Engineering

Combustion Essentials
Engineering
Combustion Essentials
By

David S-K. Ting

Engineering Combustion Essentials

By David S-K. Ting

This book first published 2018

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Copyright © 2018 by David S-K. Ting

All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN (10): 1-5275-1414-5

ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-1414-0
Combustion is essential to human survival, and so is learning. This book
aims at sparking inquisitive minds on fire, setting off a series of positive
chain reactions which beautify everyday and future combustion.

“At times our own light goes out and is rekindled by a spark from another
person. Each of us has cause to think with deep gratitude of those who
have lighted the flame within us.”
—Albert Schweitzer
 CONTENTS

Preface ....................................................................................................... xii

Acknowledgements .................................................................................. xiii

Chapter One ................................................................................................. 1

Introduction
1.1 What is Combustion? ....................................................................... 2
1.2 Combustion in Applications............................................................. 4
1.3 A Highlight of Combustion Science Development .......................... 6
1.3.1 The Phlogiston Theory ............................................................ 7
1.3.2 Antoine Lavoisier .................................................................... 8
1.3.3 Other Combustion Milestones ................................................. 9
1.4 Historical Perspective of Combustion Technology ........................ 10
1.4.1 Lighting ................................................................................. 10
1.4.2 Steam Boilers ........................................................................ 12
1.4.3 Internal Combustion Engines ................................................ 14
1.4.4 Gas Turbines ......................................................................... 16
1.5 Book Layout .................................................................................. 18

Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 21

Thermochemistry
2.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 23
2.2 Fuels ............................................................................................... 27
2.3 Stoichiometry ................................................................................. 27
2.3.1 Air/Fuel Ratios ...................................................................... 28
2.3.2 Equivalence Ratios ................................................................ 30
2.3.3 Reactive Additives ................................................................ 31
2.4 Thermodynamic Property Relations .............................................. 32
2.4.1 Equation of State ................................................................... 32
2.4.2 Calorific Equations of State .................................................. 32
2.4.3 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures ......................................... 34
2.4.4 Amagat’s Law of Additive Volumes ..................................... 35
2.4.5 Ideal Gas Mixtures ................................................................ 36
viii Contents

2.5 Thermodynamic Laws and Functions ............................................ 37

2.5.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Fixed Mass
(Closed System) ........................................................................ 39
2.5.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Volume .... 44
2.6 Enthalpy: Vaporization, Formation, Combustion .......................... 45
2.6.1 Latent Heat of Vaporization .................................................. 45
2.6.2 Heat of Formation ................................................................. 45
2.6.3 Heat of Combustion .............................................................. 46
2.6.4 Heating Value........................................................................ 48
2.7 Adiabatic Flame Temperature ........................................................ 49

Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 55

Chemical Equilibrium and Dissociation
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 56
3.2 The Second Law of Thermodynamics ........................................... 57
3.2.1 Thermodynamic Functions .................................................... 58
3.3 Equilibrium of Thermodynamic Systems ...................................... 59
3.3.1 Constant-Volume Process ..................................................... 61
3.3.2 Constant-Temperature Process .............................................. 63
3.3.3 Constant-Pressure-and-Temperature Process ........................ 64
3.3.4 Chemical Potential Minimization .......................................... 65
3.3.5 Equilibrium Constants ........................................................... 66
3.4 Dissociation ................................................................................... 68

Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 81

Chemical Kinetics
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 82
4.2 Global versus Elementary Reactions ............................................. 83
4.2.1 Global Reactions ................................................................... 83
4.2.2 Order of Reaction .................................................................. 86
4.3 Elementary Reactions .................................................................... 86
4.3.1 Molecularity of a Reaction .................................................... 87
4.3.2 The Law of Mass Action ....................................................... 87
4.4 Types of Chemical Reactions ........................................................ 88
4.4.1 First-Order Reactions ............................................................ 90
4.4.2 Second-Order Reactions ........................................................ 91
4.4.3 Consecutive Reactions .......................................................... 94
4.4.4 Opposing or Reversible Reactions ........................................ 95
4.4.5 Chain Reactions..................................................................... 99
4.5 The Arrhenius Law and the Collision Theory.............................. 102
 Engineering Combustion Essentials ix

