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    (Warrior 072) Ross Cowan, Angus McBride - Warrior 72 - Imperial Roman Legionary AD 161-284-Osprey (2003) PDF

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    Irene Cano

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    lesan Imperial Roman Legionary AD 161-284 Artist's note Readre may cae to note that he argh pings tom when the colour pits i ths book were prepares are {vain or private sl. Al eprosuton copyright ‘thateover is rtd by the Publisher. Al enquires ‘hous be socresees ‘Angus Hesse 28 Hastings Place Duroan Road Wyntery (Chelsea vitge) Case Town Seuth tea “Tn Publanars reget hat ay can enter into no conespancence pon ths mat Autho} “The author would ke otha he Conan fami. Go ‘Barer Daal Bateson, Rebecca Cullen, Magan Ooyan, om Lowes, Thomas MeGroy, Murata Sae-Kos, Kata Uboets ‘and Sutan Wee Thanks ale to tha Huntaran Museum st the Unvray of Glasgow, Ye Univers Art Gary the Bish Menoum srl the Region! Museum 4 Cal, Sovens, fr photogaphe mater Speci thanks to Duncan Cansbel and Smon James or ‘alable acco concerning the sepe of Oure-Europos ‘Steven DP Risharcson ors hate an hela wih preparation ofthe proograpic material for is and the previous Foran Lagiaray volume and Katioon MeLaughin fr her tansttana ot Zonas and Dexippus Lawrence Keppe eed a ta ofthe test and oferea ‘vase suggestions. Ary enor remain he authors Pease rote at trarsates quctations are adapted tom the eb Glsiel Library ness otheie stat CONTENTS INTRODUCTION CHRONOLOGY THE FORMATION OF NEW LEGIONS, AD 161-284 TERMS OF SERVICE ESSENTIAL ORGANISATION AND COMMAND Centurie and centrons + Cavaly andthe comitatus + Pracectus pions ELITE LEGIONARIES Lancnt « eat lnc © Lancal and the sacred retinse + Paloger ‘betel and bearing EQUIPMENT BATTLE AFTERMATH WEBSITES GLOSSARY BIBLIOGRAPHY COLOUR PLATE COMMENTARY INDEX 1 23 30 44 52 56 56 57 64 IMPERIAL ROMAN LEGIONARY AD 161-284 INTRODUCTION eee onstcton af 3,000 ot he ‘Annine nt by 2 vest of rd trou), 2142. The Central pane! shows 8 goss, borhan Veton. lacing» wreath Inte bos ote logins cae andar Muntran aroun, Unter of Giger) study, and the implications of the legalisation of soldiers’ marriages and iasues such as military-owned prostitutes. To avoid repetition of exidence ted in Roman Legionary, $8 BC-AD 69, relevant sections in that work are feferred to by RL-followed by page number(s). CHRONOLOGY AD 161. Marcus Awl and Lucus Vous become 215 Preparations for Parian Wr; massacre ‘rmpers ego eran OX Hispana) s sterner. ‘Sesvojec by Parhans n Amen 216 Caracalla vadesAcabane a socks Atal, {62-88 Romans vitorous in Patan War new terton, eaecrating he toms af the Patan Kings. Ennored n Wilde Eaet ut codderereturing” 217 Caracalla mureredon road betwoon Cathe and ‘seta. Pasion pect Oplios Macnus peclemes emperor Romans ard Parthians fght Indsove tate t Note Macs dette by lagabals outside Anioch and kilod whist attempting fo fe to Exes tram he East ring plague te Evone which recurs throughout the le 2nd anc Sd certo. {2-67 Erecumion fhe Aetoine Wain eat Soon {68 Formation of lions and Il Halon. aa {61-80 Narcomemic ane Sarmtan wars. Caath of Vas (180) Utimaely success Roman campaigns: 222 _~Prastoians murder he nse Eagabals, Coremods abandons pans te annex new ‘Sevarus Alrande succeeds as emperor tertory Devon the Dane hen ares ‘224.28. Srdnthiof Praia ost is Patan events: ‘ures Gee 180. ‘ow Sossanan Persian os s0-04 terse tng cross the Dandbe and n Dacia, 228-29. Ardash fats fo ako Hata, now enforces by 185-06. Revolt of Mateus and deserters in Gaul Fomans He nds Roman Mesepotomi, Some 182” Commodus marderea: Petnax recognised as oman troops kil he provi pect and sper by Sonate December ‘Sect o hdsahie 199 orinax mur by Pastoran Guar Ocue «BIR. Severus Alexander campaigns against Arsh ‘leu babes prostrins and becomes enor Mesopotamia ecapures ana Romans succestt esoernva Nigar, governor of Sy. apd Septimus in emer an Mca But GES Gea 2 ‘Severs, govemar et Pannona,precamed oman army nar Geaiper. ‘momar tarreepecive provincial amiss: «23034. Alaman and other Germanic confederations ‘Stren recognises Gus Abs, gover of ‘a Roman powinces Ban. as Ne Carer epi Severcsrmrches on 235. —‘Sevrus Attande tterpt to negotiate wth ome, Julanus madered and pratorans ‘aman ands murdered by alsgusted ors. ‘debanded: new Prostoran Guard crested fom Maxeninusprociamod emperor and defats he ‘nan ranstenes tom be logos ae). ‘Aamann. Maximinus isthe fret Roman emer 193-04, Sevan’ gorarls vtoreus over Nig at Pests, ‘otghtinbatte Cyzcue Nicaea and ews. Ngwreapuredand 296-57 ‘Manmins defeats Saratons and Ca oreeuted atoning to escape to Part. 238 Raballn oer tax colosioni Ares. Gordan, 194-05. Severs campagne again! Parban vasa! states prosonsul of Ata prociaed emperor wth his ‘hot es Niger Creation af pounce at en, but they are defeat n bt by go (Ornoene: gions II anil Partica established, ‘ogi cutee Carthage, Senate in Rome acts 100-57 Cece Abinus invedee Gaul ae German from tanks Barus sr Pups a6 emperor. roves, aly delete at Lugdurum (yor) n asaniras invades tly and uroxpecey fas to Februey 197 storm Aqulla. His oops become manos and 197-50. Severs invades Paths: Ctsphon captured and his murdered, Pratoranen Rare gow weary ured Now province of Mesopotam 1 Babes and Ponies, whom they murder ord sablshed. Teo alongs to capture Hata fal ‘ate Gordan Il andson of he reconsuas 200-4 Serena campaigns n Noch Bete, advancing spappet emer tronterto tha Sanaa 208-61 Persians sare Reman Mesopotamia and Hara: 208-11. Severs mvadse notham Brain tering to ‘Shap | sucoeds Arash (2), Barbarian Complete the conquest of the sand. Sevens ies Invasions scoss Danube a York 211). He sone Caracal an Geta 242-44. Romane under prastrian profectTinesineus Sesume fll power (stat Persians at heesina ar recover 212 Caracalla murders Geta (Februar; Const ‘Mesopotamia 243). Tinto des of mata! Antoninians grants Roman sizrahp ‘uote and Pip becomes eet. Roman {rocbom natant of the ame Invasion of Pera mess with deaser ouside 212.15. Severn outposts in Scolar evacuated Ctesonon: Gran Ils movtaly wounded but 253 Caracal defeats Con and Alararn Philp suspected of having fim lod. Pip 214 Caracal campaigns agent Free Dacions proclamed emperor He buys peace rom Stapur, | & 245 Philip etets the Carp watare on he Danube ean, 247 Philip ceitates Rome's 1.2000 aniversary with (goat games and spctaces, 248-49 Php once Oscus to Panronis to gua rebetons. The Pannonan lens proclaim Docks tmoeror Php kale in bate against Daca ‘oro (249, 250-51 Decios defeated by Goths under Kriva (250) ‘Ags pursuing te Gote raers he's kd wah heen and much of hi fal army a bet (251. Tebonianus Galus scored He purcasos ‘eace from the Gath bu = unable to py re {fo Shapur uh invaces ors tory. 252459, Shap estoy «Roman els amy Musing et ‘Barbatsso and captures Anoch 253 Aamillarus defeats Cap) ard is proclaimed ‘emparerby hs Yoops. Gals sends Valrian (uth an army 10 eppose im Gale mse Dyn oun woop when thy fn oss ‘utrabored by Aerlanu e's subsequety ‘marred by i sates althe approach of ‘atrans arm VatransFroctamea omparo: He makes his son Gallon o-amporr 259-60, Gaionus and he sors earoaign wh success ‘gaat Germans ane Gate on ine ara provinoes but Shapur made n 253 and 260, zptuing Ariocn on bath eccesions.Valeian’s lary is defetec by Shapur ouside Eoeesa 260. The emperor tos sf usando Foran troops ae te lo Pasi capt Fermnants ofthe Roman tres ae ral by Macraus and Basta whorarry Shapur's forces. The younger Mactan’ are pecamed onparers but are deeate by Gatienus' forces in Tysce ‘sraty Odaethun ot Palmyra n ya 23) Pamyresuosequenty dominate the eastern prooes and forms breakaway one ot Sra, Prabia anc Egypt 267-72, Galan deeats th Alera his sn, Sleinas Isle at Cologne a Posturus fora breakaway Gate Empre base on Gau. the Grmanice, Brian fd Span fn exstonce 259-74) aliens ctents te Got Bute the vim of Pot hence by seror oer reuding Caucus rd Aran. Clauss becomes