Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2 Seismic methods
33
HELGA WIEDERHOLD
k + 43 μ
VP = (4.2.1)
ρ
μ
VS = ρ (4.2.2)
34
4.2 Seismic methods
35
HELGA WIEDERHOLD
x CMP = x S + x G / 2 (4.2.5)
36
4.2 Seismic methods
37
HELGA WIEDERHOLD
impulsive source (footsteps, single cars, traffic increases as the square root of the number of
etc.). In rural areas with high water table an pulses stacked. A good repeatability of the source
impulsive source may be the better choice. E.g., signal is necessary and independent which kind
in the pilot area Groningen very good results of source is used, we traditionally speak of a
were achieved with seismic blasting caps and “shot”.
only little charges of explosives (Fig. 5.6.7).
With seismic sources operating from the surface, Receivers, geophones, seismometers
signal enhancement in the field is simply possible
by repeatedly “shooting” at a single point and The geophone is the instrument used to
summing the outputs (vertical stacking). The transform seismic energy into an electrical
desired signals, e.g. the reflections, will be voltage. It ordinarily responds to only one
strengthened and the undesired signals, i.e. component of the grounds displacement,
random noise, will remain random. Thus the velocity, or acceleration associated with the
signal-to-noise ratio (S/N ratio) is improved; it passage of a seismic wave. For a seismic
reflection survey with P-waves, this is the vertical
component. A motion-sensitive transducer
converts ground motion to an electrical signal.
The transducer in nearly all modern geophones is
a moving-coil electrodynamic type and consists of
a coil suspended by one or more springs in a
magnetic field that is fixed relative to the
geophone case (Fig. 4.2.8). A seismic wave
38
4.2 Seismic methods
The seismograph is the instrument for controlling of information. With today’s technology, the
and recording the data in a seismic survey. The display and recording of these data amounts is
amount of data within seismic reflection work is not a problem. Even for the near-surface
enormous. Imagine a recording time of 1 second applications, where usually less money is available
with 1 millisecond sampling interval that is 1000 than for hydrocarbon exploration, high quality
data samples for the response of one geophone multichannel seismographs are at hand.
(that is one data channel or trace). Multiply this
by the number of channels the seismograph can Principally there are two possibilities: transmitting
process (at least 48 but may be more than 100) the voltage response from the geophone
and we have the data samples acquired for one analogue via cable to the seismograph where it is
shot. Now imagine we want a seismic section of amplified, possibly filtered and converted to
one kilometre in length and we need a shot every digital samples (traditional seismograph) or
10 meters; thus we will have 100 shots × digitising the analogue signals already near the
48 channels × 1000 samples = 4,800,000 data geophone and transmitting the digital value
values for 1 km of seismic line. With four bytes (distributed seismograph). The advantage of the
needed for writing a data value and 240 bytes latter is less electrical noise, e.g., interference
per trace header, we have about 20 megabytes from power lines, crosstalk etc.
39
HELGA WIEDERHOLD
The seismograph is also the controlling unit of Field acquisition parameter design
the survey. Via noise monitor, the response of
each geophone is monitored and the operator Proper configuration of the field parameters is
can check whether the geophone is in working essential for the success of the seismic survey.
order, whether it is planted well, and how Among the important field parameters are
extensive is the microseism or “noise”. When the geophone spacing, shot spacing, and shot point
noise level is low, the operator gives the start offset to the geophone. It is important to
signal for the shot. And with the shot, the consider carefully what it is that we want to see.
seismograph is triggered and starts recording. A simple model including travel time curves for
The recorded seismogram can then be evaluated the key reflectors and the expected arrival times
and saved to disk or other media. of coherent noise, like ground roll or surface
waves and air-coupled waves, may be very
An important criterion of the seismograph is the helpful and may be calculated by simple
dynamic range that is defined as the ratio of the formulas. This is done for the case of a buried
largest to the smallest recoverable signal. Signal valley in sedimentary environment. The result is
intensity is usually expressed in decibel (dB) units, shown in Figure 4.2.9.
which is the logarithm of amplitude or power
ratio, defined as 20log10 of the amplitude ratio or Direct waves, surface waves (ground roll), or air-
10log10 of the power ratio. Seismologists usually coupled waves start travelling from time zero,
use amplitude rather than power. An increase of that is with triggering the shot, and proceed
6 dB in signal approximately doubles the directly to the receivers at distance x with
amplitude, 60 dB in signal is a factor of 1000 in generally relatively low velocity V (and low
amplitude, and 120 dB is a factor of a million. frequency and high amplitude). The traveltime is
40
4.2 Seismic methods
Fig. 4.2.9: Velocity-depth model and appropriate traveltime-distance model of expected seismic response and
coherent noise. Reflections are marked in the colour of the layer boundary in the velocity-depth model on the left
side. The refraction breaks of the layer boundaries at 10 m and 50 m, with 1600 m/s or 2000 m/s velocities, are
marked by dashed lines (circles in zoom in mark critical offset for refractions). The “noise cone” is defined by the
wide angle reflection from the 10 m layer boundary (orange colour; 600 m/s) and the air-coupled wave (330 m/s)
and the surface wave or ground roll (220 m/s).