4.6 Pressure and Temperature Effects on Reaction Rate ................... 108

4.6.1 Pressure Effect..................................................................... 108
4.6.2 Temperature Effect .............................................................. 109
4.7 Net Production Rates ................................................................... 109
4.8 Chemical Time Scales.................................................................. 110

Chapter Five ............................................................................................ 113

Laminar Premixed Flames
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 115
5.2 Laminar Flame Speed, Flame Propagation Speed, and Mass
Burning Rate ................................................................................ 116
5.2.1 The Freely Propagating Planar Flame ................................. 119
5.2.2 The Freely Propagating Spherical Flame ............................ 120
5.2.3 The Confined Spherical Flame ............................................ 122
5.3 The Structure of Combustion Wave............................................. 125
5.4 Laminar Flame Speed Measurements .......................................... 128
5.4.1 The Non-Existing Ideal Planar Combustion Wave ............. 128
5.4.2 A Stationary Spherical Flame .............................................. 129
5.4.3 Common Flame Observation Methods ................................ 131
5.4.4 Bunsen Burner ..................................................................... 133
5.4.5 Soap Bubble ........................................................................ 136
5.4.6 Constant Volume Chamber ................................................. 136
5.4.7 Flat Flame Burner................................................................ 138
5.4.8 Stagnation and Opposed Flame Burners ............................. 139
5.5 Premixed Laminar Flame Theories .............................................. 139
5.5.1 Thermal Theory ................................................................... 140
5.5.2 Thermal Species - Thermal Theory with Species
Diffusion ................................................................................. 141
5.5.3 Modern Comprehensive Theories or Models ...................... 144

Chapter Six .............................................................................................. 148

Turbulence
6.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 149
6.2 Fundamental Characteristics of Turbulence................................. 150
6.3 Characterization of Turbulence .................................................... 154
6.4 Scales of the Swirls ...................................................................... 155

Chapter Seven.......................................................................................... 166

Premixed Turbulent Flames
7.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 167
7.1.1 Premixed Laminar Flame .................................................... 168
x Contents

7.1.2 Premixed Turbulent Flame .................................................. 169

7.2 A Quick Recap of Flow Turbulence ............................................ 173
7.3 Premixed Turbulent Burner Flames ............................................. 174
7.4 Relative Scales of Flow and Combustion .................................... 175
7.5 Categorization of Premixed Turbulent Flame Regimes ............... 179
7.5.1 τflow >> τchem or λ/u’ >> δl/Sl .............................................. 181
7.5.2 τflow < τchem or λ/u’ < δl/Sl ................................................... 182
7.5.3 Further Remarks on Premixed Turbulent Flame Regimes .. 183
7.6 Turbulent Length Scale and the Flame Surface Area................... 184
7.6.1 A Saturated, Wrinkled Flame Front .................................... 185
7.6.2 An Unsaturated, Wrinkled Flame Front .............................. 186
7.6.3 Comments on the Turbulent Length Scale in Premixed
Combustion............................................................................. 187

Chapter Eight ........................................................................................... 191

Spark-ignited Premixed Turbulent Flame Propagation
8.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 193
8.2 Turbulent Flame Acceleration and the Driving Mechanisms....... 194
8.2.1 Progressive Flame-Turbulence Interaction (The Evolution
Mechanism) ............................................................................ 195
8.2.2 Relative Flame / Eddy Size ................................................. 198
8.2.3 Volume Expansion Effects (Expanding-Pushing
Mechanism) ............................................................................ 200
8.2.4 Darrieus-Landau Instability ................................................. 201
8.2.5 Attenuation of Flame Front Wrinkling ................................ 203
8.2.6 Further Progressive Turbulent Flame Growth Evidence ..... 203
8.2.7 Additional Remarks on Turbulent Flame Acceleration ....... 205
8.3 Other Parameters for Characterizing Turbulent Flames............... 206
8.3.1 Correlating Turbulent Flame Speed with Strain Rate.......... 206
8.3.2 Correlating Turbulent Flame Speed with Fractal Lengths... 208
8.4 Lewis Number and Markstein Number ........................................ 211
8.4.1 Lewis Number ..................................................................... 211
8.4.2 Markstein Number............................................................... 213
8.5 Rapid Distortion Theory .............................................................. 214
8.6 In-Cylinder Flows ........................................................................ 219
8.7 Ultra-Lean, Premixed Methane-Air Flame Growth ..................... 220
8.8 A Fast-Burn, Low-Emission, Spark-Ignition Engine ................... 225
8.8.1 Background ......................................................................... 225
8.8.2 A Fast-Burn, Low-Emission Engine Cylinder..................... 227
 Engineering Combustion Essentials xi