emperee Claas destroys Gate vader at Nessus: shes lage 270, furl becomes emperor Ho defeats the lung. azygos ad Goths 270-71), ne proceeds to eta the Pamyrene and Galic fires and ne Carp 272-rs), He murdered 235 ares ofa cout plot whilst preparing to ‘pe Aamann and Frank rom Gaul, 23 Burqundans and Vancls for Rasa (277-80. He campaigns again bate and oman ‘sia and Eaypt 260-8), Ho's murderes at the instgaon otha pracran peat, Cars Canis vases Pars nd captures Ctspon but 'sappaonty stuck by Ighinng whon he attemots to.advance beyond the oy. Hi son Gnu es ‘nauseous ereurstances asthe ey rests to Roman leony Dicle, commander a the bodyguards, sprocied ema: Dols datete Numeranus, on of Ca, at Margos. He tae tne name Oieclatan and he omar recover bagi formed before fe 4.5-7). Inscriptions referring to levies in northern Ttaly held under Alexander Severus and Maximinus (231-38) might refer to the recruitment of legio IV Italica, but iis disputed whether the legion was the close of the 3rd century (Brunt, 1974). It may have ‘ist, 2 Garman tanstered trom apo | Miner it te THE FORMATION OF NEW LEGIONS, AD 161-284 When Marcus Aurelius and hiscoemperor Lucius Verus assumed power in 161 there were 29 legions inthe Roman army, but almost immediately news came that a legion, pethaps the famous IX Hispana, had been destroyed in baile against the Parthians (Dio, 712.1). The legion was not replaced for the subsequeat war against the Parthians (163-68); it twas not until 165 that Marcus Aurelius enrolled new legions, and IIL Talica (alian’), co face the coming German menace on the northern frontiers (Dio, 55.24.5) The new legions of our period were raised by conscription, though a number of volunteers were attracted by the prospect of good pay and ironies Tit patente Lic ie sdbetaa ut leyy Dieter recorded in northem Ialy in connection with the formation of legions and Il Kaliea, The number of legions remained at 30 until Septimus Severus raised the three Parthian legions in «194. Legions I and IIL Parthica were probably formed out of the mass of Syrian conscripts levied by Pescennins Niger and were without unit or purpose following his defeat in 194 (Kennedy, 1987). The most famous legion, I Parthica, ‘was parly raised by conseriptin in Italy as early as 198 (note Herodian, ben trios to rae new legions in ay but it supple! ery few Bum ws bon eh ne cruia to else Tegiome afer the first cenary AD (Man, 1953 & Snead sore hae 1009). Legio- Parthia. wax exceptional im having considerable $m tom i emperos Mun> numbers aan nan, bt has becnne twas ase in Tay. Mone Pest een Longestablished legions based in the provinces drew heavily on the ea Jocal poplations and sometimes beyond the front ABOYE NOHT arm ot Herodian’s description of Caracalla vist to Alexandria fn AD 215, Arte taser atstrates how a deus night be condacted aes ae ig cain seat he bal rary 1 ree memoaion oa Srnec ae ott ‘Storr rin re Seah tr eauey feReia! tencam coe Sen) [Caracalla] issued an edie that all the young men should assemble onan open area of ground, saying that he wished 10 enrol a phalanx in honour of Alexander [the Great) ... The young men were told to muster in ranks so that the emperor Could examine each man and decide how far his age, size and Condition were up to the army's standard. (Herodian, 494-5 Sher Whittaker, 1969-70) Heerodian tell us that Caracalla’ Alexandan levy was simply’ ploy to gather the young men of the city in one place so that they might be ‘massacred, The Alexandrians had apparently made Caracalla the butt of ‘many jokes and that he desired revenge, What actually happened in \lexandlria is uncertain but an inseription sec up by a centurion of legio TI Parthica gives thanks for his survival of “the Alexandrian dangers ABOVE Pune on he mh ee Ae of Se Rome {£229 hong som binned ose ee ot esonon mit mts arose ‘or the ampere Spine Srn tes oe (too omen NOM Leon antonnan of atone 2500) ting lai tac’ stork emblem, eter Cot Cabnet, Fghing inthe ciy which might hate been cased when rnvillng comcript Hote but tne abees rebellion in the city during the absence of its legion Ul Traiana, in 213: 1 Traina Germanic forts Te] Anton served 22 seam horn in Alfie at ‘Thee lived 45 years. Aurelia Dioscurus had this made for aoe husband, (/L8 2319) serene mi © emperor to display to the troops. Legia Il Taam ves eg he Sie Germania as ble honour by Cases ean ee Cenni, a Germanic people (213). IL Traiana was the only legion so >noured during the war and must have performed exceptionally in battle. The legion’s other title, Antonniana, was derived from theofficial name of Caracalla, Antoninus, and essentially means “Antoninus! on Primus was transferred from the Numidian legion IIT Augusta, whose lis pia index Cloyal, avenging’) were granted by Septimius Severus When the legion supported his bid for power in 193, Primus’ transfer may have oceurred before the war in order to bring the unit up to fighting scrength; during, FHL Augusta also supplied troops to the field army or ater to make good casualties sustained in the war. It is probable that all new legions were built around such cadres of trained legionaries transferred from other units, Veteran eenturions were certainly detailed with the command and taining of these new formations The army usually preferred recruits from agricultaral backgrounds auher than cityewellers ike the Alexandlrians, because such men were amiliar with hard work and tough conditions (ef. Vegetus, Epitome, 1.3) leas the provincial and predominantly rural background of legionaries that led the gravestone of @ praciorian centurion to sneer that he had ‘aithfully commanded a century in a praetorian cohort, not in a barbarian legion’ (ILS 2671; Keppie 1997: 9). The legionaries had the last laugh. In 193 Septimius Severus dishonourably discharged. the entire Praetorian Guatd for its patt in the murder of the emperor Pertinax, and re-formed it from soldiers drawn from the legions (Dio, 7423-6; Herodian, 2.14.5). The appearance anil nsanners of such rural soldiers shocked the senator Dio. Familiar with the relatively cultured praetorians, he reports that the Pannonian legionaties who entered Rome with Septimius Severus in 198 were “most savage in appearance, most terrifying in speech, and most boorish in conversation’, but he admitted that they were by far the better soldiers (Dio, 742.3-8) Evidence from gravestones suggests that most legionaries enlisted 28, but older and younger recruits were not beaween the ages of 17 [ABOVE LEFT Legionary sntonnlanu of Gane {280/60} snowing elo (anter Coin cabinet, Universo ingen 420 153. me loglons cage ‘Sundar ean by te onturilstondords (hunter Cal Cebit ier of Ciogon the ideal height of a legionary was 6 Roman feet (5 9in; 1.77m). He adds that the legionaries ofthe first ‘cohort should be atleast 5 Roman feet andl 10 inches (5ft Tins 1. (eget, Epitome, 1.5). His figures are complemented by the skeletons ‘of two seldiers found in a double grave at Canterbury dating t0 (One man was aged about 30 andl 1.75m tll (588 in), the other was about 20 and 1:815m tall (Sf 11 in). His skeleton was better preserved and indicated that he had been particularly muscular. The soldiers appear to have been murdered (Bennett etal. 1982: 46, 191) TERMS OF SERVICE Longth of service In the mid-Ist century AD service inthe legions was fixed at 25 yeas, but the pracice of discharging soldiers every second year rather than annually meant that about half of them served for 26 years before hhonesta wissio (honourable discharge) was granted. Biennial discharges were stil in effect during the reign of Marcus Aurelivs (161-80), but carly in the reign of Septimius Severus (193-211) discharge became an annual occurrence and all legionaries served for 26 years. Soldiers of legio Il Parthica vwere sill discharged alter 26 years! service in 244 (AZ 1981: 134), but this date marks the accession of the emperor Philip and a 40-year period of continual foreign and civil wars land