Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Facilities and Workplace Design PDF
Facilities and Workplace Design PDF
I have been writing a second edition with more Lean Manufacturing examples and
terminology. However, progress has been painfully slow. Many people have requested
either edition. Accordingly, I am making this special version of the First Edition
available on a complimentary basis.
This special edition is a scanned copy of the original in PDF format. Some figures did not
scan well. In addition, there are original typesetting errors, particularly in the later
chapters. If you find yourself confused, it may be due to a mislabeled or misplaced figure.
I apologize for these lapses in quality. They are one reason why the book is free.
However, the principles remain sound; examples are realistic; the approach is
universal. It applies to Lean Manufacturing and, indeed, any Manufacturing Strategy.
Sincerely,
Quarterman Lee
President
Strategos, Inc.
Kansas City, Missouri, USA
www.strategosinc.com
Facilitiesand Workplace
Design
An lllustratedGuide
by
QuartermanLee
with
Arild EngAmundsen
WilliamNelson
HerbertTuttle
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission
from the Publisher. The views and concepts presented are those of the
contributors. Publication by the Institute of Industrial Engineers does not in any
way constitute endorsementor approvalof the book s contents.
No responsibility is assumedby the Publisher for any injury andlor
damage to persons or ProPerry as a matter of product's liability' due to negligence
or otherwise,or from any use or operation of any methods,Products,instructions,
or ideascontainedin the material herein.
02 01 00 99 98 97 6 5 4 3 2 r
CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
Lee, Qrarterman.
Facilities and workplace design: an illustrated guide/by Qrarterman Lee;
with Arild Eng Amundsen, William Nelson, Herbert Tuttle.
p. cm. -- (Engineersin businessseries;3)
Includes bibliographicalreferencesand index.
ISBN 0-89806-166-0
1. Plant lzyout. 2. Plant engineering. 3. Office layout. 4. Work
environment. I. Amundsen, Arild Eng. II. Nelson, William. III. Tuttle,
Herbert. IV. Title. V. Series.
TSI78.L44 1996
658.2'3--dc20 96-22972
CIP
ISBN 0-89806-166-0
Chapter 4 - Macro-Space-Planning
and WorkCellDesi9n................ ... 109
Workcells........... ... 111
Interpretingterminologyand conventions............
..........772
The micro-leveltasks ................
114
Selectingthe products.................
The DiamondEquipmentCompany..............................119
Gator SteelFoundry.............. ....725
Designingthe process ................128
Planningcellinfrastructure .......... .................136
Externalproductioncontrol .......138
Designinga spaceplan........... ....I49
Selectingthe bestplan ........... ....157
Chapter5 - WorkstationDesign:
the Sub-Micro-Space-Plan t67
Allocationof functions ...............162
Motion economy .... 165
Ergonomics ............L66
The workstationspacepIan............ ..............
774
Gfossary ...........277
Bibliography
.................. ........227
fn d e x ...............225
Aboutthe authors .......,.,.,.,.,.231
..232
Preface
Facilitiesin a
ChangingEnvironment
"The
dogmasof our quiet past are inadequateto the
stormypresent.As our situationis new,we must think
anew.tt
- Abraham Lincoln
Working facilities are the land, buildings, and equipment that provide
the physical capability to add value. This book is about operational
facilities used for a wide range of business,government, institutional,
and charitable activities. It applies to offices, factories, and fast-food
restaurants.It appliesto anyfacilitythat housesvalue-addingoperations.
For convenience,terms such as"businessfacility" or"factory" are used,
although the changing nature of work has blured many of these
distinctions. The principles herein apply to a wide range of situations
the industrial engineercommonly encounters.
Facilities areboth durable and expensive,lasting for decadesand
sometimes even spanning centuries.A firm's facilities are among the
most expensiveof its possessions. They representthe largestassetitem
on most balancesheets.
The durability of facilities, their cost, and their primary role in
adding value make them an important strategic element. Just as
gunpowder made the fortresses of medieval Europe indefensible,
changesin technology, culture, and politics can quickly render today's
industrial facilities obsolete. Conversely, facilities that adapt to the
nature of their competitive environment can be a continuing sourceof
advantagefor their owners.
FacilitiesPlanning
o)
t
o
g
+a)
U,
o
F
C)
U)
EE^
o._E@
s
r\
\ l-
y
o
o TE
S
+f
=
II
o o
(E
e5 E
s
G
=
Figurel.l - StrotegicRelotionships
FacilitiesIn A ChangingEnvironment
Figure 1.2 - The Pickering Piono Factory, Boston, Moss, Circo | 870
FacilitiesPlanning
Government facilities
In the Middle Ages, the most important governmentfacilitieswere
town fortresses.Their primary mission was defenseagainst roving
bandsand neighboringciry-states.The fortified town of Rocroi,on the
northernplain of France,is an example.Still largelyintact,it is a lasting
testimonyto the durability, cost,and obsolescence of thesefortresses.
With the adventofgunpowder,battletechnolory advanced.New
tactics evolvedand armiesbecamemore disciplined.These massive
works drained the treasuriesof many dukes and kings and became
indefensibleand obsolete.By the time of the Renaissance, fortresses
had evolvedinto palaces.Their primary missionwas comfort for the
inhabitants, as well as the projection of power and prestige. The
buildersofmany governmentalbuildings wanted to intimidate potential
enemies,both foreign and domestic.
Governments no longer can surviveonly through warfare or the
threat of warfare.Their constituentsdemand addedvalue in a wide
range of human activity. Accordingly, many governmental facilities
now arebeing designedfor efficient operationsrather than projection
of power.
The United StatesPostalServiceprovidesan excellentexample.
Post offices built in the early part of this century were architectural
landmarks.Their mission was to display the power, stability, and
prestigeof the federalgovernment.Postalfacilitiesbuilt todayarenear
transportationcentersand optimize mail flow. Their primary mission
is the efficient distribution of mail.
Facilitiesin a changingenvironment
Facilitydesignershavealwaysworkedwith materials,products,processes,
information, andpeople.Theirtaskis to arrangeworkprocesses on land
and in buildingsfor optimum performance.This hasnot changedand
will not change,but rapid shifts in technology, politics, and culture
require a more fundamental understandingand analysisfrom the
facility designer.It no longer is sufficient (if it everwas) to copy an
assemblyline just becauseit was successfulsomewhereelse.
In addition to the long-term trend toward increasedknowledge-
basedwork, other trendsofa stretigicnatureareaffectingbusiness. The
facility planner should catalyzeor lead an organization'sadaptation to
ever-changingsurroundings.
E
o
?t
o
a
(E
'6
o
a
E
o
+t
o
o
o o
a a
G
(E 'e
.9 d)
tr '6
-c
o a
P
or materialhandlingissues.Factorylayoutcandemonstratethe needfor
reengineeringto an organizationreluctantto tearitselfapart and rebuild.
Experiential
In this approach,peopleplan their facilitiesbasedon past experience,
common sense,and instinct. In any organization,the experienceof
senior membersis valuablefor information on what has worked and
what has not worked in the past. Otganizations, aswell asindividuals,
need this experienceto function.
A faciliry designedfrom experiencetaps into the rich knowledge
of those who have gone beforel however,experience-based facilities
planninghaslimitations.Experience,bydefinition, is basedon the past,
and new technologyand organizationstructurescan make it obsolete.
In addition,planningby experience is usuallyunorganized.It frequently
is the resultof the memoriesofonlyone or a fewindividuals,and others
mayhavehad additionalor contradictoryexperiences. Suchhindrances,
aswell as forgotten details, haunt theseefforts.
In planning a major facility, experiencecannot be ignored but
must be gatheredfrom the widest field of experiencepossibleand
appliedwith judgment and discretion.
Master building
Master building focuseson consrruction and buildings. The final
product is often impressiveand sometimesa work of art, but it may not
fit the operationalneedsofthe enterprise.Master builderscanbe found
at many levels in both large and small organizations: a company
president building a new headquartersor a department manager
focusing on technologicalimpressiveness rather than actual needs.
Using a building to displayfinancialstrength,technologicalprowess,or
artistic accomplishmentis a legitimateform of advertising.However,
this purposeshould be balancedwith other businessneeds.
Cloning
Cloning simply duplicates an existing facllity or portion of it. This
approachis fast.Ifthe existingfaciliryisprovenandifconditions arethe
same, this type works well. McDonald's uses cloning to build its
"factories"
hamburger throughout theworld. For mostfacilities,however,
IO FacilitiesPlanning
C'
G
E
o
o
o
ct)
.E
E
I
()
.9
C')
o
(lt
o
g o
3
@
o
o
(E
=
Figure1.4- SpoceplonningApprooches
cloninghaslimited usebecausesites,processes,
andpeoplearedifferent.
Cloning should be appliedonly when appropriate.
Bottom up
The bottom-up approachstartswith the details.How many desks?
How many and which machines?How many people?From them,
FacilitiesIn A ChangingEnvironment 11
Systematic
Systematiclayout planning (SLP) usesprocedures,conventions,and
phases.It helps layout plannersknow what to do at each step of a
project. This provides layout planning with system and strucrure,
savingtime and effort. However, many layoutscreatedwith systematic
methodology are simply better versionsof what went before. The
primaryconcernis how to arrangeblocksof space.A morefundamental
issueis what blocksof spaceshould be arranged.
Strategic
The strategicapproachis top-down. It setspolicy first and arangesthe
technology, organization, and facilities to support it. Starting with
businessand corporatestrateg'ysuchasglobalsitelocation,it movesto
operationsstrategy andfinisheswith detailslike locarionsof equipment
and furniture.
A strategicapproachis direct and haspurpose.It allowseveryone
involved in the project to follow a common direction. Used alone,
however, strategic direction is insufficient. It does not tell faciliry
designersand thosewho usethe facilitieswhat to do.
FacPIan
The FacPlanmethod combinesthe best of variousapproaches.It has
systemand structureand adds strategicdimension. It taps into the
experienceand knowledgeof thosewho usethe facilities.It can work
from detail to generaland vice versawhen appropriate.
FacPlanusesa hierarchyof detail levels.It focuseson strategic
issuesat the appropriatetime and minutiae at the appropriatetime,
usinga modelprojectplanto guideandsrrucrureeachproject.Procedural
flow chartsguiderheplannerthrough eachtaskand assistwithdecision
making. Charts,forms, and designaidscontributeto the organization
of information.
12 Facilities
Planning
The Frameworkfor
FacilitiesDesign
.l
=
CL
:
o
g U' c
o g E
.9
ob o)
o9
E C o .E .nF
F G'
o = I o
o o U) f d)(E j
rr O-
=o d) o
ul o
f o
o- . t a g C al,
E€*
U' o,ql o og
o c.= L : o
(E o €g'z o =
= ,e(U
.9 a = g ( U
o o r- c)
CL d o,l rr Q,. Eo't J
o
F o =
€ c
q) O)- E o
.= c O g c f o=- (I'o)
E g E,q3
.=
C) #€E a E o'=
'i(d : v
:i: q
>
o o
i o
!a (L : U J
q ) -
o
bo
o o o
6
,;g
G r O
ll
o _ 9
(,
CL
U' =E ->=. 9
Proposed
South American Plant
Site Specification
Contents
1 .O Mission
Mission
2.0 General
Statement
Requirements Midwest Plant
3.0 Land Features & Warehouse
4.O Building
5.O Transponation Mission
6.0 l.ltilities Statement
7,0 Labor Brussels
8.O Communlty Warehouse
9.0 SupplleG
1O.O Environmental
Mission
Statement
Shenandoah
Plant
The Shenandoah
Facilitywill
manufacture the Elite
product line for high
volume customers in
the Eastern United
States. lt will strive to
O Manufacturing be the primary
supplier for our
I Distribution industry for high
-9u ! quality OEM material.
l! Proposed
W onur"III 56000sr
O z e
Project
Report
ilacro.Layout
&
Material
Handllng
Om
El e ctro nE n g i n e e ri n gC o rp.
M a cro -L a yo uOp t ti o n A
Macro-Layout
OptionB
Macro-LayoutOptionC
6
ili l .
!' ,g" i
tA
a
i uil-ir
9l i a
A d;
tfll,!
-6. "
3 9 E
gE3
I E 6 t | - |
F t k l t f si E I i
' | g ' - : /3 - - '
I o i "
, t El l L l / F 9 : l
_lI
i !
!- )
F
t . /
'. l>il:'--
,/', *aif i diE5.t
EdaLi
-i3' .,Y$-n
FL- n/ EL5'r
i uJl-P
\
\/ \
: 6 l
, its'F
! :
t
; ;
: l
5
EEE
I Pg i;i.'"*' I P?::H'
I ''.*', Eee€ | 3 r t*i#l
I Ert.rn.l cont.ln.r.
|:
| | |
TJ-.-^rryr-*B l
|vV di^ lf--Tirii-irFrtd-u i--l | ? s:T-*' .a{eL
I
li I conrol II o
y:lf.i'*
I
Lr:---------ll ? qfl$ II |
I Ert.'n.l r.t.il.l I f-6driye*.-l
I r r*rrd I
l^_r.narrns ll I
l 9 q 1 6 6 l -
lPrnP I
t-----5i;;ii6------1
Il ! !ft"r:! - - l lll l f, *:lr.:r;-"
o "d-..0'-" I
I
";..".,-GF"."'l
II t rdb.hii
t
o c{ndrcgd
I
I I
1 " " - - ' l l " ' - ' l -l
l- c'.Fd-
l._3-e%*ltT"-j_jl'-":*-l
l " ' *
I
I
t
o
,o,uq
'drtur r4fr
" - " 1
I
|
"*'/
rc
D i a p h n a g mP u m p A s s e m b l g
Wonksldlion # I
(A) (B)
I Ol..!.a I I
tl ta--l tl
ill /\ ln*--l ill lr.#:l
IV \ -
\ lctll I IV l-6--l
V snrorc rmnacf\lHiii-l
V lsfiiii,l
Time --|> Time --*
(c) (D)
I I IE.b"rI
tl tl lglt. I
Configuralion
@,'"::',1."
@$n,
@l:::ffi Pwarerrouo
SpaceplanPrimitive
FFT
space
ffi
Affinities
Affinities represent variousfactorsthat demandcloseness betweenany
two cells in a space plan. For example, communication or personal
interaction betweenworkers might give rise to an affinity. Affinities are
rated using a six-level scale,with numerical valuesranging from +4 to
-1. The scalehasfour positivelevelsthat mean sPUs shouldbe close.
Suchhigh-value affinities may resultfrom frequent material movement
betweenthe cells.Negativeratingsmeanthat the SPUsshouldbeapart.
There alsois a neutral rating, 0.
A vowel scale,A-E-I-O-U-X, may also be used for rating
"A"
affinities; this scalewasfirst popularizedby Richard Muther. Here,
"IJ"
representsthe highest affinity rating, representsa neutral affinity,
"X"
"nd i, " rregativeaffinity. This scalehasa mnemonic advantage-The
vowelshavecorrespondingword associationsasillustrated in ft gute2.9.
Chapter 3 discusses the methodsfor evaluatingaffinities.
Figure 2.9 showsthe affinity conventionsdevelopedby building
on the original SLP system.The multi-line representationworks well
The FrameworkFor FacilitiesDesign 25
Absolute A 4
2 ,
Red
Exceptional E 3 Yellov
/ /
l m p orta n t I 2 Gr een
/ /
O r d in a ry o 1 Blue
U
Unimportant 0 (None)(None)( None)
Apart x N/A f a
a
Black
Affinity diagrom
SPUs combine with affinities to form an affinity diagram-the first
of the derived elements. This diagram is an idealized spatial
arrangementthat eventuallybecomesa spaceplan. In the diagram,
symbolsrepresentSPUs and lines representaffinities betweenthem.
