DISSERTATION

ON

HIGH-RISE HOUSING

Submitted by:

SANDI PRASHANTH REDDY

Scholar no- 101110117

Guided by- Prof. Manmohan Kapshe

MAULANA AZAD NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,

BHOPAL

MARCH 2014

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 MAULANA AZAD NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,
BHOPAL DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING

Declaration

This Dissertation in subject AR 426, entitled “The Role of Landscape in

Controlling Microclimate”, is being submitted as part of requirement for eighth
semester of Bachelor of Architecture by the undersigned for evaluation.

The matter embodied in this dissertation is either my own work or compilation of

others‟ work, acknowledged properly. If, in future, it is found that the above
statement is false, then I have no objection in withdrawal of my Dissertation and
any other action taken by the Institute.

Date: 5 – 05 - 2014 Sandi Prashanth Reddy

Sch. No. - 101110117

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 Acknowledgement

I would like to gratefully and sincerely thank Dr. Manmohan Kapshe for his
guidance, understanding, patience, and most importantly, his friendship during
my dissertation research study. He encouraged me to grow as an instructor and an
independent thinker. I am not sure many graduate students are given the
opportunity to develop their own individuality and self-sufficiency by being
allowed to work with such independence.

The writing of this dissertation has been one of the most significant academic
challenges I have ever taken. Though the following dissertation is an individual
work, I could never have reached the heights or explored the depths without the
help of books published by various authors, the e-books available on the internet,
the research papers published by various authors and the various organizations
and websites providing information related to my dissertation topic.

My very special thanks to my colleagues for their support and suggestions for my
research and all the other respective sources for helping me.

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Table of contents

Declaration i

Acknowledgement ii

Table of contents iii

Table of figures vi

Chapter - 1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1

1.1. Aim ............................................................................................................................ 3
1.2. Objectives .................................................................................................................. 3
1.3. Scope .......................................................................................................................... 3
1.4. Limitations ................................................................................................................. 4
1.5. Methodology .............................................................................................................. 4
Chapter - 2 History and aspects of high-rise buildings ....................................................... 6
2.1. Historical development of high-rise buildings ........................................................... 6
2.2 Architectural aspects and urban development today ................................................. 9
2.3 Economic aspects ..................................................................................................... 12
2.4 Social and ecological aspects ................................................................................... 12
2.5 Infrastructural aspects .............................................................................................. 15
Chapter - 3 Planning and Designing of high rise buildings .............................................. 16
3.1. Planning the project ................................................................................................. 16
3.1.1. Regulations and directives ................................................................................. 17
3.1.2. Fire protection and operational security ............................................................ 17
3.1.3. Stability and construction physics ..................................................................... 18
3.1.4. Protection against natural hazards ..................................................................... 19
3.1.5. Social aspects and protection of the surroundings ............................................. 19
3.1.6. Geotechnical analyses and special considerations ............................................. 20
3.1.7. Construction licensing procedure ...................................................................... 21
3.2. Execution of high-rise structures ............................................................................. 21
3.2.1. Foundations ........................................................................................................ 22
3.2.2. Supporting structure ........................................................................................... 23

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 3.2.3. Facade ................................................................................................................ 26
3.2.3.1. Planning of facades ..................................................................................... 26

3.2.3.2. Design of facades in high-rise buildings .................................................... 27

3.2.3.3. Technical properties ................................................................................... 27

3.2.3.4. Facade assembly ......................................................................................... 27

3.2.3.5. Production and materials ............................................................................ 28

3.2.4. Roof.................................................................................................................... 28
3.2.5. Interior finishing ................................................................................................ 29
3.3. Installation of service systems ................................................................................. 29
3.3.1. Energy and water supply.................................................................................... 30
3.3.2. Ventilation and air-conditioning ........................................................................ 31
3.3.3. Sanitation ........................................................................................................... 32
3.3.4. Control systems .................................................................................................. 32
3.3.5. Vertical transportation and escalators ................................................................ 33
3.3.6. Waste disposal ................................................................................................... 35
3.4. Occupancy stage of high-rise residential buildings ................................................. 35
3.4.1. Maintenance and administration ........................................................................ 36
3.4.2. Deliveries and parking ....................................................................................... 37
3.4.3. Conversions........................................................................................................ 38
3.4.4. Energy savings ................................................................................................... 40
3.4.5. Power generation ............................................................................................... 41
3.5. Fire-fighting ............................................................................................................. 41
3.5.1. Fire extinguishers ............................................................................................... 41
3.5.2. Fire-fighting water ............................................................................................. 42
3.5.3. Sprinklers ........................................................................................................... 42
3.5.4. Other equipment................................................................................................. 44
3.6. Risk potential ........................................................................................................... 44
3.6.1. Design errors ...................................................................................................... 44
3.6.2. Failure to observe building and planning codes ................................................ 45

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 3.6.3. Unsuitable Materials and construction details ................................................... 46
3.6.4. Foundations, settlement and subsidence ............................................................ 46
3.6.4.1. Foundations ................................................................................................ 47

3.6.4.2. Settlement and subsidence .......................................................................... 48

3.6.4.3. Water damage and development of losses .................................................. 49

3.7. High-rise design for Earthquakes zones .................................................................. 50

3.7.1. Action of seismic loads on the building............................................................. 51
3.7.2. Role of Subsoil................................................................................................... 51
3.7.3. Foundations design for earthquake .................................................................... 51
3.7.4. Height of the building ........................................................................................ 52
3.7.5. Importance of supporting structure .................................................................... 52
3.7.6. Symmetry of the high-rise building ................................................................... 54
3.7.7. Shape of the high-rise building .......................................................................... 54
Chapter - 4 Modern construction techniques and technology ........................................... 55
4.1. Concrete Core Walls ................................................................................................ 55
4.2. Prefabrication of Elements ....................................................................................... 57
4.3. Composite Materials ................................................................................................ 59
4.4. External Claddings ................................................................................................... 61
4.5. Special construction equipment ............................................................................... 62
4.5.1. Hoists ................................................................................................................. 63
4.5.2. Gondola/Swinging Stage ................................................................................... 63
4.5.3. Work platforms .................................................................................................. 64
4.5.4. Elevators and Cranes.......................................................................................... 64
4.6. Robotics in Construction.......................................................................................... 66
Chapter - 5 Liveability of present high-rise housing developments ................................. 69
Chapter - 6 Results and conclusions ................................................................................. 71

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Table of figures

Figure 2.1 famous tall building from the past ............................................................................ 7

Figure 2.2 The towers of San Gimignano .................................................................................. 9

Figure 2.3 using the roofs and tops of high-rise buildings for the transmission and
receiving installations .............................................................................................................. 11

Figure 3.1 co2 alarm system .................................................................................................... 18

Figure 3.2 broken glass facades of a high-rise tower in us ...................................................... 19

Figure 3.3 residential appartment collapsed due to earthquake-triggered landslide in

China (2008) ............................................................................................................................ 19

Figure 3.4 Collapsed Tacoma bridge in Washington............................................................... 20

Figure 3.5 Diaphram wall rotary cutter.................................................................................... 22

Figure 3.6 section of outrigger truss connection to core .......................................................... 24

Figure.3.7 facade of a high-rise residential building in New York ......................................... 25

Figure.3.8 example of the building envelope replaceable facade ............................................ 26

Figure 3.9 helipad on the top of the roof of a residential tower in china ................................. 28

Figure 3.10 Two pipe system, one of the methods to supply cool air to tall buildings. .......... 31

Figure 3.11 Schematic representation of how the DDC system works ................................... 33

Figure 3.12 mechanical parking system in China .................................................................... 38

Figure 3.13 Hand-operated fire extinguishers ......................................................................... 41

Figure 3.14 schematic diagram of a sprinkler system.............................................................. 43

Figure 4.1 external view of steel frame work .......................................................................... 55

Figure 4.2 wall panel system ................................................................................................... 56

Figure 4.3showing the placing of prefabricated block in a high-rise building ........................ 57

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Figure 4.4 showing the prefabricated wall systems ................................................................. 58

Figure 4.5 showing a typical panel system .............................................................................. 61

Figure 4.6 typical first generation wall .................................................................................... 61

Figure 4.7 showing hoist .......................................................................................................... 63

Figure 4.8 Work platforms ....................................................................................................... 64

Figure 4.9 Gondola/Swinging Stage ........................................................................................ 64

Figure 4.10 crane working for a high-rise building ................................................................. 65

Figure 4.11 showing a typical crane ........................................................................................ 65

Figure 4.12 system outline of welding robot ........................................................................... 67

Figure 4.13 material handling and assembly systems .............................................................. 67

Figure 6.1 heat island effect ..................................................................................................... 71

Figure 6.2 multidimensional residential environment ............................................................. 72

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 Chapter - 1 Introduction

High-rise housing is usually defined as a residential building with five or more stories, most
of the time encountered in urban or suburban areas. Using technologically advanced
construction mechanisms, high-rise housing initially emerged in the 1950s and 60s as a
solution to the post-war population boom and to the increasing number of people moving into
already overpopulated urban areas. Dealing both with the problem of space management and
efficiency, high-rise housing, for some, epitomized the modern lifestyle.

Depending on the cultural, political and economic environment in which it was built, high-
rise housing gained significantly different images in different parts of the world. In Western
Europe and parts of the USA high-rise housing is often associated with welfare projects,
immigrants and the poor – with a few exceptions where renovated high-rise buildings in the
city centre have been transformed into luxury apartments for the rich and single. By contrast,
in Eastern Europe high-rise housing occupies the majority of the housing market. In Asia,
high-rise housing rarely carries the same stigma that it often does throughout Western Europe
and the USA, being associated with significantly improved living conditions.

Buildings are becoming higher and higher nowadays in maximizing land use and investment
return. Construction of residential developments are considered as focal point of the
construction industry in view of its huge labor contents and turnovers evolved due to its own
nature of works and investments involved from the investors. Investors tend to build
everything possible in a small piece of land to increase their return from their investment in
the quickest possible manner. Practitioners in the construction industry are looking for
different means and methods in enhancing efficiency and meeting requirements from the
statutory bodies and the users due to high construction costs and non-availability of land at
preferred locations, people opt for apartments.

It can be more environmentally friendly as it can save a lot of space and energy, much
cheaper to build than independent homes and in many ways easier to manage than the chaotic
buildings and complex infrastructure, or lack thereof, that currently exists in slums and
shanty towns. High-rise housing is a successful housing solution when faced with the
problem of population growth and urban migration. Urban migration, whereby populations
flock to urban centers looking for work, leaves cities short on affordable housing, transport

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links and can either lead to inner-city poverty or urban sprawl. High-rise housing offers
solutions to both problems by maximizing the number of people that can live on a scarce,
fixed amount of available land.

Amenities are another huge advantage of high rise apartment buildings. Doormen, fitness
centers, controlled entry, security systems, on-site maintenance, round-the-clock security,
back-up power supply, maintenance, car-parking facilities and kids’ play areas, guest housing
and morning coffee are all commonly included amenities in a high-rise apartment building.
Additionally, if you live in a densely populated area, many high-rise buildings will offer
underground parking, either included in the rent or as a separate fee. This parking space can
make maintaining a car easier and parking more efficient. Doormen and security systems are
a great value in terms of safety for singles and travelers.

We can even find a number of problems in the present urban dwellings like the lack of proper
planning of amenities and services stress related problems due to no proper neighborhoods
and high environmental impacts like pollution, noises and low quality of air etc. Hence the
way the natural resources like ventilation and lightning and other amenities are planned for
large number of people is of prime importance.

In India with incomes growing and large numbers of people moving to urban areas, the
demand for housing is on the upswing. In the present context of increasing population and the
land being constant, hence there arises a need for better high-rise housing developments. As
we are in the scenes of the outskirts of the cities and areas lining the highways being
converted into townships and housing boards, this topic in terms of social life is relevant in
understanding the housing trends.

” Metropolitan areas are not just made up of people and firms, but of brick and mortar as
well. The growth and decline of a region’s economy is mediated by the physical

Structure of the place.”

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 1.1. Aim

To create better high rise housing keeping in the view of present urban requirements.

1.2. Objectives

1 To study a brief history and analyse how social, ecological, infrastructural and
economic aspects have transformed the design of high rise structures.
2 Understanding urban regulations and requirements of the people in high-rise
residential areas.
3 To study the planning and designing of high-rise housing developments and issues
related.
4 Analysing new materials, modern practices and techniques used in high rise buildings.

1.3. Scope

 In the history construction of the high-rise buildings started as an expression of

strength and power, but the purpose or the need for the high-rise has changed to the
socioeconomic aspects and in dealing with the urban population in the modern times.
 The main amenities that which increases the attractiveness or the value that contribute
of the comfort or convenience has to be incorporated in the design process like the
sky gardens etc.
 The modern construction materials and methods, the technology available like the
 Prefabricated construction process
 Using robotics in construction and other equipment
 The internal cladding which serves for the functions of weather pollution,
thermal and sound insulation, aesthetics, stability etc.
 All the services like the security safety, water supply, mechanical, sewage, electricity
and the way they are planned for large number of people in high rise housing
developments with respecting their needs and satisfying the government bylaws is
also included.
 Design of large high rise housing projects needs careful understanding urban design
principles and bylaws.

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  Issues related to the urban environment like the liveability, noises, dirt, lack of
neighbourhoods, etc.

1.4. Limitations

1 Work is limited to urban and semi urban development projects and does not take into
consideration of low income groups
2 Document does not cover the financial aspects of high-rise buildings and the
estimation and costing part.
3 The information is mostly relying on the internet sources, a few documents published
and case studies already done.

1.5. Methodology

The process starts by identifying aims and objectives and followed by the literature study and
reviews. Literature gives a sought into the work and makes easy to identify the different
aspects of the high rise i,e, architectural aspects like high rise , housing, history and social
aspects. History helps understand the materials, techniques, difference in social lives. One
can even make inferences from the case study. All these lead to the comparisons and can be
concluded with the results obtained.

