Hindawi Publishing Corporation

Advances in Civil Engineering

Volume 2011, Article ID 463638, 13 pages
doi:10.1155/2011/463638

Research Article
Chemical, Mineralogical, and Morphological Properties of
Steel Slag

Irem Zeynep Yildirim1 and Monica Prezzi2

1 Fugro Consultants, Inc., 6100 Hillcroft Avenue (77081), Houston, TX, 77274, USA
2 School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA

Correspondence should be addressed to Irem Zeynep Yildirim, iremzeynep@gmail.com

Received 2 February 2011; Accepted 27 July 2011

Academic Editor: J. Antonio H. Carraro

Copyright © 2011 I. Z. Yildirim and M. Prezzi. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited.

Steel slag is a byproduct of the steelmaking and steel refining processes. This paper provides an overview of the different types
of steel slag that are generated from basic-oxygen-furnace (BOF) steelmaking, electric-arc-furnace (EAF) steelmaking, and ladle-
furnace steel refining processes. The mineralogical and morphological properties of BOF and electric-arc-furnace-ladle [EAF(L)]
slag samples generated from two steel plants in Indiana were determined through X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analyses and Scanning
Electron Microscopy (SEM) studies. The XRD patterns of both BOF and EAF(L) slag samples were very complex, with several
overlapping peaks resulting from the many minerals present in these samples. The XRD analyses indicated the presence of free
MgO and CaO in both the BOF and EAF(L) slag samples. SEM micrographs showed that the majority of the sand-size steel slag
particles had subangular to angular shapes. Very rough surface textures with distinct crystal structures were observed on the sand-
size particles of BOF and EAF(L) slag samples under SEM. The characteristics of the steel slag samples considered in this study are
discussed in the context of a detailed review of steel slag properties.

1. Introduction characteristics of steel slag are determined by the processes

The steelmaking industries in the US generate 10–15 million
tons of steel slag every year. Approximately 15 to 40% of
the steel slag output is initially stockpiled in the steel plants
and, eventually, sent to slag disposal sites. Utilization of steel
slag in civil engineering applications can alleviate the need
for their disposal and reduce the use of natural resources. A
better understanding of the properties of steel slag is requir-
ed for large volumes of this material to be utilized in a tech-
nically sound manner in civil engineering applications.
Knowledge of the chemical, mineralogical, and morpho-
logical properties of steel slags is essential because their ce-
mentitious and mechanical properties, which play a key role
in their utilization, are closely linked to these properties. As
an example, the frictional properties of steel slag are influenc-
ed by its morphology and mineralogy. Similarly, the volu-
metric stability of steel slag is a function of its chemistry and
mineralogy. The chemical, mineralogical, and morphological
that generate this material. Therefore, knowledge of the dif-
ferent types of steelmaking and refining operations that pro-
duce steel slag as a byproduct is also required. This paper
provides an overview of steel slag generation and a literature
review on the chemical and mineralogical properties of steel
slags. Moreover, the mineralogical and morphological char-
acteristics of steel slag samples generated from two steel
plants in Indiana were evaluated through XRD analyses and
SEM studies.
2. Overview
Slags are named based on the furnaces from which they are
generated. Figure 1 shows a flow chart for the iron and steel-
making processes and the types of slag generated from each
process [1, 2].
The main types of slags that are generated from the iron
and steelmaking industries are classified as follow:
2 Advances in Civil Engineering

Ironmaking processes Steelmaking processes

Pellets/fluxes Limestone Fluxes Scraps Ferroalloys Steel scrap Fluxes

Molten iron
Iron ores Coke Pulverized
coal

Basic-oxygen Electric-arc
Blast furnace furnace furnace
(BF) (BOF) (EAF)

BOF slag Molten steel EAF slag

Molten iron
Alloys
Blast-
Ladle
furnace furnace
slag

Ladle slag
Refined molten steel
Air-cooled blast-furnace slag
Expanded blast-furnace slag Continuous casting
Pelletized blast-furnace slag
Granulated blast-furnace slag
Rolling
Billets Blooms Slabs
Main products

Figure 1: Flowchart of iron and steelmaking processes [1, 2].

(i) blast-furnace slag (ironmaking slag), Basic-oxygen-furnace steelmaking

(ii) steel-furnace slag, (Linz and Donawitz process)
Molten iron (70–75%) +
steel scraps (25–30%) +
(a) basic-oxygen-furnace (BOF) slag, lime/dolomite
(b) electric-arc-furnace (EAF) slag,
(c) ladle slag. Refractory lining