soldiers were kept in service long beyond the ustal term, Consequently, during the reign of Aurelian (270-75) we find a soldier ‘named Aurelius Tulianus who had served in legio I Parthiea for 33 years (AE 1975: 171). He was probably conscripted during the reign of Gordian IIL for the Persian war of 242-44, A soldier i not to be feared if he is clothed, armed, shod, has a full bell, and some money in his purse." (Historia Augusta, Severus Alexander, 52.3) Septimus Severus was the fist emperor to increase military pay since Domitian (81-96). Domitian’s basic annual rate was 800 silver denaré paid in four instalments. Underofficers (prinapals) such as tesear (officers ofthe watchword) received pay anda half, bt the more senior opti aod signer were duplicari ancl received double pay oF rations Severus increased pay forall soldiers in 197 in celebration of his victory lover Clodius Albinus at Lugdunum. The rate of inerease is unknown but js presumed to be 50 per cent, thus increasing basic pay to 150 dewari, “This was a large sum but i is difficult to equate to moder values, However unlike the majority of the Empire's inbabitants who lived at subsistence level, the soldier usually had enough money to maintain his family and buy Iusury goods or even slaves. His pay was also supplemented by ‘donatives, special gifts of gold or silver coin ot bullion, rations and clothing made on the emperor's accession day of ven in place of booty following a campaign. Caraealla doubled pay 10 ‘900 denon but this put such a strain on Imperial finances and when Macrinus and Severus Alexander attempted to reintroduce Sepsimius Severus’ level, it caused disaffection and mutiny. When Maximinus seized the throne in 235 he apparently doubled pay to 1,800 dena Inflation, however, wa rife throughout the Srd century and the rise may not have been as great as it first appears. Caracalla had introduced a new coin, the antonininns, which hadl 2 fee vale of two denarii but only the silver content of about one and a half, and by the middle of the Sed century the silver content dropped so dramatically that some antoninian’ of Gallienus’ reign (260-68) were merely base meta with a silver wash, With much of the coinage sirtually worthless the soldiers ‘came to rely on the donatives of bullion and rations (Speidel, M.A. 1992: Alswon 199). Legionaries also received a hump stim pension at the enel of service nose as pravmia, peshaps equivalent to ten oF 12 yeas’ pay ESSENTIAL ORGANISATION AND COMMAND Throughout our period the legion wi cohorts Cohorts HEX were built around six centuries each containing 80 men, ‘making a cohort 480 men strong. Cohort I had only five eenturies but these were of double size, making a complement of 800 legionasies, Uniquely, legio HI Parthiea had six centuries in it First cohort but itis "uncertain ifthese were of double size. With an additional 120 cavalry the legion numbered 5,240 at masimusm strength, ‘ed trom a umphal Stcond panel sows Marcie (ie hod veploces with ‘Constantine! aderesting (dutnorscolecton) Centuries and centurions A centurion commanded each eentury. The centuries in each cohort ‘were organised in three pairs of prior (front) andl pstrior (rear), and classed a pil, princes or hastat. The priarcenturion hid seniority over the postaior centurion. Pili centurions were the most senior in the cohor, followed by prints, then by the haslat, No cohort hadl an ‘overall commander; they were simply tactical groupings of centuries In fact, the titles of Imperial centurions recalled the triple battle lines of the Reptblican legion This suggests that the centutial titles still retained their tactical rmeaningand were evident even in the early 4th century (eg. 1.82382), The six renturies of the cohort could form up sivdeep in battle, the posterior centuries supporting the prior centuries. This was effectively triple bale line, in which the seeond line of princes could relieve or reinforce the pias necessary, and the thitd line of fnstatact asia reserve ‘or perform outflanking manoewsres. More usually, the cohort would form up in line of two centuries, prior backed by paseron Such lines were not continuous, There were spaces between the centuries and substantial gaps between cohorts in battle lines forthe cohesion of the individual units and to facilitate the advance of reinforcements to the front (Seidel, M.P, 1992 RL, 7-9, 45-50) The enly centurions of clear superior rank in the legion were those ‘of the fit cohort, known asthe primi anines (front rankers). There were ‘only five primi online, there being no pilus posterior, except for the tunique case of legio Il Parthica (AE 1993: 1588). The primus pilus (meaning “frst spear javelin’) was the most senior ofthe primi arin, ‘This was the seldom-reached pinnacle of the eenturion’seareer and the pos was held for only one year His centary contained the auilifr, the senior standard-bearer who carried the eagle standard (apsila) embodying the gonius (spirit) of the legion, which was crucial © unit identity and morale, Despite the status of the primus pilus there is 0 ‘evidence that he had overall command ofthe first cohort and by the end fof the 3rd century he was actually detached from his command From 213 we hear of a tax named after the primus pilus that was connected with the supply of the army. Administering its collection was fan increasingly important function ‘of the chiet centurion but he remained a fighting soldier until the early 250s Tn 253 Sattonis lacus was primus pilus oF legio II] Augusta. The ‘mas disbanded in 238/9 for ts support of Maximinus against the leg Gordians, but when this happened Iieundus sas serving with detachment ofthe legion in Europe and for the next Mor 15 years bis stranded unit fought Germans and Goths. The legion was reformed in 253 with Iucundus as its frst fram pilus On his retirement Iueunds dedicated a statue “tothe most powerful god of war” a reference to the extensive warfave he hael seen. He also lad his vis ~ the centurion’s vine stick andl ancient badge of rank ~ to est in the shrine of the eagle ILS 2296). Within a few years Kucundus’ successors in IH August principally concemed with the maintenance ofthe legion’s supplies and by 286 the rank of prime pilus had become hereditary so that it passed to sons who were not even soldiers. With the passing ofthe primas pitus fs a command officer the primi onines also ceased to exist and cohort I as no different from cohorts X-Il (Cooper 1968: 200-98). Thus Iucundus' dedication of his vine stick in 253 attains the poignancy of an ancient military caste saying farewell, The centurion vas supported by a number of underoficers. The siguier(standlare-bearer) carvied the standard the soldiers followed into battle, relaying visual orders and acting as a rallying point. The oto was the centurion’s deputy, ho in battle maintained order from behind, tusinga staff to shove soldiers back into line, and would assume command if the centurion was killed. The cornicen oF bucinatr trumpeter) would relay commands from the general 0 the century. The tasserarus (officer ff the watchword) was concemed with guard duties and aided the opto in bale The centurion fought at the front and always figured highly in To the Spirits of the Departed. Gratus Arilleus (and) Clodius Glamosus, centurions of legio VIII Augusta, killed in the Serdican War. The schola (association) of centurion of the above named legion {made this} for their welldeserving colleagues. (Sasel 1961: 4) c field army of Gallienus Ariilleus and Glamosus were serving in ‘when it met and defeated the forces of the usurper Fulvius Macrians near Serica (Sofia, Bulgaria) in 261. The unusual outcome ofthe battle highlights the essential function and influence of the standard-bearers lover the soldiers And so the emperor (Gallienus sent Aurcolus, with other generals, too, against Macrinus [the elder Macrians) and his son Macrianus ‘And sshen they met in battle, they surrounded. them and killed