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Lecture2 PDF
Lecture2 PDF
Fuel is a source of energy. Industrial growth, among other factors, is largely dependent on consumption
of energy. Large amount of energy requirement can only be met by fossil fuel reserves, though
renewable source of energy can decrease to some extent the dependence on fossil fuel. Optimization of
energy consumption is necessary. Characterization of fuel is important to search ways and means to
optimise the energy consumption.
2.1 Fuel Classification:
Type Natural/ Primary Secondary
Solid Wood, Charcoal,
Peat, Coke
Lignite,
Bituminous Coal,
Anthracite Coal.
Liquid Petroleum Oil,
Tar
Alcohols etc.
Gas Natural Gas Producer Gas
Water Gas
Blast Furnace Gas
Coke Oven Gas
2.2 What is meant by Fuel Characterization?
Fuel characterization concerns with the “analysis” and “energy content of fuel” (also known as calorific
value). Fuel analysis comprises of “proximate” and “ultimate”.
(A)Proximate analysis:
In the proximate analysis, moisture (M), Ash (A) and volatile matter (VM) are determined. Fixed carbon
(FC) is obtained from the following equation:
There are standard tests to determine proximate analysis. Moisture is determined by drying 1gm of
sample at 105oC for 1hr. Weight loss is expressed in %of initial weight of sample ; i.e.
Ash is weight of residue obtained after complete combustion of 1 g of coal at 700‐750oC. Ash in % is
%A= (weight of residue/weight of sample)×100 −(3)
Volatile matter is the weight loss obtained on heating 1 gm sample of coal at 950oC for 7 minutes in the
absence of air.
Total weight loss of a moist coal= Weight loss due to Volatile matter + Moisture
Weight loss due to VM = Total weight loss – moisture
If coal sample is dry then weight loss is due to VM only.
% VM = (weight loss due to VM/ weight of sample) ×100. − (5)
Fixed carbon can be calculated by eq. 1.
(B) Ultimate Analysis
The main chemical elements in coal (apart from associated mineral matter) are C, O, H, N and S. The
chemical analysis is very important to calculate material balance accurately and calorific value of coal.
For the ultimate analysis C, H, S and N are determined by chemical analysis and expressed on a moisture
free basis. Ash is determined as in proximate analysis and is calculated on moisture free basis. Then,
(C) Note on Ash and Volatile Matter
In fact coal contains mineral matter (MM) like CaCO3, MgCO3, SiO2, Al2O3, Na2CO3 etc. but not ash. Ash is
residue obtained after complete combustion of coal and consists of CaO, MgO, SiO2, Al2O3 etc. Ash and
mineral matter are not identical.
Ash content of coal is important. In high temperature applications where coal is the principle source of
chemical and thermal energy, removal of ash is an important issue. In general ash content of coal should
be low. In addition, melting point of ash is also important. In furnaces where coal is used to heat the
material below its melting point, melting point of ash should preferably be higher than the furnace
temperature because of easy disposal
Whereas in applications where coal is carbonized and the carbonized product is used to derive thermal
and chemical energy for example in blast furnace iron‐making, both amount of ash and its melting point
is of considerable importance. In this case ash should be easily fusible and its melting point should be
lower than furnace temperature. Larger amount of ash will increase the amount of slag.
Total mineral matter (MM) can be calculated by Parr formula1)
MM = 1.08A + 0.55 %S (7)
While calculating FC on mineral matter basis, Parr subtracts 0.15% S from measured fixed carbon.
Volatile Matter
It consists of volatile substances formed during heating of coal out of contact of air. Essentially these are
gaseous substances like CO, H2, H2O, CO2, CH4, N2,,O2 and other hydrocarbons. Volatile matter does not
include moisture of coal but includes water formed during reaction between hydrogen and oxygen of
coal
2.3 How to report analysis?
The different ways to report analysis of coal can be illustrated by an example. Consider sub‐bituminous
coal.
(A) Proximate Analysis
Dry mineral
As received Dry Basis* Dry‐ash free**
matter free***
%M 6.8 − − −
%A 12.3 13.2 − −
%VM 36.2 38.84 44.7 44.6
%FC 44.2 47.42 54.7 55.4
%S 0.5 0.54 0.6 −
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
*Analysis on dry basis = {%A or %VM/ (100‐ %M)} ×100
%FC on dry basis = 100 – (%M + %A)
**Analysis on dry‐ash free basis (daf) = {%VM/{100− (%M + %A)} ×100
%FC on daf basis = 100 − %VM
***Dry mineral matter free FC = (FC – 0.15 %S)/ {100 – (%M + 1.08A + 0.55 %S)}
Dry mineral matter free VM = 100 – Dry mineral matter free FC
(B) Ultimate Analysis:
** % on dry basis = (100 × % element)/ (100 − %M)
2.4 Fuel Oil:
Fuel oil consists of elements such as C, H, O, N and S. It is easy to handle and store and possesses CV
(Calorific Value) greater than other fuels. It is obtained from crude petroleum and its ultimate analysis
does not vary much (C≈ 83 – 88%, H≈ 10 − 13%, O≈1% and S≈1%).