2.1. Basic-Oxygen-Furnace Process of Steelmaking and Slag

Generation. Basic-oxygen furnaces, which are located at in- Oxygen
Tap hole lance
tegrated steel mills in association with a blast furnace, are
charged with the molten iron produced in the blast furnace Pure O2
and steel scraps. Typically, the proper basic-oxygen furnace
charge consists of approximately 10–20% of steel scrap and
Slag
80–90% of molten iron [1, 3]. The presence of steel scraps in
the basic-oxygen furnace charge plays an important role in Steel Steel BOF slag
cooling down the furnace and maintaining the temperature
at approximately 1600◦ C–1650◦ C for the required chemical
reactions to take place. BOF converter
Figure 2 shows a schematic representation of a basic-ox-
ygen furnace [1, 4]. First, steel scrap is charged to the furnace Figure 2: Schematic representation of the basic-oxygen furnace
and, immediately after this charge, a ladle of molten iron process [1, 4].
(∼200 tons) is poured on top of it with the help of a crane.
Then an oxygen lance, lowered into the furnace, blows 99%
pure oxygen on the charge at supersonic speeds. During the carbon monoxide, causing the temperature to rise to 1600–
blowing cycle, which lasts approximately 20–25 minutes, 1700◦ C (the temperature in the furnace is carefully moni-
intense oxidation reactions remove the impurities of the tored throughout the oxygen blowing period). The scrap is
charge. Carbon dissolved in the steel is burned to form thereby melted, and the carbon content of the molten iron
Advances in Civil Engineering
is lowered [1, 3]. In order to remove the unwanted chemical
elements of the melt, the furnace is also charged with fluxing
agents, such as lime (CaO) or dolomite (MgCa(CO3 )2 ), dur-
ing the oxygen blowing cycles. The impurities combine with
the burnt lime or dolomite forming slag and reducing the
amount of undesirable substances in the melt. Samples of the
molten metal are collected near the end of the blowing cycle
and tested for their chemical composition. Once the desired
chemical composition is achieved, the oxygen lance is pulled
up from the furnace.
Slag resulting from the steelmaking process floats on top
of the molten steel. The basic-oxygen furnace is tilted in one
direction in order to tap the steel into ladles. The steel pro-
duced in the basic-oxygen furnace can either undergo further
refining in a secondary refining unit or be sent directly to a
continuous caster where semifinished shapes (blooms, bil-
lets, or slabs) are solidified in integrated steel mills. After all
the steel is removed from the basic-oxygen furnace, it is tilted
again in the opposite direction to pour the liquid slag into
ladles. The slag generated from a steelmaking cycle is later
processed, and the final product after processing is referred to
as basic-oxygen-furnace slag (BOF slag). The chemical reac-
tions occurring during the removal of impurities determine
the chemical composition of the basic-oxygen-furnace slag
[1, 3, 5].
2.2. Electric-Arc-Furnace (EAF) Process of Steelmaking and
Slag Generation. Electric-arc furnaces (mini mills) use high-
power electric arcs, instead of gaseous fuels, to produce the
heat necessary to melt recycled steel scrap and to convert it
into high quality steel. The electric-arc furnace steelmaking
process is not dependent on the production from a blast fur-
nace since the main feed for it is steel scrap with some pig
iron. Electric-arc furnaces are equipped with graphite elec-
trodes and resemble giant kettles with a spout or an eccentric
notch on one side. The roof of the electric-arc furnaces can
pivot and swing to facilitate the loading of raw materials.
Steel scraps, either as heavy melt (large slabs and beams) or
in shredded form are separated, graded, and sorted into dif-
ferent classes of steel in scrap yards. Scrap baskets are loaded
carefully with different types of scrap according to their size
and density to ensure that both the melting conditions in the
furnace and the chemistry of the finished steel are within the
targeted range [1–3].
The electric-arc furnace steelmaking process starts with
the charging of various types of steel scrap to the furnace
using steel scrap baskets. Next, graphite electrodes are lower-
ed into the furnace. Then, an arc is struck, which causes elec-
tricity to travel through the electrodes and the metal itself.
The electric arc and the resistance of the metal to this flow
of electricity generate the heat. As the scrap melts, the elec-
trodes are driven deeper through the layers of scrap. In
some steel plants, during this process, oxygen is also injected
through a lance to cut the scrap into smaller sizes. As the
melting process progresses, a pool of liquid steel is generated
at the bottom of the furnace. CaO, in the form of burnt lime
or dolomite, is either introduced to the furnace together with
the scrap or is blown into the furnace during melting. After
3
several baskets of scraps have melted, the refining metallurgi-
cal operations (e.g., decarburization and dephosphorization)
are performed. During the steel refining period, oxygen is in-
jected into the molten steel through an oxygen lance. Some
iron, together with other impurities in the hot metal, includ-
ing aluminum, silicon, manganese, phosphorus, and carbon,
are oxidized during the oxygen injections. These oxidized
components combine with lime (CaO) to form slag. As the
steel is refined, carbon powder is also injected through the
slag phase floating on the surface of the molten steel, leading
to the formation of carbon monoxide. The carbon monoxide
gas formed causes the slag to foam, thereby increasing the
efficiency of the thermal energy transfer. Once the desired
chemical composition of the steel is achieved, the electric-arc
furnace is tilted, and the slag and steel are tapped out of the
furnace into separate ladles. Steel is poured into a ladle and
transferred to a secondary steelmaking station for further
refining. The molten slag is carried to a slag-processing unit
with ladles or slag pot carriers [1–3, 5].
In electric-arc furnaces, up to 300 tons of steel can be
manufactured per cycle (a cycle takes one to three hours to