A single line is the lowest value affinity and a four-part line is the
highest.Squigglylinesrepresentnegativeaffinities.Theseconventions
are illustrated in figure 2.9.
Using an iterative process,the designermanipulatesthe diagram
to create an optimal or near-optimal arrangement. A near-optimal
arrangementhasvery short high value affinities at the expenseoflower
26 FacilitiesPlanning
Space
Each SPU has a unique spacerequirement.Some SPUs may require
onlv a few squarefeet, while others may require tens or hundredsof
thousandsof squarefeet.
The natureofspaceand the calculationsrequiredchangeswith each
"elastic,"and the calculations
pianning level.At the higher levels,spaceis
maynot needto be asaccurate.At the lower levels,spacecanbe morerigid
but alsolessdefinite. For example,a particular machineor deskrequires
acertainamountofspace,andthe designercannotmakeit fit in lessspace.
In other instances,a piece of equipment may require a certain type of
spacebecauseit has a peculiarshape,such as a U. But, under certain
conditions, other items may alsofit in that U shape.
50o/o
40o.h
20Yo
10o/o
0o/o
Thespaceplon primitive
When spaceis addedto the affinitydiagram,it distortsthe diagraminto
the spaceplan primitive. It is an idealizedrepresentationand doesnot
include designconstraints.
Constraints
Design constraintsarethoseconditionsthat limit an ideal spaceplan.
Such constraintsmight be building size and shape,columns, floor
loading, utility configurations,externalfeatures,and many others.
Space plan
The fusion of a spaceplan primitive and constraintsproducesa space
plan. Severalviablespaceplansshouldemerge.A setof cells,affiniiies,
and constraints may give rise to severalequally valid configuration
diagramsandprimitives.Eachoftheseprimitivesmayresultin multiple
macro-spaceplans. The nature of the design problem precludesan
optimal spaceplan, exceptin the simplestsituations.
The designer'sexperienceis a key factor, for it helps him or her
decidewhich configurationshavethe most potential.It helpsscalethe
myriad of possiblespaceplans down to a reasonablenumber.
Figure2.11illustratesthe completeprogressionfrom fundamental
TheMacro-Space-Plan
for hundreds of projects and sufficesfor almost any size and type of
macro-space-plan.From project to project, the depth of analysis
changesalong with the methodsfor eachtask, the resources)and the
time. Occasionally,a projectrequiresa few additionaltasks.However,
the basicstructureand sequenceremain the same.
Each task has a two-part identification number.The two digits
beforethe decimalshowthetasklevel.The digits followingthe decimal
identifythe specifictask,roughlyin sequence. Task03.04,for example,
is the fourth task at Level 3, the macro-space-plan.
The tasksofthe modelprojectoccurin threedistinctgroups:data
acquisition,strategydevelopment,and layout planning.Thesegroups
are nearthe top of figure 3.1. Two tasks,03.01 and 03.27,areoutside
thesegroups.Task 03.01 startsthe project,with plans for activities,
timing, andresources. Task03.21is the actualselectionofthe preferred
lavout option. It closesthe project and allowspreparationfor Level4,
the micro-space-plan.
A procedurediagram is provided for some tasks.For example,
figure 3.3 is the procedurediagram for Task 03.02. Such diagrams
illustratethe logic flow and sub-tasksrequired.These proceduresare
sometimesiterative.Most early layout models emphasizedthe third
task group, where geometricarrangementtakesplace.Of course,this
is important, but far more important is the determination of what
spacesto arrange.The definition of theselayout cells establishesthe
organizationof a faciliry'swork. Embodied in cell definition, it has far
more impact on facility performance.
Figure 3.1 alsoguidesdesignersthrough their first layoutsusing
the systemdescribedin this chapter.The designtask at hand should
always be the central focus and any temptations to jump ahead
prematurelyto other tasksshould be resisted.Completed tasftsalso
should not be revisited.Figure 3.1 helpsdesignersconcentrateon the
current task, its procedurediagram, and specificdiscussions.If each
task is done in proper sequence, the spaceplan will take shapeand the
project objectivewill be reached.
It is vital to keepmanagersthroughout the organizationinformed
during the entire planning process,a responsibilitybest suited to the
designer. Many facility projects result in fundamental changes and
restructuring.Managersandothersneedtime to learnnewinformation
and form newviews.If they arenot kept informed and involvedin the
learning and reasoningprocess,agreementand consensus will not be
achieved.This could resultin the rejectionof an excellentlayout.
There areseveralformal and informalways ofinvolving managers.
Formal methods include using a steeringcommittee to overseeand
The Macro-Space-Plan 31
=
o
(g
J
.49
vtg
tr
.9
(!
OH E L
o
tr
data acquisitiontasks.
A formal meeting is valuablefor developing operations strategy
andcanbe an important consensus builder. Agreementand commitment
to the operationsstrategyarevital for later agreementon a faciliry plan.
Task 03.21, the evaluationand selectionof spaceplan options,is also
a good consensusbuilder. Extensive interviews and informal
conversations with managersand othersthroughout the organization
are alsoimportant.
IntroducingCosmosProducts
Cosmos Productsis the companyused as a model in this chapterto
illustratethe processes offacilitiesplanningat the macro-level.Cosmos
Products convertshigh-grade vinyl film into decorativematerial. The
firm hastwo broadproductlineswith differentprocesses, markets,and
distribution channels.Roll products-pin-striping material in many
colors, patterns,widths, and combinations-sell in the automotive
aftermarket.Custom sheetproductssellto manufacturers that usethem
for labels, logos, and decoration. Manufacturers of campers' boats,
chain saws,and agriculturalequipment aretypical customers. Cosmos
often preparesthe artwork for thesecustomers.Custom productsare
flat sheetsof materialwith imprinting, adhesive , anda paperbacking.
Cosmos Products started as a small operation about twenry-five
yearsago.The firm hasgrown significantly eachyear at ^n averagerate
of 22percent.To accommodatethis growth, therehavebeena number
of additions to the current faciliry. In recentyears'managementhas
experienceddifficulty that hasmanifesteditself in too much inventory'
shipping delays,and generalconfusion.
The company'scurrent project is reengineeringthe faciliry and
relatedDrocesses. The obiectivesareto: reducematerialhandling costs;
reduce'operating .orrrl i-prove delivery performance; irip.or'.
teamwork, communication, and quality; allow for new products;
accommodate1998production;and deliverthe projectunder a budget
of $800,000.The steeringcommitteefor this projectconsistsof; O. W.
Holmes, presidentandchiefexecutiveoffi cer;J. Marshall, chieffinancial
officer; W. Burger, vice president,operations;and E. Warren, vice
president,salesand marketing.
Planningthe project
"Plan Project,"developsa specific projectplan.Developing
Task 03.01,
a soundmacro-space-plan demandssignificantresources. In this step,
the dispositionof thoseresourcesis mappedout. The model projectin
figure 3.1-works for almost every macro-space-planproject, whether
The Macro-Space-Plan 33
--''[\
N
Nf
I
I N
p-
N s s
N__
N ---_-
----
g
R3 E E
3 3 N I d(
9
I o o
E o o
o R .9
x
.: o
e E o ; j
o- o
6 o € :
o Io
.6 o. a
o
o
-a
o
E
I
r
E
6
o
e
o
o
o
@
J
o
E
o
o
o
o o o p
E E ) o o = o
a o 0
z
I t o
s
o o. o Y
5 = o o @ G
=
e o o ; o o z
I
6
o o
o
o
o 6 o
:o .5
o o
c
E
o
E
o
-=N
o
- o o
Y
.E
c
t o
6 G
=o o o o o
o
o- o d U o U o cl U
o @ o o
o
N
q e o Eq F
q
di
F @
I .!
o
I
2
GroupedProdud ftofile
. Dollars
. Pi@es
. OtherLhib
Thousands
40
35
30
25
2A
15
10
5
8&g&'1!$3€ra1q" -lrf*f+,1f.::rr::at-t:ii':t,:-rilir:a*ia i::s.::::.": trr:::ll: . rt:...r.:::r'.-i::'- :. l
0
1 9 8 71 9 8 8 1 9 8 91 9 9 0 1 9 9 1 1 9 9 2 1 9 9 3 1 9 9 4 1 9 9 5 1 9 9 6 1 9 9 7
CosmosProducts summary
: Product-volume
The 22 percent growth rate is expectedto slow somewhat during the
next three years.The 1997 forecastvolume of 35,000 units will be the
first faciliry planning horizon. Cosmoshas about 10,000line items in
the product database. Theseareinl92 groupsaccordingto significant
feafuressuch as basematerial, color, and width. Thirty-four groups
represent80 percentofsales.Ofthe 192 groups,63 generatelessthan
$200 per month of income.We may have significantopportunity to
ntionalize the product offering or modify our inventory policy.
5i)@
a@
.E
q
630@
F
2W
I(re
ProduclGpup
ProcessChart
CosmosProducts:Existingprocesssummoty
The valueaddedindex (VAI) for roll productsis 13 percent'The VAI
for commercialproductsis 20 percent.Theseareboth quite low. There
area substantialnumberofopportunitiesto reducetransport'handling,
and storageelements.
In ro11products,the processesrequire specialequipment' This
equipmentis relativelysmall scale.Changeovertimes rangefrom five
to forty-five minutes.
For commercialproducts,processscaleis verysmallin the manual
operationsat pick-and-pee1. Die-cutting operateson a medium scale.
Silk-screeninguseslarge-scalepresses.We may wish to investigate
smallerscaleprocesses for silk-screening.
Slit-and-sheetoperationsall usea singleslitter that is quite fast.
Both commercialand roll productsusethe samematerial.Optimizing
the use of each roll savessignificant wastage.It seemsto dictate
continueduseof a common slit-and-sheet ^tea for all products.
The processcharts for Cosmos Products arc fairly simple. In
addition to the modified ANSI conventions,figure 3.7 showsthe process
for one of Cosmos'sroll products-a vinyl stock material for signs and
other decoration.Figure 3.8 chartsthe processfor a multi-color, die-cut
decal,atypicalproductfrom oneofCosmos'scommercialmarkets.These
decalsdecorateautomobilesand other outdoor equipment.This single
chart representsseveralthousanddistinct products.
With complexprocesses, it is often tempting to combine items,
thereby reducing the complexity of the chart. Simplifying the chart,
however,is not the sameassimplifring the process.Much of the value
of a processchart is its accuraterepresentationof the full complexityof
a process.It is an important means of building consensusand
understandingfor a new spaceplan. A readablechart on large-scale
drafting papermaybe necessary to conveythe full scopeand complexity
ofthe process.
lnventory analysis
"Inventory
Task 03.04, Analysis,"is important for at leasttwo reasons.
First, inventory is usuallythe primary or secondarycapital consumer'
often vying with facilities for this dubious honor. Second,almost every
difficulty, problem,or defectin the businesssystemeventuallycomesto
rest in inventory. Inventory thus can be an indicator of the efficacy of
the businesssystem.
The Macro-Space-Plan 43
To fachins - Descrlolt.n
0r0
s
=\
Perrordte r --
6:0 hr
I op€rlron I
I Invenlofq Lev€l
050
| . P'oddr E6ch Plrh
S /f4 NB-e Actlon Examples 010 h. |
tsandrhq Eqlrpn€il
v Traasfer
Waaehouse, Tnack
I ^.:tad
Ra Parlaaa
qf^.:-a
P >ra l'-El€neni
I I Ilehs
4".,. ^--
Legend C,tr atoonc Tnr
i g :
9 . ; F H
ctcr!gge
"f
25
- - . - *
I
20 ,t'' '2A
IndustryAverage
15
-:-.,r*r_,-
-/- rurns
-7
15
..
10
10
5 + lnv llnitc
5
)€ Inv Turns
0
r98g 1990 199r 1992 1993 1994 1995 i996 1992 rgs"8
Average InventoryIn
EquivalentStorage
Units
PurchasedN,4atls
237 7y.
Work-ln-Process
628 18%
ProductronStage
CosmosProducts:lnventorysummary
Inventory volume hasincreasedsignificantlyduring the past six years.
This increaseis higher than salesgrowth' resultingin a gradualerosion
of the rurn ratio. Managementanticipatesthat, asa resultofthe facility
reengineeringproject,the numberof turnswill increase,and inventory
levelswill come down.
The inventoryprofileffig. 3.10] showsthe portion ofinventory at
each production stage.This indicates significant opportunities for
reducingfinished goodsand purchasedvinyl.
SpaceAnalysis
The spaceanalysisrevealscurrent spaceuse. The spacediagrams
indicatewhether the existinglayout is primarily functional,product-
focused,or a mixture, as well as which products use line or cellular
productionandwhich usefunctionallayoutmodes.This spaceanalysis
alsohelps define layout cellslater in the project and can be a basisfor
spacerequirementcalculationsfor the new facility.
The spaceprofile also revealsimbalancesin spaceuse. Value-
addedspacegenerallyrepresents 60 percentor moreoftotal spaceusage
in the bestspaceplans.When value-addedspacefallsbelow30 percent,
therearesignificantopportunitiesfor improvement.Large amountsof
storagespacecanindicatea needfor more ceilularand line production,
or it may show a need for schedulingsystemrevisions.Using large
amounts of spacefor inspection or repair may indicate significant
quality issues.
When operationsfocusis an issue,adding a product spaceclass
spaceby product.Eachproductgroup has
diagramis useful.It classifies
a pattern or color. Spaceusedfor operationsfor a singleproduct group
will haveonly one color,while functionalspaceusedfor operationsfor
many product groupswill havemany colors.A product-focusedlayout
"clean" "messy''functionalspace
has a product spacediagram and a
diagram.A processfocused(functional)layout has the opposite.The
sectionon oDerationsfocusexplorestheseissuesin more detail.
The Macro-Space-Plan 47
a
(-)
L
E
O
)
I O !
C C)
O L
E a LL
L
O
UI
E - . o o
c) L
E
ll_
r € a
ro tt)
E o c) o
a
O
o
=
; g
E
:
;
d
V
E
o
c
I
o O
O o
;o
L
o
!
o
o o_
5 a
o
D
.=
c
LN
;
CosmosProducts:Existingspocesummory
I\{uch of our spaceappearsdisconnectedand scattered.The existing
spacediagram shows no clear,undedying plan. The proPortionsof
spaceuse are better than in many other industries, but could be
improved.Significantopporrunitiesmay existin reducingstorageand
traffic areas.Some parts of the plant have narrow aisles.Others have
overly wide aislesthat becomeWIP storageareas.
Organization analysis
"OrganizationAnalysis,"hasseveralpurposes.It can help
Task 03.06,
determinethe sizeof supportfacilitiessuchasrestroomsand cafeterias.
In office layouts,it may be essentialfor planning spacebasedon work
station requirements.It can help evaluatethe current and proposed
spaceplan. It can assistin formulating a manufacturingstrategyor in
identi4'ing inconsistencies betweenstrategyand practice.
Organizationanalysisusuallybeginswith a completeand current
organizatronchartfrom the personneldepartment.It should include all
departments and employeesthat use the facility hdown to the lowest
levil. It alsomight includedepartmentsand peoplewho resideoutside
the facility but have a major impact on operations.An examplemight
be a corporate engineeringdepartment that designsprocessesand
oroducts but is in a remote location. Names and titles for each
productionworker arenot needed,but thereshouldbe an approximate
count for eachsupervisorand department.