Chapter Nine............................................................................................ 238

Non-premixed Flame
9.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 239
9.2 One-Dimensional Diffusion Flame .............................................. 241
9.3 Two-Dimensional Diffusion Jet Flame ........................................ 242
9.3.1 Elementary Laminar Jet....................................................... 242
9.3.2 Rudimentary Laminar Jet Flame ......................................... 247
9.3.3 The Burke and Schumann Flame ........................................ 248
9.4 Laminar to Turbulent Diffusion Jet Flame................................... 249
9.5 Turbulent Non-Premixed Flame .................................................. 252
9.6 Some Remarks on Turbulent Non-Premixed Flame .................... 253

Chapter Ten ............................................................................................. 256

Spray and Droplet
10.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 257
10.2 Droplet Combustion ................................................................... 258
10.2.1 The d2-Law of Droplet Vaporization ................................. 259
10.2.2 The d2-Law of Droplet Combustion .................................. 260
10.3 Spray Formation......................................................................... 263
10.4 Comments on Spray-Turbulence-Combustion Interactions ....... 266

Chapter Eleven ........................................................................................ 268

Combustion in Nature
11.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 269
11.2 Fire ............................................................................................. 269
11.3 Natural Fire Survivors and Retardants ....................................... 271
11.4 The Amazing Bombardier Beetle............................................... 273

Appendix ................................................................................................. 277

Enthalpy and Entropy Tables
By J. Aman and D.S-K. Ting
 PREFACE

This book is primarily intended for introducing combustion to senior

undergraduate and junior graduate students in mechanical and chemical
engineering. Some undergraduate knowledge of thermodynamics and fluid
mechanics is required to comprehensively appreciate the material.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This book could not be realized without grace from above, and the able
hands of many gracious individuals. The author is particularly indebted to
the following instrumental individuals for going way out of their way in
helping him realizing this dream of his.

Prof. Dr. M. David Checkel, who gave the author the only combustion
course, as a reading course. In the absence of formal lectures and lecture
notes, the independent lifelong learning has been exceedingly painful and
yet rewarding.

The Combustion Engineering classes from 2011 onward at the University

of Windsor, for pointing out many obvious and not so obvious errors in
the original manuscript, An Introduction to Combustion Engineering,
2011, Naomi Ting’s Books, and also the revised version, Some Basics of
Combustion Engineering, 2012, Naomi Ting’s Books. Even after these
two versions, Jamie Smith threw in his towel after proofreading the first
couple of chapters. Lucas Semple made it much farther, ultimately more
painfully to this author, Lucas gave many invaluable general comments
which caused some serious sweating from the author. It took a proven
marathon runner, Dr. Jacqueline Stagner, to endure the pain and correct all
the bad jokes/English along with many subtle omissions such as commas
and hyphens, from the beginning until the end. The leftovers, very tedious
checking of symbols and nomenclature were effected by Junguo Wang and
Yang Yang. They also straightened the references. When the manuscript
failed to completely clear the 3 spot checks, Dr. Mehdi Ebrahimi and Yang
Yang combed through the final version with different powerful software.
Furthermore, Navjut Sandhu and Junguo Wang also double-checked some
chapters. Even then, some errors escaped, but only to be caught by the
powerful eyes of the marathon runner!

The author would still be drawing figures, if not for the following skillful
and helping hands: Ashhar Ahmed, Saarah Akhand, Ning Cao, Fawas
Hameed, Frank Iakovidis, Kristie Pearce, Navjot Sandhu, Naomi Ting,
Tachelle Ting, Yoniana Ting, Zarek Ting, Junguo Wang, Hao Wu, Yang
Yang, and Zhenyi Yang. Their names are ascribed underneath their
xiv Acknowledgements

artworks. Dr. Julia Aman produced the thermodynamic tables in the

Appendix.