complete). Initially, the EAF steelmaking process was more
expensive than the BOF process and, hence, it was only used
for production of high quality steels. However, as the size of
the electric-arc furnaces increased over the years, the EAF
steelmaking process has become competitive in the produc-
tion of different grades of steel and has started to dominate
the US steel industry with a 55% share of the total steel
output in 2006, according to USGS [6].
2.3. Ladle Furnace Refining and Slag Generation. After com-
pletion of the primary steelmaking operations, steel pro-
duced by the BOF or EAF processes can be further refined
to obtain the desired chemical composition. These refining
processes are called secondary steelmaking operations. Refin-
ing processes are common in the production of high-grade
steels. The most important functions of secondary refining
processes are final desulfurization, degassing of oxygen, ni-
trogen, and hydrogen, removal of impurities, and final decar-
burization (done for ultralow carbon steels). Depending on
the quality of the desired steel, molten steel produced in the
EAF and BOF process goes through some or all of the above
mentioned refining processes [1, 2]. Most of the mini mills
and integrated steel mills have ladle-furnace refining stations
for secondary metallurgical processes. Figure 3 shows a sche-
matic representation of an electric-arc-furnace and a ladle-
refining unit associated with it [2, 4].
Ladle furnaces, which look like smaller versions of EAF
furnaces, also have three graphite electrodes connected to an
arc transformer used to heat the steel. Typically, the bottom
of the ladle furnace has a pipeline through which argon gas
is injected for stirring and homogenization of the liquid steel
in the furnace. By injecting desulfurizing agents (such as Ca,
Mg, CaSi, CaC2 ) through a lance, the sulfur concentration
in the steel can be lowered to 0.0002% [1]. The addition
of silicon and aluminum during deoxidation forms silica
(SiO2 ) and alumina (Al2 O3 ); these oxides are later absorbed
by the slag generated by the refining process. In addition,
4 Advances in Civil Engineering
Electric-arc-furnace steelmaking
Steel scrap
(recycled steel)
Graphite electrodes
Steel scraps +
l ime/dolomite
Slag
Molten steel
Steel
Figure 3: Schematic representation of the electric-arc-furnace steelmaking and ladle refining process [2, 4].
in order to adjust precisely the chemical composition of the
steel to produce different grades of steel, the desired alloys are
added to the molten steel through an alloy hopper that is
connected to the ladle furnace. Ladle furnaces also function
as a storage unit for the steel before the initiation of casting
operations. Therefore, ladle furnaces reduce the cost of high-
grade steel production and allow flexibility in the steelmak-
ing operations [1, 2].
3. Chemical Composition of Steel Slags
Both BOF and EAF slags are formed during basic steelmaking
operations, as explained above. Therefore, in general, the
chemical and mineralogical compositions of BOF and EAF
slags are similar. Calcium oxide and iron oxide are the two
major chemical constituents of both EAF and BOF slags.
Ladle slag is generated during the steel refining processes in
which several alloys are added to the ladle furnace to produce
different grades of steel. For this reason, the chemical constit-
uents of ladle slag differ from those of BOF and EAF slags.
Table 1 provides the chemical composition of basic-oxygen-
furnace (BOF), electric-arc-furnace (EAF), and ladle slags
from various sources [7–22].
The main chemical constituents of the basic-oxygen-fur-
nace slag are CaO, FeO, and SiO2 . During the conversion of
molten iron into steel, a percentage of the iron (Fe) in the hot
metal cannot be recovered into the steel produced. This oxi-
dized iron is observed in the chemical composition of the
BOF slag. Depending on the efficiency of the furnace, the
iron oxide (FeO/Fe2 O3 ) content of BOF slag can be as high
as 38% (refer to Table 1); this is the amount of oxidized iron
that cannot be recovered during the conversion of molten
Ladle furnace (refining center)
Standard process for producing high-grade steels
Alloy
hopper
Steel +
alloys +
lime/dolomite
EAF slag
Slag
Molten steel
EAF(L) slag
Mini mills Argon gas
iron into steel. The silica (SiO2 ) content of BOF slag ranges
from 7 to 18%. The Al2 O3 and MgO contents are in the 0.5–
4% and 0.4–14% ranges, respectively. The free lime content
can be as high as 12%. Large quantities of lime or dolomotic
lime are used during the process of conversion from iron to
steel and, hence, the CaO content of BOF slag is typically very
high (CaO >35%) [1, 8, 12, 23].
EAF slag has a chemical composition similar to that of
BOF slag (refer to Table 1). The EAF steelmaking process
is essentially a steel scrap recycling process. Therefore, the
chemical composition of EAF slag depends significantly on
the properties of the recycled steel. Compared to BOF slags,
the main chemical constituents of EAF slags can vary widely.
Typically, the FeO, CaO, SiO2 , Al2 O3 , and MgO contents
of EAF slags are in the 10–40%, 22–60%, 6–34%, 3–14%,
and 3–13% ranges, respectively. Other minor components
include other oxidized impurities, such as MgO, MnO, and
SO3 . EAF slags also contain free CaO and MgO along with
other complex minerals and solid solutions of CaO, FeO, and
MgO. The FeO content of EAF slags generated from stainless
steel production processes can be as low as 2% [24].
Information on the chemical composition of ladle slags
(LS) is limited in the literature. During the steel refining
process, different alloys are fed into the ladle furnace in order
to obtain the desired steel grade. Hence, the chemical com-
position of ladle slag is highly dependent on the grade of steel
produced. As a result, compared to BOF and EAF slags, the
chemical composition of ladle slag is highly variable. Typ-
ically, the FeO content of ladle slag is much lower (<10%)
than that of EAF and BOF slags. On the other hand, the
Al2 O3 and CaO contents are typically higher for ladle slags
(refer to Table 1).
 Table 1: Chemical composition of BOF, EAF, and Ladle Slags.