Thesechartscanbecomequite largeand may haveto be plotted on
large-scaledrafting paper,but the chart should not be broken into small
sheets.This may be convenientfor the analystbut it disguisesthe true
nature of large, convoluted organizatrcns.Maximum impact is the aim.
Managersmust developand approvethe sftategicbasisof the spaceplan,
aswellasthe spaceplanitselfFigure3.12showshowto constructthechart.
After the organ\zationchart is complete, the current spaceplan
The Macro-Space-Plan 49
* E ( D c
pQ I
ON.E
: E6 E d
$ fts,* €sI
o-coO.
ssgE
E8
ttr
AE
D O
=3
o)
d)
Figure3.13 - OrganizationalAnalysis
The Macro-Space-Plan 51
trilai""r c"nt",
O Ols$l.r Alrrn
a Fi. Eqrass
a orinrDc wat.r a sprintii' co.rot3 Ptoductlon
O FL. 9r.tion
O C6li.C Tor.r tr fo.nldolF.ttour Sh.[.t
a Prducilon offic.g
O Tool FooD
o O Toor Cdb
D Cr!.n Roon
Sl..m: a c.ntal Msinr.nidc.
W.rhr@ms/Sho*ars
D Boibr B@m
D Oi.ribution sy3r.m Sloreg.:
O Prck.elng Mil./lts
O
E
Fu.l Storag.
Fu.l O:r Phnr
a Edplry.. i.*ins Hbiji[;:""iillL?,3'
O lncid.;r.b
O Oil Tinks o_-_--
O Coal 9toreo. o-=--
D oth.t Administratlon
a
tr
cont....c. Foom.
Cu.tomd S.ilic!
Extcrnal Transport
D Di.plry Rmm DFril Sidinc
O Trainidc C.nt.. O f.il Dc*
OTruck furnsr@nd
a TrEr oet
Siorrg. DTrwk Pr*ino
O Arch ETtu* Aal.
cuting c@hnl: O S.cr OTruck Mii.t mno
O Caiab0u./OiBptay
caia ! Trrck Ae6./Es..!s
0 C.nt.l Finririon
E Micri I Ado AccslEoru..
-
O Chip S.pu.lion
D Chip Conv.yors 0 sury
surylur Furnitora & Equl!ilant lAdoPsdi4
o- U -
D_ o _
aSFc. H.rtin!
o---
O Intu..F.d H.ltinq -
O At Condiltontno
O ou.l cofl.crbt | ouality I
O Loc.l Erhau.t
lO.n.r!l V.ntilerion
I a Ou:hryL.borlori.s
O Gio. Cllibr.lio.
I I Product
Development
I
I I I o P,doryts shop I
O Fo'mulation
|I flo =5;::r:ir::,iri"
I L!b. I
olhd
O Othor
Utiliti.s:
I
D Dbc..p.nr Md.ilar
I I
D - I E--_- | lo_-.=--
-- |
|
Other issues
Other issuescanaffectthe layout.Theyusuallyarisein initial discussion
or during data acquisition.Someexamplesare:
' a schedulingsystemthat dictatesbatch movementthrough
the plant;
' difficultiesin hiring skilledpeoplethat maypush a company
toward automation;and
' external regulationssuch as those in the pharmaceutical
industry that may dictate functional operations.
Experienceandjudgmentarethe bestguides.At minimum, abrief
listing of theseissuesis necessary. They may need significant analysis.
The strategicframework
An operationsstrateg'yis the dominant approachor philosophy that
guidesthe designof the manufacturingor businesssystem.Operations
strategiesoften determinethe competitiveness and ultimate fate of an
organizatron Strategyleadsto structure,aswell asthe arrangementand
interconnectionof business elements.Suchelementsmight bemachines,
information systems,people,or facilities.
Strategiesextendoverlongperiods-years or decades.Theyencompass
all the products and processes,permeatingeveryareaand aspectofthe
The Macro-Space-Plan 53
0
C
o I
o a
L o c
o tn tr
-F
o o
o
o @ o
o
c
(-/ ! 6
il 0 o l
-o
o
: z a :
F
o o !
@
.o o_ g
E
o tt)
o
c
o
o
o E
o
(,
0
o o
o
- (J
E 6
6 o
z a
c
o
3 o
d 7
O o P
O c"r
- l
0 tn
c t-
.9 ra E
o - t l ?
o l l o
o
O
c
o 0 ) l o
o , u ( J 6
(D L r r
- 5 =
l t /
= =
! :
4. Largerfactorieshavegreaterdistancesbetweendepartments.This
increases
materialhandling costsand exacerbates
the isolationand
coordinationdiffi culties.
5. unfocusedfactoriesoften haveextensivevefticalintegration.vertical
integration with a wider product range requiresmore disparate
processes.This requiresfar more technicalmasterythan a more
focusedoperation.
TechTools
strategyandstructure
Keylssues
2.5 Qulity Capability 3.6 Production Control
. Mrke{coiders
2.6 T$hnology Level , Makb-tcstck
.Physicallink
1.0 Site Mission . Br@d€n
L l SiteFoils ^-N-IW7\ . Keban
.1.2 Products --
1]\ \All\Z - Z1\
' 1.3 Maikets w . MRP
. Reorlcr Point
. Volu€s
' Gaglaphy 3.0 Infrastructure 3.7 SupplierPolicies
. S€lEtiooc.iteria
1.4 Multi-Site Integration 3.1 QualityApproach . Single / Multiple Soltffi
. Quality Poli@
1.5 K€y Mmufacturing Tmks . Conm Time HoriaN
. qdity at Sou@ . Scheduliry Appr@h
1.6 Extemal StrategicIssues
. ShippitrgPolici6
1.7 Political 3.2 Persomel Policies
. Tshtri€l Skill Depth
1.8 Enviromental . Tohniel Skill B@dth
I.9 Comunity Involvement . Ifferp€mnal Skills
@
. Employm€nt Sffily
. CompeNtion
. Tnidng
-ll 'PerfomeMffircnt
-t . Safety
. Erhi6 4.0 Facilities
4.1 Site Focus
3.3 Organization Structure . Prcduct
2.0 Process . Fwtional
.Pffi
. Producl
2.1 Production
Mode(s) . I{arket
.Prcject . Othq
. Cpgnphic
. Fuclional . D€pth
. Other
.Cellula
. Toyota 3.4 Orgmiation Style 4.2 Site Ircation & Size
.Exploitiv€
. Line 4.3 Tmsportation Acc€ss
.B@rcntic
. Continuou 4.4 Utility Systems
. Consultatiw
2.2 Proess Scale
. Pdicipativ€ 4.5 Expmsion Policies
4.6 Nil Product Flexibility
2.3 Setup/Lot Size 3.5 Acounting Policies
.Pffi 4.7 New Proess Fluibility
2.4 Capacity . J& C61itrg 4.8 Resle / DisposalPolicy
. t€ad . Aclivity-Based A@uilirg
4.9 Haadous Waste Policy
.Tnck . Overhqd Alletion
' lag . Deision Critsia 4. I 0 Endromental Issues
. R*de . ItuowledgSaelnvestreots
.INqbryAwting
.tu6n$9.P&
. ftdudlMnbryP*
. d9 chn 3
.@b6bb$b
m l
l
o
I
c
o
I o
O
E U
o
L
-
c oi
I o 3''
o
o
o
: i $
Otr>
A r
- E r C
ooo
=
O
J
Slngle Protucts \
th Adeou.te Volum€
Process Scale I
Z A.o Thefe \
'Slrlngs'0f
Slmila.
@"r:il* @gi;l
@i:$*ii: Pf*treu*
Not€s
Codes
R&D
o
a
Strategy
o
lntra
a
Org Chart
o o
Proceas
a a rt o a t , !
EXrStrng
o o o
rt! !)
o l0
(,
N
L2
(l, tr, tD u)
2^2 2 L
H&
-U
ro]y
r{L
o
rt)
\ !D
=!)
0tu 0l (lJ
u 6 Y IrS
gR
(J, l-
UX dH
ud U
9o
J$.
vro
0t
!J
l-
!$
6
UU
H
ffil
!
( rfi
a
0l b $
F lp 0l
o
NP
p! N B FsFp !)
$R6p Iu)o
< =
0 + \U )l r{)
!l al
s urS fis
JV
Lf
^ d S : sri
$HH
1l\ 2$
\ oq Vrp
slL
E*$ d u
..1q, r+:i
Up
dxg$p F J
s\t! T Bud
xq)
X* *o
AU dd
N
- 2rfl
1 a
al *I RoE
i P
s
a.Y
FH
flW, E$
Fns
Ato
z o(
rfj sl ttj tso 2 i E qr l:YP
o
-i i s $N
F$$ EE
(lJ q
}Z
JN 0t
dP6 hg l- IJ
t o U
(, V O J
(,(, ? G
o
o o o
I
o s I
o o o o
g6)
a ; 3 IE
l_a F 9
* + x o +
o H ; c v
d t i r d
f!F
o!>
qi
I
rI
--
6oo....---
;
; a
'
a d :. :
U A : " E 9
V
! ] E F ' . E ] ; + F 5
' A E A O O L 6 : I
:
P i
o l
3 6
l
5 P O
n + F
3 f
s l
c o o
a)
<^-
l O
[[
F
o
>lv o
f)
Materialflow analysis
In Task 03.12,the analystusesinformationgatheredearlierto calculate
materialflow berweeneachcombinationof SPU pairs.Additional data
may be neededfor this calculationto establishthe affinitiesassociated
with material flow. Figure 3.24 showsthe procedurefor this analysis.
In manufacturing, material flow is usually an important factor in
layout. For non-manufacturingspaceplans,materialho* -"y not be
relevant,and this task probablywill not apply.Berweenthe extremes,
the relative importance of material flow for establishingaffinities will
vary considerably.
Material flowvaluesareone of two inputs for affinitv develooment.
As spaceplandesignprogresses andseveraloptionsareunderconsideration,
the material flow analysiscan assistin evaluatingtheseoptions. Later,
flow calculationsprovide a basisfor handling tyri.- design.
From the P-Vsummary,processcharrsand observaiion(Block 1)
materials are classified into manageablegroups (Block 2). This
classificationassistsin developinga common unit for measuringflow,
the equivalentflow unit (EFU). A classificationsummaryis one of the
deliverablesfor Task 03.72.
Usually these groups number less than twenty-five. They are
basedon material-handlingcharacteristics. strucruraishapesmight be
one group in a metal-working factory. It would include steel and
aluminum shapesthat areten to twenty feet in length. Another group
might be small parts-items defined aslessthan four ounces"ttd l.tt
than three incheson any dimension.
In Block 3 of the procedure,plannerschoosean EFU. This is a
two-part measure:material-unitsper time-unit suchaspailetsper day
(metalworking); cartons per hour (grocery distributionj; tor* p* d,iy
(steelfoundry); or totesper day (electronics).
When there is one type of material,this step is easy.Ituses the
normal unit such astons or pieces.such situationr "r. rare, however.
Most layoutsdealwith a wide rangeof materialmovement.
Materials also may change form. A sheet metal cabinet for
computersbeginsasa flat sheetthat is difficult to handle.cutting and
forming increasesthe difficulry and bulk by an order of magnilude.
Paint makes it delicateand susceptibleto damage.packagiirgthen
allows it to be nestedand stacked,rendering it lesi delicate."
72 FacilitiesPlanning
5
Oala Source
. ProcessChafrs
. P-V Oata
MRP Databaae
. RoutingOataba6e
. Obaervation
. Handlin0Records
. Work Sampling
. Schedul€ Estimates
. opinion
Extaol Data
4 0 . 0E F U / D a y Weld€d Cabinets
SusceotableTo
60.0 EFU/Day PaintDamage
3 0 . 0E F U D a y
3 0 . 0E F U / D a y
To Customer
EFU=EquivalentHandCarts
LogRolls 0.500
SlitRolls 0.071
RollPackages 0.004
Sheets 0.167
Packaged Sheets 0.250
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (c) (H) fl) (J) (K) (D (M)
Fwd Rev Tot Flo Flo Flol N_F N_FTot Tot
From Units Units EFU EFUsVow Num N-F Vow NumNumVow
-To Unirs /Day lDay Fact /Day Rtg Rtg Ratio Rtg Rtg Scr Rtg
TABLE 3.1
76 FacilitiesPlanning
03>08 0B>09 04>09 05>07 07>10 01>04 01>05 05>06 03>05 03>r0 05>09
From-To SPUS
Merging affinities
Two setsofaffinities nowexist.The developmentofflowaffinitiesused
a quantitative approach.Non-flow affinities by their nature preclude a
The Macro-Space-Plan 79
EFU=EquivalentHandCarts
LogRolls 0.500
SlitRolls 0.071
RollPackages 0.004
Sheets u.lo/
Packaged Sheets 0.250
TABLE 3.2
80 FacilitiesPlanning
3
D e t e r mi n e F l o w /
N o n - F l o wR a t i o
4
M e r g e U s i n OW e i g h t e d
AvergaeTechnique
Prepare Atfinity
D i s t r i b u t a o nB a r c h a i l
8
D e livera b le i
. Merged Affinity Chari
Or
. M e r g e dA f f i n i t yL i 6 t
u,
o q)
'- q)
(ul
: (U
or
! E
!
o
CD
c
€ G (E
(!
€ € o
ru@ E
06
<E
oE
olc
(6iF
v
(L<
IiiT"--l!"i.!.i,
fti$$il
\:r:1ilr
Iiiitt
tiirit
lt:t
v o
o
/k .E o
E
= e@o \t-
o)
c
(!
(!
€ € o E,o
o'=
gE@ !
E oUr
v-;
(Do-
/d
Fa
Fa-
Figure3.29 - Affinity Diogram
The Macro-Space-Plan B3
Space calculation
Spaceis the third fundamental element of a spaceplan. It is a limited
resource;there is only so much spaceunder a roof, on a site, or in a
department.Whether the spaceis land on a site or spacein a building,
it is usually expensive
Although spaceis three-dimensional, most spaceplans ignore
the vertical dimension. This is acceptablein all but a few situations.
Most layouts attempt to optimize the useof spaceaswell as its
arrangement.A complete spaceplan requiresnot only the location of
SPUs, but their size and shapeaswell. The spaceoccupiedby SPUs
usually prevents the designer from honoring all affinities
tr
o - - -
H s F F = S . s : ! : F F p p ! E E . e
+? . C. €o €o €o F\ 2 FI €a €a €a €a €a -Eo i b €6 h9 € a Eo
l Z f c(o c (oc (!F F c c(o C(o C (! c c c c F c o
= o ;i ;i cg o o o o ;r g
o o = F a t s f r i F F ; i t r } . , & . . F d - aI
9 l ^ r o
@ E 6 o 9 ! { o o R P o o l * o o , ^ - o s
E , E E g F F E S E E F g SEE S F E
-E .., c!
H _ ES R
i- w = . :0 (So .€
o oer .A
, f ix bEboSP3 RR R
i *g o3 .R. b3
z
t-
E - b o
He
' Es EH Ho q *Eg' ' ,' f{i '
F ?3*Fat.Pu oE**6Ei v" .
r F{ EEr Es Hc g xEq l H
f ,! E ? V , ? F = € 8 6 : E 8 € H #
, " GE P E 6 E # f 5 E E € E d S {
e 5 8 8 3 8 8 b 8 8 P = s p s p e
TABLE 3.3
84 FacilitiesPlanning
simultaneously. Benveenthem,itforcescompromisesaboveandbeyond
thosearrivedat in the configurationdiagram.The spaceneedsof SPUs
may distort evena neadyperfectdiagram.