Mom, dad, sisters and brother; making fire and cooking aromatic wild
plants still mesmerizes the author. There is no better place to experientially
savor combustion other than the lush rainforest of Borneo island.

Naomi, Yoniana, Tachelle, and Zarek Ting, whose many sarcasms and
love fueled the striving of this book over the years.
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

“Success isn't a result of spontaneous combustion. You must set yourself

on fire.”
—Arnold H. Glasow.

Chapter Objectives
∘ Define combustion.
∘ Classify combustion into appropriate categories.
∘ Provide examples of combustion in engineering applications.
∘ Appreciate the general history of combustion science.
∘ Highlight Phlogiston Theory and Antoine Lavoisier.
∘ Convey the history of some combustion technologies.
∘ Present book outline.

Nomenclature
CI compression ignition
HCCI homogeneous charge compression ignition
SI spark ignition
2 Chapter One

1.1 What is Combustion?

“Combustion is without exaggeration the most important reaction to the
human race. All human and animal existence depends upon combustion as
its course of energy.” – G.G. Brown [1928]. In this book, the term
‘combustion’ refers to a rapid chemical reaction between a fuel and an
oxidizer which produces heat and light. A fuel is a combustible material
which releases energy in terms of heat and light when it is combusted.
Wood is possibly the most classical and best known fuel. Within context,
an oxidizer is a (chemical) substance which is required for the fuel to burn.
As the word implies, the most common oxidizer is oxygen. In other words,
combustion is a rapid exothermic chemical reaction which transforms
chemical energy (energy stored in chemical bonds) to heat. An everyday
example is a birthday candle, Fig. 1.1, where chemical energy stored in the
wax is converted into both heat and light. Another example is a natural gas
fire (place) as depicted in Fig. 1.2, which is used for keeping the indoor
environment warm in the winter time.

Fig. 1.1. A birthday candle (photo taken by Y. Ting).

 Introduction 3

Fig. 1.2. A natural gas fire place (photo taken by Y. Ting).

Combustion can be divided into two main categories, flame versus non-
flame (Table 1.1). Homogenous charge compression ignition (HCCI) is a
well-known example of a flame-less (non-flame) combustion. HCCI is
flame-less as the relatively slow (compared to typical combustion)
reaction takes place throughout the entire volume of the charge, that is, the
reaction is not limited to a well-defined reacting region called flame. Both
flame and flame-less combustion can be further categorized into premixed
and non-premixed types. When the fuel and the oxidant are well mixed
(premixed) prior to reaching the reacting flame front, the flame is said to
be premixed. The rate of combustion is not dependent on the fuel-oxidant
mixing process for premixed flames. A Bunsen burner flame is a premixed
flame that is stationary, whereas the premixed flame in a spark ignition
(SI) engine is propagating.

A non-premixed flame occurs when the fuel and oxidizer are not premixed
prior to combustion. The term ‘diffusion’ is also used interchangeably
with ‘non-premixed,’ even though strictly it applies to the molecular
diffusion of chemical species. The birthday candle in Fig. 1.1 is a diffusion
flame. With heating, the wax melts, moves up along the wick and
evaporates. The evaporated ‘wax’ diffuses from the wick outward while
the oxidant diffuses inward. Combustion takes place in the region where
the fuel-oxidant mixture composition is near stoichiometric. The energy
conversion process in the prevailing compression ignition (CI) diesel
engines is another applied example of non-premixed flame. It is worth
4 Chapter One

mentioning that part of the combustion event in CI engines is premixed

combustion. Nevertheless, the entire combustion process is governed by
diffusion of the injected fuel and the compressed air in the engine cylinder.

Table 1.1. Classification of Combustion

Combustion
Flame Non-flame
(Flame-less)
Premixed Non-premixed HCCI
Bunsen burner (stationary) Torch (gas)
SI engine (propagating) Lamp (liquid to gas)
Candle (solid, liquid, gas)
Match (solid)

1.2 Combustion in Applications

Combustion is not only involved in, but is the essence of, many
engineering applications. There are many everyday examples in power
generation, built environment heating, cooking, and industrial processes.