41
HELGA WIEDERHOLD
RMS velocities are typically a few percent larger true wavelength. The shallowly emergent
than corresponding average velocities due to the reflected signal has an apparent surface
specific travelpaths. wavelength greater than its true wavelength, but
less than the apparent surface wavelength of
For the design of field parameters and to best more steeply emergent reflected energy. In
record the reflected wavefield the maximum and general, apparent surface wavelength λa is true
the minimum offset must be defined. The wavelength λ divided by the sine of the angle of
maximum offset should be as large as possible to emergence Θ: λa = λ / sin Θ . For vertically
aid velocity analysis. At the same time, it must be incident rays (sinΘ=0), the apparent surface
small enough to avoid wide angle reflection wavelength is infinite; this concerns most
distortion (reflections with angle of incidence reflected signals so the above considerations are
near or greater the critical angle). It must also be not as critical for reflections from horizontal
small enough so that the most important layers, but for dipping layer reflections. Thus for
reflection arrives just below the mute zone the proper spatial sampling of a reflection from a
applied during processing (see below). A rule of dipping reflector the geophone spacing Δx must
thumb is to set maximum offset equal to the be less than half the projection of the shortest
depth to the deepest target reflector. Another wavelength onto the surface. That is
point to keep in mind is that many seismic
sources generate noise (like ground roll etc.) with λ min Vave fmax
large amplitudes that superpose the reflection Δx max ≤ 0.5 = 0 .5 (4.2.13)
sin δ sin δ
energy in the noise cone (see also Fig. 4.2.9 and
Fig. 4.2.12). Often, filtering of the noise is a
problem and one has to mute, or zero, this part with δ maximum dip of reflector.
of the data during processing.
The apparent surface wavelength is a function of Fig. 4.2.10: Apparent surface wavelength versus
emergent angle of the seismic ray. Surface waves angle of emergence. If a wavefront approaches at
propagating horizontally along the ground have an angle θ, the apparent surface wavelength λa will
an apparent surface wavelength equal to their differ from true wavelength λ.
42
4.2 Seismic methods
43
HELGA WIEDERHOLD
necessary. Expressed in relation to frequency, this To convert the data recorded in the field to the
means that the highest frequency that can be final seismic section, preferably a depth section,
resolved, the Nyquist frequency fNy, needs the sophisticated processing is necessary. The general
time between two sample points or sampling steps are described in the following:
interval to be Δt = 1/ 2fNy with Δt in milliseconds
(ms) and f in hertz (Hz). In practice, four samples
are recommended, or Δt = 1/ 4fNy . Example: with Geometry and editing
a sampling interval of 1 ms, frequencies up to
250 Hz are well sampled; the Nyquist frequency ■ transferring the data from the seismograph
is 500 Hz. To avoid aliasing, frequencies above to the seismic processing system (there are
the Nyquist frequency must be removed before standard data formats used in exploration
sampling. The inverse of the sample interval is seismology; SEG standards)
called sample rate ( = 1 Δt ).
■ vibroseis correlation (if relevant)
Fig. 4.2.12: Typical field record (shot gather); raw data (scaled) on the left side, the data on the right side are
scaled and filtered. (1) Refraction signals, (2) air-coupled wave, (R) reflection signals. The ground roll (3) is, in this
example, spatially aliased, i.e. sampled not properly, as shown by the apparent phase velocity of the ground roll in
a direction opposite to that of first arrivals. With a dominant frequency of 62,5 Hz and an apparent velocity of
220 m/s the resulting wavelength is 3,5 m and thus smaller than the receiver spacing of 5 m. This wave should be
muted in further processing steps.