Task03.16 calculates sizeofthe requiredspacefor eachSPU,usually
in squarefeetor squaremeters.Calculationofspacerequirementsusesone
or more of six methods.These methods are:elementalcalculation.visual
estima ting, transformation,spacestandards,
proportioning,or ratioforecas
ting.
Table 3.3 shows Cosmos Products' spacerequirementsand how the
analystsusedseveralmethodsfor the calculation.
Elementol colculotion
This method, illustratedin figure 3.30, startsat the most detailedlevel.Each
pieceof fumiture or equipmentassignedto an SPU is measured.These
dimensionsarethen addedtogetherfor the total amount of space.Spacefor
aisles,miscellaneous storage, or otherneedsarealsoindudedin thesum.This
addedspaceoften is a percentage of the basicequipmentspace.
Elementalcalculationis simpleandstraightforward.However,it has
its limitations. For one, it takesconsiderabletime and effort. Uncertain
forecastscan make it difficult to determine how much furniture or
equipmentwilloccupythespace.Elementalestimatingisprimarilya short-
term methodology.Most industriesuse it for one to three yearsin the
future.Beyondthat, other methodsareequallyandperhapsmore reliable.
DevelopEquipment
lnformation
Capacity/Process/
Saleslnformation
F Ir
Ir
rrr
98 ueg6-acedg-orceW
aqf
The Macro-Space-Plan 87
Handling\Storage43
34"/o
SecondaryProcess 30
23o/o
PrimaryProcess24
19"/o
StandardProportions
Of ExistingFacility
New Facility
Proportioning
Certain typesofspacecalculationuseproportions effectively.The space
for a given SPU comes from the calculation of another space.For
example,aislesmightbe apercentage ofproductionspace,or conference
room spacemay be a portion of office space.Figure 3.34 illustrates.
Proportioning works well when the history to support it exists.It
usually applies to only a few types of space,however. Proportioning
requireslittle effort.
Ratio forecasting
Ratio forecastinguseshistoricaltrendsto forecastspace.In this method,
businessparametersand spaceare correlatedover time. Such ratios may
changegraduallyover the years.The analystthen projectsthe trend of this
ratio into future yearsand usesthat projection to calculatespace.
Ratio forecasting,which is based on historical data, is most
appropriatefor long-term site plans.It haslimited usefor short-term
spacecalculations.
Constraints
Many factorsthat affecta macro-layoutdo not fit the conceptsof SPUs,
space,and affinities.These are constraints.Someexamplesare:
. Column spacingof 32 feet restricts the placement of aisles
and someequipment.
' High electricalload restricts the placement of heat treat
ovensto certain areaswith adequateelectrical service.
. A cold climate dictates that dock doors should not have
The Macro-Space-Plan 89
F o
E 5
c')O
.cU@
oa)
> Q
.=(U
co-
ECD
{ o
s O
o(U
=o_
5"u
v
northern exposure.
' zoning requirementsspecifythat docksnot facethe street;
' floor loading restrictsthe placementof certainequipment;
' explosion hazard dictates that ahazatdouschemical room
havean explosionvent on an outsidewall; and
' the companypresidentrequestsa window for his office'
A form for identif ing constraints(Task03.19)is shownin figure3.36.
The SPUsarelistedon the left and acrossthe toP' major categoriesare
0l
a
E
o
7N
zsNqs
z?)v6
t-
I
a
$.
u)
4 9?NI1 99?2,
s
r
o
i9?2)V AgV:
$
I
lurerlsuoc $ l (
( 8 l! i
2 $s ${
WI
u
: UN
q
s F
a a
$
Ul'I U o
2 g
q ol s E P ! fit<
t (
3 i sl
3= u
q) a
K' U
o
q) !
0l rn l-
E v
;
0t $
Ets6Rl It :
u tl-
q)
L
vr
t
2
i It
@
u J N $lg
f rl "
Designingmacro-space-plans
plan primitive now must fit into a building outline. The
]h9.space
building may exist or it maybe a proposedstrucrure.
Preparingspaceplan optionsbeginswith overlayingthe building
_
with a spaceplan primitive. The spaceblocksare shapedto fii
:":]tl.
building walls, columns,and other featur.r. Th" constraints,r.--ury
should be consultedduring the placementof eachSpU.
F or eachspaceplan primitive, thereprobablywill be severalviable
_
layouts.All variationsof the primitives, including mirror imagesand
rotations,should be examined.
I_tmay be difficult to match space,honor constraints,and design
an orderly arrangement.In general,designersshould strive for clean,
rectangularareas.spacerequirementsmay have to be compromised.
92 FacilitiesPlanning
O
c - =
o
o . ^ so_ c
o
o
c) .t
o
c
o U
6 C o
- a
o
-a o
E
+
-TJ
S O
)
-c) =_
4;<
c
o o O
f
o --l
a a
C
a 9 -
o ft !
L o
O L
o o_
a c
o
E .9
o O
n o O
- 6
=3,(t
a *o
N ^
=
6
o
=
6
o
t
s
-z
c o
o o
L
a
:a C
o
o
]
a
a
a o
N
C a c
9 9
6 q
o u
L O
c
'-m
E
D !
s
L N
o
= O
o
3 a
o
o
O
o
a o
O 6
a o o
o o
c E E o
'd U c
o
o 6 o
C
0 ? a
s
o
o
o
= =
O
o
o ;
€
o !0
c o
a
I
E 't C o N
c
a 6
! o ) o o
L
o
t 0
0 E .=
) :
a I
a
o =€ a) )
.= o
- oo
.= o
= !co
L L
o
@ a
a s
N
+Z a
Aisles
Aisles present specialproblems.They should be straight and wide
.r,o.rgh fot two-way traffic. Usually, the best approachidentifies main
aislesas a separateSPU. Designersthen place them on the macro-
space-plan.Departmental aisles,on the other hand, are within the
spacecalculationsfor each SPU. Aisles adjacentto walls are often
undesirablebecausethey serveonly one side.
An alternateapproachincludes all aislesas Part of the SPUs'
Designersthen place sPUs on the plan, recognizingthat those main
aislesgenerallywill follow the SPU boundaries.
ihe straightforwardCosmosspaceplansin figures3.37 and3'38
use the first method. Main aisleshavea separatecalculationand every
SPU is adjacentto a main aisle.A centralloop allowscontinuoustraffic
in both directions.A singledead-endaisleservesscreenprep and part
of the silk-screeningoperation.This aislesystemwill allow subsequent
layout changeswithout disturbing the basicflow pattern.
ldentifyingkey materialhandlingissues
Material handling and layout are intertwined. The best handling
The Macro-Space-Plan 95
m
SpacePlanA
should be selected.
Block 6 evaluatesall options with respect to the identified
qualifiers.Any option that fails to meet a qualiS'ing criterion drops
from consideration.
Block 7 evaluatesthe optionswith respectto the decidercriteria.
New or hybrid options go on the list of availableoptions.
After evaluation,one option is selectedfor development.A
decisionsummaryrecappingthe decisionprocessshouldbe prepared.
The summaryand decisionmake up Block 10.
the Cosmosspaceplans
Evaluating
The Cosmosdesignteam and steeringcommitteemet to evaluatethe
proposedspaceplans.They decidedthat both the steeringcommitree
and design team should participate in the evaluation. They first
reviewedthe original projectobjectives.Thesecamefrom Task 03.01,
"Plan
Project":
' reducematerialhandling cost;
. reduceoperatingcosts;
. deliverproject under budget of$800,000;
' improve deliveryperformancel
. improve teamwork,communication,and quality;
' allow for new products; and
' accommodate1998 production.
Oprlon# I I
P r o d u c l r F o c u s e dS p a c e P l d n
Optlon #3
Existlng Lagoul
= HE @
F
o) (o
ro(f)
F\ LO
ro
(f)
st
l-- o)
OO)
OJ O)
t
€
F= o)
= fr'r l'-T.OOOlr)OC9$O)@N
o) t) g? c0 !9 9.f 90 r-. to
@
N
o
s ilF 5 = 5 = 3 a
dSooer>dgocid
ETSEq F e q K E c S E r e
q)O@stOO(oOOCD$
@ $cv)
N
$
C
Nct
!
o
6
Fr=fl=Y?QPiE
6-adY-f 6'a=3 &5
D
^Y ' a
o-
.= = d) ::.!l'
> = i s-?r-!
q>
C) 0 - .^.^ Q c.TcD *o
q o)
x . = 6 _6 _X h : i > ' =
d66666666666666666666666666666666666666666666
F
E a a-- ali.
o o *=zz ciX.=.=.ESrn
E l l
L
(n@c'EE(JO_AA(nE_
s|r)ro@oo)(or'-o)oo)
3 3 Ef
o l L
==cbcbP+Li,6totrcb
TABLE 3.4
102 FacilitiesPlanning
Financial analysis
Table 3.5 summarizesthe financialresultsfor the threeoptions.Option
3-the existinglayout-maintains the statusquo.For this reason,there
is no change in either savingsor costs.Option 3 thus provides the
baselinefor the financialanalysis.
2 5C0 7A
60
2.CC0
50
1 500
40
1,000 30
2A
500
10
0 0
Initial
CashOutflows Option 1 Option 2 Option 3
Description Amount Amount Amount
CenterBuilding $161,000 $161,000 $0
EastExtension $0 $307,800 $0
Equipment $176,000 $23,000 $0
Installation $49,500 $7,800 $0
Rearrangement $45,000 $28,000 $0
Training $32,000 $0 $0
Consulting $43,500 $20,000 $0
Startup $100,000 $45,000 $0
Contingencies $91,050 $88,890 $0
Total $698,050 $681,490 $0
TABLE 3.5
104 FacilitiesPlanning
PNlAnalysisSummary
Option 1 Option 2 Option 3
Positive Negative Interesting
BestMaterialHandling HighTrainingRequired
Simplification It MightNot Work
Neat & CleanGeometry DifficultAdjustment
Less Inventory HigherRisk
Better Teamwork
FitsW/TOM
FasterThroughput
Factar Racnnnca
LessSpace
LessCost
FasterPayout
BestAnnualCost
Easier
Supervision
Employee Involvement
NiceAisleSystem
UsesCurrentSoftware
w/Kanban Production
Control
Option I Option 3
Positive Interesting
Reduced Material
Handling LowRisk Allows Cellular
NiceAisleSystem HighCost TransitionLater
Neat& CleanGeometry AllowsCellular
EasyPersonal
Adjustment Procrastination
Lotsof Space NoThroughput
lmprovement
MoreSpaceRequired
LowerPayout
HigherAnnualCost
I aqc Fmnlnrroo
Involvement
DoesNot Assit TOM
LessTeamwork
TABLE 3,6
106 FacilitiesPlanning
t'oj""t' \it:
Weighted fAcitir^/ Re-euaiueeeiu'
Ay:
lEol
Fl tl.ATEAJALFLOW g, A 32 I 24 u o
f2 l0tlrluNicA.TioN ) 14 o 7 u o
F3 TeAt'twoeK 7 A zt u o u o
F) NEW "?ODUCTE 2 o 2 e 6 e 6
F4 rNiTlrX- 167 3 12 e s A 12
r s >ieecT o?ee-c61 10 E 3o 20 u o
i6 AU/XLiTY s A 36 1g u o
t7 >€tM€EV lo A 4o o 10 u o
Totals 1q4 s4 r(
* Option Descriplion
iltnAF€,)
I CELLUIJAQ
f.TAYLO?
2 FUNCTlON/lt
H,FOAD
3 EKST1N6
4
Conclusion
This completesthe discussionof macro-space-planning. Many of the
methods apply to other levels of spaceplan design. Material flow
analysis,for example,is an important tool for Level 2, "Site Planning."
Weighted factor analysisappliesat all levels.
For most facility planning, the macro-space-planis the most
important planning level. It is where strateg.yis defined and the first
stepstoward implementationare taken. It is the level that usuallyhas
the greatestimpact on a firm's competitiveposition. For thesereasons
it hasbeen the sublectof the most subsrantialdiscussionin this book.
Chapter4
Micro-Space-Planning
and
Work Cell Design
D l a m o n dE q u l p m e n t
Uacro Spacoplan
Work cells
Macro-space-planSPUsareoftenwork cells.Work cellsaresmall,self-
contained work units with severalmachines or operations. Their
equipment and peopleare situatedtogether in a compact,sequential
arrangement.Work cellsusuallyhavetwo to ten people and two to ten
operations.They perform all or most operationsnecessary to produce
their productsor completea majorproductionsequence. Here aresome
examples:
A manufacturerofjet-engine turbine bladesdecidedto usework
cells to prepare the intricate and delicate wax patterns for precision
investmentcastings.A molding machineproducedwax components.A
team of t\,vo to five people then assembledthe components into
patterns. They manually cleanededges,filled voids, and inspected
completed patterns. Within a few days of cell startup, defects and
rework declined 30 percent while productivity rose significantly.
Throughput went from severalweeks to one day.
The samemanufacturerofturbine bladesalsochoseto usecellsfor
processingraw castings.In the post-castingcell,tvvoto sevenpeoplecut
gatesand risers.They shot-blastedthe blades,ground flash,de-burred,
x-rayed and inspected.Throughput time went from months to days.
Qrality increaseddramatically. Productivity improved.
A maker of industrial air cleanersdecidedto use cells for final
assembly.Productivity increasedby 20 percent. Responsetime for
specialorderswent from weeks to hours. Finished-goodsinventory
declinedby 96 percent.The samemanufacturerthen linked aweldment
cell for cabinetsto the final assemblycells.This further reducedWIP
inventory and improved quality. The air cleaner manufacturer then
placedsheetmetal fabricationin a linked cell.Internal-partsshortages
disappeared. WIP declinedfurther.
A firm that manufacturesmechanicalcontrol cableschoseto use
cellsfor final assembly.That companyreducedthe amount of finished
goodsby90 percentandimprovedqualityby60 percent.Workers in the
cell consistentlyproduced at I20 percentof the former work standard.
In addition, workers in the cell performed many tasks that indirect
employeespreviouslyaccomplished.
A manufacturerof HVAC equipment machinesand assembles
large gearboxes.The firm installed a machining cell and a linked
assemblycellandreducedfinishedgoodsby 80 percentwhileimproving
quality and productivity significantly. Responsetime for specialorders
went from weeks to twenty-four hours.
Many other industriesuse work cells with similar results.These
indude thosespecializingin electronics,steelcasting,structuralfabrication,
112 FacilitiesPlanning
Interpretingterminologyand conventions
Most businessoperationsprovide a variety of products and services.
Someproductsare for externalcustomerswhile othersgo to internal
customers.Although servicesareintangible,theirprovisionfollowsthe
sameprinciplesas a manufacturedproduct. In this chapter,for space
plan purposes,the term product may alsobe interpretedas service.
Also, the sizesof lots and containersin work cells have different
interpretationsin different industries.For example,the term large
container meansone thing to a personwho works in an electronics
plant, but it hasquite a differentmeaningto someonewith a heavysteel
background.It may haveno meaningat all to someonein the insurance
industry. Conventionsareusedas approximate,but well-understood,
terms that crossindustry boundaries.
The conventionusedin the examplesin this book are basedon
designproduction volum e. Singlepiecerefersto one item or a singleunit
ofproduction. Smallisa quantityofproduct equivalentto lessthan one
Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design 113
o
o
o
o
o
(t)
o
o
€
o
u, o
o N
(.) . r p
o 6 g
U'
a
o @ t
f
, e O
o o (;) O o .
ol< o x o
lL
a 9 o g, o
o
d = o o g
o:
() ,() * f
o f z
o
o IL o
U'
f o
o (?
o
LL o
o o
l N
E
o o
L
[L
o
o
o t o o | o o n o !