In power generation, coal, oil, and natural gases are burned in furnaces to
generate power and steam. More recently, biofuels such as wood chips and
other biomass are also gaining acceptance. Even more common are the
reciprocating engines, especially the aforementioned SI and CI engines,
which combust liquid and gaseous fuels when converting chemical energy
to useful work.

A natural gas furnace is still the dominant heating system for providing
human thermal comfort in North American winters. Efficiencies in excess
of 90% are quite typical for today’s high-efficiency (two-stage) furnaces.

Figure 1.3 is a photo of a portable butane stove which is frequently used

for making a ‘steamboat’ (Chinese fondue or hot pot). We note that
commercial cooking, in particular, is dominated by the natural gas stove,
such as that portrayed in Fig. 1.4. On the other hand, outdoor barbequing
in North American summers is predominately done via propane barbeques.
There is definitely a lot of room for improving these basic living
necessities for better performance, saving both fuels and the environment.
Thermodynamically speaking, converting electricity, presumably the
highest quality energy, into heat, the lowest form (dustbin) of energy, for
 Introduction 5

cooking purposes is a bad practice. Electric cooking is perhaps a lot more

harmful to the environment than well-engineered combustion cooking.

Fig. 1.3. A portable butane stove (photo taken by Z. Ting).

Fig. 1.4. A natural gas stove top (created by N. Cao).

Combustion is also at the core of many industrial processes such as metal

processing, glass melting, and cement manufacturing, among many others.
This class of combustion engineering applications is possibly least likely
to be replaced by more renewable alternatives. Thus, efforts to ensure
continuously cleaner and more efficient combustion in these areas are
critical.
6 Chapter One

1.3 A Highlight of Combustion Science Development

In ancient Greek science, water, earth, air, and fire are the four
fundamental elements of the world. Later, in part due to Plato and
Aristotle, a fifth element aether (ether or quintessence) was added to the
list. Eastern traditions, including Chinese and Indian, also have similar
five basic elements. In context with combustion, fire crossed all these
different cultures as one of the fundamental elements. Concerning fire,
Greek mythology renders Prometheus in resolving the heat-deprived,
shivering mankind with fire stolen from Mount Olympus. Factually, the
following subsections give a brief walkthrough of historical combustion
science development. The readers are forewarned that, while some first-
discovery credits are sure, others are not so certain. In fact, there are
records recognizing different persons as the first inventors. To some
extent, this is expected, especially when they are contemporaries who have
written about the ideas via less-than-formal vehicles, in different
languages. In engineering, the further complication concerns granting
more credit to the one who had the idea first, or the one who actually made
the first working device or hardware, not to mention the exclusion of some
lost history, especially those cultures where knowledge was primarily
passed down through the generations orally. As more lost history is being
uncovered, further clarification will emerge with time.

According to the Smithsonian [Smithsonian-Fireworks, 2017], somewhere

between 600 and 900 AD, Chinese alchemists accidentally discovered the
first version of gunpowder when mixing potassium nitrate with sulfur and
charcoal. This eventually led to the use of gunpowder, black powder, or
“fire drug” in weaponry. The earliest recording of gunpowder weaponry,
including references to a gunpowder catapult, took place in 1046. On the
celebration side, fireworks (Fig. 1.5) are an essential ingredient for
occasions such as national days and new years. In these days, with
abounding fingers pointing at combustion as a root cause behind many
problems, it is next-to-impossible to make the public realize the utter
dullness that would ensue if there were no fireworks.
 Introduction 7

Fig. 1.5. A cheerful combustion phenomenon – fireworks in display

(photo taken by K. Pearce).

1.3.1 The Phlogiston Theory

The German alchemist and physician Johann Joachim Becher [1635-1682]
replaced two of the four ancient Greek fundamental elements, fire and air,
with three forms of earth, terra lapidea, terra fluida, and terra pinguis
[Conant, 1950]. According to Becher’s Physical Education published in
1667, he believed that terra pinguis was released when combustible
substances were burned. Later, Georg Ernst Stahl, professor of medicine
and chemistry, renamed terra pinguis as phlogiston. The phlogiston theory
states that a substance loses its phlogiston into the air via burning; see Fig.
1.6. In other words, part of the substance before burning is phlogiston, and
thus, the substance weighs less after losing its phlogiston to air. A down-
to-earth example is cremation, where a typical adult will be left with
approximately 3% of the original body weight in terms of ashes. Thus, our
bodies are highly phlogisticated. As phlogiston is “essence” or “soul,” we
may say that human beings are largely ‘spiritual beings.’
8 Chapter One

Fig. 1.6. Phlogiston is lost into the air when a substance burns (created by
S. Akhand).