Fuel oil is brought and sold on a volume basis. The specific gravity is determined in degrees API with a
specially marked hydrometer. The unit is defined as follows1) :
o
API = {141.5/ (sp. gr. 60o/60oF)} – 131.5 (8)
For Fuel oil: oAPI = 10o to 50oAPI
NCV varies from 9000 to 10000 Kcal/kg
2.5 Gaseous Fuels:
Natural gas is a fossil fuel. All gaseous fuels have
Combustible Incombustible
CO N2
H2 CO2
Hydrocarbon (CH4, C6H6, C2H4 etc.) H2O
Advantages:
1 Easy to handle
2 Ash less
3 Good Combustion
CV of gaseous fuel can be calculated from the heat of formation values.
2.6 Calorific Value (hereafter CV):
Calorific value (CV) is the amount of heat released on complete combustion of 1 kg of coal at the
reference state of products of combustion (POC hereafter).
For a hydrocarbon fuel containing C, H and S, products of complete combustion are CO2, H2O and SO2.
Reference state of POC is
25oC CO2 (g), SO2 (g) and H2O (l) = Gross Calorific Value (GCV)
100oC CO2 (g), SO2 (g) and H2O (v) = Net Calorific Value (NCV)
So GCV > NCV by an amount equal to latent heat of condensation.
CV can be expressed as cal/g, kcal/kg, kJ/kg, Btu/lb or cal/gmol, kcal/kgmol, kJ/kgmol, Btu/lbmol
Some conversion factors:
1 cu.ft. = 0.02832 m3; 1 kcal = 3.968 Btu = 4186 Joules = 0.00116 kWh
1 kWh = 1.34 hP‐h = 3.6 × 108 J = 860 kcal = 3412.14 Btu
1 hP‐h = 0.746 kWh
Atomic weights of some elements: H = 1, O = 16, S = 32, N = 14
(A) Determination of CV of Solid Fuel
CV can be determined experimentally or from theoretical considerations. In laboratory Bomb
calorimeter is used where 1 g coal is combusted at constant volume and rise in temperature is
noted1,2) .
Theoretically, CV of coal can be determined from the heat of formation of products of complete
combustion at 298K and 1 atm. pressure.
In terms of % of elements:
NCV = GCV – Heat of vaporization of water
Equations 9 to 12 are Dulong’s formula
Assumptions:
1 Heat of formation of coal is zero.
2 Coal contains H and O. Therefore, available H for combustion with gaseous oxygen = (%H −
%O/8).
3 CV of coal is sum of CV of heat of formation of complete combustion products.
4 Heat of vaporization of water at 100oC = 542 kcal/kg (975 Btu/lb); whereas at 25oC it is 584
kcal/kg (1050 Btu/lb).
(B) Determination of CV of Gaseous Fuel
In determination of gaseous fuel, combustible components are : CO, H2, Hydrocarbons, NH3 etc.,
whereas O2, CO2, N2 are diluents.
Heats of formation of some oxides are1) :
Heats of formation of some hydrocarbons are1):
To note
1 kgmol = 22.4 m3 (1 atm, 0oC)
1 kgmol = 24.45 m3 (1 atm, 25oC)
Consider an example of gaseous fuel of the following composition:
CH4 = 4%
C2H6 = 3%
C3H8 = 0.5%
N2 and CO2 = Rest
Let us calculate CV of this fuel
In 1 kg mole of gaseous fuel:
Kg moles
C3H8 = 0.005
Heat of combustion of methane
Heat of combustion = (Heat of formation of products) − (Heat of formation of reactants)
By substituting the values of heats o formation, one obtains heat of combustion equals−194.91 ×
103 kcal/kgmol for eq. 13 and −215.95 × 103 kcal/kgmol for eq. 14 respectively.
Similarly, combustion equations for C2H6 and C3H8 can be written and heat of combustion value can
be calculated.
Heat of combustion of C2H6 = −350.56 × 103 kcal/kgmol and of C3H8 is −498.18 ×103 kcal/kgmol
when reference state of POC is vapour. Thus net calorific value of natural gas is
|NCV| = 0.94 ×194.91 × 103 + 0.03 × 350.56 × 103 + 0.005 × 498.18 ×103
= 196.22 × 103 kcal/kgmol of natural gas
= 8.76 × 103 kcal/m3 (1 atm and 273K)
References:
1) R. Schuhmann: Metallurgical Engineering, Vol.1 Engineering Principles
2) O.P.Gupta: elements of fuels, furnaces and Refractories, Khanna Publishers
Key words: Proximate analysis, Ultimate analysis, Materials balance, fuel oil, coal, natural gas.