(? N N r :,9
sassacordlo ,aqulnN
:s,i
- d
The micro-leveltasks
The preferred approachto micro-layouts follows the pattern developed
in Chapter 3 for macro-layouts.Figure 4.3 is the model project.It has
five generally sequentialtasks:
' Task 04.01, "Analyze and SelectProducts";
'Task 04.02,"Design and Refine Process"l.
' Task 04.03, "SelectInfrastructureElements";
'Task 04.04,"Design Cell Layouts";and
. Task 04.05, "SelectCell Option."
Eachtaskhasa procedurediagramthat showsthe designstepsand their
sequences. Variousformsandaidshelpmakedesigndecisions.However,
there are parts of eachtask that can have multiple options and many
04.o1
Analyze& Select Products
04.o2
Design& RefineProcess
c
.9
(E
(D
04.03
= Select I nf rastructu re Elements
c
.s)
o
(l)
o
04.o4
Design Cell Layouts
t__ o4.o5
SelectOption
Selectingthe products
Product selectionis the first and most fundamentaltask for work cell
design.It must be decidedwhich productseachSPU will process.This
determinesthe focus for the cell. All other design decisionsflow from
this task. The deliverablefor this task is a list of products for each cell
and a designproduction volume for eachproduct.
Decisions are basedpartially on how the products are processed.
A functional cell might processevery product. In a predominantly
functional spaceplan, a product may travel through many SPUs.In a
product-focusedwork cell, the products may stay in one cell.
During the macro-space-planning,products may have been
1 16 FacilitiesPlanning
To 04.02
) ap g . Ee
***e=-$
65
Ei
> > " E o =.=
r ^.1i66E' .=6X€
t* ;CEE6.agE3,F
gEBBRTNRTR
9-**
ll
g
s-\o o . =
N
E *e".=:E
ggiEgs
N
5 6
o
N g:E5!F#-#s
* P-...-d 36$9S63333
_ A d o
6
t; 3
o
; b +
o- 3 ii
u 9 I 6 9 9 =
@ - 6 - - ; 9 :
\P )q
Fl
m @
E : - : 9 I
EEIEE€eES-g
> 6 Y =
a u o 5 0 0 0 @ a u @
q
N
a 6@ts@6
N N N N N N N N N N
o @
P-'E N
cq
/ / \ E
; o - :
5;es, i tsb=
>l
3ii;e?.i€5
i t c c ; - - ^ ^ 9 c
Fl
c0
;; E E € E 3 :. E ' EE
o o a o o
E
rl
q a o r N o t 6 @ N @ o
4 N
6
-.; o
t
I o G
oE
'Fa
E
O > H
N Fi
4
) s-
< F f o E -Ets54 e8
cd co
EUEEE'=:$E;
A T ] N
< @ -
€ *E€iEFP:}
= E ; c * Z - " = E -
H O
o 4
F
3 E E - E z is E o ' , f3
wrR
F
N F O
N N N
O @ F
@ @ @
W
!b,)
,
Figure4.5 - Drowing of a typicol product
Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design 121
2500
2oo0
o
= 1500
,{
=
c
f
--/
9 1000
-
l-:listofy : :Forecast :
500
0
-4 -3 -2 -1
40%
o
o
o
c
.o
10v.
"st u9t -st $" $" n*t $" C "+" .+".dt .+" "d,t$" C dp"C C
Modol #
o
o o o
o o = @
J
=
F
06 o o o
= I o
= '
J o E o : o
o z o o
o o o z
N
E e o
o
* dl =
x 'c It x N o
o F dl
U' a
U a
o N o o
o o N
@ !- o c0 x o o
= N
T o
B o
o
r
.! o
5
o
r f
|2-96478 Pin
o
o -5
F
€ () = o J
: ; E
o o o
z
o F d z N
o o
* Uo
N
N
o *g> E
o
N
o o a
o 6
o @ N
-g .6 o
.5
o d!
N
I
o
e o
T
F o = h s
05 Heat Treatment
06 SmallestWindow Size
07 Length
08 ToleranceClass
09 Binder and Sand System
10 Molding Equipment
77 Flask Size
72 PiecesPer Mold
13 Number Of Cores
74 Core-Making Equipment
C A S T : N G G R O UP T E C H N O L O G Y
POSITI ON
sEQ 0 o 0 0 0 o o 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
T P A R T # N A I { B 1 2 3 4 5 6 ' 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
HO N2
h\ il
A't9435 Be.rin0
ffi',''
A19il00 Prwl r:
&
i1982 Burhlng
5"W
v* .n#i .
<-$}'
A1il56l Belrlnq A12334 Rrtch.t
05 Heat Treatment
06 SmallestWindow Size
07 Lengh
08 ToleranceClass
09 Binder and Sand System
10 Molding Equipment
11 Flask Size
12 PiecesPer Mold
13 Number Of Cores
14 Core-Making Equipment
. 17 A34s67 coNE
.BI-T-S.y..E.T.,.........
...r..5-......4.1..?.1..1.4. 0 . _2. f .8. , ro. : :0d : :0...1....1.9,,9...-_1.?:
. r . ,3. r ,r, . I0, . . 1
. .4a . 2 :r:::4::::5::i:i:ir::O;i;di--ir.
l8 A56112 CAP 4 2 3 I O 1 2 C 3 4 5 1 2 O 0 N 2 i
HO
H1
fink=, f-
<}l-
43590 Cl.Yl! ,: A52045Stop
&i,
A67112 End Flttlng : :
-,::."'
..
'l{\'\
JP
.. A7ll23 Stoe
&
A14982 Buthlng
&
.Alil561 Borllrg
6r+j
A1233,1 Rrtch.l
15 SecondaryCore Equipment
76 Group TechnologyFamily Assignment
Initially, the analystcodedeachparr using only positions1 through 15.
Position 01 is the first characterof the codenumber.The number 3 in
that position representsan annualusageof201 up to 500 castings.4
representsannualusageof501 to 1,000 castings.
Position05 is for heattreatment.0representsn ormahzatrcnat1,600
to 7,675degrees.This is one of severalstandardheattreatmentsat Gator.
3 representsawater quenchfollowed by temperingat 800 degrees.
Position 10 showsthe tlpe of molding equipment.0is a Hunter
Matchplate molding machine with a24by 24 matchplate.4 represents
an OsborneJolt- Squeezemachinewith a 16 by 12 flask.
Other character positions described size, weight, and other
important characteristics.This information was vital for production
planning, scheduling,costing,and tooling design.
The analystthen checkedthe database for obviousdiscrepancies.
For
example,certainmolding equipmentcolrespondsto ceftainsizeranges.A
retrievalon combinationsof charactersshowssuchinconsistencies.
Next, the analyst standardizedthe processes.Parts with similar
featuresnormally should haveuniform processes. For example,high-
volume parts should run on high-volume equipment. Any such
discrepancies were corrected.
The analystthen beganto group parts around similar processes,
using characterposition 16 to identif,i eachfamily. He assignednine of
the parts in figure 4.77 to the H1 famlly.
This family haspartswith sufficientvolumefor aHunter automatic
molding machine.They use the sameflask size and have the same
material, allowing similar parts to run together and minimizing
changeovertime. FamiliesH0 and H3 alsorun on the Hunter equipment
but with alarger mold size.
The N2 famlly uses a no-bake binder system. The no-bake
processis more expensivethan greensandbut achievestightertolerances.
The toleranceclass,Position 08, is differenrfor castingsin family N2.
Only a small sample of parts has been shown. The complete
database,816 part numbers,fell into 14 families.The number of parts
in each family varied from 2 to 73.
In later steps,Gator Steeladdedprocesstime andother information
to their database.This allowed the staff to calculate^ver^geequipment
utilization and peoplerequirementsfor proposedwork cells.
All codenumbersin figure 4.l1are somewhatsimilar, and some
areevenidentical.This is becausethe castingsin the sampleardsimilar
in manyrespects. Theyallhaveaboutthesamesizeandweight,andthey
128 FacilitiesPlanning
Designingthe process
Task 04.02 designsor redesignsthe cell's production process.This
often results in significant improvementsin productivity becauseit
ensuresthat the processsuitsthe work cell'spart family. It alsoforces
a critical review of the t1pe, size, and capacityof equipment and may
eliminate processelementsthat add no value.
This task is similar to some of the work in Task 03.11 at the
macro-levelbut with more detail.At the macro-level,the processwas
defined only asfar aswas necessaryto ensurea valid cell definition. All
equipment or processtimes may not have been identified, and the
designermay haverecognizedthat further refinementwas necessary.
Figure 4.12 showsthe task procedure.In Block 1, a preliminary
processand the equipmentrequiredfor it is selected.This often is an
existingprocess.For a completelynew product, it may be necessary to
startwith a proposedprocess.This preliminaryselectionshould result
in a processchart and correspondingequipmentlist.
Block 2 refines the process.Non-value-added elements are
eliminated and other options for equipment scaleare explored.For
example,a preliminary processfor a steel fabrication cell needed a
sophisticatedcutoffsaw- alarge,high-volumepieceofequipment that
would servefive different cells.The processrefinement examined the
useoffive smaller bandsaws.Eachcellwould haveoneof the saws.This
eliminated five transport operations,reducedinventory and simplified
scheduling.Processscaleis a particularlyimportant issuewhen making
a transition from a functional to a cellular spaceplan.
Blocks 3 through 6 estimatesset-up, equipment, process,and
personneltimes.Figure4.13illustratesthe differences. Traditional time
studyoften assumesthat personnel,process,and machinetimes arethe
same.This assumptioncomesfrom an underlyingsuppositionthat one
personoperatesa singlemachine,which often is invalid. Figure 4.13
showsthat, afteran initial setup, a personloadsthe machineand is then
idle while the machineoperates.That personthen unloadsthe machine
and inspectsthe part. The machineis idle during the inspection.The
Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design 129
T i m i n gT e c h n i q u e s
-Stopwatch Study
-Predetermined Systems (MTM)
'Experienc€d OPinion
-Historical Data
-Equipment Specifications
10 15 20 25 30
Figure4.13- WorkcellTirnes
PeopleReqd: 3.34767
TABLE 4.1
Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design 131
keepin mind:
54. s
54.
54.
125 15o 175 2oo 225 25o 275
LotSize(Unils)
war- Qwrq
+ra+o^^c Tn.
E'*'
h*, Ve"F
3o i sq g'o
) (o
3 (rj
c-J
€
a i
i ;'i@ P - t t ' ;
E 0 ,
)
a
, o o a
o o
L L
O
E
E O
a L
f
6
F
LI E
6 C
o o
, " o 0
C) L O)
ro
G
: i o Lr t c
C
C L L O
l C o
rc
:
(_ 0
(t 5
+ < <
; , @ o : o O
N : o o l o -
" - F F
i
_C L
L
O I I i C ui
I ; C) o o
O
- N(! ,'
o @ O
= C)
@
Cf c
oo
C)
(
fN
al'
1\- \
g .
b ! 5
Planningcell infrastructure
Task 4.03 selectsinfrastructureelements;the procedureis illustrated in
fi.gure4.77. Infrastructureelementssupport Processwithout directly
touchingor contributingto productcreation.Someinfrastructureelements
aretangibleand somearenot. The followinginfrastructure elementsmay
be consideredthe minimum for adequatework cell design:
'external containersl
'internal containers;
' externalmaterialhandling;
' internal materialhandling;
' externalproduction control;
' internal production controll
' internal lot size(transferbatch);
' equipmentbalancemethod;
' peoplebalancemethod;
' quality assurance;
'supervision;
' compensationsystem;and
' operatorassignmentsand skills.
Theseinfrastructureelementsarean essentialpart of the work cell
design.If a designteam or designerdoes not selectthem, operators
must do it ad hoc. Their selectionseldomrequiresextensiveanalysis;
however,it doesrequirecarefulthought and experience.Each element
must fit with the othersinto an integrated,well-functioning system.
The first stepofthe taskprocedureis the selectionofthe external
containersand the identification of the size and type of container.
Materials and products move to and from the cell in these external
containers.Containersbringing material to the cell can differ from
thoseremoving products.
Containerscanprotecttheir contents.They canimprovehandling
characteristicsand convert small units to larger handling units. They
can assistwith visualcontrol of materials.
The conventionsdescribedearlierin this chaptermay be usedto
classifycontainersas single-piece,small, medium, or large.
Containers should neverbe larger than the lot size.Thus, large or
medium containers should not be specified for a small lot size. This
Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design 137
Externalproductioncontrol
Five basicm ethods-direct link, broadcast,kanban,materialrequirements
p lanning (M RP), andreorderp oint (ROP)-are availablefor coordinating
production. This is Block 3 in figue 4.17.
Direct link
With direct linkage, processes havea physicallink. Product movesfrom
the first to the secondprocesswithout queues,buffers,or delays.The
processes start and stop together.They operatewith identicallot sizes,
usuallysingle-piece.There is no WIP betweenthem.
Direct link is only feasiblewhen processesare balancedand
require about the sametime per cycle.The processes must be capable
of synchronization, have the sameproducts, and be co-located.
Broadcast
A broadcastsystemis slightly more flexible than direct link. In this
Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design 139
system, a scheduledictates the rate and product mix for the final
operation. The same schedule is applied to upstream operations,
which make their componentsin the sameorder (the line set order)
as the final operation.They deliver thesecomponentsjust aheadof
the scheduledassemblytime. Co-location is not necessary; however,
the capability to make the samelot size-usually a single piece-is.
Broadcastsystemsoften are seenwhere subassemblyoperationsfeed
assemblylines.
Kanban
Kanbansystemsusea smallmixed stock.The stockpoint is often at the
producingwork center.This stockhasenoughofeachitem for afew hours
to a few daysofproduction. usersoftheseitemspull smallquantitiesfrom
the stock frequently.They signalthe producing work centerat the rime
theymakeeachwithdrawal.sometimesthis signaldeviceis a card,hence
the useof the word kanban,which is Japanese for card.
At the producing work center,peopletrack the incoming cards
and observestock levels.They then scheduletheir production to
minimize changeovereffortswhile replenishingthe stocks.Kanban
systemssenseand respondto changingdemandvery quickly. They
operatewith very low inventoriesand need short set-upsand small
lot sizes.It is unnecessary to coordinateproduction exactly.A work
center may feed and draw from many other work centers. The
system is simple and does not need computers or sophisticated
communicationsequipment. Kanban is often a good choice for
coordinatingwork cells.
7. direct link;
2. broadcast;
3. kanban:
) . reorderpoint.
Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design 14'l
a work cell. This brings many advantages: work flows more quickly,
the amount of\MIP is smaller,quality feedbackis rapid, and response
time is fast.
The smallestinternal lot size consistentwith certain limiting
factorsis desirable.The ideal internal lot sizeis one-piece.
Equipment batchingis one factor that might limit selectionof a
small or one-pieceinternal lot size. Some equipment may need a
significant batch for proper or efficient operation.For example, arotary
shot-blastmachinemay needmanypartsto avoidexcessive wearand to
offset a long cycletime. A machiningfixture may be designedto hold
severalwork pieces.
Cycle time and transfertime alsomay be limiting factors.Some
equipment,for example,may havea veryfastcycleof, say, 0.1 minutes.