1.3.2 Antoine Lavoisier

Antoine Lavoisier [1743-1794] was a French Chemist who is regarded as
“the Father of Modern Chemistry” or “the Father of Combustion” [ACS,
1999, Lavoisier, 1967]. He came from a rich family whose father wanted
him to be a lawyer, while his own passion was for science. As a good son,
Lavoisier obtained a degree in law, but he never practised it. Instead, he
spent literally all his time and energy on science. His passion and extreme-
hard-work led him to be elected to the prestigious Academy of Science at
the very young age of twenty-five. To facilitate his experimental research,
he needed money and this presumably was the reason he became a tax
collector.

Who could be a better assistant that one’s better half? A notable

contribution of Mrs. Lavoisier was the translation of many technical
reports into English and Latin.

Employing careful measurements, Lavoisier found that something

weighed more after burning, and this did not make sense at that time as
this disagreed with the prevailing Phlogiston Theory. He thought that
something in the air had caused the weight increase. Lavoisier used a glass
 Introduction 9

enclosure to cover phosphorus over a pool of mercury. When focussing

sun rays through a lens onto phosphorus enclosed in a glass jar over a pool
of mercury, Lavoisier found that the formation of phosphorus calx was
associated with a corresponding rise in the mercury level. Additional
experiments along this line (phosphorus, sulphur, tin) consistently led to a
decrease of about one fifth of the air, thus Lavoisier realized that there was
something in the air that played a vital role in the burning. It was his
encounter with Clergyman Joseph Priestley that confirmed the discovery
of oxygen. Lavoisier’s extended series of rigorous efforts, particularly via
careful measurements, eventually solidified in his Réflexions sur le
Phlogistique, putting the false phlogiston belief to rest.

Lavoisier’s involvement with politics, as a tax collector for the king to

fund his lab, ended up causing him his life. He was sentenced to die on a
guillotine at the age of 51, after the French Revolution.

1.3.3 Other Combustion Milestones

Other notable combustion milestones include that made by Robert Bunsen
[1811-1899], who extensively studied a wide range of gaseous premixed
flames. Specifically, Bunsen measured flame temperature and flame speed
using a Bunsen burner (Fig. 1.7) starting in 1855 [Jensen, 2005]. He also
collected flame enthalpy data with the help of a calorimeter.

Fig. 1.7. A Bunsen burner (created by N. Cao).

10 Chapter One

Mallard and Le Châtelier [1883] were probably the first to propose a

theory on flame propagation, and also the first researchers who documented
the effects of turbulence on flame propagation. According to Mallard and
Le Châtelier, Schloesing and de Mondesir were the first to note turbulence
enhancement in combustion in 1864 [Woodbury et al., 1921].

Research on detonation was initiated by Chapman and Jouguet around

1900 [Chapman, 1899, Jouguet, 1905]. They differentiated the supersonic
combustion phenomenon from the then somewhat better known subsonic
deflagration.

The first combustion text was written in German by W. Jost [1903-1988]

in 1938, which was later translated into English by H.O. Croft in 1946
[Jost, 1946]. World War II led to the momentous development of gas
turbines and rockets. Subsequently, Lewis and von Elbe wrote the second
combustion text (the first combustion text in English), in 1951 [Lewis &
von Elbe, 1951]. It is worth mentioning that there were precursors, that is,
earlier published documents which contained partial contents of the final
monographs. For example, Lewis and von Elbe used the same title in their
earlier ‘book’ published in 1938 by Cambridge University Press. As such,
which book or author should be credited with the inauguration of the first
combustion book is somewhat arguable.

1.4 Historical Perspective of Combustion Technology

Here is a brief and incomplete overview concerning the early engineering
applications of combustion. Only four areas of combustion technologies
are succinctly presented to illustrate their historical progression and
significance.