some; they spared others as family, and they hoped that those spared would go over to the emperor. However, they did not sive way at Fist: but everyone went over 10 the emperor because of abit f bad luck, For, as they were going, the men around the commanders held their standards straight; but one of those ring the standards became entangled and fell as they were marching, and his standard was, brought dowa. Azd al hoe remaining who were carrying standards saw the lowered standard andl did not know wy it was lowered; they assumed that the man holding it had dipped it deliberately, changing sides to the emperor [Gallienus]. And straightaway they t00 dropped all he standards and dashed them tothe ground and acclaimed Gallients, with the Pannonians Leona antoniniana ‘aitens,cmmamarating the {ol ot oie vt Auguta tie legion bull emblem: eter Cla (bint, Unies logew 43 Iwumpster - nota hie (auters eatecton FIGH™ Legionary antonio 1 Gtlena (299/60, showing (Manter Cm Cabinet, Unierty oso the only ones left with Macrinus. Then shen they too wished to id not surrender change sides, Mactinus required that they show ‘hen, but kill ther first an i this way go to the emperor. And having done this, the Pannonians handed themselves over: translated by Kathleen McLaughlin) onaras, The third essential undenoicer was the optia. Ifthe centurion was lulled or incapacitated he would leave his position at the rear of the century and assume command, The usserarius was then solely responsible for keeping the rear ranks in order and shoving back-stepping soldiers into line wth his staf. In assuming command the became a focus for enemy attack and anes were accordingly high. The gravestone of Acts Septimus, opti of legio I Adiutrx, records that he was killed in battle, the enemy is lost (CHL II, 4310). However, the gravestone has a relief shoving Septimus in battle fighting on the exponed right of the bale line, with sword drawn and shield raised high, barbarians falling before him, suggesting that he was killed having taken command ofthe centary Cavalry and the comitatus The legion also had 120 cavalry (equites) who acted as a bodyguard to the commander as well as messengers snl scouts, The number of troopers per legion may have increased during the 3rd century and during the sole reign of Gallienus (260-68), many were detached to form elite ‘cavalry units called promot his comitatus 16 |AGOVE LEFT Leginaey “mbiem.unar Cam Cabinet, Showing ope Ari's Pega emblem untor Con Cabinet, Univer of lagen) The comitatus was & mobile field army under the emperor's direct ‘command with the praetorians, elements of legio IH Parthica and other ‘guard snits a its core, Gallienus added units detached from the legions, forming an esential central reserve that was not bound to frontier defence and could be rapidly deployed to counter invaders and wsirpers, Practectus 1 From the beginning of our period until about 260, most legions were commanded by senatorial office, the legate (egats) (Rt, 8). Legio TL ‘raiana, based near Alexandra, differed in being commanded by a prefect (rages) a former primus pilus who had been promoted to the equestrian order. All three Parthian legions were also under the ‘command of equestrian prefect, professional soldiers such as Licinius Hierodetus, who commanded legio It Parthica carly in the reign of Severs Alexander (before 227). Before his promotion to Il Parthica he had been primus pilus wice, commanded one of the urban cohorts (the militansed police of Rome), and led an elite auxiliary unit of Mauretanian infantry with cavalry against the Parthians in 216-18 (ILS 1356). One of his predecessors, Aelius Triccianus, had joined one of the Pannonian legions (1 & TT Adiutis, X & XIV Gemina) as a common soldier, was promoted to the salf of a provincial governor and ultimately roxe 0 ‘command Ml Parthica against the Pa 216-17 (Dio, 78.13.34) Between 260 andl 268 Gallienus sed an edict banning senators from military commands (Aurelius Vitor, De Gaesaribus, 33), and by the end of the third century all legions were commanded by professional prefects Tribunes: Until the middle of the 3rd century the legate or prefect had six tribunes on his staf who outranked the centurions but were normally concemed with administration and held no permanent command over the cohorts. The legate had one snibunur laticavins (broad stipe tvibune’ ~a reference to senatorial insignia), who was sill in his teens or ates, and after this post would enter the Senate and emabark on a mixed civil service snd military career: His class teant that he outranked the remaining five tribunes of equestrian rank (tii angus narrow stipes’) despite the fact that they were mature men and had held commands over ausiliary nits. Legions commanded by practi presumably had six equestrian wibunes, (Only in times of war did the tribune hold any tactical command over the Arrian, Ectaxis Contra Alanos, 5-6, 24), and their administrative staff resumed their ighting dates Aurelius Veterans benefiiarus [clerk] of the latilavius (tribune) of legio XII Gemina Killed in the battle Hine, who lived 26 years, 7 months, 15 days. Aurelius Secundianus, imaginifer [standard-bearer] of the above rnamed legion, ad this Memorial made for his wwellcleserving cousin, (ILS 2406) The gravestone was discovered at Tortona in northwest Italy and the battle in which Veteranus died may be connected with one of the many barbarian incursions or civil wars of the mid-3rd century. The inscription is notable because it may be one of the latest references to the senatorial tribune and because i shows that even the legion’ administrative staff took their place in the battle line Gallienus’ edict would have abolished the rank of senatorial tribune bat the equestrian tribune also fades fiom view at this time 10 be replaced with prarpositvisen from the ranks, Voxitlations Complete legions still took the field under Mateus Aurelius and cccasionally thereafter but by the midlle of the 3rd century it was extremely rare for a fall legion to leave its provincial ase to Fight abroad. For the duration of Lucivs Verus’ Parthian War (162-66) three legions - I Minervia, I Adiutrix and V Macedonia ~ were transferred from Enrope to the East, but in the subsequent wars against the Germans and Sarmatians (168-80) many’ legions were deployed not as complete bodies but in detachments called vesillations, $0 called becatse they marched under banners called vevilla. Already in 170 Marcus Aurelius’ recently established legions IT and TH Talica were ‘operating in veaillations (a term that could be applied to any size of detachment or work party). An inscription from Solin in Croatia records detachments from the legions (using their original tides Pi Cloval’) and Concordia anited’) Fortifying the Salon ie from barbarian incursions during the Marcomannic Wat Interestingly, a senior intelligence officer (entuia rumentariu) from another legion oversaw the construction: To the Emperor Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus chief priest, in the jwentyfourth year of his tribunician power, consul for the third time, vexllations of legions II Pia and IIL sf liens (628000, onmemerating ei Xi ‘atten nmr aly Sed colebrate tree maior tones: unter Can 7 18 ‘entry. The lesons excel it ‘conructan and in pacatina brlete Munterian Museum, Univers of ieepon) Concordia (built) 200 feet [of wall] under the direction of Publius Actus Amyntianus, centurio frumentarius of legio. I Complete legions did fight in the wars of Septimius Severus and (Caracalla ~ a notable example is Il Traana in 213 when it won the ttle Germania for a victory over the Cenni ~ but increasingly their field armies were composed of vexillations, Thereafter the legion became a kind of static reserve, sending out detachments from its hase as necessary {or field or garison service without compromising its responsibilities for frontier defence anil provincial policing. The tactical situation faced by the Emoire