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 High rise housing

Aims & objectives

Literature reviews

Architecture with respect to History of high-rise Social concern Case study

high-rise

High-rise Housing Technology Difference in lives Inferences

aspects aspects

Byelaws Materials Techniques Issues

Conclusions

Results

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 Chapter - 2 History and aspects of high-rise buildings

What could be a more appropriate point to begin our consideration of high-rise buildings
than with the Tower of Babel and then to trace their historical development over the
centuries. However, a distinction must be made between “high buildings” and “high-rise
buildings”: “high buildings” have only a few floors and not uncommonly

2.1. Historical development of high-rise buildings

Adams Street, a witness of its times. It has twelve floors – there were originally ten, but two
were subsequently added – and was built in roughly eighteen months. The architect W. L. B.
Jenney used an uncommon new method for the construction of his building: the weight of the
walls was borne by a framework of cast-iron columns and rolled I-sections which were bolted
together via L-bars and the entire “skeleton” embedded in the masonry. The early Equitable
Life Building in New York, which was completed in 1872, also contributed towards the
development of high-rise buildings, for it was the first tall building to have an elevator.
Although it only had six floors, the edge of the roof was no less than 130 feet (roughly 38 m)
above the road surface. Due to its elevator, the upper floors were in greater demand than the
lower floors. Following completion of the “Equitable” building, it was the thing done to
reside on one of the “top” floors. Burnham and Roof’s Monadnock building, which was
completed in Chicago in 1891, must also be mentioned as one of the last witnesses of a whole
generation of solid masonry high-rise buildings. Sixteen floors of robust brick masonry rise
skywards in stern, clear lines: an astonishing sight to eyes accustomed to the frills and fancies
of the late 19th century. Standing on an oblong base measuring 59 m _ 20 m, the building is
reminiscent of a thin slice and not only recalls the industrial brick buildings of the late 19th
century, but also anticipates the formal simplification of the later 1920s.

The buildings rose higher and higher with the spread of pioneering construction methods –
such as the steel skeleton or reliable deep foundation methods – as well as the invention and
development of the elevator. The highly spectacular skylines of North American cities,
particularly Chicago and New York, originated in the early years of the 20th century.
Glancing over Manhattan’s stony profile, the silhouettes dotting the first 12 km of the 22-km-
long island bear vociferous testimony to this dynamic development:

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– The World Trade Center, currently the tallest building in New York, 417 m high,

– The legendary Empire State Building, built in 1931, 381 m,

– The United Nations building erected in 1953, 215 m,

– The Chrysler Building dated 1930, 320 m,

–The former Pan Am Building completed in 1963, 246 m,

– The Rockefeller Center (1931–1940), a complex of 19 buildings,

– The Citicorp Center built in 1978, 279 m, and

– The AT&T Building opened in 1984, a pioneering building by the post-modern architect
Philip Johnson, with an overall height of 197 m.

Figure 2.1 famous tall building from the past

source: (ruck, 2002)

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It is only recently that attention has also turned to interesting high-rise buildings outside
North America: Norman Foster’s Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank, Ieoh Ming Pei’s Bank of
China in Hong Kong and the twin tops of the Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, currently
the tallest building in the world at 452 m. High-rise buildings in Germany are a modern
development and are concentrated particularly in Frankfurt am Main: today, Frankfurt is the
only German city with a skyline dominated by skyscrapers. One of the tallest buildings in the
city is the Messeturm built in 1991 with a height of 259 m, which is not much more than half
the height of the Sears Tower in Chicago, currently the tallest office and business tower in
North America with a total height of 443 m. It was the rapid growth in population that
originally promoted the construction of high-rise buildings. New York once again provides a
striking example: land became scarce well over a hundred years ago as more and more
European immigrants streamed into the city. From roughly half a million in 1850, the city’s
population grew to 1.4 million by 1899. More and more skyscrapers rose higher and higher
on the solid ground in Manhattan, as buildings could only be erected with great difficulty on
the boggy land to the right and left of the Hudson River and East River. In this way, New
York demonstrated what was meant by “urban densification” despite the considerable doubts
originally voiced by experts in conjunction with this development. The first area development
code to come into force in New York was the so-called “zoning law” of 1916, according to
which the height of a building must not exceed two and- a-half times the width of the road
running alongside the building. The building mass was further limited by the requirement that
the floor space index must not exceed twelve times the area of the site. Among other things,
the zoning law stipulated that only the first twelve floors of a building were allowed to
occupy the full area of the site and that all subsequent floors must then recede in zoned
terraces – a requirement of major aesthetic significance, for this terraced form still dominates
the silhouette of American skyscrapers today.

All doubts as to the profitability of high-rise buildings were set aside with completion
of the Empire State Building, the Chrysler Building and other skyscrapers in the 1930s, for
they would never have been built if they could not have turned a profit. Although rentals
proceeded slowly at first when the Empire State Building was completed in the heart of the
recession in the 1930s and it was therefore known as the “Empty State Building” for many
years, it subsequently generated satisfactory revenues once all the premises had been let.

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Cities in Europe and Asia grew horizontally and it was only when production and services
acquired greater economic significance throughout the world and the price of land rose higher
and higher in economic centres after the Second World War that they also began to grow
vertically. Modern Hong Kong is a striking case in point: it encompasses an area of 1,037
km2 (Victoria, Kowloon and the New Territories), of which only one-quarter has been
developed, but with maximum density and impressive efficiency. Almost all the new
buildings, office towers and particularly residential towers in the New Territories have more
than thirty floors.

2.2 Architectural aspects and urban development today

As the historical development of high-rise buildings has already shown, the construction of
edifices reaching higher and higher into the sky was – and to a certain extent still is – an
expression of power and strength. This is equally true of both ecclesiastical and secular
buildings: the power, strength and influence of entire families – i.e. their standing in society –
is mirrored in the erection of ever taller buildings culminating in a battle to build. The towers
of San Gimignano are one of the best preserved examples of this development. In many
North African cities, too, this attitude has moulded the townscape for many centuries and will
no doubt continue to do so in the future.

The names of the builders and architects have only been known since the high middle
Ages around 1000 AD. They created new stylistic elements and added their “signature” to
entire periods. Looking back, this makes it difficult for us today to decide whether these
master craftsmen shaped the various stylistic developments or whether a number of master
builders only became so well-known because their work reflected the contemporary fashion

Figure 2.2 The towers of San Gimignano

tren

source:http://www.aspirantsg.com/
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ds most accurately. That still holds true today, the only difference being that tastes change
very much more rapidly and “degenerate” into short-lived fashions. A building that reflects
the spirit of the times when it is finished can appear “old” within only a few years. The
brevity of the various stylistic trends is one of the reasons for the inhomogeneous appearance
of modern towns and cities. Since architects must expect that later buildings will have their
own, completely different formal identity, they do not see any reason why they should base
their own designs on existing standards, particularly as this would merely cause them to be
considered “unimaginative”.

Three points become clear if we take a closer look at modern trends in high-rise construction:

– The dictate of tastes mentioned above is expressive of the egotism prevalent in modern
society with its desire for status symbols and designer brands. Unfortunately, the public not
uncommonly bows to this dictate, as when town councilors set aside major urban
development considerations and with seeming generosity set up public areas in the form of
lobbies and plazas in high-rise buildings.

– The sheer magnitude of the projects forces all planners to adopt a scale totally out of
proportion to all natural dimensions and particularly to the people concerned when planning
their buildings. In the past, urban development plans were easily drawn up on a scale of 1:100
or at most 1:200, a scale which could still be directly related to the size of a human being.
With today’s high-rise buildings, however, a scale of at least 1:1000 is required simply in
order to depict the building on paper. This is illustrated by the example of the Sears Tower in
Chicago: completed in 1974, the Tower measures 443 m in height. Drawn to a scale of
1:2000, a human being is represented by a minute dot measuring barely 0.9 mm.

– In the past, it was the master builder and architect who defined the construction and
consequently the appearance of a building; today, on the other hand, technical developments
determine what can and cannot be done the appropriate and basically essential symbiosis
between engineering designer and artist has been abandoned. This critical discourse on the
architectural, urban development and economic background is not basically to cast doubt on
high-rise buildings as such, but it does illuminate some of the facets that are central to
considering the risk potential inherent in high-rise buildings. This almost inevitably raises the
question why high-rise buildings should have to be built in today’s dimensions.

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– One reason is indisputably the need for a “landmark”. In other words, to express economic
and corporate power and domination in impressive visual terms. Nothing has changed in this
respect since the very first high-rise buildings were erected.

– The steadily rising price of land in prime locations and an increasingly scarce supply have
made it essential to make optimum use of the air space. Prices in excess of DM 50,000 per
square meter are not uncommon for land in conurbations and economic centres. Despite their
height, however, high-rise buildings still occupy areas of truly gigantic proportions: the ratio
of height-to-base width of the cubes in the 417-m-high World Trade Center, for example, is
6:1.

– Connections to the infrastructure are improved by concentrating so many people in such a

small area. The World Trade Center alone provides jobs for over 50,000 people – that is the
equivalent of a medium-sized town. All institutions of public life are united under a single
roof and the distances between them have been minimized. However, high-rise buildings do
little to prevent land being sealed on a large scale. The suburbs of modern American cities are
a prime example: as far as the eye can see, the landscape is covered with single-family
homes, swimming pools and artificially designed gardens simply to provide sufficient private
residential land for all the people working in a high-rise building occupying only a few
thousand square metres.

– Many of the techniques and materials which are also used for “normal” buildings today
would never have been invented and would never have become established if high-rise
construction had not presented a challenge in terms of technical feasibility. Rationalized,
automated sequences are beneficial to high-rise buildings, at no time in the past were such
huge buildings erected in such a short space of time. Short construction periods also mean
shorter financing periods and consequently profits which partly compensate for the additional
costs incurred in the construction and finishing of the building.

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Figure 2.3 using the roofs and tops of high-rise buildings for the transmission and receiving installations

source: G.Moorthy, hindu photographer

 2.3 Economic aspects

Hundreds of companies and thousands of people depend on the smooth operation of a high-
rise building, from the one-man business of a newspaper vendor or shoeshiner and
corporations with thousands of employees, such as banks, brokers or global players with a
daily turnover in the order of several billions to radio, television and telecommunications
companies which use the roofs and tops of high-rise buildings for the transmission and
receiving installations. In addition, there are innumerable other businesses and workers with
their families whose economic situation is directly or indirectly linked with the high-rise
building. These range from transport companies and catering firms to tradesmen under long-
term contract in the building. Nor should it be overlooked that even the municipal authorities
and the service companies are also affected by the “failure” of a high-rise building and that its
effects can be felt nationwide or even worldwide in the worst case.

This scenario not only applies to such total failure as a major fire or collapse of the building.
Despite (or precisely because of) its size, a high-rise building is an incredibly sensitive and
vulnerable system. Even a brief power failure can result in operational and economic chaos.
The same applies to outside disturbances in the form of strikes by public transport
corporations or a malfunction in the underground or urban railway system.

2.4 Social and ecological aspects

Criticism today focuses particularly on the social and ecological effects of high-rise
buildings. The most commonly voiced reservations with regard to high-rise apartment blocks
concern the social aspect. It is claimed and there are probably a number of studies to prove
that cohabitation in high-rise buildings does not work as smoothly as in homogeneous,
historically grown districts with numerous small, manageable dwellings. The anonymity
suffered by the people in these “residential factories” is criticized in particular – above all on
account of the total isolation from other residents in order to avoid the stress of permanent
contact.

Organic, homogeneous population structures with their positive effects on social conduct are
rarely found and the charge that high-rise apartment blocks are hostile to families and

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children is consequently not entirely unfounded. Two diametrically opposed ghetto situations
can easily arise in high-rise apartment blocks: since the costs for construction and
maintenance of these buildings are disproportionately high, correspondingly high rents must
be charged, with the result that these blocks are more or less reserved for the well-off, while
the socially weaker classes are excluded.

Conversely, however, high-rise apartment blocks can rapidly cease to be attractive if

compromises are made with regard to the building quality, maintenance or infrastructure on
account of the high investment costs entailed. A building in disrepair will soon drive away
the “good” tenants and become a slum. The ghetto situation is intensified when high-rise
apartment blocks are built in newly developed fringe areas, far away from cultural and social
centers – on account of the high cost of land in inner city areas. It is not without good cause
that these areas are commonly referred to as “dormitory towns”. Studies have also proved
beyond all doubt that criminal activity is promoted by huge apartment blocks and particularly
high-rise buildings. According to these studies, this phenomenon is attributable to the
anonymity of the residents, as well as to the “pro-crime” environment with elevators, poorly
lit corridors devoid of human beings, refuse collection rooms and bicycle garages, laundries
and above all underground parking lots. It is a proven fact that considerably more murders,
burglaries, muggings, rapes and other crimes are committed in such buildings than in
residential areas with smaller rented or private homes. Not only high-rise apartment blocks
have a usually negative effect on people’s social environment, office towers are equally
disadvantageous. The vertical structure of the buildings simultaneously underlines the
vertical hierarchy. The location of the office space becomes an indicator of a company’s
“importance” and, if the company occupies several or all the floors in a high-rise building, it
may also be indicative of the employee’s standing in the company. The company’s top
executives reside on the uppermost floors with the best views; the floors below provide a
shield and every employee can positively see the distance between himself and “them up
there“. It is therefore not cooperation. Excessive energy consumption is a major shortcoming
of high-rise buildings and one which could possibly lead to their demise one day. High-rise
buildings are the farthest removed from the ideal form as regards energy efficiency – namely
the sphere, or the cube in the case of houses. That applies to both heating and cooling: some
skyscraper facades have to be cooled by day and heated by night in order to avoid undue
stresses and the resultant damage. The World Trade Center, for example, consumes some
680,000 kWh/day electricity for air-conditioning during periods of strong solar irradiation;

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the Messeturm in Frankfurt burns up energy worth DM 40 per square metre of useful floor
space for heating and cooling every month. A well-insulated low-energy house, by
comparison, uses energy worth less than DM 1 per square metre. The “energy balance” of
high-rise buildings is also poor in other respects such as the water supply, which usually only
operates with the aid of booster pumps, as well as in terms of the disposal systems and
operation of the elevators, etc.