1.4.1 Lighting
Before the discovery of electricity, flames from wood, oil lamps, gas
lamps, and candles were used to provide lighting. Some of the earliest
lamps utilized a wick to draw oil from a reservoir to sustain a flame.

It is generally recognized that it was in 1780 that the Swiss physicist and
chemist François Pierre Ami Argand [1750-1803] invented the tubular
wick which significantly improved the brightness of the lamp [Saltzman,
1999]; see Fig. 1.8. The basic idea was to have a cylindrical wick to allow
air to flow through and around it, significantly increasing the light
 Introduction 11

intensity (five to ten times brighter than a candle). A cylindrical chimney

stabilized the flame, and along with a mechanism for adjusting the height
of the wick, the resulting Argand flame burned efficiently, brightly, and
also cleanly.

In 1784, Jean-Pierre Minckelers [1748-1824] used pyrolyzed coal for gas

flames [Cleveland & Morris, 2014]. He enclosed oil in the barrel of a gun
and heated it in a forge to produce the much lighter gaseous fuel.

According to Borman and Ragland [1998], it was Benjamin Thompson

who improved Argand’s concept into astral lamp design in 1810.
Thompson’s improvements include the introduction of a barometric fuel
level supply and a rack-and-pinion wick adjustment. Thompson possibly
also contributed by allowing air to flow through the centre of the wick and
around the wick exterior to increase the flame volume and brightness. He
also added a glass chimney to help control the airflow around the flame.

Fig. 1.8. A modern day Argand Lamp (photo taken by T. Ting, drawing
created by N. Cao).

In 1890, Austrian scientist and inventor, Carl Auer Freiherr von Welsbach
[1858-1929], invented the first modern gas mantle [Welsbach, 2018]; see
12 Chapter One

Fig. 1.9. Von Welsbach’s invention was considered ‘modern’ because it

was not the first or original invention. In other words, there were some
previous designs including the Clamond basket invented in the 1880s by
the Parisian, Charles Clamond [Clamond, 2018]. In 1885, Welsbach
received a patent for his gas mantle design, consisting of 60% magnesium
oxide, 20% lanthanum oxide, and 20% yttrium oxide. These original
mantles gave off a green-tinted light. It was not until 1890 that Welsbach
used cotton fabric soaked with a salt solution containing thoria and ceria,
i.e., 99% thorium dioxide and 1% cerium (IV) oxide, to produce the first
working mantles. The idea was to stabilize the flame on the mantle. It is
worth noting that Welsbach is also known for his work on rare earth
elements, which led to the development of the flint.

Fig. 1.9. A 21st century gas mantle (photo taken by T. Ting).

1.4.2 Steam Boilers

The earliest boilers operated by heating a kettle of water from the bottom
and directing the steam through a narrow opening. By the 1700s, enclosed
 Introduction 13

furnaces were used to direct more heat to the boiler kettle. Not until the
1750s were fire-tube boilers, where flue gas flowed inside tubes wound
through the water vessel, invented. These boilers were not safe to operate,
however.

In 1788, James Rumsey [1743-1792] patented the first water-tube boiler

[Borman & Ragland, 1998]. Instead of flue gas, water flowed inside the
tubes while the heat was supplied on the outside; see Fig. 1.10. This boiler
boosted capacity and was safer to operate. Nonetheless, these boilers were
not very successful, due to construction problems including steam leaking
and deposits building up in the tubes.

It was not until 1856 that a truly successful water-tube boiler was designed
by Stephen Wilcox [1830-1893]. Within a few years, he and his life-long
friend, George Babcock, founded Babcock and Wilcox Company in 1867
[ASME-Wilcox, 2017].

Fig. 1.10. A steam boiler (created by A. Ahmed).

14 Chapter One

1.4.3 Internal Combustion Engines

In 1673, Dutch mathematician, astronomer, physicist, horologist (one who
possesses the art and science of measuring time), and author of early
science fiction, Christiaan Huygens [1629-1695] (in a letter to his brother)
gave the first indications that anyone had approached a working engine. In
1678, he designed a basic form of internal combustion engine fuelled by
gunpowder [Huygens, 1680]. While there are those who said that he never
successfully built one, other records state that he not only built it, but also
demonstrated its power by lifting seven to eight boys into the air using a
large demonstration unit [EOHT, 2017].