Oxide composition (%)

Reference Slag type CaO SiO2 Al2 O3 MgO FeO Fe2 O3 Fe total SO3 MnO TiO2 P2 O5 Free CaO
Advances in Civil Engineering

Das et al. [7] BOF 47.9 12.2 1.2 0.8 26.3 — — 0.3 0.3 — 3.3 —
Juckes [8]a BOF 36.4–45.8 10.7–15.2 1–3.4 4.1–7.8 — — 19–24 0.1–0.2 2.7–4.3 — 1–1.5 2.5–12
Mahieux et al. [9] BOF 47.5 11.8 2.0 6.3 — 22.6 — — 1.9 0.5 2.7 —
Poh et al. [10] BOF 52.2 10.8 1.3 5.04 17.2 10.1 — — 2.5 0.6 1.3 10.2
Shen et al. [11] BOF 39.3 7.8 0.98 8.56 — 38.06 — 0.0 4.2 0.9 — —
Shi [12] BOF 30–55 8–20 1–6 5–15 10–35 — — 0.1–0.2 2–8 0.4–2 0.2–2 —
Tossavainen et al. [13] BOF 45.0 11.1 1.9 9.6 10.7 10.9 — — 3.1 — — —
Waligora et al. [14] BOF 47.7 13.3 3.0 6.4 — 24.4 2.6 0.7 1.5 9.2
Xuequan et al. [15]b BOF 45–60 10–15 1–5 3–13 7–20 3–9 — — — — 1–4 —
Barra et al. [16] EAF 29.5 16.1 7.6 5.0 — 32.56 — 0.6 4.5 0.78 0.6 —
Luxán et al. [17] EAF 24.4 15.4 12.2 2.9 34.4 — — — 5.6 0.56 1.2 —
Manso et al. [18] EAF 23.9 15.3 7.4 5.1 — — 42.5 0.1 4.5 — — 0.5
Shi [12] EAF 35–60 9–20 2–9 5–15 15–30 — — 0.1–0.2 3–8 — 0.0–0.3 —
Tossavainen et al. [13] EAF 38.8 14.1 6.7 3.9 5.6 20.3 — — 5 — — —
Tsakiridis et al. [19] EAF 35.7 17.5 6.3 6.5 — 26.4 — — 2.5 0.8 — —
Nicolae et al. [20] Ladle 49.6 14.7 25.6 7.9 0.44 0.22 0.17 0.8 0.4 — 0.2 —
Shi [12] Ladle 30–60 2–35 5–35 1–10 0–15 — — 0.1–1 0–5.0 — 0.1–0.4 —
Qian et al. [21] Ladle 49.5 19.59 12.3 7.4 — 0.9 — — 1.4 — 0.4 2.5
Setién et al. [22] Ladle 50.5–57.5 12.6–19.8 4.3–18.6 7.5–11.9 — 1.6–3.3 — 0.4–0.5 0.3–0.9 0–0.01 3.5–19
Tossavainen et al. [13] Ladle 42.5 14.2 22.9 12.6 0.5 1.1 0.4 — 0.2 — — —
a
The range of values are compiled based on the chemical composition data from 4 different sources in Great Britain provided by Juckes [8].
b Xuequan et al. [15] report chemical composition of steel slag from refining process (not specified as BOF).

— = data not available.

