose modulation index is 0.7 2 What will be’ the percentage potwer saving if the carrier and one of the sidebands are now suppressed ? Solution : Here, we first calculate the carrier current and then by keeping carrier current constant and with total modulating index calculate the current rise. 15 ? a uw (0.6) fe ee = 138A w= fn? tnd Jf 0.67 FOF = 0.922 a) Los a Now we will calculate current rise with modulation index 0.922.Analog Communications Amplitude Modulation b) Prot = Pet We have to calculate percentage power saving if the carrier and one of the sideband are suppressed. This is calculated as follows. Pot Peg? / 4 x PEP? / 4s Ppl 7a I+p2/ Ten? /4ep2 74" Percentage power saving = 100 100 1440922)? /4 100 1+ (0.922)? / 4+ (0922)? / 4 1.2125 | Tas = 85% 100 ium Example 2.17: A carrier wave with amplitude 12V and frequency 10 MHz is amplitude modulated to 50% level with a modulating frequency 1 kHz, write down equation of the above wave and sketch the waveform equency domain. Solution : We know equation of an AM wave is S(t) = A, (+ pe08 wy, 1) COS. 1 Given values are : Ae = RV n= 05 f, = 10 MHz fm = L kHz 2nf = 2x nx 10x 10% = 62.83 x 10% and Om = 2nfm = Ixaxtx 10 = 6283.2 s(t) = 12 C+ 0.5 cos 6283.2 1) cos 62.83% 10° tAnalog Communications 2-30 Amplitude Modulation fuse = fe + fm = 10x 108 + 1x 10? = 10.001 10° fisn = fe = fm = 10x 10° = 1x 108 = 9.999% 106 Amplitude of the sidebands = HES = ose =3V Frequency spectrum of AM wave ‘se fm 9.999MHz = 10MHz = 10.001 MHz Fig. 2.14 mma Example 2.18 : The positive Ry peaks of an AM voltage wave rise to a rmccimum value of 15 V and drop to a minimum value of 5 V. Determine the modulation index and the tnmodulated carrier amplitede, assunting sinusoidal modulation. Solution : We know that, Ams A mia 8 Kono ¥ Kye u = 05 mi Example 2.19: The rms antenna current from an AM transmitter increases by 20% over the modulated value when sinusoidal modulation is applied. Determine the modulation index. Solution : Modulation index is given asAnalog Communications 2-34 Amplituce Modulation H ee 2[1.207 - 1] 0.938 h wum> Example 2.20: In the trapezoidal pattern displaying modulation, the length of the long vertical side is 5 cm, and of the short vertical side, 2 cm. Determine the modulation depth. Solution ; He imp Example 2.21: The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 12 Amp when onty carrier is sent. It increases to 15 Amp when the carrier is modulated by 1 kHz sine wave. Find the modulation index. Determine the antenna current when depth of modulation changes to 0.7. Solution : The modulation index is given as _ ATTA = 1,060 Le. 106.06 % Antenna current is given as, 13.39 Amp mp Example 2.22: An AM Eransmitter has antenna current of 2 A with modulation index of 60 percent. What will be the fotal antenna current if one more identical antenna is connected in parallel with the previous one, keeping the transmitter output same? Will it affect modulation index ? Solution : Now there are two antennas, therefore power delivered by each antenna is half. PB 2k : 1 oP, Pl o= PR and B= PR = PRAnalog Communications 2-32 Amplitude Modulation r= VA Total current required for two antennas is given as Uiaas = U2 = 22 For Iyuat = 2 A, carrier current can be given as (0.6)? 2 Te { lt =z Ie = 1.84 Keeping 1. constant we calculate modulation index to get lyouy = 2V2 Veet = n= 1.65 mm Example 2.23: Culculate the percentage power saving when carrier and one of the sidelands are suppressed in an A.M. wave modulated to,a depth of 100 and 50 percent. Solution : (i) Power required for double sideband with: full ‘carrier (AM_ wave) transmission is given by 2 ‘ Posie = frets] For hod Posare = Power required for single suppressed catrier transmission is given by, P. Poy =