The time to move a singlework pieceto and from the equipmentmay
approachthis cycletime. In suchsituations,operatorsspendso much
time transferringone-piecelots that their efficienry dropsand equipment
utilization is unacceptablylow. In this case,transferringin batchesof
twenty pieceswould give a cycle time per batch of two minutes.
The workload on equipmentin a cell must havesomedegreeof
balance.This improvescell productivity and equipment utTlizatronand
smootheswork flow. Block 8 identifiesthe equipmentbalancemethod.
Balance can be static or dynamic. Static balancemeans that
equipment times for eachoperation,averagedover the entire product
rnix, are similar or the same. Static balancepreventsone or more
operationsfrom becominga bottleneckwhen other operationsare not
beingutilized.A high degreeofstatic balanceis necessarywhen the cell
containsmore than one pieceof high-cost or critical equipment.For
workbenches,typewriters,or otherlow-costequipment,it matterslittle
if there is low utilization.
Dynamic balanceis the balancebetvveenoperationsfrom work
pieceto workpiece.The processtime for operationsm ayvary.Differences
in product may causethis, or the processmay v^ry inherently.
Dynamic imbalance can reduce throughput of the entire cell
becauseof interferencebetweenoperations.For example,operation 1
hascompletedaworkpiecebutoperation2 cannotacceptitimmediately.
At other times, operation2 maybe readyfor the next work piecebut
operation 1 is not finished.This reducescapacityof the cell and can
occur evenwhen the averagebalanceappearsgood.
There arethreemethodsfor correctingstaticor dynamicimbalance:
queuing,inherent, and excessequipment. Queuingusesshort queues
betweenoperations.This ensuresthat downstreamoperationsalways
have a work supply and that upstream operations always have a
Micro-Space-Planning
andWorkCellDesign 't43
ml
E"3 Lqi!' I P".pt"8"t""* I
I I Control
|I D? {rff'*'""""
Ercass
P6opr.
II
1,,,"_l O-
r-
li'
Dioct Link
cncularion
xanoan
| 9,
cncdilbn
I
O PushSchgdul€
External Mat€rial I Quallty Assurance I
Handllng I C tnspccra ne;ccr I
ln
0
o-
oul
O-
ll'
Small
u*'u'
I ? ;i:ffi' I
t D Lareo
I Internal Lot Size I| _ Supervislon I
P"ir""i"n:";, | /
D
singre eiece
Small <1.5 Hours
I
D O Channel I
I O M.drum <..0 Hours
I
I
I F fflfft",g'#,(cyb€'noric)
|
D O T.rminal o commande conror
Equipm.ni: l o * " ' II I
O
O
O
O
Hand Carry
Oih6t
B"r""*I f| c..p-""tfi]
lp,io?KTQUCK
I_Eq"ifi""t
h'ffi'&h6
/ xo,ayr s"r"ry |
I tr Individual
Inc€ntiv. I
| ? | o Grc+hsdtro
o Etc*s capacily
I I I I
t lJ J p
PIP
lrn
ilclE|rlr
t' F
r-l lfi ul
iiiu F
ql: s U
t h t t h
(
for the assemblyof diaphragm pumps. Figure 4.18 is its work cell
operationsplan. The team has selecteda medium externallot size of
forty-four pieces.This is the lot sizefor finishedpumps, but the team
membersrealizedthat purchaseditemsanditemsfrom other departments
may come to the cell in largerlots. Figure 4.18 reflectsthis.
The team decidedto packagethe pumpsin cartons,which will be
placed on pallets, a single lot for each pallet. This is the outbound
container.It is a medium container,consistentwith the medium lot
size.Inbound materialalsocomeson pallets,most ofwhich will hold
partsfor more than four hoursofproduction. The inbound palletsare,
therefore,large.
For externalmaterial handling, the cell needsmedium and large
equipment correspondingto the containersize.The team decidedto use
forktrucks forboth inbound and outboundhandling.Becauseforktrucks
carry ^ full load (one pallet), the ream selecteda direct roure structure.
Other possibleroute structuresare shown in Figure 4.19.
The kanbanmethodwasselectedfor both inbound and outbound
externalproduction control. Occasionally,the cell will make special
orders.The teamdecidedto usethe kanbanand directlink methodsfor
internal production control.
The cell will balanceequipmentwith queuingand excesscapaciry.
The teamdecidednot to usecontainers internallysincethe assemblies
and
componentsareeasyto handle,and the internallot sizeis singlepiece.
Peoplein the cell will balancetheir work load using queuingand
_
float systems. Qralityassurance is inherentin someoperations,although
the electricaland flow testsare inspect/reject.
The four peoplein the cellwill operateasacyberneticwork teamand
usekanbansignalsfor cell management. Compensationis hourly/salary.
Designinga spaceplan
Task 04.04, "Design Cell Layouts," (fig. 4.20) arrangesequipment,
people, and other physical elementsof the work cell. As noted in
Chapter 2, every spaceplan has four fundamental elements(SPUs,
affinities, space, and constraints). At the micro-level, using the
fundamentalsis usuallysimple and straightforward(seefig. 4.2I).
SPUsin the micro-space-planareusuallyworkstations,equipment,
or other significantfeatures.Thesearederivedfrom the equipmentlist
or processchart.Diamond'sA Team identified the ten SPUsshownin
the affinity chart of figure 4.27.
Affinities are straightforward at the micro-level. Examining the
processchartsand work cell operationsplan usuallywill identify them.
Using simplejudgments, spaceplannersnote the affinities and their
150 FacilitiesPlanning
E
@ tr
tr
(u
g
o
?
E
F
@.9
rlfi
@=4"="-(D
,vs,
// \\
Y-.
!9 ('
o
o
L
Work cellshapes
As the layout progresses,
it will probablytake on one of severalclassic
shapes.Among the most commonshapesarestraightline,serpentine, (J,
and innerted-U. Henry Ford's original assemblyline was straight line
(fig. a.22). The work product moves from one end to the other in a
straightline. It passesor stopsat eachworkstation.When Henry Ford
and CharlesSorensenfirst devisedthis arrangement,theyweresolving
a material flowproblem. Manyparts went into a relativelysmallproduct
where a large number ofpeople worked at short-cycletasks.A straight-
line cell is still well suitedto suchsituations.
Straight-line arrangementsdo not allow easycommunication
betweenpeople.Balanceis difficult becausethe opportunity to float is
limited. Once balanceis achieved,it is difficult to maintain if the line
speedor product mix changes.Long, thin line arrangementsareoften
$
Reason
Matenlal Flow
2 <UwEDPeO?Le
C o n fi g u r a t i o n
Diagram
SpacePlan
K6nb6n Oue@s :
_.i lYain
ffilnrennol
_,._,._._._._.._..-
Head Assemblg N15 tU
S t o c k l n gA 1 s 1 e
Bodg/Coll Assemblu
Inbosd
Rolle.
ConveUof
Roller *
Convegor
Dlsph.sgm
Ass€mblg
Stoc ng Alsle
Elect.lcal
AssemblU
Features
T MultlpleMaterialEntry Polnts
r
Good Materlal Flow
Short Distances
Dlffcult PeopleBalance
Poor Flexlbility
PoorCommunicatlon
r
t
!
Figure4.22 - Stroight Line Cells
154 FacilitiesPlanning
Fetuns
SevaEl Enlrba
Good Mat rbl Flow
|,ii{.i Short Dldancs Whhln Zores
Eagy To Bll.nca
G@d FLxlHllty
Falr Communlcallon
Eaay Macro Lryout
Accommdales Ma1ry Pr@esa
Itreqohr i.r*td,
Figure4.23 - SerpentineCells
Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design 155
Features
High PeopleFlexlblllty
EasyBalance/Rebalance
Good Communlcatlon
Good MaterialFlow
Short Dlstances
SingleMaterlalEntry Polnt
Good QualltyFeedback
Multi-skllledOperators
ffi*.ril
ffi ft ffi
ffi t l
Featules
tffi
Good Communlcatlon
u
Good Materla! Flow
Short Dlstances
ffil
Multlple Materla! Enlry Polnt
ffi lffi
ffi
Figure4.25 - lnverseU-ShopedCells
156 FacilitiesPlanning
able to see each other and all operations.A clear view of the total
operation gives every member the meansfor controlling the overall
process.Partitions, walls, and large equipment interfere with both
teamwork and processcontrol.
Ongoing interactionis integral to teamwork.Members must be
ableto converseduring their work. This callsfor an areasmall enough
for effectiveconversation.It alsorequiresa reasonableambient noise
level. while hand signals and electronic communications are parttal
substitutes,face-to-faceconversationis far better.
Effective teams use bulletin boards for many purposes.Bulletin
boardshelp ateamcommunicatewith itse$ with oth.t ihiftr, andwith the
outsideworld. Prominent spacefor a bulletin board shouldbe provided.
TheA-Teom'sfinol micro-spoce-plon
The spaceplan in figare 4.27 is not the only one the A Team
designed.There wereseveralother good options.Team membersused
weighted factor analysisto make their decision.
Team members discussedusing simulation but decided they
could build the actualwork cell fasterthan they could build a simulation
model.They alsoreasonedthat if the cell did not work asexpected,they
couldeasilychange orredesignit. Theyknewthe experienceofthework
team would be invaluablein any suchredesign.
Betweenthe cell and the finished goodswarehouse,the kanban
systemis used.The cell operateswith an averageof two lots per day;
however, it can accommodate special lots at any time. As the team
works on improved setups, the cell may reducelot sizesor evenshift to
make-to-order. The team draws material and parts from upstream
suppliersand the machineshop using a kanbansystem.
Eachworker setsup his or her own area,changingfixtures,tools,
and the partson their benches.The work teamfor this work cell is made
up of four members,who havevarioustasks.
"Wilson"
subassembles heads,bodies,and coils.He placesthese
subassemblieson a grav\tyroller conveyorthat takes them to Taylor's
main assemblystation. Wilson usesmarkings on the roller conveyorto
determinethe speedofhis work. Whenworkbuilds up on the conveyor,
he can switch to restocking or other activities.
'Taylor"
subassembles diaphragmsoneat atime. He then assembles
eachdiaphragmwith abody/coil subassembly andthe headsubassembly.
Taylor placeshis completedwork in the queuespacebetweenhis station
and Washington'selectricalassemblystation.When the queueis full,
T aylor assists"Washington. "
Washington hasthe longestseriesof tasks.He must perform all
160 FacilitiesPlanning
Conclusion
This chapterdemonstratedhowto plan spaceat the micro-level,Level
4. The discussion included important new develoPmentsin the
workplace-work cells,teams,and operationsfocus.
This chapteralsooffersthe tools (modelprojectplan, procedures,
techniques)to prepareviable micro-space-plans.In the beginning,
following these plans and proceduresexplicitly and pedantically will
resultin the generationofgood designs.With experience,a designteam
may usethem lessformally.
The next chapter covers the final level of space planning,
workstation design,including how to placetools and equipmenqhow
to optimize the individual'sefficiencyand effectivenessland how to
minimize CarpalTunnel Syndromeand similar occupationalhazatds.
Chapter5
WorkstationDesign:
Writtenby
The Sub-Micro-Space-PlanWilliamNelson
Allocation of functions
Allocation of functionsdividesworkbetween peopleand machines.It
determines, to a large extent, the quality of the operator'swork
experience.A well-thought-out allocationoptimizesthe interactionof
peopleand machineelements.
In spaceplanning, allocation occursat severallevels.During the
macro-space-planning,a processis selectedthat implicitly allocates
many functions.During the work cell design(Level 4), the processis
refined and more explicit allocations are made. At the workstation
design level, spaceplanners should review theseprevious allocations.
In a human-machinesystem,one or more equipment displays
show the operatorthe internal equipmentstatus.He or sheprocesses
WorkstationDesign:The Sub-Micro-Space
Plan 163
$
tl
\r
Motion economy
Motion economy helps achieveproductivity and reduce CTD. It
shortensthe human time and effort requiredto accomplisha task.The
principlesof motion economy(fig. 5.2) list stepsand proceduresthat
simpli$, and improve manual work.
The fourth principle, bodysegmentclass,classifiesmovement with
bodyjoints. Each movementafter class1 involvesbody partsfrom the
previousclass(es),and more of the bodyparticipatesin ihe motion. It
is desirableto accomplishtaskswith the lowestpossiblemotion class.
The best way to do ihis is to place everythingn.", the operator.In
addition, items should be close together, lightweight, and easily
positionedat the end of the motion.
To applythe principlesof motion economy,iteration or synthesis
may be used. Iteration involves examining an existing or prorog?e
workstation, analyzingrhemotions,identi$ringandimplementingimprove-
ments, and reanalyzingthe work. Severalrepetitions may be necessary.
Synthesisuses predetermined time standard systemssuch as
methods-time-measuremenr (MTM) and avoidsprotoryping. These
systemsrefer activities to a standard set of well-defined elemental
motions and associated executiontimes.
The conceptof motion economyhas limitations. Both iterative
and synthetic methods assumeworkers are not fatigued. Performance
can abateovertime due to an activity'sdemands.Motion economyalso
does not accountfor physicallimitations or differencesin operators.
Moreover,a movementthat appearsineffectivefrom a motion economy
perspectiveactuallymay prevent fatigue and possibleinjury from static
postureloading.To overcometheselimitations, ergonomicprinciples
should be applied.
166 FacilitiesPlanning
1.0 us€ of HumanBodv . The heightot the rcrkpl@ and the char
shouldpElenbly be arangod so that altemats
The trc hards shouH begin 6 rell 6 sittingard standir€ at mrk are esily po$ible.
@mpbte their mtiore at th6 sare tim.
. A chair of th6 type and h€ightto pomit good
Th6 trc handssh@H ml be idb at the sam postuc chouldba provkt€dfor evary rcrksr.
tire €x@pt durirE .est psrbds.
Motiore ol th6 arro shouu be madein opposite a. Deslcn of Tools and Equlpmefi
and symretriEl dir€ctiore and shouH be made . The hard6 shouH be Bliev€d of all mrk that
simultffiously
mn be dom mE advantagsusly by a jb. a
Hand mtioN shouldbe @nfimd to the lore3t fixtum,or a foot oparalBddevice.
clssification with which it is possibleto porfom . Trc or m6 t6b shouldb6 ombimd
the rcrk salblactorily
wh6mv6r posible.
Morentum shouh be €mpbyed to sist the . Tmls and materialsshouu bE prepositbred
rcrker wherever poasble, ard it shdld be
redred to a minimumil it must b€ ovemm wherev€r poasblg.
by mslil efiort. . Wher6eeh firEer porloms sre spocific
Sruth @ntiMus mtions ol the hards ar6 mvemnt, such I in typewriting,the load
p€f6rabb to zigzag mtioG or straight-lim shouldb6 dbtrihrted in a@rdre with the
rctioN involvingsuddena.d shap char€es in inhoEnt capsities of th6 fnge6.
direclion. . Hardl$. such c thos u$d on crilks ard
large$rcudrivec, sheH pemit 6 much of
Ballistb mvemnts ilg faster.66i€r. atd
mr6 ffirale thil BstrH€d(fxation) or the sud@ of the handto @m in ontact with
'ontEll€d mvomnla. ths handl€s posible. Thb is panicularlytrue
whanconsirerabl6tor€ is ererted in usirE the
Rhythmis esntid to ihs s|mih ard handl6.For light asrbly rcrk ths $rewdrivsr
iltomatic perbmam ol il oporatbn, ard the hardle 8hsH be s shap€dthal it is small6rat
rcrk should be dmng€d to psmil6sy and the bottomthil at th€ lop.
naturalrhythmwhoBvsr possblo. . LevsE. ffibars. ard handwhsls EhouHbe
locded in srch posilirB that th€ op€ralor@
2.0 Arrang€rmnt of,wort Plac€ msipulate them with th€ lesl charu6 in body
There shouH be a definit€and tx€d pl@ lor all pGitbn and with th3 gca!6Et ffihanicd
t@b and materials. advantagg.