in the later 2nd and Sra centuries was better served by vexillations that cotld be moted more easily in terms of speed and logistics than complete legions, Massed in. appropriate numbers, vellatios could tackle large armies, or be dispersed to combat les hnumercas opponents, They also provided strong. garrisons for che protection of important road junctions, passes and river crossings. This was a logical progression ofa practice evident from the establishment of the Imperial legions, and we should recall that the legion was never really a taciel organisation — ie was simply too large ~ but an administrative ‘organistion: the cohorts and centres were always the tactical bodes, ‘Combat vexillatons were normally composed of one oF to cohorts, These retained their regular centurial organisation and would fight 3s groups of centuriae in the field, for the vexillation was effectively a legion in miniature. With additional administrative and logistical staf such detachments numbered £500 (one cohort = guingenaria) or 1,000 men (1w9o cohorts» miliara), and were commanded by an officer with the ttle of pruepositus (Saxer 1967) In the early Sd century a vexillation performing raison duty at an outlying fort might expect to say there for up to three years, but field service could last much longer. Some of the units participating in the Parthian War of 216-18 had ‘marched east in 214 and only returned home between 219 and 221. Inthe endemic warfare ofthe later Srd century some vexilations were in the field for so long that they effectively became independent, and those that survived were lukimately organised into minlegions carrying the ‘numerals and names of their parent legions. For example, in the 4th century the old legio III Italiea existed as five frontier legions in the province of Kactia and a sixth elite legion serving in the mobile field Army (comilatonses) of lyricum (Notitia Dignitatum, Oredentis, 85.17-19, 21, 99; 5.287), The lst traditionally organised Roman legion to fight asa complete unit was probably legio Il Parthica, in the Persian war of Gordian TIL (242-44). This was because the legion was based in central Taly and consequently had no sector of frontier to defend. lis creator, Septimus Severs, envisaged that the legion be reserved for use asa complete unit LEFT kntrnching tot and itary ik axes onto rom Sat. Qunteron Museum. ner of Glgow ASOVE Leploneyantninianus { Ganena, showing tl XX imigentne Copan emit 2 catiaton ofthe togon fought (mer Con Cebit University st cnsgew! 19 Probably aperating tgeter os ‘Centanur, pore 2259-88. ‘omen in Ponce Drown by Stoven Bn Rahardson and, along with the 10,000trong Praetorian Guard, it formed the care fof all Imperial expeditionary forces, but by ¢260 even Il Parthica operated in veuilatones. From 257/8 detachments of I Partica served in the comitatus against the Alamanni in Germany and Italy (Cooper 1968: 266M), and later we find a vexillaion of Ht Parthica and a detachment from the recently restored legio I Augusta guarding & ly important road in Macedonia against the Goths, ¢260-58 (AE 1934: 199), Wives and concubines The increasing use of vexllations vas also influenced by another significant factor ~the wives and fimiles ofthe soldiers. At the start of our period the legions were finmly established in their provincial bases Soldiers were recruited locally and they formed relationships with local women, Settlements called canabe grew up around the legionary fortresses, original to cater for the needs ofthe soldiers ~ shops, taverns, brothels — bt 200m expanded to incluce the homes of the soldier dopendants LLegionaries were loath to leave their homes an families to fight abroad ad the use of vexillations limited the number of soldiers who swould have to leave family and home for a number of yeas, However as we have seen, some complete legions did go to war during the frst half of the Sr centr, and the concems fr faraway wives and children led to discord andl mutiny The emperor Augustus (27 BC to AD 14) banned legionaries from ‘contracting legal marriages until they were discharged from service, This may have been an attempt 10 limit the ‘number of non-combatants attached to the legion and prevent soldiers from becoming to0 tied to a particular area in case military exigency ‘demanded that they be rapidly and permanently transferred elsewhere. Tacitus said that legionaries “lacked the habit of marrying wives and rearing children’ (Annat, 1427), but clear that they had done both even during Augustus’ reign. For example, when in. AD 9 Varus’ army of three legions and auxiliaries was ambushed and destroyed in the Teutoburg Forest bby the Cherusci, a powerful German tbe. The historian Dio observed disapproxingly thar the Roman field army was accompanied by substantial numbers of women and children, but he noted with respect that the legionaries who had been left to garrison forts made desperate attempts to save their women and children when attacked by the Cherusei (Dio, 66.20.2, 222-4) 1 was not until 197 thar che ban on marriage vas officially lifted. Having defeated his rival Clodius Albinus at Lugdunum, Septimus Severus rewarded his troops with increased pay, beter prospects of promotion, and recognised their right to marry (Herodian, 3.8.45). However, the Severan emperors clearly made attempts (6 limit the numbers of women and childeen accompanying armies on campaign. If we examine the gravestones of soldiers of legio Il Parthica who died whilst the legion was fighting in the Middle East berween 216 and 244, we find that ordinary legionaties were commemorated by comrades but some centurions and senior ‘underoffices’ were buried by their wives. For example: To Antonia Cara, who lived 28 years and 4 months, Probius Sanctus centurion of legio It Parthiea baad this made for his incomparable and well deserving wife. (Apamea, AE 1998: 1597) Another poignant gravestone from ‘Turkey records how Flavius Maritimus, centurion of II Parthica, buried his three-month-old son at Cnidus in the province of Asia (Turkey) on 27 September 244 (CILMI, 408a). The date indicates thar the legion was marching back 10 Europe having fought in the ultimately disastrous war against the Persians (below) These and other inseriptions reveal that wives and. children accompanied centurions and their senior underofficers, sueh as ceaglebearcrs and gptiones to and from the regions clone to vshere the fighting was, but no legionary below the rank of esierarius is commemorated by a wife (see Balty & Van Rengen 1908). The clear {implication is that ordinary legionaries were not permitted to take theit wives abroad. They seem to have accepted this up to a point and were resigned to the fact that they might be thousands of miles from home for several years, but they demanded that their families be protected whilst they were away. In 23 Severus Alexander was wintering with the Lesnar antoninons ‘atten 2860) showing ‘ol ata career tmblem. Hunter Can Cablnt, Universtiy of Glasgow a to th ight lds eynerel ctu unter Con bint, University of Glasgow field army at Antioch in Syria having fought the Persians with mixed success in Mesopotamia and Media, When news arrived that the Alamanni bad overrun the frontiers of Noricum, Raetia and upper Germany, the soldiers transferred from those provinces for the war in the Eas turmed their anger on the emperor: Ther felt they had suffered a double wagedy, first in their misfortunes in the Persian war and then in the reports they received individially about the destruction oftheir families by the Germans. They turned their anger on Alexander, blaming him forthe betrayal of their cause in the Fast through his negligence fo ewvardice and his hesitant procrastination over the northern criss. (Herodian, 6.7.3, after Whittaker 1968-70) Archacology confirms the violent destruction of many auxiliary fort in Germany at this time, though ithas been suggested that some were actually sssaulte by otier Romans in 285, By 