5
6 Advances in Civil Engineering
4. Mineralogical Properties of Steel Slag
Crystal formation is a function of both the chemical compo-
sition of the melt and its cooling rate. Silica rich blast-fur-
nace slag vitrifies (forms a glassy phase) easily when it is ra-
pidly cooled. Steel slag has a lower silica content than blast-
furnace slag and, hence, steel slag seldom vitrifies even when
rapidly cooled. Tossavainen et al. [13] studied the effect of
the cooling rate on the mineralogy of BOF, EAF, and ladle
slag samples with different proportions of major chemical
constituents and showed that ladle slag rapidly cooled using
the water granulation technique becomes almost completely
amorphous, with the exception of the crystalline phase of
periclase (MgO). On the other hand, the rapidly cooled
(granulated) BOF and EAF slag samples showed very com-
plex crystalline structures similar to those of slowly cooled
BOF and EAF slag samples. Reddy et al. [25] also identified
a very crystalline structure in quenched BOF slag using XRD
analysis. These studies indicate that even when rapidly cool-
ed, in general, steel slag tends to crystallize due to its chemical
composition.
Several researchers studied the mineralogical composi-
tion of steel slags. X-ray diffraction analysis of steel slag sam-
ples shows a complex structure with many overlapping peaks
reflecting the crystalline phases present in steel slag. These
crystalline phases appear to be mainly due to the chemical
composition of steel slag and the slow cooling rate applied
during processing [1, 26–28]. The feed (charge) into the
furnaces vary from one steelmaking plant to another, so var-
iations in the chemical constituents of steel slags produced at
different steelmaking plants are expected. A variety of min-
eral phases were identified and reported in the literature for
EAF, BOF, and ladle slags. Table 2 presents the minerals iden-
tified in steel slags, as reported in the literature [8, 13, 16, 17,
20, 21, 25, 28–30].
The common mineral phases present in steel
slags include merwinite (3CaO·MgO·2SiO2 ), olivine
(2MgO·2FeO·SiO2 ), β-C2 S (2CaO·SiO2 ), α-C2 S, C4 AF
(4CaO·Al2 O3 ·FeO3 ), C2 F (2CaO·Fe2 O3 ), CaO (free lime),
MgO, FeO and C3 S (3CaO·SiO2 ), and the RO phase (a solid
solution of CaO-FeO-MnO-MgO) [21, 24, 31], as can be
seen in Table 2. Since BOF and EAF slags both have high iron
oxide contents, solid solutions of FeO (wustite) are typically
observed as one of the main mineral phases. Ladle slag has a
lower FeO content, and polymorphs of C2 S are therefore fre-
quently observed as the main phase [19, 24, 27, 29].
Due to the presence of unstable phases in its mineralogy,
steel slags can show volumetric instability, caused mainly by
the presence of free CaO. In the presence of water, free lime
hydrates and forms portlandite (Ca(OH)2 ). Portlandite has
a lower density than CaO and, hence, hydration of free CaO
results in volume increase. Ramachandran et al. [32] studied
the hydration mechanism of CaO and proved that when it
is immersed in water, compacted CaO can hydrate almost
completely in a few days with a volume increase as high as
100%. Their study also demonstrated that hydration of lime
by exposure to water vapor causes more expansion than hy-
dration caused by exposure to water due to the effect of tem-
perature. The fact that limes hydrates quickly suggests that
Figure 4: Gravel-size steel slag particle with a lime pocket
(photograph taken at Mittal Steel, Indiana Harbor West Plant).
the majority of the free lime in steel slag will hydrate in a
few days if it is given access to water. However, residual lime
can be embedded in small pockets in gravel-size steel slag
particles. Figure 4 depicts a gravel-size BOF slag particle with
a lime pocket (seen in white). Lime pockets may not hydrate
at all if they are not given access to water through the frac-
tures extending to them. If there are fractures in the slag par-
ticles extending to these lime pockets, then hydration can
progress [8, 12, 33].
Other expansive compounds, such as free MgO, may also
be present in steel slag. Unlike CaO, free MgO hydrates at a
much slower rate, causing significant volume changes for
months or even years. In general, slags generated from mod-
ern steelmaking technologies have low MgO content. How-
ever, if dolomite (CaMg(CO3 )2 ) is used as a fluxing agent
instead of lime, the free MgO content in steel slag increases
and, therefore, the possibility of volumetric expansion due to
hydration of MgO increases as well [8, 34–37].
Another reaction that causes volumetric expansion in-
volves the dicalcium silicate (C2 S) phase. The C2 S phase is
commonly present in all types of steel slags and, in particular,
is abundant typically as the main phase in ladle slags. C2 S
exists in four well-defined polymorphs: α, α , β, and γ. α-
C2 S is stable at high temperatures (>630◦ C). At temperatures
below 500◦ C, β-C2 S starts transforming into γ-C2 S. This
transformation produces volumetric expansion of up to
10%. If the steel slag cooling process is slow, crystals break,
resulting in a significant amount of dust. This phase conver-
sion and the associated dusting are typical for ladle slags. For
this reason, ladle slags are commonly called “self-dusting” or
“falling” slags [8, 27].
5. Characterization of Steel Slag from
Indiana Steel Plants
5.1. Materials. The chemical composition, mineralogy, and
morphology of steel slag particles can influence both the ce-
mentitious characteristics and mechanical properties of steel
slag. Two different types of steel slag (BOF and EAF ladle
slags) generated from Indiana steel plants were considered
in this study.
Advances in Civil Engineering 7

Table 2: Mineralogical phases of BOF, EAF, and ladle slags.