From the point of construction economy in general, high-rise buildings will probably
always be the poorest conceivable solution, from the particularly energy-intensive and
therefore expensive construction as such to the disproportionately high demolition costs.
Moreover, high-rise buildings are made almost exclusively of materials which a construction
biologist would take great pains to avoid, namely concrete, steel, light metal, plastics and a
wide variety of chemicals. Although subjectively unaware of the fact, the residents are
frequently exposed to constant stresses in the form of pollutant emissions and electrosmog.
High-rise buildings are sometimes described as microcosms; that is no doubt meant in a
positive sense, but the reality is different. The people in a high-rise building are totally cut off
from the world around them, from wind and weather, from temperature, from smells, sounds
and moods. They live in an artificial world. At the same time, however, the high-rise
buildings also have negative effect on the world around them, for they not uncommonly
generate air turbulence and downdrafts in their immediate vicinity; they can be a source of
unpleasant reflections and some adjacent areas remain permanently in the shade. Illuminated
facades and large glass fronts are a death trap for many birds.

The people outside the high-rise buildings also often have the feeling that they are being
observed or threatened by the possibility of falling objects. That fear is surely not entirely
unfounded, for there have been cases in which parts of buildings, such as glass panes, have
been torn out of their anchorage by strong winds and injured or even killed people on the
street below.

Our love-hate relationship with high-rise buildings is finally also revealed in such recent box-
office hits from Hollywood as “Deep Impact”, “Godzilla” or “Independence Day”. It seems
that their directors simply cannot avoid the temptation of reducing one of New York’s most
beautiful buildings – the Chrysler Building – to a smouldering heap of rubble with the help of
floods, monsters or meteorites. As a result, these skyscrapers more or less become the real
stars of the film on account of their magic attraction.

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 2.5 Infrastructural aspects

A jungle of political, economic and investment difficulties must be overcome for such
prospective planning because the owner of the high-rise complex bears no direct
responsibility for the large majority of these far-reaching infrastructural measures. The
project’s progress is consequently controlled by the municipal authorities, as well as by
supply and operating companies and not by the owner of the complex.

The situation of Canary Wharf in London’s Docklands is exactly the opposite and proves
that the La Défense type of planning is the economically more appropriate approach, despite
the associated delay in starting construction work and the longer preliminary financing
required. A second City of London was to be created in the heart of the Docklands within the
shortest possible space of time, with thousands of square metres of tailor-made office space,
hotels, shops and apartments for high-income tenants. A rail bound fully automatic cabin
railway known as the Docklands Light Railway was to ensure the necessary access. However,
this transport system fell far short of meeting the requirements, as its capacity was far too low
and it lacked the essential connection to the London Underground. The road connections for
private traffic and public buses were similarly inadequate. This made the Docklands
unattractive to both commercial and private tenants. An Underground link was finally built
after extensive planning and at the enormous cost of roughly US$ 1.7bn; the road connections
were likewise improved at the cost of almost US$ 1bn. Only then did the precarious
economic situation of Canary Wharf improve. As these examples show, almost every high-
rise construction project is doomed to at least economic failure if the infrastructure is not
considered, planned and actually installed down to the very last detail.

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 Chapter - 3 Planning and Designing of high rise buildings

This activities concerned for any high-rise project has many stages right from the planning of
the project to completion, maintenance and administration. These are described in the
following chapters clearly.

3.1. Planning the project

The complexity of the trades to be coordinated has become several times greater since many
disciplines and different experts are involved solely planning the high-rise housing.

– Architects

– Planning engineers for the supporting structures (engineering design and structural
analyses)

– Construction and site management (resident engineer)

– Planning of the technical building services (particularly heating, ventilation, sanitation,

cooling and air conditioning)

– Interior designers

– Construction physics and construction biology

– Planning and site management for data networks

– Planning of the lighting and materials handling

– Planning of the electrical and electronic systems

– Planning of the facades

– Surveying engineers

– Geo-technology, hydrogeology and environmental protection

– Design of outdoor facilities and vegetation

– Surveying of the actual situation in surrounding buildings

If we were to include all the contractors and specialists involved in the project as well, the list
would probably be ten times longer. And if we then consider that bankers, construction
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authorities, legal advisers and even advertising agencies or brokers must also be coordinated
in the course of the entire planning and construction of a high-rise housing project, it soon
becomes clear that highly professional management is essential for such a project. Project
management companies have come to play an increasingly important role in recent years as
they take over the entire organization, structurization and coordination of construction
projects. They act as professional representatives for the client and embody the frequently
voiced desire for the entire project to be coordinated by a single partner.

3.1.1. Regulations and directives

The various laws, regulations, directives and standards in force must be taken into account
when planning and erecting a high-rise building. Generally accepted technical rules for
construction in other words, generally applicable technical and trade rules must be taken into
account and observed in addition to the standards and regulations.

Although each country has its own regulations and directives governing the construction of
high-rise buildings, they are all basically similar in content with a few differences depending
on the local circumstances. It is standard practice in some countries to base the bidding and
planning phase for projects on foreign standards (particularly on the American ANSI Codes
and UL Standards, British Standards or the German DIN standards) or to include various
elements of these foreign standards in the national system of standards.

As a rule, these regulations are primarily designed to ensure personal safety and then to
protect the building against damage and defects. In addition to the requirements imposed by
public authorities, there are also requirements imposed by insurance companies with the aim
of ensuring greater protection for property.

3.1.2. Fire protection and operational security

Many of the construction regulations concern fire protection. There can be many thousands
of people in a high-rise residential building at any one time. If a fire breaks out, they must all
be able to leave the building in the shortest possible space of time and without risk of injury.

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This is why regulations concerning the number and execution of escape routes and fire
escapes, fire compartments and the choice of materials must be observed.

Operational security encompasses regulations governing the safety of elevators and

escalators, the execution of stairs, railings and parapets or the installation of emergency

Figure 3.1 co2 alarm system

source: http://www.prevention.com/sites/default/files/imagecache/ssm_600w/static/03-smoke-
detector-TS-146967710.jpg

lighting. Some regulations also include CO2 alarm systems for underground parking lots;
indeed, there are even regulations governing the non-slip nature of floor coverings in traffic
areas, sanitary rooms and kitchens.

3.1.3. Stability and construction physics

The regulations governing the stability of a building are usually met by the requisite
structural analyses. In addition to demonstrating the internal structural strength of the
construction and safe transfer of loads to the subsoil, the stability calculations must also
include possible deformation due to thermal expansion, wind loads and live loads or dead
weight, for example. This is closely related with demonstrating the safety of the construction,
for instance by taking steps to limit the (unavoidable) cracks in concrete elements.

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 3.1.4. Protection against natural hazards

The regulations and directives governing protection against natural hazards are usually
closely associated with the demonstration of stability. Windstorms and earthquakes are the
most serious natural hazards for high-rise buildings. As a rule, the assumed loads and design
rules for the “load cases” of earthquake and windstorm will be specified by the regulations in
order to ensure that the building will withstand windstorms or earthquakes up to certain load

Figure 3.3 residential appartment collapsed due to Figure 3.2 broken glass facades of a high-rise tower in us
earthquake-triggered landslide in China (2008) source:http://www.hlntv.com/article/2012/08/28/tropical-storm-
source: http://news.softpedia.com/newsImage/China- isaac-hurricane-mobile-home-high-rise-apartment-condo
May-Be-Shaken-Again-Soon-2.jpg/

limits. At the same time, this will serve to rule out the risk of bodily injury due to falling
parts of the building, especially parts of the facade.

3.1.5. Social aspects and protection of the surroundings

The regulations governing social aspects and protection of the area surrounding high-rise
buildings are designed above all to prevent any indirect risk or threat to people. Such
regulations may concern planning aspects, such as the minimum distance between a high-rise
building and neighbouring buildings, or they may take the form of rules defining the
maximum permissible influence that a building can have on the microcosm surrounding it.
Depending on the location of the high-rise building, corresponding statutory instruments may
also govern the effects on air traffic safety or the building’s influence of radio
communications.

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This exceedingly concise outline of applicable regulations illuminates only some of the rules
to be observed when building a skyscraper. If all the regulations governing highrise
construction were to be stacked one on top of the other in printed form, they would
themselves be as high as a multi-storey building.

3.1.6. Geotechnical analyses and special considerations

Planning a high-rise building would be inconceivable today without the help of experts and
technical consultants. Extensive soil analyses are required to determine the strength of the
subsoil before deciding on the location for a high-rise building. In the majority of cases, cores
are drilled into the load-bearing subsoil to obtain soil samples. The drilling profile of the
geological strata making up the subsoil and laboratory analyses of the soil samples provide
the basic data for the soil report which is in turn used as the basis for planning the supporting

Figure 3.4 Collapsed Tacoma bridge in Washington

Source:https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd,d.c2E&psig=AF

structures and choosing a suitable foundation structure with due regard for the loads exerted
by the high-rise building. The forces acting on the high-rise structure in the event of an
earthquake must be taken into account when erecting high-rise buildings in areas prone to
seismic activity. The same applies to wind loads and particularly to the dynamic effects of
windstorm or earthquake loads. The additional vibration loads can result in overall loads of
the same order of magnitude as the load exerted by the dead weight of the structure. The
situation is particularly critical if the vibrations reach the resonant frequency of the building:
in such a case, the vibrations can intensify until the entire building collapses. The collapse of
the Tacoma Bridge in Washington State, USA, was probably the most spectacular case of
destruction due to resonant vibration in a man-made structure.

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In many cases, these effects cannot be determined by ordinary computation. Even computer
simulation cannot always help. Sometimes a decisive element may be lacking to obtain a
mathematical approximation; in other cases, the computer may be too slow or the storage
capacity inadequate.

This frequently makes it necessary to carry out model experiments in a scientific laboratory.
Models of the high-rise buildings are exposed to artificial earthquakes on a vibratory table or
subjected to a simulated hurricane in the wind tunnel. A detailed knowledge of mathematics
and physics is necessary to ensure that the same physical properties and serviceable results
are obtained despite the reduction in scale. For this reason, these studies can only be carried
out by highly specialized test institutes.

3.1.7. Construction licensing procedure

The construction licensing procedure is normally specified in the construction laws of the
country concerned. As a rule, the principal will file an application with all the requisite
documents (description, plans, analyses, etc.) to the relevant construction supervisory
authority. The involvement of specialists is obligatory in the case of larger and more
complicated projects, such as those involving high-rise buildings. Such specialists include
experts from the municipal fire brigade, water authorities, trade supervisory offices,
environment protection agencies or similar offices in other specific fields.

These specialists review the applications for a construction licence and specify any additional
requirements to be met. The licence is then sent to the principal together with the
requirements specified by the specialists; responsibility for complying with these
requirements rests with the principal or owner of the building.

3.2. Execution of high-rise structures

The execution of high-rise buildings involves a complex mechanism right from the
foundations to the super structure, the complexity may vary from the conditions on the site,
weather, wind direction and technique or the technology adopted for the construction.

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 3.2.1. Foundations

Although the foundations are out of sight once the building is completed, they are of
immense importance for ensuring that the dead weight and live loads of the building are
safely transmitted to the native subsoil. These loads are not inconsiderable. The dead weight
of a high-rise building can amount to several hundred thousand tonnes. This value may be
exceeded several times over by the live loads which are taken as the basis for designing the
building and include the loads from equipment and furnishings, people or moving objects, as
well as wind or earthquake loads. Moreover, these loads often exert different pressures on the
subsoil, thus resulting in uneven settlement of the building. In order to avoid such
developments where ever possible, these buildings must be erected on subsoil of high load-
bearing capacity, such as solid rock. Yet even if a strong native subsoil is found near the
surface, shallow foundations will frequently be disregarded in favour a system that transfers

Figure 3.5 showing the foundation layout of a typical high-rise structure

Source: (munich, 2003)

the load to deeper layers on account of the high bending moments to be absorbed from
horizontal forces.

This can be done in several ways. One is to produce round or rectangular caissons
which are lowered to the required depth and bear the foundation structure. Pile foundations

Figure 3.6 Diaphram wall rotary cutter

source: (munich, 2003)

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are probably the most widely used method, however. The piles can both be prefabricated and
then inserted in the native soil or they can be produced on site in the form of concrete drilling
piles. Which method is chosen will ultimately depend on both the structural concept and the
soil conditions prevailing on site. Drilling piles in a whole variety of forms can be used when
working with large pile diameters and very long piles. Modern equipment can easily ram
piles measuring up to 2 m in diameter to depths of well over 50 m. The piles are then
combined into appropriate pile groups in accordance with the loads to be transmitted by the
building. Although the load-bearing capacity can be roughly calculated on the basis of soil
characteristics, the maximum permissible pile load is determined by applying test loads to the
finished piles with the aid of hydraulic presses and comparing the resultant settlement with
the permissible settlement.

Diaphragm walls are another means of producing deep foundations. These walls are
produced directly in the ground and are between 60 and 100 cm thick. They are produced in
sections with the aid of special equipment and a stabilizing bentonite slurry. The result is a
continuous wall in the ground. This method is used in particular when subsoil of high load-
bearing capacity is only found at considerable depth. Diaphragm walls and piles are also used
to safeguard the foundation pit required for construction of the underground part of the
building. The effort entailed can be considerable, particularly if the neighboring buildings are
very close. Rotating drills are mostly used today to minimize vibrations when installing the
retaining wall. Foundation pits can easily be produced to depths of 30 m or more using this
method.

3.2.2. Supporting structure

The steel skeleton permitted hitherto inconceivable flexibility in construction and layout
planning. It also permitted series construction up to great heights, since the vertical dead
weight was considerably lower than when using solid masonry and did not make it necessary
to grade the sectional steel profiles in these areas. The tradition of steel skeleton structures
predates the first high-rise building to have been erected by this method, namely the Home
Insurance Building in Chicago (1885): mills and granaries, as well as engineering structures
(bridges, silos) had already been built in England with an iron framework towards the end of
the 18th century.