234 Alexander had marehed north land entered into peace negotiations with the Alamanni but dhs angered ‘many soldiers and in March 235 Alexander was murdered and Maximinus, his prefect of recruits, was macle emperor. Maximinus crushed the Alamanni in battle but he ws not universally popular with dhe army and tlemenis revolted, perhaps including legio VII Augusta whose fortress at Strasbourg Maximinus may have been besieged and stormed. The Aesrucion of some ausiliary forts may’also have resulted from Roman ‘eres Roman confict rather than Barbarian incursion (Okamura 1996) By spring 238 Maximinus had fought successfully against the Germans, Srmatians and Caxpi,and was preparing to campaign against the Goshs from his base in Pannonia, but his wars were expensive and the province of Africa rebelled over brutal ax collection, setting up its govemor Gordian and his son as emperors. The younger Gordian was soon killed in battle against legio TIT Augusta outside Carthage. At the prospect of facing the charge of the experienced soldiers his untrained levies hie away their equipment and ran without waiting for the charge. Pushing and trampling each other, more were killed by their own side than by the enemy" (Herod 7.9.7). The ekler Gordian committed suicide The Senate in Rome had declared for Gordian against the hated soldier emperor Maximinus, and proceeded with their rebellion even when the Gordians were defeated, The Senate elected two emperors from its own ranks, Pupienus and Balbinus soul arranged dhe defence of Tay. a made a difficult crossing of the sill wint Alps, Maximinus determined to storm the northern city of Aquileia which was manned by senatorial forces, and march on Rome However, Maximinus’ soldiers proved unable to storm the walls and ran short of supplies during the ensuing siege. Morale plummeted and the legionaries of Parthica, whose wives and children in Albanum were effectively the hostages ofthe Senate, decided to act before their families were harmed: Maximinus was resting in his quarters luring a break in the fighting ... Most of the soldiers had also retired to their tents for t the guard post allotted to their charge. Suddenly the soldiers from the ‘camp on Mount Alba near Rome (where they had left behind wives and children) decided to murder Maximinus, so that they could abandon the endless siege With great daring the soldiers went 10 Maximinus! tent at about midday and, with the help of the praetorians, tore hiis image from the standards. When Maximinus and his son came out of their tent and attempted to reason with the soldiers, they were killed without being heard, ‘The praetorian prefeet was also killed, as were all of Maximinus’ close advivors. Their bodies were thrown out for anyone to desecrate or trample, before being left to be torn to pieces by dogs and birds. The heads of Maximinus and his son. were sent to Rome, (Herodian, 83.8-9, alter Whittaker 1969-70) The assasination of Maximinus illustrates the lengths to which legionaries were prepared to go to protect their wives andl children. However, there wis a datker sde to soldiers’ relationships with women, A substantial number of soldiers ‘wives’ were in fet slaves bought to act, as servants and coneubines. A Roman master could freely have sex with hie slave without her consent, and the slave had no recourse if subjected tocother physical abuse. It was even within the bounds of law fora Roman to kill his save. However, itis clear from inscriptions that many female slaves were granted their freedom and remained attached to their former ‘masters (dhotgh we showild not discount dependency as a facto). The army actually kept female slaves as prostitutes for the entertainment of its soldiers. Evidence from DurseEuropos suggests that soldiers hal free use of military prostitutes and that they were rotated around brothels attached to military installations in Syria (Pollard 2000: 53-4, 188), The risk of sexual disease and the dangers of abortion and childbirth must have limited theit life expectancy considerably. ELITE LEGIONARIES Most legionaries were heavy infantrymen who fought in close order with ‘ssord and heavy javelin (pulun), but the legions had always contained spectalst fighters, However, it was not until the early Sr century that sul legionaries were recognised with official ranks (or tiles), and for ‘most of the century they are attested in only one legion — II Parthica ‘ions 280/80) showing ‘ne of el alas emblems, hares boar ante sin Cabinet Unter of legen 23 Lancierit Since 1879 regular finds of inscriptions from Apamea in Spria have revealed much important and unique information about the ‘organisation of legio I Parthica, During the Parthian and Persian wars of Caracalla, Severus Alexander and Gordian IL, the legion had its winter quarters at Apamea and its periodic says left a wealth of epigraphic evidence (Bally & Van Rengen 1998). After the city was sacked by Shapur Tof Petsa in the 250s, a large number of gravestones commemorating soldiers of I Parthica were used to reinforce the city walls, particularly i tower XV, where more than 130 inscriptions have been discovered. As well as attesting the presence of the legion at Apamea at various periods, the inscriptions have revealed a number of new ranks unique to the legion, Primary among them is that of lanciarius. The lanciani of legio II Parthica are recorded on three gravestones dating +o Caracalla’ and Macrinus’ Parthian War, 215-18. The stones bear portraits of the dead, showing them holding bundles of four or five small lancra, the light javelins from which they drew their i lancer (AE 1993: 1573-75). The light javelins indicate lanciari: could act as openorder skirmishers like the ancient velit fighting before the main battle line of heavy infantry or protecting the gaps beween the cohorts and vexillaions from infiltration by the tenemy, Some ofthe troops who performed this function atthe Battle of Nisibis n 217 were almost certainly lanciani: With loud shrieks and yells the (Parthians) charged! the Romans with [horse] archers firing and cavalry at the gallop. But the disposition of the Roman units was orderly and careful. With cavalry and Moorish soldiers on either flank, nd the spaces in the éente [the gaps berween the unit of heasy infantry] wee filled with, light armed troops capable of meking marauding forays. So they sustained the attack and fought back. The barbarians inflicted hheaty casualties with their showers of arrows and with the lances of te cataphracts (heavily armoured cavalry] mounted on horses and camels, as they wounded the Romans with downward thrusts But the Romans easily had the better of those who came to hhandto-hand combat, When the numbers of cavalry andl camels Degen to cause them trouble, they feigned a retreat and threw dow: caltrops and other iron traps with sharp spikes sticking ont fof them. These were deadly to the cavalry and camel because they lay hidden in the sand and were not seen. The horses and camels trod on them, particularly the camels with their sft pads, and fell to their knees and were lamed, throwing their riders from their backs. (Herodian, 4.15.1-8, after Whittaker 1969-70) Lariat could alm be drawn up behind the hemy tainty to supply missile support over the heads of their comrades (Arvian, Eztacis Contra Alanos, 15-18, 25-26; cf. Dio 74.7.2). Early lanciarii ‘The lanciari of legio I Partiea are the first attested in any legion but are not the earliest known in the Imperial army. That honour goes to troopers ‘of the aa Sebosiana, a cavalry unit based in Britain in the kate Ist century pe AD. In a letter to the unit's commander the officer Docs gives the names of the lanciaié within his tuna (troop of 30 cavalry) “who ‘were missing lances, Docs letter reveals that his mounted tanciarit were armed with 0 types of lancea: a single heavy thrusting weapon, a lance or pike as the modern reader would wnderstand it; and two lencrar ‘ubarmales, smaller throwing