Reference Slag Mineralogical phases

Barra et al. [16] EAF CaCO3 , FeO, MgO, Fe2 O3 , Ca2 Al(AlSiO7 ), Ca2 SiO4
2CaO·SiO2 , 3CaO·SiO2 , 2CaO·Fe2 O3 , FeO, (Ca, Fe)O (calciowustite), (Mg, Fe)O
Geiseler [29] —
(magnesiowustite), free MgO, CaO
Juckes [8] BOF C3 S, C2 S, C2 F, RO phase (FeO-MgO-CaO-FeO), MgO, CaO
Luxán et al. [17] EAF Ca2 SiO5 , Ca2 Al(AlSiO7 ), Fe2 O3 , Ca14 Mg2 (SiO4 )8 , MgFe2 O4 , Mn3 O4 , MnO2
Manso et al. [28] Ladle Al2 O4 Mg, Ca(OH)2 , Si2 O6 CaMg, MgO, Ca3 SiO5 , β-Ca2 SiO4 , γ-Ca2 SiO4 , SO4 Ca
Nicolae et al. [20] BOF 2CaO·Al2 O3 ·SiO2 , Fe2 O3 , CaO, FeO
Nicolae et al. [20] EAF MnO2 , MnO, Fe2 SiO4 , Fe7 SiO10
Nicolae et al. [20] Ladle CaO·SiO2 , CaOAl2 O3 ·2SiO2 , CaS, Al2 O3
Qian et al. [21] EAF γ-Ca2 SiO4 , C3 MS2 , CFMS, FeO-MnO-MgO solid solution
Qian et al. [21] Ladle γ-Ca2 SiO4 , C3 MS2 , MgO
Reddy et al. [25] BOF 2CaO·Fe2 O3 , 2CaO·P2 O5 , 2CaO·SiO2 , CaO
Reddy et al. [25] BOFq 2CaO·Fe2 O3 , 3CaO·SiO2 , 2CaO·SiO2 , Fe2 O3
Tossavainen et al. [13] Ladle Ca12 Al14 O33 , MgO·β-Ca2 SiO4 , γ-Ca2 SiO4 , Ca2 Al2 SiO7
Tossavainen et al. [13] BOF β-Ca2 SiO4 , FeO-MnO-MgO solid solution, MgO
Ca3 Mg(SiO4 )2 , β-Ca2 SiO4 , Spinel solid solution (Mg, Mn)(Cr, Al)2 O4 , wustite-type solid
Tossavainen et al. [13] EAF
solution ((Fe, Mg, Mn)O), Ca2 (Al, Fe)2 O5
Ca2 SiO4 , 4CaO·Al2 O3 ·Fe2 O3 , Ca2 Al(AlSiO7 ), Ca3 SiO5 , 2CaO·Al2 O3 ·SiO2 , FeO, Fe3 O4 ,
Tsakiridis et al. [19] EAF
MgO, SiO2
Wachsmuth et al. [30] BOF Ca2 SiO4 , Ca3 SiO5 , FeO, 2CaO·Fe2 O3
q
quenched; — = type of slag not provided.

Mittal Steel, Indiana Harbor Works West Plant, which is Table 3: Chemical composition of BOF slag.
located in Highland, Indiana, was the source plant for the
BOF slag. Multiserv Ltd., Harsco Corporation, which per- Oxides % (by weight)
forms slag processing operations at the Mittal Steel Plant, CaO 39.40
supplied representative samples of BOF slag consisting of FeO 30.23
particles smaller than 15 mm. The Whitesville Steel Mill at SiO2 11.97
Nucor Steel, which is located in Crawfordsville, Indiana, was MgO 9.69
the source for the EAF ladle (L) slag. The Edward C. Levy Co., MnO 2.74
which operates at the Whitesville Steel Mill, supplied The
Al2 O3 2.16
EAF(L) slag. This slag is referred to as EAF(L) slag, as it is the
ladle slag generated from the refining of the steel from the P2 O5 1.00
electric-arc furnace. Edward C. Levy Co. provided represen- TiO2 0.40
tative samples of EAF(L) slag consisting of particles smaller Na2 O 0.25
than 9.5 mm. Cr2 O3 0.20
K2 O 0.05
5.2. Testing Methods. The oxide composition of both the Cl 0.01
BOF slag and EAF(L) samples was determined by the slag SO3 0.12
processing companies (Multiserv and Edward C. Levy Co.) L.O.I.a 1.80
using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis. In order to deter- a
L.O.I: Loss on ignition.
mine the mineralogical phases present in the steel slag sam-
ples, X-ray diffraction analyses were carried out on both BOF
slag and on EAF(L) slag samples with a Siemens D-500
diffractometer using copper radiation. Representative oven- Committee for Powder Diffraction Standards, Hanawalt Sys-
dried steel slag samples (with both gravel-size and finer par- tem for identification of inorganic compounds (JCPDS). The
ticles) were crushed until a powder passing the No. 200 software program Jade was also used to help identify the min-
(0.075 mm opening) sieve was attained. The powder samples erals present in the samples. Only qualitative analyses were
were step-scanned from 5 to 65◦ (2θ) in 0.02◦ increments performed due to the presence of overlapping peaks in the
and 1 s count time. The X-ray diffraction patterns of the steel XRD patterns and to the complexity of the crystalline phases
slag samples were analyzed by comparing the peaks present in the slag samples tested. The main, minor, and probable
in the XRD patterns with those provided in The Joint phases were determined for each slag sample tested.
8 Advances in Civil Engineering

Table 4: Mineralogical phases identified in BOF slag based on XRD 1600

analyses.
1400
Mineral type Formula BOF slag
Portlandite Ca(OH)2 major 1200
Srebrodol’skite Ca2 Fe2 O5 major

Intensity (counts)
Merwinite Ca3 Mg(SiO4 )2 major 1000
Larnite Ca2 SiO4 minor
Calcite (manganoan) (Ca, Mn)CO3 minor 800
Lime CaO minor
600
Dolomite CaMg(CO3 )2 minor
Wollastonite CaSiO3 probable
400
Periclase MgO probable
Pentahydrite MgSO4 ·5H2 O probable 200
Monticellite CaMgSiO4 probable
Hematite Fe2 O3 probable 0
10 20 30 40 50 60
Magnesite MgCO3 probable
2θ (deg)

BOF slag X-ray diffraction pattern

Table 5: Chemical composition of EAF(L) slag. Figure 5: X-ray diffraction pattern for BOF slag.