44
4.2 Seismic methods
45
HELGA WIEDERHOLD
evaluated from the CMP gather by several Otherwise, stacking velocities are parameters
methods (Fig. 4.2.14): (1) simply find the velocity used to get the optimum seismic section and are
that best fits the hyperbola to the common- sensitive to the dip of the reflecting interface.
midpoint data; (2) semblance analysis: assume a
normal moveout, measure the coherency at that As a result of the normal-moveout corrections,
normal moveout, and then vary the normal traces are stretched causing their frequency
moveout in order to maximize the coherency; (3) content to shift toward the low end of the
make trial stacks assuming several trial velocities spectrum. This distortion increases at shallow
that are constant in time and space and times and large offsets. To prevent the
determine the stacking velocities that produce degradation of especially shallow events, the
the best result. The result is the so-called stacking amplitudes in the distorted zones are zeroed out
or normal moveout velocity VNMO because the (muted) before stacking (Fig. 4.2.14c).
normal-moveout corrected traces of one CMP
will afterwards be stacked to one trace. When
working with real data, it becomes clear that the CMP stacking
quality of the velocity analysis depends on the
fold. By averaging CMP’s (e.g. three), a so-called After applying the prestack processing described
supergather is composed that may help when above, all traces belonging to a CMP are summed
fold is small. resulting in the stacked seismic section. The
vertical scale of this section is usually arrival time
Where all reflectors are horizontal and where (two-way time TWT).
velocity varies only with depth, the stacking
velocity is approximately the root-mean-square
velocity (Eq. 4.2.12) and is a little higher than the
average velocity of the medium (Eq. 4.2.11).
Fig. 4.2.14: Velocity analysis to determine dynamic corrections: a) CMP gather, b) semblance analysis, c) CMP
after normal moveout correction, d) stack with 20 neighbouring CMP’s.
46
4.2 Seismic methods
If all reflectors are horizontal, this is our final greater or equal arc tangent of an angle the
result that we can convert with the help of the migrated segment is steeper. (2) The length of
stacking velocity into a depth section or, as the reflector is shorter; thus migration shortens
already above mentioned (Eq. 4.2.11 and 4.2.12), reflectors. (3) Migration moves reflectors in the
the true medium velocity will be about some updip direction (Figs. 4.2.15 and 4.2.16).
percent less than the stacking velocity. So we will
get an optimum result when using for depth Migration requires the true medium velocity, i.e.
conversion stacking velocity reduced by, e.g., we must use a velocity field that is independent
10%. A problem arises with nonhorizontal of dip and that means that stacking velocities
layering and this is the usual case. The reflection may be problematic (see above). After migration,
points (or amplitudes) of tilted layer boundaries the section will be converted to a depth section
are plotted in the stacked section normal to the with adequate velocity information (true medium
surface but their true location is normal to the velocity).
layer (Fig. 4.2.15). This is corrected for by a
process called migration.
4.2.5 What can we expect? Results
47
HELGA WIEDERHOLD
Fig. 4.2.16: Effect of migration (example from Ellerbeker Rinne): Left: stacked section, right: migrated section.
48
4.2 Seismic methods
Principally, to validate a seismic section and their Sheriff RE (2002): Encyclopedic Dictionary of
th
conclusions, interpreters must have access to at Exploration Geophysics (4 ed.). – Soc. of
least one field file, along with display copies of Expl. Geophys.; Tulsa, USA.
one or more of the intermediate processing steps
Steeples DW (2005): Shallow seismic methods. –
whenever possible (Steeples & Miller 1998).
In: Rubin Y, Hubbard SS (Eds.),
Hydrogeophysics: 215–251, Springer;
Vertical seismic profiles allow the accurate
Dordrecht, the Netherlands.
determination of the travel time of seismic waves
to various geologic units and thus allow the Steeples DW, Miller RD (1998): Avoiding pitfalls
accurate determination of seismic velocities. They in shallow seismic reflection surveys.
are recommended to secure depth sections and Geophysics 63: 1213–1224.
interpretations.
Steeples DW, Green AG, McEvilly TV, Miller RD,
Doll WE, Rector JW (1997): A workshop
4.2.7 References examination of shallow seismic reflection
surveying. – The Leading Edge 16: 1641–
Buness AH, Druivenga G, Wiederhold H (2000): 1647.
SISSY – eine tragbare und leistungsstarke
seismische Energiequelle. – Geol. JB. E52: 63– Wiederhold H, Gabriel G, Grinat M (2005):
88. Geophysikalische Erkundung der Bremer-
haven-Cuxhavener Rinne im Umfeld der
Gabriel G, Kirsch R, Siemon B, Wiederhold H Forschungsbohrung Cuxhaven. – Z. Angew.
(2003): Geophysical investigation of buried Geol. 51(1): 28–38.
Pleistocene subglacial valleys in Northern
Germany. – Journal of Applied Geophysics 53: Yilmaz O (2001): Seismic Data Analysis (vol 1 and
159–180. 2, 2nd ed.). – Soc. of Expl. Geophys.; Tulsa,
USA.
Knapp RW, Steeples DW (1986a): High-resolution
common-depth-point seismic reflection
profiling – Instrumentation. – Geophysics 51:
276–282.
49
HELGA WIEDERHOLD
50