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The first frame structures used for the steel skeleton were flexurally rigid frames
corresponding in height to one floor. New York’s Empire State Building, which was
completed in 1932, is one example which clearly shows the advantage of this new method,
namely the short time required for the construction work. Moreover, the complete separation
of outside wall and supporting structure permitted absolute freedom of design for the facade.
Instead of requiring around 300 kg of steel per square metre of base area as in the past,
modern supporting structures only require roughly 125 kg of steel on average.

As the buildings became taller and taller, however, the main problem was no longer the
vertical loads but such horizontal loads as wind and earthquake forces, as well as their
transmission.

This led to the development of what was known as the core method. The individual floors
with their secondary supporting structure, namely the columns, are suspended from a central
core as the primary supporting element, normally in the form of a reinforced concrete or steel
structure with reinforcing shear walls. The columns merely transmit vertical loads, while the
core transmits both vertical and horizontal loads. Its primary function is to reinforce the
building in horizontal direction. The cores and their surrounding walls normally
accommodate vertical service installations, such as elevators, stairs, primary service shafts for
electric power and HLS (heating, lighting, sanitation). A similar supporting effect is obtained
with the aid of horizontal reinforcing elements in the form of shear walls, which may be
considered as an “open core“. However, such supporting structures are rarely found in taller
buildings.

Figure 3.7 section of outrigger truss connection to core

source : (Hoseini, 2007)

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Since the middle of the 20th century, a number of improvements in the supporting structures
for skyscrapers have been introduced by the architects Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM)
in Chicago. One such development by SOM is the “outrigger truss”: a rigid superstructure
known as the outrigger is mounted at the top of a reinforcing core with movably connected
floors and columns. The outrigger connects the columns to the core. They are suspended from
the outrigger and are therefore under tension, thus eliminating the risk of buckling that is
associated with pressure elements. A supporting system in the form of such an outrigger truss
yields further advantages over a simple core construction when it comes to transmission of
the horizontal loads. The bending stress applied to the core area in the lower floors is
considerably reduced when using an outrigger truss. The outrigger itself usually
accommodates such technical floors as the heating and ventilation systems.

Supporting steel structures in the form of tubes are often used for extremely tall buildings. In
this case, the supporting structure is located in the outer facade, which is consequently
designed in the form of a load-bearing facade with small openings. The result is an enclosed,
intrinsically rigid tube without any unnecessary space-filling columns inside.

Figure.3.8 facade of a high-rise residential building in New York

Source:http://www.cgtextures.com/texview.php?id=64197&PHPSESSID=7ft6lb8v9m83fkiv0ofui1jnr5

Page | 25
It was only in the mid-1970s that concrete began to be more widely used in constructing
skyscrapers. Until then, the length of time required for concrete construction and the
associated financing problems were the main reasons for the predominant use of steel
structures in the construction of high-rise buildings. New developments in shuttering,
however, resulted in dramatically shorter construction

3.2.3. Facade

The skeleton construction which has increasingly been used since the turn of the century has
inevitably given rise to new possibilities for the facade. The size, shape and number of
windows were no longer limited by structural requirements following the introduction of
curtain facades, since the loads were now primarily transmitted by posts and columns.

Figure.3.9 example of the building envelope replaceable façade

Source: http://www.glasscanadamag.com/content/view/2028/134/

3.2.3.1. Planning of facades

Most facade designs today are still based on empirical know-how and are not tested until the
design has been established in detail. The tests are carried out on true to scale models of
individual facade elements in order to test adequate resistance to air and water, load-bearing
capacity and the possibility of excessive deformation or glass breakage when subjected to
corresponding loads, e.g. with the aid of firmly anchored aircraft engines.

Page | 26
 3.2.3.2. Design of facades in high-rise buildings

Today’s modern facades are characterized by external wall elements equal to one floor in
height and inserted between the respective structural floors. Non-supporting metal facades
suspended in front of the building have increasingly become established for economic
reasons, particularly in high-rise construction.

The scope for design is enlarged by coloured or mirrored window panels and linings of
natural stone, ceramic tiles or brick. Almost any desired appearance can be produced.

3.2.3.3. Technical properties

Modern facades must meet complex requirements as regards construction technology,

engineering design and construction physics. Thanks to its lightness and almost unlimited
possibilities for profile design, aluminium has largely become the material of choice for the
outer framework. The panes are made of high-grade glass filled with noble gases or with a
surface coating that reflects infrared light. On the inside, modern facades are highly
impermeable to water and water vapour in order to prevent damage due to moisture.

Despite the large areas of glass, protection against the sun is more important than heat loss
today due to good thermal insulation of modern facades. Even where soundproofing and fire
protection are concerned, glass and

3.2.3.4. Facade assembly

Metal facades are at least the equal of conventional constructions. Modern facades also
require a sophisticated ventilation and cooling system. The air-conditioned or twin facade is a
case in point. Here an additional facade of laminated glass is arranged in front of the
conventional facade, thus creating a space through which air can circulate. More complex
ventilation concepts for routing air into and out of the building may be realized by including
additional vertical and horizontal bulkheads. Individually controlled ventilation flaps are
capable of providing a more natural and far less complex exchange of air.

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 3.2.3.5. Production and materials

Due to the extensive material properties and construction physics and on account of the great
manufacturing depth, modern facades are only produced by specialized companies based on
the architect’s design and in accordance with functional, as well as structural aspects before
subsequently being assembled.

The degree of prefabrication in modern facades is considerable. The frames, glazing, parapet
lining, sunshades and anti-glare finish, as well as thermal insulation and sealing are all
assembled into single storey facade elements in the manufacturer’s plant. In many cases, such
technical equipment parts as radiators, air outlets and the ducting for electrical and electronic
equipment are also already integrated at this stage.

In the meantime, fixing elements can be mounted on the shell of the high-rise building.
These elements can usually be displaced in three planes to compensate the dimensional
tolerances occurring in the shell.

3.2.4. Roof

There are no fixed rules governing the roofs of high-rise buildings. The roof design depends
only on the architect’s draft and on the purposes and functions to be fulfilled by the roof.

Most roofs are flat. The electromechanical drive system for the elevators is usually installed
on the roof, in some cases, there is also a rail around the perimeter of the building to
accommodate the equipment required for cleaning the facade, as well as the pertinent
connections and facilities. A heliport or parking space can also be set up on the flat roof of
large high-rise buildings. It is sometimes even used in Japan for golfing practice.

Figure 3.10 helipad on the top of the roof of a residential tower in china
Page | 28
Source: http://www.123rf.com/stock-photo/helicopter_pad.html
Air-intake towers for air-conditioning systems, on the other hand, have become less common
on modern high-rise buildings. Due to the great height of buildings, air conditioning and
heating systems are now decentralized and spread over several individual floors. Moreover,
every installation and every superstructure on the roof means another opening in the intact
roof skin and this can give rise to leakage problems, particularly on flat roofs. It is therefore
advantageous to transfer such systems to lower floors.

Overhead glazing is another type of roof commonly found in high-rise buildings. Such roofs
keep out the elements while at the same time creating spacious assembly areas, usually in the
centre of the building. Atriums and convention halls are two pertinent examples.

High-rise buildings with a sloping roof are usually rounded off by an antenna system with
appropriate lightning protection.

3.2.5. Interior finishing

Walls, ceilings and floors in high-rise buildings are no different to those in other buildings.
The choice of materials and structures depends on the intended use of the building rather than
on its form (high-rise, low-level or cubic). Since particular importance is attached to flexible
use of high-rise buildings, the partition walls, floor structures and (usually suspended)
ceilings will be of corresponding design.

When considering the interior finishing, a distinction must basically be made between load-
bearing or supporting elements which are required for structural reasons and those which
merely partition off the rooms and installations. Load-bearing elements are almost
exclusively made of concrete or steel today, as well as of combinations of these materials.

3.3. Installation of service systems

The installations for air-conditioning, ventilation, lighting and fire alarms are usually
located between the load-bearing ceiling and a suspended false ceiling into which the lamps
are normally integrated. Small-scale electrical installations are contained in trunking in the

Page | 29
screed flooring. Cables can then be routed as desired in the space below the floor; the
equipment is connected to sockets in so-called floor tanks. False floors are to be found
almost everywhere in modern houses, since cables can be rerouted without difficulty, as is
increasingly required on account of the rapid pace of change in office and communications
technology. Moreover, the space below the floor can also be used for ventilation and air-
conditioning installations. Particular attention must be paid to the question of fire protection
in such false floor constructions.

Connection of the flexible partition walls to both the suspended ceiling and the elevated false
floor can pose problems. From the point of view of soundproofing and thermal insulation, it
would be better to install the partition walls between the load-bearing floors. However, since
the suspended ceilings and false floors normally extend over the entire area and are not
confined to any single room on account of the technical installations, the partition walls must
also be fitted between the suspended ceiling and false floor. This consequently makes it
necessary to use soundproofing and thermally insulating floor coverings, as well as ceiling
materials.

Facade elements into which technical components have already been incorporated by the
manufacturer are conveniently linked to the remaining network by means of screw-in and
plug-in connections. However, it is becoming increasingly rare for such technical service
connections to be installed in the external walls, as they do not permit as flexible use of the
room as floor tanks.

Due to the relatively small area available per floor, fire resistant elements (fire walls) are
usually only to be found in the core areas incorporating the elevators, stairwells, service and
installation shafts, sanitary and ancillary rooms. A vertical breakdown into fire compartments
is mostly obtained with the aid of fire-resistant floor

3.3.1. Energy and water supply

Unlike the case with normal multi-storey buildings, the technical service components in high-
rise buildings must meet special requirements if only on account of the height, since the
required supply of energy, water and air and the effluent volume are incomparably larger.
These utilities must also be transported to the very last floor in sufficient quantities, under
adequate pressure and at sometimes totally different temperatures. The planning effort

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required on the part of the service engineers responsible for the supply and disposal services
in high-rise buildings is therefore very much greater than in the case of smaller and medium-
sized projects.

The pressure load on the individual components is reduced through subdivision into several
pressure stages with technical service centres in the basement or on the ground floor, on
intermediate floors and on the roof.

3.3.2. Ventilation and air-conditioning

The systems should be designed in such a way as to ensure flexible division of the areas
(large rooms, individual rooms) so that their use can subsequently be changed without
extensive conversions.

A variety of ventilation and air-conditioning systems can be installed, depending on the

Figure 3.11 Two pipe system, one of the methods to supply cool air to tall buildings.

Source: http://repairshandbook.oxford.gov.uk/oxfordirb/illustrations/twopipesystem.gif

purpose for which the building is used. The high-rise headquarters of the Deutsche Bank in
Frankfurt am Main, for instance, is supplied by a two-channel high-pressure system in which
the air is injected from above and discharged through corresponding exhaust air windows. A
second, independent two-channel high-pressure system additionally blows air into the rooms
from the false floors.

In principle, all air-conditioning and ventilation systems must meet the same basic
requirements:

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– The air in the room must be continuously renewed (at three to six fold exchange of air is
normally required per hour).

– The outside air flow must be guaranteed with a minimum fresh air flow of 30 to 60 m3/h
per person.

– The risk of drafts must be minimized and any nuisance due to the transmission of sound
eliminated.

– It must be possible to shut off individual plant segments when the corresponding parts of
the building are not in use.

3.3.3. Sanitation

Pressure stages are also required for the sanitation, thus permitting the use of smaller pumps.
Sanitary dispensing points must additionally be isolated from the building as such for
soundproofing reasons.

The internal heat loads (e.g. hot exhaust air, exhaust heat from refrigeration systems)
accumulated in high-rise buildings are commonly used to heat water with the aid of heat
pumps or heat recovery systems.

Studies undertaken in the USA have shown that the height does not have any effect on the
flow rate and rate of fall, since faecal matter and effluent do not simply drop to the ground
under the force of gravity, but more or less wind their way downwards along the pipe walls.

3.3.4. Control systems

Today’s complex, ultra-modern control systems are primarily based on intelligent digital
controllers. This technology permits a direct link between DDC (direct digital control)
substations and the centralized instrumentation and control which also takes over energy
management functions, such as:

– Optimization of the overnight and weekend temperature reduction,

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– Linking the heating of service water with re-cooling of the refrigeration system,
operation of the external blinds.

Figure 3.12 Schematic representation of how the DDC system works

source: broacher of tanel control systems

3.3.5. Vertical transportation and escalators

In addition to escalators and automatic walkways, which usually only serve to connect a few
floors conveniently and without delays, passengers and goods are normally carried up and
down by elevators in high-rise buildings. The comparison made above between a high-rise
building and a small town also applies with regard to the number of people inside the
building: in the course of a few hours every morning, tens of thousands of people stream into
a mega building to start work and leave again within a very short space of time at the end of
the day. They are supplemented by visitors, guests and customers, with the result that the
elevators often have to transport well over 100,000 people every day.

It is therefore not unfair to assert that the American inventor of our modern “safety elevator”,
Elisha Graves Otis, was also one of the pioneers who paved the way in 1852 for high-rise
construction. Asked what they feared most in a high-rise building, the respondents claimed
that their greatest horror scenario was not a fire, but a malfunction in the elevator system.
Such catastrophes may be exceedingly rare, but they cannot be excluded entirely. A fully
occupied elevator plummeted when a B25 bomber crashed into the Empire State Building in
1945 (see Section 4.8.2). In the beginning, when the high-rise buildings had no more than

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about 20 floors, every elevator led from the entrance level (not necessarily the ground floor)
to every other floor in the building. The simple control technology was offset by a number of
disadvantages: numerous elevators and elevator shafts were needed. The numerous stops and,
above all, the low speed (with frequent braking and restarting) meant that it took a long time
for the elevator to reach its destination. It was soon found that elevators – like every mass
transit system needed a sophisticated operating concept. The two operating systems
commonly used today – namely group and changeover operation only became possible with
the development of powerful drive systems and controllers, as well as highly effective
braking systems with multiple braking for safety reasons.

In group operation, for which a separate shaft is (still) required for each elevator, the
elevators or groups of elevators only serve certain floors: one group of elevators serves the
first ten floors, for example, while a second group serves floors 10 to 20 from the entrance
level, the next group then serves floors 20 to 30, etc. The groups must overlap on at least one
floor so that people can transfer from the 17th to the 23rd floor, for example, although they
must change elevators in the process. The advantage of this system is that the number of
elevator shafts decreases towards the top of the building, thus counteracting the lower floor
space frequently found on the top floors.