Tmls. malariab. and @ntmls stuld b6 local€d
do* in and dicctly in foni ol th€ op€ralor.
Gravity hodbiB ard @ntaimB shilld b€ us€d Body sl€gment qassGs
whGnoverposible. :ls. Sody Jolnt Body S.gm.ni.
Dm dglivorsshouldba usd whonevor $uckl€ ;inqd
rebh.
Vrist {and, Fingm
Mat€rialsand t@ls shouH bo bcat€d to psmit
the bost sequem of mibre. :tbw or€m, Hand, Fingoc
Ergonomics
Ergonomics is the study ofwork asit relatesto the human body and its
limits. The usualgoalis maximizingoutputwithout physicallyharming
the operator. To achieve this goal, designers adapt tasks and the
and
workstation to individuals, not vice versa.Physiology,biomecbanics,
anthropometricsarethe areasof ergonomicsmost useful to the designer
of workstations.
Physiology
In somerespects,the body is analogousto an automobile.In the human
WorkstationDesign:The Sub-Micro-Space
Plan 167
Biomechanics
Biomechanicsis the study of mechanicalforcesin human movement,
including the interaction berween individuals and their physical
environment.Biomechanicalprinciplesprimarily areusedto minimize
damageto muscles,joints, and tissues.This damagemay comefrom a
one-time force,suchaslifting an objectthat is too heavyor moving an
object from an awlaarardposition. Damage also can come from an
accumulationof small,repetitiveforces-CTD.
There are three actionsin the work place that can causedamage:
extremejointmovements,excessive force,andhigtrlyrepetitivemovements.
Extremejoint movements,suchasbending the wrist, amplify the
forcesplacedon thejoint. They maypreventthe operatorfrom appb'rng
maximum force and increasedamagethat resultsfrom the force that the
operatordoesuse.
Excessiveforceusedforlifting, squeezing,orpushingis aprimary
causeofinjury. Often, suchexcessiveforce combineswith repetition or
extremejoint movement. A need for excessiveforce does not always
arisefrom a workstation's design:it may come from poor maintenance
of tools and equipment or from operator practice or ignorance.
168 FacilitiesPlanning
Anthropometry
Anthropometry studies the dimensions,weights, and strengths of
human body segments.Anthropometric data aid in designing the
workstation to the operator'sdimensions.
Anthropometry usesstatic (structural) and dynamic (functional)
. Provile handles
1.0 Extngm€ Jolnt llovem€nts
. Alter the tml or @ntrol- bendthe lool or handle . DasignFor minimummslil etfort
instoadot ths wrist . Porerwith mtots mre lhil with muscl€s
. Move the part- rctate ihe part in fronl of the . Berd ihs t6l ard mt the wrist
rcrlcr to keep the wrist straight . K@p the olioclive reight ol th€ t@l low
. Moveth6 Wo|ker- char€e the rcrke/s position . Alignthe t@l @nter ol gravity and th€ 6nler ol
relativeto th6 pad the g.6Fing har|d
. Avoil eaching above shouHerlevel . Ue pbtol grip6ryhenth€ tml ais i8 horizontal
. Avoid rerching behindthe body . Us straiShtSrip6wh€n ths t@l ab b vertical
. Ksp dbore cbss to the sides . Us tnggsr leveE nther than trigger hJtlore.
. Plm th6 rcrk aca abod 2'4' bebw the . oesiqn sp6cialus tmb it md€d
elbow whsn standingor sat€d in m erccl . 06sign tmh for u$ by either hand
m8$16 .
. For prcise or delicatet6ks, d# the Us A Minimm handlelenqthOl 4'
. Uss propersize griFEwhich mmmodate
rcfisurfae 4'-8" aboveelbow h€ight.
. For heavy manual6smbly, pl@ the diffoEnt size hands
rcrksurtac 415' b€bw ehow height. . Springbad plieG and sis€
. Slad yourd€signtromthe.rcrkirEpointwherc . Us mn-porcus, rcn-slip, and rcn-@.ductivo
th6 haffi sGtr mst ot tnetrum snps
. T@ls shouHreigh les lhil 9 lbs
2.0 Exc€sslv€ Force . Suspendheavyor awkwardt@ls
. K@pt.tgdttiru €dges sharp and t@ls w€ll
maintaired. 6.0 Posltbn
. SDred Fo@- Altomat6 hands,us l6voG
Use a standing position when:
iBtead ol hJtlom. . Krc Cbilffi ls Unavailable
. lrcroe Mehani:dAdvantags- Us strcrE8r . ThaOpoBlorLiftsMorethil 10 Pounds
mu*le groupeand bng hatdlos
o Thereare high, low, or 6rt6Idod reach€s
. Us ji$ and ftdu€s whsmver possibls
. Solect glov€s @efully. They m r€d@ gri) . The OperatorEx€rtsDowNard tor€s
(wrappingand packing)
streruth up to l50/6. . Th6 OperatorN€edsirobility
5.O R€p€tltlv€ Movem€nt
Use A svstand position when:
. Tsk Enlarg€mnt- Giw rc*ere largerand . Rspsliliveoporatbre have frequent rerches
mG viliodt4ks andi|m&qyclotim. beyondzoms 1
. Mshanizatior Usa sD6cialtools with Etchets . The Operalorperlom both sining and
or Dorer driv€E, standingtasks
Automatbr Allocal6 Ropetitiv€lo mhimg . The T8k R€quiBs Pmbng€d Static E fort
Give the opstdor a mutra! poqluB.
Allow vilialion ot mthod to prev€nta static Use a sitting positbn when:
pGhJE lor enandod perir&. . lt6ro for a rcpetitivo,short cycle re in saled
rcft3p@.
Pemit sev€ralrcrkir€ posiliore . Handsrcrk ls$ than 6' abov6lhs surl@
Re-sqEE jobs to rcdue rcPelition
. L4ge lo@ is mt required
4.O PhYsblooy ; Hardlins reiSht b les tha 10 lbs
. Allow sff p*irE of rcrk when po$ible . Th€ t6k is fine asmbry orwriting
. Allow frequeni rest lor mst ac{iv€mu$les . Th€ op€ratorre6ds body stabilityand
. Starl mw emdoy@s at a sbrer rate eqlililxilm
. Th6 isk reqjiros prtrise f@t @nlrol
5.0 Hand Tools hs extended tire in a
q :
q) (D (J! (D (DE O
(, E
x o?qo? T r\N C')$ (O
E.
=
G coo)o@ @ N o + o
= I \ - C \ - c9 N N N
C F .
(/) ^-
N - @ a? \42 q\ n
.= ociN= @ o)Lo @o Lo
. 9 ;
E LO N CY)
n
@Nscr) (O$F- ^ !
o nc'!qc2
o)
N O ) O O S O O @
NC\O) d \ + P L
o ( \ - r e r j di i o- c ' j o :c
:
( o y ; 6d \ +--
;i iu (4 (, .-
- = P - - =
: v ) - - -
N $ (o @ ( oN N ( o- ( o- v
-
-
=
- -
L
\ v
L A
c.ic.i+ro = NdNoi++cct
EER&=
= h = ^ U
g
*^ -- i X . L \ l
o o.#
(o (o-O (o (o (U (U! (g (U (o_o (o (! (! (o_o Y': 0) o=
> 0 ) i - :
P>ddii
Y c c c o )
x ( o @ C O @ - l t * c D @ - - ( O - @ N N N
.9.9.(o.9 co
o N N = Lri cci + N oj er s N N c"j + c.i o x c.t
F \ ( \ \ \ r r @ c 9 - C ! N N N - S C ! N L > > > ! r
, / \ . \ . \ ,:
oo)@c\|.'r
aq o ? n c .q. qt \ nqna?aaaq i;5tsi6d+
O) $ N @ = o) @ l-. (O CD Lr) @ LO l-- @ O) @ LO
= rl)-r roc{ N-- O-st--O
f -
9 l l l l l
(9 o-o oE o)
$;=RbE33se68EESRsE
N o - o o o N - o o o - c i c i o - - o
-o)o?c!qaaq aqqo?\a a
(O cD O) c(o
O) t'- LO cD cD cD O st o) cD -@ cY) -@ \r
= -O co c! -
t\ co N
F C
@ ; \
a ? >
(D
i\
P ^
^ € ^
! h L ; . *
€ E A
c 8,9;,9 -!a, I EC (U-
; (/) =:-.
,9 e===f
-ii55 6 s! KR+v 9)E9r*-o)
- f ^ E EE s * s E ' F : 6; 6.-
l _ - C = -
CL ;i 6 6 6 c)Q el< P tr l, Ft F.=;i'^ i.? = Y
(, E = ^ g ^ g g-d" & l ; g F E i P ' i ? = i o o ! l J / ( o
trr6,<l-
tt
o Pd-o--o--o-E FE9 E9EEEE3 dE : x'o (or
o f 5rr.3i&6f I A358,i53 1 1 ; ! o x
X i- e6 51-
;: : , t= . r - 3 r- v., Xd
e < co O O O O Lu u- (9 f - --) v --: 2 Z a- O ;; Q EU;v
; ( v F =
e - CD LO LO LO Oi = O \t O O) CD sf lr) @ N
N
(O (O
237 ,5
TABLE 5.I
Workstation
Design:
TheSub-Micro-Space
Plan '17'l
B ,
Dimonsions ln Inch6s
EE
Minimum/Rccommond6dHcavt Ctothing
Adaoled Fromr Mccormick. 1064
't7
20
21
96
Z o n eH 1
445 si
HorizontalReachZones
Figure5.6 - ReochZones
WorkstationDesign:The Sub-Micro-Spaceplan 173
Specialtopics
severalspecifictopics ariserepeatedlyin the ergonomicsofworkstation
design. Among these are band tools,material ltandling, zuorkpositions,
and seating.In addition to the discussionbelow, figure 5.3 contains
principles that apply to theseareas.
Hand tool selection,design,and use are important elementsof
manyworkstationdesigns.The useofthe correcthandtools contributes
to productivity and quality and can prevent CTD and other injuries.
Almost everyworkplacerequiressomeform ofmaterial handling.
Injuries causedby maneuveringmaterialsmanually cost industrieswell
over $15 billion annuallyin direct expenses. The indirect costs^re an
estimatedat $60 to fi75billion. Productivitylossesfrom poor handling
methods are probably even greater. Any tasks that require manual
material handling should be carefully reviewed.Refer to the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health's (NIOSH) Revised
Lifting Equation (1991).
Operatorsmay sit, stand,or both. Work positionsthat combine
sitting and standingpermit operatorsto shift their postures.This helps
reducemusclefatiguefromprolonged staticeffort. Figure5.7 summarizes
the relationship between severalworkplace variables and preferred
seatingpositions.
Heavy Load/Forces
lntermittent
Work .A)
Extended
workEnvelop.
XQrc
VariableTasks \ B
X,
Variable Surface Height
RepetitiveMovement
PSXI ,c)
lDxBxc/
/nVn\
/n\ IE Position
A Sland
Fine Manipulation XO) B Sil/Stand
ru, c Stand. Chair Available
D sil
Worker selection
The physicaldemandsofeveryjob differ, asdo the physical,mental, and
temperamentalcharacteristicsofeachpersonthat performsajob. For opti-
mum performance,thesecharacteristics and capabilitiesshould match.
An employer should identify characteristicsrequired for eachjob
and identifr minimum criteria for thosewho might be selectedfor it.
This will ensurean appropriatematch.In somecases,the identification
may resultin ajob redesignto accommodatea larger
of characteristics
partofthe availablecandidates. At minimum, employersshouldensure
that the peoplein a particularjob do not incur physicalharm because
of a mismatchbetweenjob requirementsand worker characteristics.
The Americanswith DisabilitiesAct (ADA) is anotherreasonto
perform this analysis.This act requiresemployersto accommodate,
within reason,peoplewith disabilitieswho can perform the essential
functionsof ajob. To do so meansthat the essentialfunctionsand the
worker characteristicsneededto perform them must be identified.
The workstationspaceplan
The tasksfor preparinga workstationareillustratedin figure 5.8. Task
05.01setsout aplanfor the designproject.The planincludesidentifying
participantsin the designprojectaswell astasksand their sequence. A
simple and informal plan usually works well at this level.
The modelprojectplanuses thesefundamentalspaceplanelements:
SPUs,affinities,space,and constraints.SPUsincludeoperators,tools,
parts,and machineelements.Affinities evolvefrom the movementof
parts,movementof hands,and the necessityfor observation,and other
indirect factors.Each SPU requiresspace,but in aworkstation,vertical
spaceis more important than it is at other levels.Constraintshave a
different quality. They now include an operator's dimensional and
physiologicallimits and,possibly,regulatorylimits. Processconstraints
may play an important role.
bring togetherthe necessary
In Task 05.02,designers information.
WorkstationDesign:The Sub-Micro-Space
Plan 175
3
o
G
o
o
o
C,
o
o-
tr
o
OilE
o
c
o
E
L
)
c
E q
;:
- g : ; E ^ -
= E 9 3 E ' i
s r ; f i ; s: ii ! )
a
o
O o
@
o o
@ T
o
L
c ui
o o
o
€
i r !
I:
OD>
t:. i
! i - !
ooo
6 Ui: ii 5r
N N
crj r)
trR-a* N $ <t
N
- F = =
=E<,t
gi ?t - g oooNrroN
octcici
-rrr@NrF-o,^,^^N--.. -O.^.^ ^
ciciN d d cicici cicio d 6i d cici ciooci ctcto d c
. > e@
@ @ @ @ a @ a Q @ @ @ @ @( oo No N
@@@ @@(o@ @@(o(o
ooco@@oooooooo
N N @ ( o c oN N N N N N - N
' i l
- l Fu c
U t.F LIJ r O
II 5 =rgE!*sEfi-3tEErt,"53
!,rqF==Ht#fiEqEE{'rE5=_b{=ntri!tr
)
@
I
l g
f,ur ZdS+df -* 5d=dgtZd; dtr;E >';=a
a?2
# f - - (o o -
€ HvJ -q)!\r!)@N sro- ro(9@o)N6@N$cDct
x?oooqo" r q o -
DEF.H E i p p e p e i p p p e i + + + i P i e p i i i i e e
m I
{basBsssssBsssEEEsBststsstssEEE
o t=t r . . v (9
_ l oR R N - P = - o N r , c o S s o R N S - P - N 9 p N >r.'TtEi
z
Ktr9R F
- l
#H;+5P
TABLE 5.2
178 FacilitiesPlanning
A
t
w
Figure5,10 - Worlstotion
182 FacilitiesPlanning
Summaly
A well-thought-out workstation optimizes productivity both within
itself and in the larger production system. It improves the work
experiencefor everyone.It ensurescontinuedhealth and safety.Such
workstations are an essentialpart of a wodd-class operationsstrateg'y.
A structuredand systematicapproachwill ensureconsistentand high-
quality workstation design.
Chapter6
Site Planning Arild
Written by
Eng
and Location Amundsen
0 1 .o l
Acquire Information
01.o2
DevelopStrategy
0 1 .o 3
Dimension Site
01.o4
Locate Site
ol.os
Prepare Site Specification
01.06
ldentify Site Gandidates
0 1 .o 7
EvaluateCandidates
0 1 .o 8
Acquire Site
Site planning
A siteplan showsland use-today and in the yearsto come.Buildings,
open space,parking, and greenareasare delineated.The plan reflects
the physicalresultsof the businessstrategy,showingspaceutilization'
transport routes, utilities, maintenancesystems' and expansion
possibilities.