javelins (Tomlin 1090). The fanciari of I Parthia were clearly armed with the latter weapon, ‘ithough the lanciant of I Parthica are the first legionaries to bear the rank, lightly armed! troops had always been part of the legion’s makeup. A mid-tolawe Ist century sculpture on a. colimn base from the legionary headquarters building at Mainz shows a lightly equipped legionary armed with three shore javelins and an oval shield (RE, 26), The other column bases show heavily armed legionaries with rectangular scuaand pila fighting in close order (RE, 31), but the light}y armed legionary runs forward alone, indicating that he is skirmishing in front of the line of heavy infantry. Also discovered at Mainz was the igrvestone of Flavoleius Cords of legio XIV Gemina dating to before AAD 45. Cords is portrayed with a long slender javelin with a throwing, thong to increase range and a large oval shield instead of the regular Scutumn. These should identify im as a dedicated skirmisher, for the oval shield was more suited to fighting in open ranks (RE, 31). “Tacitus suggests the use ofthe Jancin by legionaries of II Gallia in his description of the destruction of a force of Rhoxolani in 69 (Histories, 1.79). Neater to our period, in 135, half ofthe soldiers of the Cappadocian legions, XII Fulminata and XV Apollinaris, were armed with pila the other haf with lanceae, for baile against the heavy cavalry Of the Alani (Arvian, Ectaxs contra Alans, 15-18). The division of arms may only have resulted for the particular tacts devised forthe battle: Continuous and stationary batlle line in which the fist four ranks of legionaries used their pila to present a wall of spikes to the charging Alani, whilst the rear four ranks bombarded them with lanceae. However, the armament may have been standard for when the satirist Lucian was given a pair of guards from the same legions to escort him whilst on Dflcial duties in the 160, he notes that one soldier was armed with a ‘pike’ (probably a plum), the other with a lancre (Lacan, Alexander, 55). Most interestingly, Dio describes how in 185 an angry ‘delegation’ of 1,500 legionaries from Britain was permitted by Commodus to yneh the increasingly powerful practorian prefect Perennis, whom they believed to be plotting against the emperor. Dio describes the soldiers as javelin ‘men (Dio, 72.9.2-3). Their selection for the “delegation” by the legates of Britain suggests that they were the elite troops of their legions, and their number indicates that each legion had at least 500 such troops, equivalent to the strength of a cohort. The legionaries may actually have belonged to three vexillations operating against deserters led. by Maternus in Gaul, hence their easy march on Rome, but Dio's tale Lesnar antoninians of ‘atone 25/60) showing ne of lol Hale's emblems, hove #Mppocomaus (see ore (unter Can bint, University of agen should allow us to view the lanciarit of I Parthica as elite troops within the legion, numbering perhaps 500 men. Finally, an inscription recording the dedication of a shield and lancea by a centurion of legio TT Cyrenaica wo the god Vihansa, shows that centarions could be Similasly equipped and would lead skirmishers or direct the missle support from the rear ranks of the batile Tine (S, 1755). Lanclarii and the sacred After their appearance at Apamea in 215-18 legionay lancari are not heard of again until the late 8rd century. We know of mounted lanciay in Diocletian's new legio I Tovia Seythica (after 285: AE 1981: 777) and in 300 we find a vexillation of lanciri from legio Il Traiana and the lanciavi of legio IIT Diocletana in Egypt (P. Beatty Panop. Mh 301). Funerary inscriptions also record a distinet unit of lanciari from which soldiers were promoted to the Praetorian Guard in the late Sra and early 4th centuries: To the Spitts of the Departed, Valerius Tertius, soldier ofthe tenth ppractorian cohort, lied 36 years, three months, 15 day. He served inva Moesian legion for 5 years, in the lanciari for 11 years, in the practorians for [-] years in the century of Sains. (1S, 2045) Marcella had this made for Martinus, her wel deserving husband, ‘who lived 38 years. He served in [legio] T Minerva for 11 years, it Llegio) 1X [Claudia] for 4 years, in the lenciavi for 4 years, in the ‘cold surour ened bythe Galle praetorians for 5 years. (ILS ‘onto fe i Gemine ‘he my Then opts teion' on smblom, urtr Coin (Cintra o lego) Tertius Moesian legion (IV Flavia, VI Claudia, 1 talica and XI Claudia), perhaps from the vexillations based at Aquileia in north-east Haly in the late Sr to early 4th centuries (Speidel, M.P, 1900). The unit of lancian to which they were promoted was nota specialist legionary detachment but a new Guarals unit created in the second half of the Sd century nd Martinus entered a distinct unit of lancani from a To the Spirits of the Departed. Valerius Thiumpus who served in legio XI Claudia, was selected as a lanciarius in the sacred retinue (sacer comitatus), then served asa protector for 5 years, discharged, wi prefect of legio II Herculia for 2 years, months and died aged 45. (IES, 2781) Thiumpus, who also originally served in Mocsian legion, vas promoted to the the saa comitatus (‘saered retinue’, Le. the personal field army of Diocletian or one of his ‘immediate predecessors. Later Thiumpus was promoted to prutrtor, a guard of the emperor equating in rank to a chief centurion and ‘marked out for promotion to senor commands. Following his honourable discharge Thivimpus twas made commander of Diocletian's nev legion I Hereulia. Tertius and Martinus were promoted to the same elite unit of lanciavias Thiumpas, (0 the Lancani, not the laaciari within or derived from a particular legion, They alo were part ofthe sicred retinue, allowing them 1 be promoted to its most senior unit, the Praetorian Guard Tis probable that this unit of lanciani had its origin in legio arthica. In 260 Gallienus set about making his field army a permanent institution and from this time Il Parthica was finally deployed in vexillations (see Vexillaions, above) and it is tempting to see the Tanciarit being formally detached from the legion during this period, hs elevated toa status above the legions and just below the Praetorian Guard in seniority, the lanciavi survived their parent legion and formed the core of the palatine legions of lanciar the most senior in the late Roman Army (Janciari seniors and unio: Nottia Dignitatum, Orientis 52 = 49,6.7 = 47) Phalangarii Dio records that the emperor Caracalla raised a phalanx of 15,000 recruited from Macedonia and equipped in the ancient fashion with pike and linen enirass (Dio, 777.1-2). This unit and a further phalans. fof Spartans is ako reported by Herodian (4.8.2-3, 9-4), Howeve surviving gravestones of the Spartan phalangites indicate that their ‘phalan’ vas in reality a standard cohort of 500-1,000 soldiers and that the soldiers were equipped similarly to the legionaries with regular oval shields, mediumlength swords and even euirasses of lorie segmentata (eg. ILS, 8878). This suggests a combination with other regular Roman heavy infinury equipment and consequently the function and tactics ofthe legionary ‘auxiliary. The real identity and function of Dio's “Macedonia phalanx’ is easily solved, Caracalla oa Somer coma || | Aneztzeent| Parthia and wished to emulate the \ZTPATEYEA fececes of Alsander ne Grea || /M€ Noz | (aHe-385 RO) who had conquered || LK MTATT EP SAAN ftom Tukey to norhern tn Carvel consequent formed his cor Macedonian ‘plas Tre || Masai” me, probaly area, A numberof thes Bat mest rou neighbouring Thrace indeed ve nto dew mos of Bat recat ton ls gon. | The pracoruns numbered 10000 |( and I Parhenatout 3:00, ts || stpphing ie wal igure of .000, |_| The pikes ier eter w sng = “MAPK OS, { | AYPHAIOZ: | normal { ) ‘esianan»saldor Wem Sparta Ne probably weer oreo eomentat, ec 20 atonal sechacigie! Museum, ‘hens (rawn by oven DP. Fcnardon! spears with which some Roman