In changeover operation, large and very fast express elevators serve a small number of
central floors which are often also highlighted architecturally. In New York’s Empire State
Building, these elevators take no more than a minute to travel from the ground floor to the
80th floor. “Local elevators” serve the floors between the “changeover floors“. Here too, the
elevators may serve groups of floors in exceptionally large high-rise buildings. If the
equipment rooms are located alongside the elevator shaft, a number of local elevators can be
operated one above the other in the same shaft; in this way, the number of shafts can be
reduced while maintaining the transport capacity. Up to three elevators are contained one
above the other in each of 36 open shafts in New York’s World Trade Center. The volume of
traffic is analysed by microprocessors, thus avoiding long delays. The floor area has been
increased by 25% as a result of these sophisticated systems.

At least one goods elevator with high load-bearing capacity and therefore lower speed is
usually required to transport goods and to serve the building. Depending on the size of the
high-rise building, there must also be a sufficient number of elevator cabins large enough to
accommodate stretchers.

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Elevators should never be used to evacuate people following a catastrophe. It is therefore a
statutory requirement in most countries that a warning be affixed to all elevators prohibiting
use of the elevator in the event of a fire. Elevators are often directed automatically to the
ground floor following a fire alarm and remain there with their doors open. So-called
firemen’s lifts are additionally installed in high-rise buildings for use in the event of a fire.

Apart from the statics, there is no other structural part or equipment in a building subject to
so many regulations and technical controls as the elevator – and with good reason, too.
Constant care and regular maintenance combined with stringent inspections by an
independent test institution, such as the Technical Inspection Agencies (TÜV) in Germany,
are an absolute must for the safe operation of high-rise buildings.

3.3.6. Waste disposal

In the days when waste was collected without preliminary sorting on site, waste chutes were
frequently installed in residential and administrative buildings, as well as in highrise
buildings with up to 20 floors. Such waste chutes are not advisable in taller buildings – due
to the associated greater height of fall – for paper or plastic bags tear open as they fall and
considerable noise is generated by the waste as it falls and collides with the walls and
bottom of the chute. The fire hazard is also enormous. Standard practice today is to collect
the waste separately on each floor: paper, recyclable secondary materials, compostable
organic waste and residual household waste which is collected in large containers and then
transferred via the goods elevator (or service elevator) to a central collecting point (in the
basement) alongside the delivery area or to the underground parking deck. The waste is
compressed to a fraction of its original volume in special containers at the central collecting
point

3.4. Occupancy stage of high-rise residential buildings

When the high-rise building is completed, it is taken into service and occupied by the owner
or tenants, then the new phase starts and new aspects and needs of the high-rise housing
come into play like the maintenance, administration, deliveries, parking, conversions,
energy savings etc.

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 3.4.1. Maintenance and administration

Costs are continuously incurred during this time for maintenance and care of the building,
these costs can have a significant effect on the financial result of the building’s operator. He
must decide whether to employ his own staff to deal with the problems (e.g. cleaning,
maintenance, security, administration) or whether to assign intrinsic functions to external
service-providers. Both alternatives require an efficient building management capable of
taking over the following responsibilities, particularly in the case of high-rise buildings:

a) Technical building management

– Energy supply

– Disposal

– Equipment operation – System communication

b) Commercial building management

– Cost accounting

– Property accounting

– Rentals

– Contract management

c) Infrastructural building management

– Cleaning services

– Caretaker services

– Security services

– Secretarial and postal services

A new market segment known as “facility management” has developed in recent years and
caters to the needs of users in larger properties in particular. It differs from classic building
management in that it is not limited solely to the occupancy phase, but is already in action
during the planning phase and therefore covers the entire life cycle of the building right up to
its demolition.

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Cost-efficient optimization of all processes during the occupancy phase of a high-rise
building requires an efficient and powerful computer system including CAD (computer-aided
design) applications. The latter is particularly important for internal planning changes,
conversions, rehabilitation and changes in occupancy, as well as for permitting
documentation of important information (e.g. layout drawings, general drawings of the
building, security information, furniture inventories and telephone connections).

New requirements are often imposed on the performance of technical equipment in a high-
rise building in the course of its occupancy phase. Different times of day and seasons, as well
as changing tenants require rapid adaptation of the heat, cooling, electric power and lighting.
In office buildings, manufacturing premises and high-rise buildings, this adjustment is
handled by freely programmable DDC systems which record all the data of the connected
technical equipment, such as fans, burners, pumps, valves and external blinds, analyze the
data and then optimize the corresponding process sequence. Unnecessary energy
consumption is avoided, consumers are switched off when their offices are not in use and
switched on again shortly before occupancy recommences. The recorded data are forwarded
to either by the centralized instrumentation and control in the building or via the public
telephone network to an external control centre. Expensive call-outs on site can be reduced
through remote programming by the maintenance company if faults arise or limit values
change.

3.4.2. Deliveries and parking

Although most high-rise buildings are centrally located and within a convenient distance to
public transport systems, a sufficient number of parking spaces must still be provided for
employees, occupants and visitors. The number of parking spaces required is usually
stipulated in the construction regulations in relation to the number of occupants. However,
several hundred or a few thousand parking spaces may still be required for large high-rise
buildings.

For financial reasons, the size of a high-rise building is often also dictated by the number of
parking spaces required. Depending on the nature, location and execution of the garages and
on the building’s structural system (nature of the subsoil), the manufacturing costs for one
parking space can easily amount to around DM 50,000. This means that the cost of building

Page | 37
2,000 parking spaces can reach as much as DM 100m with complex engineering and location
on several levels, including the required ramps and traffic areas.

Traffic links must be created not only for the parking spaces, but also for delivery traffic to

Figure 3.13 mechanical parking system in China

Source:http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_DW3Bp12L7YI/TDNbgYQ-
the building, as well as for refuse-collection vehicles. High-rise buildings are commonly said
4RI/AAAAAAAAgtk/og4l67Fx5zQ/s320/7.jpeg

to represent a “town under one roof“. That, however, also means that the traffic to, around
and from the building is equal to that of a small town, the only difference being that the entire
traffic is concentrated on a handful of access roads and adjacent traffic areas which must be
able to handle this volume of traffic at peak periods.

3.4.3. Conversions

In the planning a high-rise building, care is normally taken to ensure that the building can
subsequently be used in a relatively flexible manner. Internal conversions due to changes of
use following a change of tenant or the changing needs of the present user should not be a
problem. In this way, the owner of the building can also respond more effectively to changes
in the property market. To ensure such flexibility, the service systems are centrally located in
the building. The partition walls separating the individual rooms are non-supporting and can
be relocated to permit subsequent changes in room size. As a rule, the building’s supporting
structure is totally isolated from the system of partition walls inside the building. Where
possible, reinforcing walls are located outside the useful floor area, such as in the core area.
The columns are consequently the only remaining load-bearing elements causing a

Page | 38
“nuisance” in the useful area. A column spacing of 6 to 7 m is widely used as a standard grid,
meeting both architectural and structural requirements.

If the conversion nevertheless affects the load-bearing structure of the high-rise building, it is
essential to draw up a structural analysis for all building states during the conversion work in
order to avoid damage. If other parts of the building remain in use during the conversion
work, special precautions must be taken and the work efficiently coordinated to ensure that
the conversion proceeds without a hitch.

The only possibility for expansion in densely populated cities is normally upwards – i.e. by
adding floors – if additional space is required at a later date. In such cases, particular care
must be taken to ensure that the additional loads can be absorbed by both the existing
building and the existing foundation structure. It may even prove necessary to extend the
foundations in such a case. This can be achieved by a technically complex method using
additional piles which must be produced with the aid of special drilling equipment in the
underground parking levels on account of the low working height.

Demolishing old skyscrapers in inner city areas is an exceedingly complicated business. Such
buildings are normally demolished by blasting after months of preparation and a great deal of
expert knowledge so that the explosive charges are positioned at precisely the right points to
ensure that the building collapses like a stack of cards without a single piece of rubble
leaving the site.

Economic considerations could impose limits on these gigantic plans, for the costs for
construction and operation of a high-rise building increase exponentially with its height. It
does not take a prophet to forecast that the future of high-rise buildings – these “architectural
dinosaurs”, as one critic recently wrote – is highly uncertain in their traditional form. The
disproportionately large manufacturing effort, the high operating costs due above all to the
excessive consumption of energy, and reservations as regards health and safety will result in
a new kind of high-rise building totally different from todays. Since technological progress is
advancing steadily, however, and the attitudes of both owners and architects will also be of
decisive importance, one would almost require the skills of a clairvoyant to predict with any
accuracy the specific changes which are impending. Nevertheless, we shall at least venture a
rough prediction of possible future developments.

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 3.4.4. Energy savings

Consistent use of the savings potential already available today will indisputably be the most
important “source” of energy in the future. Numerous studies have proved that energy
savings of up to 80% can be realized in both the private and the commercial sector without
any loss of comfort or convenience. “Intelligent energy consumption” is a term that is
increasingly being used in this context. As a result, the foundations for a building’s future
consumption of energy are already set in the planning stage: the topographical surroundings
are of importance here, as is consideration of the prevailing wind strengths and directions,
and any shadows cast. An energy-efficient building will be positioned with its “broadside”
away from the sun in warmer climates, while every effort will be made to ensure that as
much of the facade as possible faces the sun in colder climates. Windows facing the sun
should be as large as possible, those facing way from the sun as small as possible (the
keyword is: passive solar architecture). A rotary building is another conceivable possibility
and could be turned towards or away from the sun as required. Particular attention must be
paid to thermal insulation of the facade. Northern European construction standards are a
positive example here, as they specify a thickness of several decimeters for the insulating
layers. Transparent thermal insulation will probably become established in future, as it not
only reduces the heat loss, but can also attract additional heat by allowing the radiated heat to
reach the facade without obstruction. Thermopane glazing with a k-value of less than 1
already represents the state of the art today, like solar glazing with almost 100% reflection of
the radiated heat. Considerable savings can also be achieved inside the building, for instance
by using a combined heat and power generating unit instead of conventional heat and power
generation, or by using variable-speed forced-circulation pumps in the sanitation, heating and
air-conditioning sectors, or by using energy-efficient fluorescent tubes which require up to
80% less electricity than conventional filament lamps, or by controlling the lights via
movement detectors and naturally by ensuring the energy efficiency of every single appliance
used in flats or offices, from well insulated fridges to personal computers with low power
consumption. Reusing the off-heat from air and water will be a matter of greater importance
in the future. Ideally, our future energy requirements should all be met by regenerative
sources.

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 3.4.5. Power generation

High-rise buildings are positively ideal for generating power: the huge facades are usually
exposed to the sun from dawn to dusk and the prevailing winds on the roof are considerably
stronger and more persistent than those on the ground. And these are also the main sources of
energy to be used in the future: wind-operated plants to generate electricity on the roof or
particularly exposed edges of the facade, collectors to heat air or water and photovoltaic
systems to generate electricity on the facades and possibly also for producing hydrogen at a
later stage. Generation of heat via the deep-pile foundations associated with virtually every
high-rise building is a less obvious possibility. When the building is complete, water can be
circulated through heat exchanger tubes integrated into the pile reinforcements. Due to the
feed and return flow of the water, the different energy potential between footing and building
can be exploited and the subsoil used as a seasonal or temporary store of energy. One of the
first projects of this type has already been realized in the rebuilding of the Commerzbank
headquarters in Frankfurt am Main.

3.5. Fire-fighting

Fire is one of the greatest risks for every building and particularly for high-rise buildings.
Due to the spectacular photographs and film sequences shown in the media, major fires have
always made – and will continue to make – headline news not only during the construction
phase, but above all during the occupancy phase.

3.5.1. Fire extinguishers

Hand-operated fire extinguishers must be installed at clearly marked and generally accessible
points in high-rise buildings in order to fight incipient fires. These extinguishers are intended
for use by the building’s residents. However, teams should be present on every floor made up
of the people who work and live there; they must then be instructed on what to do if a fire
breaks out and also be familiarized with the use of these hand-operated fire extinguishers.

Figure 3.14 Hand-operated fire extinguishers

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_extinguisher
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 3.5.2. Fire-fighting water

The cases outlined above have shown how important it is to have an effective supply of fire-
fighting water when combatting a fire in a high-rise building. So that the firemen can start to
fight the fire as soon as they arrive on the scene, wet risers must be installed in every
stairwell or in their vicinity and a wall hydrant with hose line connected to these risers on
every floor. The hoses must be sufficiently long to direct fire-fighting water to every point on
that floor. An adequately dimensioned water line and adequate water pressure must be
ensured when planning and designing the building. In very high buildings, booster systems
must be installed in the wet risers to increase the water pressure.

Whether the water for fire-fighting can be taken from the public mains or from separate water
reservoirs or tanks must be decided in each individual instance in accordance with local
conditions and regulations.

For greater safety, it may be useful to install not only wet risers, but also dry risers into which
the fire brigade can feed water at the required pressure from the ground floor.

3.5.3. Sprinklers

An automatic sprinkler system is the most effective protective measure for fighting and
controlling a fire in a high-rise building. Care must be taken to ensure that the complete
building is protected by such sprinklers. In the cases outlined above, there were either no
sprinklers at all or no activated sprinklers on the burning floors. In the case of “One Meridian
Plaza”, the fire was subsequently brought under control with the aid of the sprinkler system
and an additional supply of fire-fighting water. Based on past experience, the installation of
sprinkler systems is in many countries prescribed by law for high-rise buildings from a
certain height onwards – as from 60 m in Germany, for example. In some cases, the statutory
regulations even stipulate that sprinklers have to be installed retroactively in high-rise
buildings erected before the regulations came into force.