Spaceplanning for Level2-the site-positions buildings,parking
lots, drives,utilities, and many other sitefeatures.Industrial engineers
often perform this taskjointlywith an architect,civil engineeror facility
engineer.This taskis bestaccomplishedafter aspecificsiteis acquired.
SitePlanningand Location 189
Transport
Gost Index
I 1 . 0 0- 1 . 2 5
W 1 . 2 6- 1 . 3 5
F i r . s o- r . s o
[---l r.sr- r.ze
f__-.]r.zs*
02.o1
Refine/Gonfirm Information
02.o2
Refine/GonfirmStrategY
02.03
Dimension Site
02.o4 02.05
LayoutInitial Site Layout Saturated Site
02.06
Layout Intermediate Sites
02.o7
Evaluate & Select
Slte
/ / |
1,6
-.9
E6
ots
F.t
o :
F d
o
o
?o
io)
d.E
- E
E 5
,t"7 oo
o
o
Y7--
o
' c6o. =
9)
c)E
o-=
ad
?-3
o
'( l6' = 9
e-o
- c F
.96 iq
J O
a fl3
i
,gE
Zone Plan
Areas are reservedfor
expansionfrom a center
core outwards.
Block Plan
Areas are blockedout by
functionor space type.
Each facilityexpandswithin
a d e s i g n a t e db l o c k .
l Z-l i. D u p l i c a t eP l a n
l l i i , Each facilityhas balanced
lFTlf _..ii """""'i
s p a c e .E x p a n s i o n sd u p l i c a t e
the original.
i i
/ \
i;tlf ; i
i:-m:i StripePlan
Areasare reservedin stripes
i * - E r; i acrossthe site.This is a
l peof zoneplan.
sp e ci aty
i;E-ll i
iF--l--l ; i
Machining F'"*l
E@ Assembly
By Function
F""*l
I r'*l
service
servrce
@
@ Storage Production Personnel
oilrce @
By Product
Heavy Light Multi-Floor SPecial
B y B u i l d i n gT y p e
B y S p e c i a lR e q u i r e m e n t s
6 C
ti! o c
o
E o
I I
I z I
a : E
tl =: o
E ;o ; s
o o
o o
3 oo oo
lt ;r
o I I
=
E E E
c E
I
o
F uc €o E
o !
a :o
x
U = = I
o
;' H€s o o
.9
E E
EE o o f
b
o
E* a
@ N
O Y
E
3l
i=_E
(t,I
:)l
o-l
="1
'_i t
c
o
o
E
o T
-o I
t
E
i
E .g
o d
z z z
ol z
l
"l N
o
N
o
i
N
il N @
N -l o
@
=lj
'=l
.El >d ll
.l
ol
6l
>l
2 l 9 1 . a- ll
EI
d l
DI .91
at.
FI;
O J
' ) l
9l pl pt;
Figure5.10 - SPUSummary
198 FacilitiesPlanning
UTTING
z L I G H TM A C H ( L M )
i 4
R e a s on
,IATR.FLOW
SERVICE
,/tBR-/ NOTSE
4
SUNNEL IKATT
o T R U C KT R A F F I C
z
UTTING
PARTS
STORAGE
7 FTNT.HED
)
/
I
I
/MAIN PERSONNEL PARKING
)FFIC
$ Today's Space
F FutureExpansion
f- Today's Space
F FutureExpansion
ffi Inexpensive
TTING
PARTS
Z FTNT'HED
Z STORAGE
\\ PERSONNEL PARKTNG
Phase I Phasell
Fa'llltles -Petsoinel
=;;T7-Personnel LIIIL_|__:J Facilitres
neavY L19ht
er\ Machlnlng Machlnlng
cuttln9
Assembly
Raw
Matl
stge t
Paats storage Flnlshed
storage
ilTmtr[fl]Tll mImItTITlTluTm
euttutne
Building ffir""uv
sr*ta erlatne
Type ffi
rormatsutlatno
$
ffi ffi
EFTI]]+ETITITIFITT||n
FEffi yeyg
1631pg1s1y6
Mobility @
frrrirn ailyrmmovaDre
Essenfl
lfllllllll
E Mo""
Ero"nrlu"
Figure5.14-SpocePlan
Conclusion
This chapter has set out the fundamentalsof site selectionand site
planning,demonstratinghow thesedetaillevelsfit into the total facility
planning cycle.Model projectplansoutline the stepsrequiredto select
andplan a small,single-buildingsite.When all the tasksarecompleted,
the resultis a plan that shouldpleasethoseindividualswho participated
in the process.
Chapter 7
Writtenby
OfficeSpacePlanningHerbert Tuftle
MKT. /SALE
ORGANTZATIONAL CHART
MFG. MFG.
CEO
SEC.
PURCH. ACC.
c .s . C .S . SUPV. B
C D
S A L ES STAFF STAFF
1. Appoint a facilitator.
Constraints
There are specificoffice planning considerationsand characteristics
that affect the office planning process.These are: multi-use afeas'
communicationssystems,sharedservices, safetyandsecurity,furniture,
interaction,working hours,decor, lighting' greenery'new construction'
OfficeSpacePlanning 209
We need your help in designingan efficient new off ice layout.pleasecomplete this surveyand
submatto Jane Plow of your home department.Jane plow is the representative of your area on
the Office DesignTeam.We need your survey by February.pleaseadd any additionalcomments
1. What are the three departments(teams,areas)withwhich you have the most interaction?
2. ln the Deparmtnets listed in Number 1above, what are the names of the peoole or tjtles of
the people with whom you have the most frequent contact?
A1--- A2--=-A3_
Bi 82 DJ
C1 C2 c3
3. Pleasecheck the items you use daily.
_ Desk _Telephone _File _Adding Machine
_ Work Surface _Computer _Speakerphone _ln Basket
- Bookcase -Fax -Copy Machine _Conference Room
_ Desk Light _Others {List)
5. Checkwhatyouhavenow.
_ Off ice with lockingdoor _Off ice with non-lockingdoor
_ Of f ice with no door _Cubicle, tallwalls {>5 feet)
_ Cubicle,mediumwalls (<5 feet) _Open or low-walled cubicle
6. What percentage of the work week do you spend in meetings in your work space
(office)?_
7. What percentage of the work week do you spend in meetings outside your work space
{office/cubicle)?
_
8. What percentageof the work week do you spend in meetingsaway f rom your work space
(office/cubicle)?
_
'11.
What do you like aboutthe presentoffice layoutor arrangement?
12. What is the most important aspect of off ice layout the Off ice Design Team should consider?
o
ol-l-lo -T-T--r-
o o o o o o
.....ffi
f--l--
o ll l o t t
o o Q o o o
l
o
A. Two confer€nce
D. Meeting
a€"conf igurations
Moving Day
The team has successfullycompleted a survey, prepared alternative
layouts, and receivedapprovalfor an office layout and budget. But the
day of the move or relocation requires planning, too. What files will
move,when, and where?What utilities, data,telephonewires will be
moved and when? The move should probably take place during a
weekend,or holiday,if possible.A"dry run" beforethe moveis a good
idea. Upon completion of the trial move, the planning team should
discussit with all involvedpartiesand identif' any forgotten details.
OFFICEFURNITURE
- ls there a desk or work spacefor eachpersonon the organizationchart?
- Do the type, style, andcolor match?
- Do utility runsmatch in cubiclewalls?
ADA REOUIREMENTS
- Canwheelchair-empoweredemployees,customers,andvendorstravel about
vour office lavout?
- How muchstrengthdoes it take to open the doors into the office?
- Are alarmsconfiguredwith flashingstrobes for hearing-impaired employees?
- How will you communicatethe new layoutwith visuallyimpairedemployees?
- Do the restroomscomplywith the code andADA requirements?
MAINFRAMECOMPUTERFACILITIES
- Are the floor andceilingdesignedto accommodatethe additionalwires?
- ls temperaturecontroladequate?
- What type of fire sprinkleris available?
RECEPTIONOR LOBBYAREA
- ls there security?
- Does the areapresentthe properimage?
SOUNDCONTAINMENT
- Who is next to the lunchroom?
- Where are the printerandfax machineslocated?
- Who is next to the conferenceandtrainingrooms?
ERGONOMICDESIGN
- ls the workstationdesignedfor a personto spendat least eight hoursthere?
Summary
This chapter has provided the basic elementsfor organizing a office
layoutteam,conductinga surveyofinternal customers'The relationship
betweenfacilitiesplanning and office spaceplanning is illuminating.
Using a macro-levelapproachto officespaceplanningmakesdesigning
officelayoutseasier.Checklistsand examplesassistwithan activitythat
mayonly occuroncein aprofessionalcareer.Thesetechniquesandtools
aredesignedto help createlayoutsthat arelogical,flexible,and meetthe
needsof internal customers.
Chapter8
A FinalNote
aftinity diagram. An idealized spatial arrangement that evenrually becomes a spaceplan. Also
called a configuration diagram.
affinityzones. Locations in a workstation that arewithin an operatois optimum visual and reach zones.
allocation of functions. Divides work between people and machines and largely determines the
quality of the operaror'swork experience
anthropometry. The study of the dimensions, weights, and strengths of human body segments.
block plan. In site planning, a developmentplan that beginswith blocks ofland desienatedfor
eachfunction or areawith long traveldistaniesbet*.en SPUr. Each building may thEn expand
within its block.
bottom-up. Facilities planning.that startswith the details. Deparrmenral units are designed first
and, evenrually, the overall faciliry plan is built.
broadcast. In this system for coordinating production, a schedule dictates the rate and product
mx lor the tlnal oDeratron,
business architecture. The design and development of facilities, organization, products, and
processesinto a functioning, interactive
channel route structure. A fixed route with various stops along which equipment moves. At each
stop loadsoriginating at that point arepicked up and thbse desiined for that point aredropped off.
circulation. A material flow method that usesmobile operators to ceuryd product or transfer a
batch through separateoperatlons.
218 FacilitiesPlanning
constraints. Those conditions that limit an ideal space plan. For example, building size and
shape, columns, floor loading, utility configurationi, and external features'
corporate reeingineering.(Seebusinessarchitecrure)
to the
direct link. A physical link between processesthat allows products to move from the first
,..ond p.oce., without queues,bufiers, or delays.The piocessesstart and stop together.
direct route structure. A route structure that allows materiai to move from its origin directly to
its destination.
is
duplicate plan. In site planning, a development plan that starts with an initial facility, which
t h e n c l o n i d o n a d i a c e n lt a n d '
dynamic lot size. The balance between operations from work piece to work piece.
external factors. In site planning, those site factors that exist largely outside the site boundaries.
FacPlan. A facilities planning model that focuseson-both strategic issuesand minutiae, using
a model project plan io guidJand stmcture each project.
functional cell. A single processwork cell that operateson a wide variety ofunrelated products'
global site location. The site location level of spaceplanning where the firm decides where to
I'ocatefacilities and determinestheir missions.
group technologycell. Awork celi inwhich a seriesofoperations for severalproducts takes place
in a single cell.
the
human-machine system.In a human-machinesystem,oneor more equipmentdisplaysshow
operator rhe inteinal equipment starus.The op..rtor alters contio_lsenings io changethe
-Corrtiroine
"iJi;;. ob'r"i.r^tior, allows the determination of the effect of altering controls'
key manufacturing task. A task that manufacturing must do well to survive in the market.
layout. (Seespaceplan.)
macro-spaceplanning. The spaceplan levelat which the building, structure,or other sub-unit ofthe
;i;;p[;;;J. i)..ig?.r, d.fine a'ndlocate operating departmentsand determine overall material
Glossary 219
flow' The most important level of planning"it sets the focus, or basic organization,
of the factory.
manufacruring focus, The organization of products and processes.
j"t*rrlcrure.. Suppons operations for all or mosr of a product rine but does not
l!:1P
contrlDute dlrectlv to the Drocess.
Usingbrainstormingtechniquestodevelopthe positive,negatrve,
f:t::,.--l:.C,1ll:11-elest1nS.
anc lnrerestlngpolnts to choosebetweenseveralspaceplan options.
project cell. A work cell that produces a wide variety ofunrelated products using
multiple processes.
spaceplanningunits. The entities arrangedby spaceplan designers.Also called cells and activity
areas.
on
space.standards. One. of six methods used for calculatin-g.space^t:1:,t:"^Tt:-t: -Based
expeflence,spacerequrrementsthat relate to some parameterofthe businessare established
recordinq to iob clasiificationsor placesin the hierarchy'
static balance.when the equipmenttimes for operations,averagedover the entire product mix,
are similar or the same.
for an
static work. Tasks that require an operator's body to remain in a stationary position
e-xtendedperiod.
stripe plan. A special version of :zone plan (q.v.) where each SPU expands horizontally'
-d
visual estimating. A method of calculating.space needs. Templates representing :qYpT:"t
fun.l*----rr. pfi.edon alayoutaccordingto "-'doig".;..ludgt"entand knowledgeofsimilarinstallations.
workstation. The spaceor areaofa faciliry in which individuals-or operators perform tasks' This
ranges from an assimbly station in a faciory to a cube in an office'
Each
zone plan. In site planning, a developmentplan that beginswith a central core ofspace.
Sijij.?;,i.^ ;, i.tiuity f,as , ,.lateb zone.'As sp".. neEdr incr.^se, the SPUs expand outward
but within their designaiedzones.
Bibliography
A bottom-up 9
brainstorming 98
A affinities 81 broadcast 138
accelerator 163 building outline 91
accounting 203 bulletin boards 157
acquisition 188
activity area. 24 C
administration 203
aerospace engineers 54 CAD systems 25
aesthetics 9l carpal tunnel syndrome 162
affinities 23 casualovertime 211
affinity diagrams 23 Catholic Church 8
airlines 138 cell definition 69
aisles 85 cells 22
all-salary systems 146 cellular 46
allocation 163 central system 138
allocation of functions 162 channel route structure 138
American National Standards Institute channel structures 138
24. character positions 127
Americans with Disabilities Act 174 Charles Sorensen 152
anthropometric data 168 checklists 214
anthropometrics 166 circulation 141
architects l3 city buses 138
archives 210 classicaldesign 169
artwork 32 clearance 169
assembly lines 139 cloning 9
codingand classification 118
B commandand control 145
communication 24
backtracking 52 communicationssystems 208
balance 142 companyculture 203
bar chart 81 compatibility 115
bills of material 139 compensationsystem 136
biomechanics 166 computer simulation 158
block 193 computers 210
block plan 194 conceptual framework 29
body segment class 165 connectordevices 210
Boehm-Davis 163 consensus78
226 FacilitiesPlanning
D F
v
value added index 41
value-adding elements 41
variable flow paths 56
vertical affinity zone 179
vertical integration 55
vertical space 180
video monitors 210
visual communications 156
visual control 156
visual estimating 84
w
warehouses 138
weighted factor analysis 97
weighted numeric scale 179
Wichita, Kansas 6
Wickham Skinner 54
Wiener 163
wires 210
work 4
work cells 111
work positions 173
rvork product 38
work product activity 38
work teams 156
work-in-process 44
workbenches 142
worker selection 162
workers 18
workforce 4
working hours 208
workload 142
workstations 13
writing surfaces 210
z
zone 193
zone plan 193
Aboutthe Authors