Oxides % (by weight)

CaO 47.52
Al2 O3 22.59 cm
FeO 7.61
MgO 7.35
SiO2 4.64
SO3 2.28
MnO 1.00
Cr2 O3 0.37
TiO2 0.33
P2 O5 0.09
Na2 O 0.06
K2 O 0.02
Zn 0.01
L.O.Ia 6.20 Figure 6: Gravel-size BOF slag particles.
a
L.O.I: Loss on ignition.

6. Chemical Composition and Particle

Steel slag particles were subjected to microscopic exami-
nation to characterize their shape, angularity, and surface
texture. The examination was performed with a scanning
electron microscope (manufactured by ASPEX, Model Per-
sonal SEM) and a light microscope (manufactured by
Nikon). The shape and surface texture of the gravel-size par-
ticles were visible to the naked eye. The medium sand-size
particles were examined under the light microscope. Finer
sand and silt-size particles were examined under the SEM. To
prevent charging of the steel slag particles, they were coated
with palladium with the Hummer 6.2 sputtering system. The
coated steel slag particles were examined on a two-sided cop-
per tape. The SEM images were captured on both photomi-
crographs and digital files.
Mineralogy of BOF Slag
Table 3 gives the oxide composition of the BOF slag samples.
The percentages of most of the oxides present in the BOF slag
samples tested in this study are within the ranges reported
by other researchers [8, 10, 13, 38, 39]. However, the FeO
content of the tested BOF slag samples is slightly higher than
that of most of the BOF slags reported in the literature.
The XRD patterns of the BOF slag samples were very
complex, with several overlapping peaks resulting from the
many minerals present in the samples (see Figure 5). BOF
slag is cooled slowly in slag pits thereby allowing enough time
for formation of well-defined crystals. Several other research-
ers have reported similar, complex XRD patterns for BOF
slag [13, 20, 25].
Advances in Civil Engineering 9

(a)
Personal SEM V4.02i Mar 6, 2007 Purdue University
500X 10 μm 15.0 kV 16 mm 43.4% spot

DT = 6% CPS = 516 FD = 524 LT = 9 1000X 10 μm

VFS = 102 (auto) C X = 79 Y = 57 I = 173
a
F
e
M S P
g d
O N Ai C T
C a l P S l K i

(b)

Figure 7: SEM micrographs of BOF slag sample. (a) Particle shape and (b) surface texture and elemental analysis.

Table 4 summarizes all of the mineral phases that were
identified in the BOF slag samples. The mineral phases iden-
tified in the BOF slag samples were determined as major or
minor phases depending on the intensity of the peaks, which
is an indication of the quantity of the minerals present in the
samples. It is important to note that the very complex min-
eralogical composition of BOF slag, with many overlapping
peaks and different solid solutions of oxides (FeO and MgO),
makes the identification of the phases very difficult. There-
fore, some of the overlapping mineral phases that could not
be determined with certainty were identified as probable.
The most abundant mineral phase present in BOF slag is
portlandite (Ca(OH)2 ). The presence of this mineral is ex-
pected since BOF slag contains 39% lime (CaO), which in
the presence of moisture, converts to Ca(OH)2 . The other
major phases included merwinite (Ca3 Mg(SiO4 )2 ), and sre-
brodol’skite (Ca2 Fe2 O5 ). The presence of free lime (CaO)
and the probable presence of free magnesia (MgO) in the
samples are an indication of the potential for volumetric
instability of the tested BOF slag.
7. BOF Slag Particle Morphology
Figure 6 shows the gravel-size particles of BOF slag. The
gravel-size particles of BOF slag had shapes varying from
subrounded to subangular. Distinct asperities and edges were
visible in subangular, bulky particles. Most of the gravel-size
particles had a high sphericity and a solid structure. A heter-
ogeneous porous structure was also observed on the surface
of a few particles.
Figures 7(a) and 7(b) are SEM micrographs showing the
shape and surface texture of BOF slag particles, respectively.
The SEM studies showed that the sand- and silt-size BOF slag
10 Advances in Civil Engineering

4000 of the sand- and silt-size particles examined under the SEM
had rough surface textures.
3500

3000 8. Chemical Composition and Particle

Mineralogy of EAF(L) Slag
Intensity (c ounts)

2500
Table 5 shows the oxide composition of the tested EAF(L)
2000
slag sample.
Shi [12] reported that the CaO, SiO2 , Al2 O3 , MgO, and
FeO contents of ladle slag are in the ranges of 30–60%, 2–
1500
35%, 5–35%, 1–10%, and 0.1–15%, respectively. The SiO2
content of the EAF(L) slag used in this study was slightly
1000
higher than the lower limit of the range reported by Shi [12].
The EAF(L) slag used in this research is cooled very slowly in
500
the pits under ambient atmospheric conditions. These slow
cooling conditions allow the formation of various crystalline
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 phases; these are reflected in the very complex XRD patterns
2θ (deg) shown in Figure 8. Mineral phases with distinct peaks of high
intensities and some overlapping peaks of low intensities
EAF(L) slag X-ray diffraction pattern were detected. Several other researchers have reported similar
XRD patterns for EAF(L) slag [13, 20, 28].
Figure 8: X-ray diffraction patterns for EAF(L) slag.
Table 6 summarizes all the mineral phases that were iden-
tified in the EAF(L) slag samples. As done for BOF slag, the
mineral phases identified in the EAF(L) slag samples were de-
termined as major or minor depending on the intensity of
the peaks. Some of the overlapping mineral phases that could
not be determined with certainty were identified as probable.
The two major mineral phases present in the EAF(L)
slag samples were portlandite (Ca(OH2 )) and mayenite
(Ca12 Al14 O33 ). The highest peak in the XRD pattern of the
EAF(L) slag samples was observed for portlandite (see
Table 5). Other minor phases identified were lime (CaO),
cm
larnite (Ca2 SiO4 ), uvavorite (Ca3 ·Cr2 (SiO4 )3 ), wollastonite
(Ca, Fe)SiO3 ), and periclase (MgO).