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Automatic sprinkler systems throughout the building are important since they must fight a
fire as early as possible and must either extinguish the fire directly or keep it under control

Figure 3.15 schematic diagram of a sprinkler system Figure 3-15 sprinkler embeded in the ceiling
source:http://www.shutterpoint.com/photos/A/68622
source:http://qecpak.com/images/Fire%20Sprinkler%20System. 0-Fire-sprinkler_view.jpg
png http://www.shutterpoint.com/photos/A/686220-Fire-
sprinkler_view.jpg
until the fire brigade arrives to finish off the job. However, a sprinkler system will normally
be unable to control a fire in full flame, for instance if it leaps from a floor with no sprinklers
to one with sprinklers. Sprinkler systems are simply not dimensioned to cope with such
developments.

Sprinkler systems must meet the following requirements:

They must rapidly control a fire in the fire compartment in which it breaks out;

They must limit the emission and spread of flames, hot fumes and smoke, they must trigger
an alarm in the building, preferably also indicating to the central control panel where the seat
of the fire is located, the alert must be forwarded to the fire brigade or other auxiliary forces.

The ability of the system to indicate to the central control panel where the seat of the fire is
located presupposes that a separate sprinkler system with an alarm valve is assigned to each
floor and to each fire compartment. As already mentioned in connection with fire-detection
systems, the installation of an automatic fire-detection system in addition to the sprinkler
system is advisable so that fires can be discovered and signalled more quickly. Sprinkler
systems must be installed in accordance with the applicable directives or standards, the best
known of which include NFPA, CEA, FOC and VdS. All the components used for
installation must comply with the relevant standards.

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The various directives and standards permit a variety of solutions with regard to the water
supply:

Water supply from the public mains – possibly via an intermediate tank on the ground – via
booster pumps on the ground to supply several groups of floors with different pressure levels
intermediate tanks on various upper floors, under either normal pressure or excess pressure,
to supply the sprinkler groups above or below

deep tanks and pressurized tanks on the roof, as well as intermediate tanks in the middle of
the building, to supply the sprinklers below with static or high pressure Tanks on upper floors
can be replenished via low-capacity pumps. Depending on the type of supply selected, it may
be necessary to install pressure-reducing valves on the individual floors.

For a sprinkler system to operate smoothly, it must not only be correctly installed and set, but
also be regularly inspected and serviced by specialist personnel.

3.5.4. Other equipment

Other automatic fire-fighting equipment may be appropriate for certain systems in a high-rise
building, such as transformers, electrical switchgear and control rooms, computer centers and
telephone switchboards.

3.6. Risk potential

A certain amount of risk is always involved in case of high-rise structures which is in the
stage of planning, construction and even in the stage of occupancy which is due to design
errors, failure to observe codes and standards and use of unsuitable modes of construction
and materials usage.

3.6.1. Design errors

Fortunately, no-one really knows just how many rumored design errors by architects are
actually true. They are said to have forgotten not only the toilets, but even complete stairwells
in multi storey buildings. And today’s construction practice makes such design errors more
probable than ever: since the supporting structure, shell and core, and interior finishing are
totally isolated from one another not only during the design phase, but also during the
subsequent construction phase, errors may possibly not be discovered until the work has
reached a fairly advanced stage. This leads to time-consuming and costly changes and

Page | 44
corrections, usually at the expense of the professional indemnity insurance prescribed for
architects in many countries. The most commonly occurring design errors can be subdivided
into two groups: failure to observe building and planning codes on the one hand, and errors in
the choice of materials and wrong or inadequate construction details on the other.

3.6.2. Failure to observe building and planning codes

It may be assumed that, in the majority of countries, when a building exceeds a certain size –
and this will certainly apply to high-rise buildings – corresponding plans must be submitted
to the construction licensing and supervisory authorities for inspection. The inspection and
approval procedure not only encompasses aspects under the building code, such as
compliance with specified distances and the specified height and size of a building or its type
of use, but also the safety of the people inside the building.

Such aspects include compliance with fire protection requirements in the building, the
position and number of escape routes and the number, location and execution of stairwells
and traffic areas. Even such seemingly less important aspects as compliance with accident
prevention regulations are reviewed, for instance as regards the height of railings or the
distance between bars in railings and grids.

In many cases, however, the design is changed at short notice during the construction phase,
with the result that the plans submitted for inspection no longer reflect the actual situation. If
errors are made by the designer at this stage in violation of building and planning codes, they
will only be discovered (if at all) during final inspection of the building by the construction
supervisory authority as specified in many countries.

Such changes frequently cannot be undone, and this forces both sides to accept compromises
possibly at the expense of the building’s safety. Despite the numerous statutory instruments
and court rulings in test cases, the complex legal relationship between principal and architect
makes it necessary for the courts to decide who is to bear the costs incurred as a result of such
errors. In most cases, both the architect’s legal protection insurer and his professional
indemnity insurer will be involved. If the errors are not discovered and the building is taken
into service, however, this may not only increase the probability of a loss occurring, but also
pose an acute risk to life and limb for its users. Particularly grave defects only become
evident when the loss actually occurs, for instance when a fire occurs. Fire insurers, personal
accident, health, life insurers and occupational disability insurers and once again the liability

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insurers may all be called upon to bear the costs once the courts have settled the question of
blame. If a guilty party can be identified, that party can face considerable penalties for any
shortcomings ascertained. It is irrelevant in this context whether this party was actually aware
of these shortcomings or merely must have been aware of them.

For this reason, all insurers – and particularly fire insurers – are well advised to ascertain
whether all of the safety requirements have been met before they conclude a policy for
buildings entailing high risk potential.

3.6.3. Unsuitable Materials and construction details

Not only the legal relationship between principal and architect is exceedingly complex; just
as complicated is that between architect and (sub) contractors and particularly among the
(sub) contractors themselves. Although the architect or specialist engineer specifies which
materials are to be used or installed, the (sub) contractor must check whether these materials
are indeed suitable for such use. Modern and unconventional construction practices
frequently make it difficult or even impossible for (sub) contractors to determine whether the
specified materials or the execution intended by the designer are indeed suitable and correct.

Unsuitable materials and connections in sanitary installations, for instance, can rapidly result
in water damage due to burst pipes.

Unsuitable insulating materials can give off toxic gases or acids in the event of a fire;
incorrectly dimensioned fixtures for suspended ceilings or facade elements can cause bodily
injury or property damage if they fall down. In extremely simplified terms, it could be said
that most of the damage incurred in or on a building is ultimately attributable to design errors.

3.6.4. Foundations, settlement and subsidence

Settlement and subsidence are another risk. It must be pointed out, however, that a certain
degree of settlement will be unavoidable in all these projects. The equilibrium of forces
originally present in the ground is disturbed by excavation of the soil for the underground
floors and by application of the structural loads.

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 3.6.4.1. Foundations

Particular attention must be paid to additional foundation measures when erecting a high-rise
building and above all if it is to be built on poor or damaged subsoil.

Foundation structures up to 100 m deep and known as “barrettes”, each comprising four
diaphragm wall elements, were required to transmit the loads safely into natural foundation
soil. Load tests should really be performed on such foundation structures before starting the
high-rise construction work, but they are economically unacceptable and technically almost
impossible on account of the high vertical loads to be applied.

Instead, the load-bearing capacity of the deep foundation is determined in addition to routine
investigation of the drilling explorations (assessment of the soil strata encountered). The
integrity of the respective pile and diaphragm walls can be continuously monitored with the
aid of such special methods as ultrasound; special pipelines are integrated into the foundation
structures to permit a certain degree of rework if defects arise, for instance by means of
subsequent injection.

Although such complex foundation work can only be undertaken by highly specialized and
experienced civil engineering contractors, mishaps occur all the time. When producing the
trenches for the diaphragm walls, for instance, or when drilling holes, particularly at great
depth, opened fissures or existing but undetected channels result in loss of the bentonite
supporting slurry, thus jeopardizing the stability of the trench or hole or even causing it to
collapse.

The long cages of reinforcing steel can become wedged against the wall of the deep trench or
drill hole, making it impossible to lower them to the required depth. It is not uncommon for
the freshly positioned reinforcing cage to be pulled upwards a short distance when the casing
string is raised after completing the pile. This can impair the intended load-bearing capacity
or even make it necessary to abandon the pile in question.

The required load-bearing capacity may likewise not be achieved if deviations from the
vertical axis exceeding the theoretically permissible limit occur as a result of encountering
obstacles or due to carelessness while drilling (sinking). This is not uncommon, particularly
in the case of long piles. Simple repairs or reworking are rarely possible in such cases.

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Extensive supplementary measures, such as replacement piles, pile bents or injections, will
usually be required on account of the simultaneous disturbance produced in the subsoil.
These supplementary measures may prove considerably more expensive than the original
foundation.

In many cases, this will also give rise to the question whether a mere defect is involved or
whether it is a physical loss with corresponding consequences for indemnification under the
policy. In the latter case, the indemnification for such supplementary costs should be suitably
limited by correspondingly worded clauses, limits or other restrictions when concluding the
policy before construction starts.

3.6.4.2. Settlement and subsidence

Depending on the type of building, the soil conditions and the foundation selected, settlement
will occur immediately or at a later date. Depending on the method selected (diaphragm wall,
bore diaphragms), the retaining wall can also cause the ground to settle and result in damage
to third-party property. For this reason, it is advisable to record prior damage on neighboring
buildings as evidence before starting the work.

The planning engineer is responsible for ensuring that such settlement is determined correctly
and for ordering appropriate structural precautions so that the settlement remains within
tolerable limits. This can be achieved by a corresponding arrangement of joints in the
building and other structural measures, such as the use of hydraulic jacks.

Problems only arise, however, if defective work, undetected disturbances, subsequent

changes in the subsoil or an incorrect appraisal of the load-bearing capacity lead to abrupt
and extensive subsidence which may threaten the stability of the entire building.

Such subsidence can occur during the construction phase, when the building has already
reached a certain height and consequently also a certain weight. It may also occur after
several years and may not only cause the building to collapse, thus resulting in a total loss,
but can also result in devastating casualties.

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The spectacular collapse of a high-rise building will in many cases be due to a combination
of causes, such as a combination of design errors, inadequate workmanship and problematical
soil conditions.

Attention must be devoted to the horizontal forces in particular when designing the
foundations for high-rise buildings on sloping ground.

In one case, reject railway tracks were used as the foundation element for a high-rise building
instead of the usual steel or reinforced concrete piles. Although the tracks were welded
together to give them the requisite loadbearing capacity, they still did not conform to the
applicable regulations. When heavy rainfall subsequently caused a landslide on a nearby
slope, these piles were neither structurally nor theoretically in a position to absorb the
additional active horizontal earth pressure. The piles buckled and some sheared off, with the
result that the high-rise apartment block literally tipped over and then collapsed.

It is very difficult to repair a high-rise building when its stability has been jeopardized by
such severe subsidence. The defective foundations can be reinforced with the aid of
injections, supplementary piles or root piles if necessary on account of the limited height
available on the underground floors. However, such measures are almost impossible in a
completed high-rise building, due to its immense overall weight, and the only alternative is
usually to demolish the building.

Even when high-rise buildings are still under construction, i.e. in a phase where repairs
would still be possible on account of the lower dead weight, demolition of the shell will
usually prove to be the more economical, time-saving and generally better alternative for the
principal.

3.6.4.3. Water damage and development of losses

Like other buildings, high-rise buildings can also suffer damage due to water. As a rule, this
damage will be due to soaking, soiling, discoloration, corrosion, shrinkage or expansion and
mould.

The damage is due to the interplay between the nature of the media concerned (e.g.
drinking water, heating water, effluent), the quality of the installation materials, design and
execution of the plants and the prevailing operating conditions.

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In the case of high-rise buildings, the risk is further aggravated by the fact that leaking water
rapidly finds its way to floors below the actual leakage point, with the result that several
floors may be affected, depending on the duration of the leak and the amount of water
involved. The considerably larger size of the installations in comparison to “normal”
buildings is another risk factor. Booster systems and pumps, pressure reducers, etc., are all
needed in order to distribute or discharge the drinking water, heating water and effluent
horizontally and vertically, thus increasing the number of possible leaks.

3.7. High-rise design for Earthquakes zones

The Richter scale is a logarithmic scale for determining the energy dissipated in an
earthquake. This means that an earthquake measuring 7 on the Richter scale dissipates 32
times the energy of a size-6 quake, while one measuring 8 dissipates roughly 1,000 times as
much energy. The energy dissipated by these earthquakes is expressed in horizontal and
vertical acceleration forces acting on the skyscrapers. The immense forces transmitted from
underground must be absorbed by the supporting structures of the buildings. These dynamic
loads are replaced by structural equivalent loads in horizontal and vertical direction when a
structural analysis of the building is performed. The highest acceleration forces measured to
date in an earthquake were recorded during the Northridge earthquake in Los Angeles (17th
January 1994) and amounted to 2.3 times the acceleration due to gravity “g” (g = 9.81 m/s 2)
in horizontal direction and 1.7 times the acceleration due to gravity in vertical direction. In
simplified terms, this means that the planning engineers would additionally have to apply
roughly 2.3 times the dead weight in horizontal direction and roughly 1.7 times the dead
weight in vertical direction to the building when dimensioning the supporting structure so
that these earthquake forces can safely be absorbed. Such values are fortunately exceptional.
Moreover, they only act on the supporting structure very briefly and are subject to rapid
changes of direction. The values assumed in the majority of standards correspond to between
5% and 10% of the acceleration due to gravity. Assumed loads of up to 0.4 g are required in
extreme cases and US standards already include more recent earthquake zones in which even
higher values must be assumed in certain frequency ranges. In spite of this, however, experts
still doubt the adequacy of these assumed loads under certain conditions.

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 3.7.1. Action of seismic loads on the building

The horizontal and vertical acceleration of the subsoil due to an earthquake causes the
building to vibrate. In simplified form, these loads can be represented by horizontal and
vertical equivalent loads acting on the mass centre of gravity of the building. The magnitude
of these equivalent loads depends directly on the mass of the building. This leads to the
conclusion that as the height of the building increases, the mass centre of gravity normally
wanders upwards and the flexural effect on the building is intensified by the longer lever arm.

The potential earthquake damage suffered by high-rise buildings varies. The damage depends
more on the rate of motion and magnitude of the displacement than on the acceleration. The
most important and most serious effects are outlined below, together with the possible
protective measures.