The aforesaid history is described somewhat different in Hautefeuille

[2018]. In 1676, French clergyman, physicist, and inventor, Jean de
Hautefeuille [1647-1724] produced a concept of the internal combustion
engine with gunpowder as the fuel. He was the first person to propose the
use of a piston in a heat engine. It is said that Huygens proposed a similar
device two years later, in 1680, based on de Hautefeuille's suggestion, and
it is possible that Huygens constructed some form of prototype; see Fig.
1.11. It is noted that de Hautefeuille tended to prematurely publish his
ideas and rarely perfected his inventions, before abandoning them in
favour of new pursuits. The Paris Academy of Sciences attested to the
value and usefulness of many of his discoveries, but it never conferred on
him the honour of electing him as a member.

In 1861, Belgian engineer Jean Joseph Étienne Lenoir [1822-1900]

constructed the first production engine. On ignition, the piston flew to the
top of the cylinder, uncovering exhaust ports which allowed the heated
gases to escape. The piston then fell back due to gravity and cooling, and
thus, did work (power stroke). In the Lenoir cycle, an ideal gas undergoes
a constant volume (isochoric) heat addition, an isentropic expansion, and a
constant pressure (isobaric) heat rejection. Today’s reader may be
surprised to learn that the first Lenoir engines operated only at
approximately 3% efficiency. One must, however, keep in mind that these
were the very first inventions; it took years of undue striving to raise
efficiencies to 30%.
 Introduction 15

Fig. 1.11. Huygens’ internal combustion engine (created by A. Ahmed).

In 1867, German engineer Nikolaus August Otto [1832-1891] built the

first spark ignition engine with compression [McNeil, 1982]. Otto was
originally inspired by Lenoir, and his first attempts in inventing a newer
engine were with his brother. It is not clear, to be politically neutral, if
Otto knew of French engineer de Rochas’ 1862 patent on the four-stroke
concept. While not everyone agrees, Alphonse Eugène Beau de Rochas
[1815-1893] is credited as the one who originated the principle of the four-
stroke internal-combustion engine, and Nikolaus Otto is recognized as the
inventor of the four-stroke internal-combustion engine.

In the 1880s, two-stroke engines were developed. Dugald Clerk [1854-1931]

introduced the two-stroke engine concept in 1880 [Clerk, 2018]. One major
advantage of a two-stroke engine over its four-stroke counterpart is the
16 Chapter One

much larger power-per-size (weight) of the engine. As such, two-stroke

engines dominate in agile applications such as chainsaws and lawn
mowers.

In 1892, German inventor and mechanical engineer Rudolf Christian Karl

Diesel [1858-1913] invented compression-ignition engines, doubling the
efficiency by permitting much greater compression ratios without the
engine knocking (uncontrolled ignition and damaging combustion before
desirable combustion occurs).

1.4.4 Gas Turbines

As early as AD 62, Hero of Alexandria [10-70 AD], a Greek mathematician
and engineer, described and invented an aeolipile, a steam-powered device
[Hero, 2018]. The aeolipile consisted of a spherical drum containing water
along with two stream outlets pointing in the same circular direction. A
fire was used to boil the steam, and the hot steam ejecting out through the
two outlets caused the aeolipile to spin; see Fig.1.12. Apparently, this was
undertaken and realized completely out of curiosity and fun. On the more
practical side, it is interesting to note that among Hero’s most well-known
inventions was a wind wheel for harnessing wind on land.

In 1791, English coal master and inventor John Barber [1734-1801]

patented a gas turbine which utilized a compressor, a combustor, and an
impulse turbine [Barber, 2018]. Like most patents, it was not practically
realized, but first inventions such as this had a profound influence on
subsequent development. In this case, it took a few years before the first
working gas turbine emerged.

In the 1880s, Norwegian inventor Jens William Aegidius Elling [1861-

1949] invented the first working gas turbine with a constant-pressure
combustor [Elling, 2018]. Elling is considered to be the father of the gas
turbine. His first gas turbine patent was granted in 1884. Elling made the
first turbine a reality in 1903. His original machine used both rotary
compressors and turbines to produce 11 bhp (8 kW) net.