9. EAF(L) Slag Particle Morphology

Figure 9: Gravel-size EAF(L) slag particles.
Figure 9 shows the gravel-size particles of EAF(L) slag. The
gravel-size particles of the EAF(L) slag sample had shapes
Table 6: Mineralogical phases identified in EAF(L) slag based on varying from subrounded to subangular. Both bulky and
XRD analyses.
platy gravel-size particles were observed. Distinct asperities
Mineral type Formula EAF(L) slag and edges were also visible in subangular, bulky particles.
Most of the platy particles had irregular shapes with very
Portlandite Ca(OH)2 major
low sphericity and sharp edges. Figures 10(a) and 10(b) show
Mayenite Ca12 Al14 O33 major the EAF(L) slag sand- and silt-size particles. The EAF(L) slag
Larnite Ca2 SiO4 minor sand- and silt-size particles had subrounded to subangular
Lime CaO minor shapes. Some very irregularly shaped platy particles were also
Uvavorite Ca3 ·Cr2 (SiO4 )3 minor observed. Most of the EAF(L) slag sand-size particles exam-
Wollastonitef (Ca, Fe)SiO3 minor ined under SEM had extremely rough surface textures with
Periclase MgO minor platy, crystalline structures (see Figure 10). Some of the SEM
micrographs of the EAF(L) slag sand-size particles indicated
Calcite CaCO3 probable
the presence of a porous structure.
Merwinite Ca3 Mg(SiO4 )2 probable
f
ferroan.
10. Conclusions
particles had subrounded to angular shapes. Distinct asper- The mineralogical and morphological properties of BOF
ities and edges were visible in angular, bulky particles. Most and EAF(L) slag samples generated from two steel plants in
Advances in Civil Engineering 11

Personal SEM V4.02i Sep 11, 2009 Purdue University

40X 100 μm 15.0 kV 16 mm 41.4% spot

DT = 4% CPS = 372 FD = 321 LT = 3 100X 100 μm

VFS = 32 (auto) C X = 176 Y = 227 I = 237
A a
195.34 μm O
l

M
C N g S SCP T F
a iP ld K i e

(a) (b)

Figure 10: SEM micrographs of EAF(L) slag. (a) sand- and silt-size particle shapes (magnification = 50X) and (b) particles with their ele-
mental analysis.

(3) The main mineral phases identified in the EAF(L)

10.07 μm
Figure 11: SEM micrograph showing the surface texture of a sand-
size EAF slag particle (magnification = 1200X).
Indiana were investigated through XRD analyses and SEM
studies. The following conclusions were reached.
(1) The main mineral phases identified in the BOF slag
samples were Portlandite, srebrodol’skite, and mer-
winite.
(2) Most of the BOF slag gravel-size particles had a high
sphericity and a solid structure. Sand- and silt-size
BOF slag particles had subrounded to angular shapes
and rough surface textures under SEM.
slag samples were portlandite, mayenite, and malen-
terite.
(4) Both bulky and platy gravel-size particles with very
low sphericity and sharp edges were observed in the
EAF(L) slag samples. Sand- and silt-size particles of
EAF(L) slag samples showed subrounded to suban-
gular shapes. SEM micrographs showed that the ma-
jority of the sand-size particles had extremely rough
surface textures with distinct crystal structures.
(5) The morphological studies suggest that both the BOF
and EAF(L) slag samples tested in this study have
favorable frictional characteristics.
(6) The complex XRD patterns of the tested BOF and
EAF(L) slag samples were a result of their chemical
composition and the very slow cooling conditions ap-
plied during their processing. The XRD analyses of
both the BOF and EAF(L) slag samples indicated the
presence of free MgO and CaO. Since these com-
pounds expand when hydrated, the volumetric insta-
bility of the tested steel slags needs to be assessed for
their use in civil engineering applications.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Joint Transportation Re-
search Program administered by the Indiana Department
of Transportation (INDOT) and Purdue University, Edw.
C. Levy Co., and Multiserv Ltd., Harsco Corporation. The
contents of this paper reflect the views of the writers, who
are responsible for the facts and the accuracy of the data
12
presented herein. The contents neither necessarily reflect
the official views or policies of the Indiana Department of
Transportation, nor do the contents constitute a standard,
specification or regulation. The writers are thankful to John
Yzenas of Levy Co., and Nayyar Siddiki of INDOT for their
support during this project.
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