3.7.2. Role of Subsoil

Natural rock is the best subsoil from the point of view of its earthquake properties. Sandy
soils saturated with water and artificially backfilled land are considered to be particularly
critical. The widely-feared liquefaction effects (plasticization of the soil) can occur if an
earthquake coincides with high groundwater levels. The building may subsequently remain at
a slant or both the building and the surrounding terrain may subside. The importance of the
subsoil was revealed in particular by the earthquake in Mexico in 1985.

3.7.3. Foundations design for earthquake

Deep foundations generally display better seismic resistance than shallow foundations.
Floating foundations can prove advantageous on soft ground, since they may be better able to
attenuate resonance action. The risk of subsidence is considerably greater with floating
foundations than with deep foundations.

“Base isolation” is an anti-seismic construction technique that uses the principle of

attenuation to reduce vibrations. The building is isolated from the solid subsoil by damping
elements arranged on a foundation ring or foundation plate. Another version was employed
for the Court of Appeals in San Francisco: the building was retroactively more or less
mounted on ball bearings which are intended to gently damp down the impact of a future

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earthquake. The requirements to be met by all the various anti-seismic bearings are set out,
for example, in the Uniform Building Code (Division III, 1991).

When using these methods, it is important to ensure that the damping system is correctly
attuned to the applied frequency spectrum and to the resonant frequency of the building.
Resonance action can be avoided in this way. As in the case of wind loads, earthquakes can
also give rise to resonant vibration. These are described in more detail in Section 4.3. The
resonant frequency and consequently also the resonance effects can be influenced with the
aid of damping systems. In addition to the isolation systems for foundations mentioned
above, vibrations can also be damped by using heavy moving counterweights. “Soft”
skeleton structures have a period of fundamental natural oscillations equal to roughly one-
tenth of the number of floors in seconds. The period of a 15-storey building consequently
equals roughly 1.5 seconds. Higher edifices require a certain time before they oscillate at
maximum amplitude. This excitation period lies between 20 and 30 seconds. Enduring
earthquakes, such as that in Mexico City in 1985 (around 3 minutes), consequently represent
a particularly high risk. A so-called whiplash effect was observed in the high-rise buildings in
Mexico City, for example, as the buildings abruptly moved back from their maximum
deflection. Extremely high acceleration forces and consequently high horizontal forces were
involved here and resulted in damage to the upper floors, including such superstructures as
tanks and antennas.

3.7.4. Height of the building

Tall buildings are more susceptible to damage from strong remote earthquakes than from
weak earthquakes close at hand. They normally have a lower resonant frequency and a lower
attenuation than low buildings. Short-wave oscillation components in earthquakes are rapidly
damped, while the long-wave components (frequency f <1 Hz) can still make themselves felt
at a distance of several hundred kilometres, particularly in the form of surface waves.

3.7.5. Importance of supporting structure

A distinction can generally be made between rigid and elastic supporting systems. Rigid
systems, such as solid wall and ceiling elements, are difficult to deform and transmit the

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seismic loads through their rigidity. Due to the stiffness and lack of ductility in the supporting
structure, however, shear cracks can develop in the building. The problem is that more and
more energy must be absorbed through the high rigidity and that more and more material is
required for this purpose.

Elastic supporting structures, such as reinforced concrete or steel frames, are highly
deformable and absorb the applied seismic energy in this way. The nodes connecting the
horizontal and vertical elements of the supporting structure are highly stressed, however, and
peak loads occur both here and on the reinforcing elements (bonds) which must be taken into
account when producing these connections. However, integrated non-supporting partition
walls may suffer excessive stresses and break out on account of the major deformation of the
frame structure. Skyscrapers with steel frames were hitherto considered to be particularly
resistant to earthquakes, but the Northridge earthquake in January 1994 brought new insights.
In an unexpectedly large part of the flexural rigid steel frame structures, cracks were found in
the welds in the corners of the frames. Comprehensive studies were undertaken to determine
the causes and lay down rehabilitation measures. This strong earthquake also showed that
steel supporting structures do not immediately come crashing down when overstressed and
that plastic supporting reserves are activated first. The ductility and load-bearing capacity of
reinforced concrete frames, however, can be improved by increasing the percentage of
reinforcement. When overstressed, the concrete will usually fail at the risk of a total collapse.

A number of systems based on the principle of flexibility and energy absorption are currently
being developed to protect buildings against seismic activity.

The system of active variable stiffness (AVS) is one such system. With this system, the
rigidity of the building is specifically varied by securing the bonds to the members of the
frame structure by means of a variable connection which is essentially made up of hydraulic
cylinders controlled via valves. An operating power of 20 W is sufficient for this purpose.

The incoming seismic vibrations are detected by sensors which transmit the information to a
central computer. The computer determines the required rigidity and opens the valves at the
individual points to increase the building’s flexibility in these areas. This ensures that the
vibrations are optimally damped and overstressing is avoided.

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 3.7.6. Symmetry of the high-rise building

Symmetric layouts, rigidity and mass distribution lead to a considerably better seismic
response than asymmetric layouts, rigidity and mass distribution. This is because asymmetric
buildings are subjected to stronger torsion (twisting) around the vertical axis by horizontal
seismic loads.

3.7.7. Shape of the high-rise building

When parts of different height are permanently connected to one another as, for example, is
often found in high-rise buildings with atriums, then the various structures in the building can
be subjected to considerable torsional stresses by the seismic loads. Buildings of different
heights can also be subjected to a whole series of effects in an earthquake, such as the
jackscrew effect observed in Mexico City in 1985: higher buildings were literally jammed in
between lower buildings, thus extensively damaging the floors at the clamping point. In some
cases, the buildings simply buckled over at the edge of the lower adjacent buildings.
Resonance effects can also cause buildings to oscillate so strongly that they hammer against
one another. Another effect observed in high-rise buildings is the soft-storey effect: due to
lobbies, atriums or glazed shopping passages, some floors – usually near the ground floor –
are distinctly “softer” than those above them. These “soft” floors then collapse in an
earthquake. A further source of loss potential relates to the standards applied. Many countries
do not have their own earthquake standards and simply adopt the corresponding regulations
from others, such as the Uniform Building Codes from the USA. This means, however, that
common local seismic effects are not covered. Moreover, application of the standards is not
mandatory in many countries and their supervision not sufficiently stringent. One of the main
problems that is repeatedly found in conjunction with earthquake damage lies in the quality
of the work. Poor-quality materials, poor training from the engineers to the workers,
corruption and the pressure of time must be mentioned in this context.

“Only fools, liars and charlatans predict earthquakes”, according to C. F. Richter, the man
who gave his name to the Richter scale.

New and potentially promising methods are being developed in the meantime, but the
question remains whether these methods can ever be properly applied in practice. Such
predictions are naturally of subsidiary importance where physical losses are concerned, such
as a catastrophic loss estimated at up to US$ 3bn in the metropolitan district of Tokyo. Where

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personal protection is concerned – and up to 600,000 fatalities are assumed for the
aforementioned scenario – such precise earthquake forecasts would be of inestimable value.

Chapter - 4 Modern construction techniques and technology

The pace of living is changing along with the evolution of the cities of the word; economic
factors increasingly are shaping the needs for the new millennium and the construction
industry is responding by aiming to speed up building processes. High-rise buildings are
particularly important. Government, researchers, and firms of different countries around the

Figure 4.1 external view of steel frame work

source: (munich, 2003)

world are targeting their efforts toward reducing time in the construction of such structures.

Management methods, construction processes and materials, and construction equipment

have been successfully used in reducing time in the overall schedule of tall buildings.

4.1. Concrete Core Walls

Systems to construct concrete core walls, prefabrication of elements, composite

materials and external cladding have been extensively used in the past decade to improve
productivity, taking advantage of repetitiveness in processes, quality control and optimization
in the use of materials, and technological development of new materials. The implementation
of these technologies requires the use of specialized equipment. Innovative equipment
solutions facilitate vertical and horizontal transportation in the structures while being erected.

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Currently, to move materials and personnel vertically, there are several types of equipment
that can be used according to the specific characteristics of the buildings.

The use of a climbing formwork systems (sometimes referred to as self-climbing or

self-lifting) to construct the core walls of high rise buildings has been successful in different

Figure 4.2 wall panel system

source: http://thewallstoremelbourne.com.au/tag/wall-panel-systems/

countries in reducing construction times, primarily because the process become repetitive
though the whole height of the building. Basically it consists of a frame constructed from
structural steel members over the score wall. Steel formwork panels are hung from this frame,
some supported on rollers. After the concrete walls are poured, the framework is released and
rolled back from the concrete face. Jacks then lift or climb the whole frame up one level. All
the formwork panels are attached to the frame. This process takes approximately one and a
half hours. The moulds are cleaned after being lifted out of the finished unit and then
reassembled. A thin layer of a steel mould releasing agent is then applied by spraying it onto
the surface of the steel mould in contact with concrete prior to reinforcing bar placement.
Inspection of the moulds is then carried out. Once the climbing formwork is in its approved
position, the next concrete wall is poured. The cycle continues, which is normally four days.
Faster times have been achieved. However, the limiting factor to faster times is usually the
construction of floor slabs, which usually are done as a separate process.

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 4.2. Prefabrication of Elements

Prefabrication of elements is another method that has been successfully used in the
construction of tall buildings. The repetitiveness of many elements makes this process
suitable and very effective. Walls, staircases, external facades, and door sets are common
examples of prefabricated elements. Components are manufactured units, made to
predetermined sizes, to be used in buildings. Dimensional coordination governs their design
and use, and forms the necessary discipline for industrialized, system, or component building.

Figure 4.3showing the placing of prefabricated block in a high-rise building source:

http://blog.sndimg.com/hgtv/design/lili/prefab-high-rise.jpg

For example a prefabricated standard staircase component with a rise of 266 cm will govern
the floor to floor height of the building in which it is to be fixed. Prefabricated wall cladding
panels will closely govern the story height and the length of the building, or part of the
building where they are used. The standard frame is usually erected by site work methods,
whether mass-produced to standard sizes or specially dimensioned for the particular building
project. An accurate tie-in between the respective dimensions of the structure and cladding
units is essential. Standardized components are joined together to form building elements.
Dimensional coordination between all the components is essential, and it is necessary that
this coordination be based on a suitable module. When intending to use extensive
prefabrication of components, to design the building from the start on a reference grid related
to the intended module is required. The greater the accuracy of the components to be joined,
the less the width of the joint, subject to a minimum gap to allow for movement of the

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components into position and for filling material if required. Basic requirements of the joints
are

 Allowance for dimensional changes;

 Design should be kept as simple as possible and simple to be fixed
 On site concrete connections should be minimized,
 All joints should transfer loads from one unit to another, or to other parts of the
structure
 All joints must have the same degree of fire resistance as the structure
 All external panel joints should be insulated so that cold bridges that cause heat losses
will not be formed;
 External panel joints should be weather proofed
 They should be easy to maintain.

Figure 4.4 showing the prefabricated wall systems

source: http://img.youtube.com/vi/7m-DGpoCz2g/0.jpg

The advantages of prefabrication are:

 Mass production of units

 Automation of the manufacturing process can save labor and reduce price. Designers
can become familiar with the standard units and have ready access to details
 Reduction of cost and construction time on site. Less work to be done on site. Saving
in the use of formwork on site. Precast units can be erected in bad weather

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  Effective use of formwork. Steel formwork is normally used and increases the number
of uses to 200 times. Precast units can be shaped so that they are self-stripping thus
reducing wear on moulds and labor during construction.
 Improved quality of units. Factory production provides stricter quality control than on
site construction. Precast units can be closely checked after manufacture
 Special shapes and surfaces finishes. Units can be cast in any position, such as upside
down, on their sides, etc. Colored concrete can be produced by using white cement
and a color pigment
 Casting under cover. Protection from hot or drying winds
 Demountable structures. Bolted connections can be easily dismantled and re-erected
in other places
 Construction over and under water. No or little formwork is required. False work is
not required. Minimal disruption to traffic
 Casting of units before the site becomes available. Units can be casted and stock piled
before the site becomes available, which can shorten the construction time
 Built-in services and insulation. Services and insulation can be built into precast units
accurately in the factory. Use of semi-skilled labour.
 Accelerated curing techniques. Higher turnover per mould and plant. Controlled
curing results in more durable units
 Solution to the problem of lack of local resources and labour. Units can be produced
thousands of kilometers away from the site
 The limitations of prefabrication are:
 A small number of units required may prove to be uneconomical
 Special connections, such as special bearings to transmit the vertical and horizontal
loads, can add cost to the system
 Waterproofing at joints
 Transportation difficulties
 Need for cranes

4.3. Composite Materials

Two factors in the design of high-rise buildings set them apart from other structures. They are
required to resist large lateral loads, and the repetitive nature of the construction requires that

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the design is refined to enhance the speed of construction and usable areas. Composite
construction in high-rise buildings refers to the mixed use of concrete and structural steel in
major load supporting elements. Composite construction is not new, but the widespread use
of steel in high-rise buildings outside North America is undergoing a renaissance. The
reliability of the steel supply and the successful construction of important high rise projects
now result in a composite scheme being studied among other alternatives for all new major
high rise projects. Composite construction endeavors to use the best properties of concrete
and structural steel in the most appropriate way.

Concrete: cheapness, local production, unskilled labor, plasticity of shape, good compressive
strength, built-in fire protection, corrosion protection, short lead time, reuse of molds,
alternative hoisting methods.

Structural steel: prefabrication, off site labor, high strength/weight ratio, high stiffness, high
tolerances, smaller member sizes, speed of construction, reduced hoisting, reduced site labor,
flexibility of alterations.

The dominant elements where composite construction has been adopted in high-rise buildings
are floor systems, columns, and transfer structures. In general terms, composite construction
must be compared with other forms of construction to be rated.

Each locality and building industry has its own characteristics the rate of progress in
construction achieved in one city may not be matched in another. Care must be exercised in
examining the claims of various materials. Theoretical cycle times are changed on site
because of weather, industrial disputes, industry capacity, and construction problems.
Nevertheless, early in the planning and design process, a commitment to a particular
structural system must be made.

Several construction methods have advantages and can be programmed into the building
cycle. A structural steel frame with a steel pan deck floor system can be built very rapidly for
large floor areas. Cycle times of 2 days for 2000 m2 of floor have been achieved in high-rise
construction.

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 4.4. External Claddings

A building envelope serves the functions of weather and pollution exclusion, thermal and
sound insulation. It also provides adequate strength, stability, durability, fire resistance,
aesthetics appeal, etc. The external walls of traditional buildings are mainly made of masonry
and or reinforced concrete. They are usually finished with cement render and painted. With
the advancement of prefabrication, non-load bearing claddings in panel forms have become
common especially for tall commercial buildings, where accelerated schedule and
architecture of facades have become driving decision factors. There are many forms of
prefabricated cladding panels and each works in conjunction with the structural system of a
building. The common forms of cladding are precast concrete cladding and curtain walls
fabricated of natural stone, metal sheeting and glass. Curtain walls are non-load bearing
external walls of buildings composed of repetitive factory assembled elements. Its dead
weight and wind loading are transferred to the structural frame through anchorage points.
There has been three generations of these systems which have changed according to new
technologies and the continue change of needs in the market, such as the continuous pressure
to reduce time and budget of tall buildings.

The first generation (from 1800 to 1960) was based mainly on the fixing of vertical mullions
to which horizontal rails or transoms, frames and insulated panels were attached. This system
has several limitations such as: a large amount of work on site with the corresponding
implications on standards of workmanship and quality control, insufficient allowance for
movements due to temperature, moisture, creep and differential settlement, water resistance
relying solely on gaskets and sealants; and lack of floor to floor flashing which makes it
almost impossible to locate a leak caused by water entry at mullion sleeves.

The second generation (from 1960 to 1980) is characterized by: pressure equalization systems

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Figure 4.6 showing a typical panel system source: Figure 4.5 typical first generation wall source:
(munich, 2003) (munich, 2003)
which eliminates reliance on the closure of all holes and relies instead on equalizing pressure
in the cavity between external and internal skin panel systems which are completely finished
at the factory with consistent quality control and water barriers between floors. These second
generation systems eliminate the need to complete the structure of the building before
beginning the facades. Since this activity is on the critical path of the typical construction
schedule for high-rise buildings, the overall constr uction period can be reduced significantly.

The third generation (from 1980 to 1990+) is characterized by improvements of Second

generation techniques and the diversification of their use. For example, the wide use of
structural sealants and adhesives was observed especially on glazed curtain walls where glass
is bonded to the frame.

Fourth generation of curtain walls will include active walls designed and fitted with devices
such as photocells, fluids, fans, exhausts, etc. to accommodate changes in thermal, air quality,
lighting, etc. Improvements in the second and third generation resulted in large time savings
by means of quality control. The first generation of walls was characterized by systematic
water infiltrations problems. Trying to locate the non-working area and repair it has been a
continuous source of delays in projects and suspension of work activities when the building is
operating. It often translated into large expenses, loss of materials, and production time, all of
which can cause serious friction among parties directly affected. Devices such as photocells,
fluids, fans, etc. will provide far more accurate behavior of these systems, therefore allowing
increased reliance on them.

4.5. Special construction equipment

Facilitating horizontal and vertical movement is one of the main tasks in tall buildings
construction that must be accomplished in order to develop a schedule that is effective and
tight. This means: getting more effective work times, providing materials as soon as they are
needed and reducing time by avoiding repetition of tasks that require closer supervision.
Special equipment that has been development to meet these objectives is described below.

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 4.5.1. Hoists

These are intended for vertical movement only and thus are only able to move in one
direction. The maximum reachable height is virtually unrestricted in theory, but depends on
the particular hoist

Figure 4.7 showing hoist

Source: (munich, 2003)

4.5.2. Gondola/Swinging Stage

They provide vertical movement for workers working in painting, spraying, caulking, sash-
sealing, cleaning, etc.; in general for all the external finishes of a building. The gondola is
powered by motors, which are either situated at the top of the building or on the gondola
itself.

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 4.5.3. Work platforms

They used for glazing or masonry, they can be matched to any type of building. Platforms

Figure 4.9 Gondola/Swinging Stage Figure 4.8 Work platforms

source: (munich, 2003) source: (munich, 2003)

lengths are from 1.5m up to 23.4m and payloads up to 3500 kg. Heavy building components
source:wiki

and their installation crews can be elevated and positioned exactly with optimum safety and
efficiency to heights of 200m and beyond. The machines that operate them are located around
the perimeter of buildings.

4.5.4. Elevators and Cranes

They moved on tracks are more stable and have higher capacities as compared with a
gondola. They are generally capable for moving objects in all directions. Various attachments
are available for a crane to perform different functions. Common types of cranes used on
building sites are the truck mounted crane, the mobile crane, the tower crane and the climbing
crane. through Which ones should be used depends upon the carrying capacity; maximum
coverage; space for assembly, erection and dismantling the equipment; ability to weathervane
freely; building height; cost; availability; and speed necessary to complete the project.

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Cranes may be fitted with either a derricking jib or a fixed horizontal jib. Counterweights are
generally not installed in the mast during the climb up. Tower cranes are tied to the main

Figure 4.11 showing a typical crane Figure 4.10 crane working for a high-rise building

source: (munich, 2003) source: (munich, 2003)

structure for stability. Shorter tower cranes are often self-erecting while larger ones require
the assistance of mobile cranes. Some smaller cranes have no provision for mast lengthening
and simply fold down ready towing. For others, mobile cranes erect the mast parts. Some,
however, are self-erecting in the sense that they can lengthen their mast by either:

a) Inserting inner tower units through one side below the working platform after jacking the
crane on an external sliding tower piece.

b) Inserting tower units through the top of the crane (in this case the platform and parts are
attached to a frame that fits around the tower)

c) Jacking the platform and parts on an inner sliding mast section and then attaching two
external L-shaped sections to the main tower.

d) Mounting the platform and parts on an inner tower that fits into an outer tower fixed to the
ground. Tower units are inserted through the side of the outer tower at ground level.

Cranes may also be climbing in the sense that they can climb up a shaft in the building using
only a limited number of mast sections. The crane sits on a slewing ring on an outer frame
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that is braced on three sides but open on the fourth. The frame extends down over slightly
more than two units of the tower. It picks up a tower unit with its jib, luffs in and hooks the
unit to a monorail immediately adjacent to the open side. The outer frame is then jacked up
hydraulically and the tower unit is slipped in.

4.6. Robotics in Construction

The casting, erection, joining, connection and finishing of building components require a
high level of skilled manual work on site. The problem with the shortage of skilled personnel
in some countries and the need to increase productivity and reduce building schedules has
pushed research and development into robotics. Recent progress in robotic technology
enables robots to perform sequences of tasks on-site, by interactions with its environment
through electronic sensors. An example is Obayashi's "Super Construction Factory" which
integrates the concepts of factory automation into the building site for steel structures.
Buildings materials and components are delivered to the floor under construction through
elevators and are lifted to the exact location of the floor by cranes. Robots then carry out
welding and fastening. Upon completion of one floor, the factory is jacked up through an
internal climbing system to commence work on the next floor.

Very similar equipment was developed by the alliance of two Japanese firms, Shimizu
Corporation and Mistsubishi Heavy Industries (Kangary and Miyatake, 1997). It was called
SMART, and consists of a set of new technologies integrating high rise construction
processes, including the erection and welding of steel frames, the placement of precast
concrete slabs and exterior and interior wall panels, and the installation of the various units.
The system relies extensively on prefabricated components such as columns, beams,
floorings, and walls. Assembly of these components is simplified by the use of specially
designated joints, and a real time computer control system is used for the assembly process.
This robotized technology consists of five major components:

(1) An automated transportation system

(2) Innovative steel assembly

(3) A new automated welding system

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(4) An advanced lift-up system and

(5) An integrated information-management system.

Another example for reinforced concrete buildings developed by Obayashi Corporation from
Japan is called "Big Canopy". It integrates technologies of a climbing canopy, prefabricated
components, automated assembly and computerized management systems. The canopy
provides protection for the floor under construction from unfavorable weather and
environmental conditions. Independent tower crane posts are used as four columns supporting
the canopy. The climbing equipment of tower cranes performs the lift of the canopy. Vertical
movement of materials to and from the working story is by the use of lifts and horizontal
movements by hoists. The movement of the hoists is entirely automated to improve work
efficiency.

Mobile robots have also been used in isolated applications for achieving time savings and
affordable costs. Wall tile inspection, paint/concrete spraying, high pressure water jetting,
concrete floor surface finishing, reinforcement lying, and welding, are examples of this trend.

Figure 4.13 material handling and assembly systems Figure 4.12 system outline of welding robot

source: highrise building manual by munich re group source: highrise building manual by munich re group

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Robotics have been mostly developed mostly by Japanese construction firms, being used and
tested in the field but not yet fully accepted and incorporated into standard usage due to high
costs implicated. However, this is a trend just starting to develop.

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 Chapter - 5 Liveability of present high-rise housing
developments

However, it is undeniable that high-rise housing is still a controversial housing form, and one
of the focuses of this work is its liveability issues, such as the lack of safety and security, the
destruction of social relations and children’s health and behavior problems. It is noteworthy
that many studies on liveability issues of high-rise housing have reached contradictory
conclusions. An obvious example is the significant difference of residents’ satisfaction and
acceptance to high-rise public housing between in the UK and in Singapore. More than 80%
of Singapore’s resident population are living in high-rise public housing estates and
expressed high level of satisfaction, while the residents living in high-rise social housing in
Glasgow voiced their dissatisfaction with the high-rise residential environment. This
phenomenon makes more and more researchers recognize that liveability in high-rise
dwellings research focuses on the local people’s immediate needs and practical experiences
in their existing residential environments, emphasizes the significance and specificity of local
context, which substantially mediates the outcomes of high-rise living in specific loci
(Gifford, 2007). Therefore, the understanding of liveability of high-rise housing must be
based on their specific context, and the development of liveability theory need to combine the
results of numerous studies in various contexts. Nevertheless, according to the current
literature, the liveability research of high-rise housing in China is obviously deficient, which
is highly disproportionate to the importance and prevalence of high-rise housing development
in Chinese cities in the past decade of housing reform and rapid urbanization since 1998.
Moreover, in 2011, the central government of China developed an ambitious plan to construct
36 million affordable housing in the following five years, and have invested 1,300 Billion to
build 10 million in 2011 (NDRC, 2011), which will further promote the development of high-
rise housing. The current and coming boom of high-rise housing make the study on the
liveability of the existing high-rise housing in China become significant not only for filling
the theoretical gaps but also satisfying the practical need.

More importantly, during the process of high-rise housing development, residents’ opinions
and experiences on high-rise housing have not been fully understood and considered due to
the lack of public participation.

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 The lower satisfaction with urban neighborhood and the negative effect of urban
neighborhood, indicate that the urban environment need to be improved to increase the
overall liveability of residents. The significant correlation of urban neighborhood with overall
residential environment further emphasizes the necessity and the importance of the
improvement. On the other hand, it should be noted that high density may be the potential
reason that caused the low satisfaction of urban neighborhood due to greater pressure on the
Neighbourhood environment and public facilities. Therefore, the Neighbourhood
environmental carrying capacity should be a key factor to control the development of high-
rise housing projects.

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 Chapter - 6 Results and conclusions

The results of this study show that high-rise housing developments should not only construct
more comfortable and multiform physical environment, but also produces more harmonious
social environment by providing diversified housing choices for various social groups to
achieve a greater degree of social mix. Finally, the concentration of high-rise buildings can
change the micro-climate of urban neighborhood and urban landscape, and result in the rise
of the environmental temperature (Heat island effect), the deterioration of wind environment
(Wind tunnel effect), and the decline of air quality. These negative outcomes should be fully
studied in order to find the methods to improve the high-rise housing developments.

From the perspective of residents, high-rise housing should not only includes the
physical environment where the residents are living in, but also includes the psychological
and social environment which satisfies the resident’s non-material needs, such as safety,

Figure 6.1 heat island effect

source: (Buyukozturk, 2004)

comfort, social interaction, a multi-level residential environment that includes: the private
family spaces, the collective residential building of shared ownership, the semi-public gated
community, and the public urban neighborhood.

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 Therefore in this study, high-rise housing is defined as a resident-centered and
multidimensional residential environment that is composed of the psycho-social environment
and the physical environment, where the resident is placed at the center of a series of spatial

Figure 6.2 multidimensional residential environment

source: (buyukozturk, 2004)

dimensions, which starts with the ‘Dwelling Unit’ and enlarges, layer by layer, from
‘Dwelling Building’, ‘Housing Estate’, to ‘Urban Neighbourhood’.

There is a gap between ‘potential environments’ proposed by designers, developers,

occupants, and ‘effective environments’ participated in by the users, which inevitably
resulted in some incompatibility between the built environment and users. Mass standardized
and profit-oriented planning and design may result in the deterioration of residential
environment, such as overcrowding, noise and air pollution, heat island effect, etc. Therefore,
it is necessary to understand residents’ experiences and perceptions of the existing high-rise
residential environment, not only for the diagnosis of the current problems, but also for the
improvement of the future planning and design.

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References

buyukozturk, D. (2004). High rise buildings : evolutions and innovations. world building
congress. Cambridge, MA, USA: MIT.

Buyukozturk, D. O. (2004). High-Rise Buildings:evolution and innovations. Cambridge.

Chenguang Li, W. S. (2012). Liveability of High-rise Housing Estates. Tianjin, China: 48th
ISOCARP Congress 2012.

group, M. r. (2003). High-rise manual. hongkong: Munich re group.

high rise living. (2000, march 11). the starits times.

Hoseini, H. (2007). Efficient Production of High-Rise Buildings.

kalpan, d. (2007). sustanability design in high rise residential. CTBUH .

ruck, m. (n.d.). high rise buildings in the course of history. munich re group.

Samaratunga, T. C. (2013). High-Density High-Rise Low-Income Housing. Colombo:

LIVING SKYLINE.

Yuen, B. (n.d.). The State of Urban High-Rise Research:.

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