soldiers hel always been equipped, oF to pila, Arian stated that his legionaties were equipped with pikes in 131 bout his cescripton, ‘pikes that end in long, slender points, recalls the long iron shank of the piliom (Fotaxit Gmtre Alanis, 16). The linen citrass could be correct, special ight armour designed for the heat of the Midele East, bait could also apply to the thoacomachus or subarmiis, the paded linen garment worn beneath armour to absorb the shock of blows and sometimes worn as defence by itself (Dio 78.3.2). Dio also recerds that he watched Caracalla drill the Macedonian phalanx at Nicomedia (Tutkes) in 214, buthe simply distors the standard training, fof household troops in advanee of a major eampaigh; Severus Alexander did exacly the same in 231 (Dio, 77.18.1; Herodian, 6.3.3) Sevens Alexander also had a ‘Macedonian Phalanx’ that served with 1-33). We even know ofa legionary of I Parthica who served in this war and was described on his gravestone as «a phalangovin (inscription unpublished, see Balty 1988), but he did not Fight in sn antiquated Macedonian phalanssype unit a al sueces in his Persian War (2 [Alerander] made every effort to .. surpass the Macedonian, king, [He had] a phalanx of 30,000 men whot he ordered to be called phalangari, and with these he won many victories in Persia. This phalanx ... was formed from six legions, and was armed like the other troops. (Historia Augusta, Smeras Alesander, 30.4-5) ‘That the phalanx was formed from whole legions must be doubted the only complete legion present in the field army was I Parthica ~ but it proves that the “phalan” was simply a ttle applied to regular units fighting in the East wishing to emulate the glorious victories of Alexander the Great Belief and belonging Units that had supported the losing side in a civil war might be disbanded and suffer daomnatio memoria. This tersible punishment wiped ‘unit from the army lists and its name and numeral were erased from all moniments, eradicating any trace of its previous existence. Tis soldiers were either dishonourably discharged or were ignominiously transferred to faraway units, This was an ultimate punishment for the unit in which he served defined a soldiers identity. Those who were dlishonourably discharged were often reduced to brigandage 10 survive, while transfers to other units were probably ostracised lest their presence taint the esprit de corps of a loyal legion. The most notable ‘example of our period is legio IT Augusta, disbanded by Gordian 11 in 18-90 for its support of Maximinus and its role in the deaths of and Gordian Tt (see above, Wives and concubines). No account survives of TH Augusta's dsolution, bur we possess many cin 198 for the murder of exils of the disbanding of the Praetorian C the emperor Pertinax. Septimius. Severus’ Pannonian legionaries surrounced the praetorians who had been tricked into parading unarmed ‘outside Rome, and ‘rushed forward seizing from the praetorians their daggers which were inlaid with silver and gold ... and their belts... and any other military insignia they were weafing’ (Herodian, 2.13.10). The Images = wal erm ware ‘amosr (thors collection) 20 ‘Captor one solder oes ht Pl sputum, The or bse ‘howe en aie fap borer) ne imogineresandort bearer ‘ih cated the tpi images (Gators caecson practorians were thos stripped oftheir military identity and dishonourably discharged, Severus then hal the standards ofthe Guard dragged thongh the strets of Rome, desecrating the stcred objects in which the gen (spirits) of the unit andl its centuries resided (Historia Augusta, Saris, 71-2), Some practorians committed suicide atthe shame of it (Dio, 74.1) The dishonourable discharge ofthe practorians allowed Severs to form a new Guard in which he entolled the bravest of his Pannonian legionaries in reward for their crucial spport. Legio IIT Augusta was restored by Valerian and Gallienus in 253 to counter the increasing pressure from rebel tribes in Aftica. At the core of legio II Augusta restituta (restored) was a vexilation that had been serving in Europe when the legion was disbanded. For 14 or 15 year this displaced and disgraced unit strove to maintain its independent identity even when they were added to the regional field ny of Ractia and placed tinder the supervision of officers from legio a (LS, 2772). The now pseudolegionaries swore to return to Africa and sce their legion reborn, On 22 October 258 they falilled their vow (ILS, 531), and their determination isa clear ilhistration of their baie in the legion. Its probable that this vexillation marched ‘with Valevian against Aemniiants in 253 and was suitably rewarded, EQUIPMENT Pitum Teh been suggested that the pion a heavy javelin up to 2m long with a Jong tapering ston shank and barbed head, ceased to be the principal ‘weapon ofthe legionary in the Srel century, with the thrusting spear and light javelins replacing it. However, the evidence is hardly conchusive. The ‘ilu certainly disappears from the great triumphal monuments in Rome such as the Aurelian Column and the Arch of Severus, but the representation of equipment on these monuments is generally poor, and the sculptors found spears easier to depict. Archaeology provides better evidence. Pila heads and shanks have been found in substantial numbers, particularly at legio Augusta's fortress at Caerleon in Wales (dating to after 260) and the fort of Saalburg in Germany (260). More importants a pilum has been recovered from the battle debris at Krefeld-Gellep in Germany. This pilum was used to dlfend the fort of Gelduba fom the Frank in 275, Light and heavy weighted pile are represented on the gravestones of legionaries and practorians until the early 4th century and Ammians reports legionaries using spicula, a form of socketed pili, in batle against dhe Alamanni in 357 (Ammianus Marcelinus, 16.12.46). The pilum almost certainly remained the essential weapon of fronerank legionaries (Cowan 2002, chap. 4). Shietd During our period most legionaries used flat or lightly dished, oral shields. Some were probably of laminate wood Construction but finds from DureEuropos (255-67) indicate that many were of simple plank construction, reinforced with iron bars and edged with sttcheclon rawhide (Plate H). However, a traditional jindrical stun of triple laminate construction, faced with felt and leather, was also discovered at Dura and shows thatthe ‘depiction ofthis shickl on military coin types until the 280s was not anachronistic (Plate D), (270-02 asorecsing te ay ‘cata sugpeting tet his te ot trom Bure Europoe with war god moti, AD 28637. (Bure Europes Cotton, Ye Univers ‘aration a 32 Sword During the 2nd century Roman infantry generally 10 se short swords id adopted medivm ngth and long swords However, short swords did not disippear entirely, and most other swords were ext and thrust weapons sith suubstant taperi some of the longest Roman swords resemble the heavy ripiers of the early modern period, and should be dedicated nique changed dramatically with the adoption of longer sword forms, i. that the sword was used to. shish rather than thrust. In ft ‘our representational ev dence continues 10. shore soldiers in battle using swords to thrust, and advocates the use omen swords of3récentuyy 1.12). nmin confirms the isue when he states that legionaries used Sate rom Wem, Benmork. their swords to thrust atthe Battle of Strasbour Amid the crush From Engoaret 1965. and the shoving there wis no room to use medi swords-o skish, only to thrust and cut [The advancing Alamanni_ nobles} got as far as the le Primanorum, which was positioned in the centre, in “practoria camp’ formation. There our soldiers in close order and in fully ‘manned ranks, held their ground stendfutly like wowers.. Being intent on avoiding wounds, they protected themselves like ‘munnillos* and with drawn swords thrust at the enemy's sides, left unprotected by their frenzied rage. (Ammianuis Marcellin 16.12.49), (Marmillos were heavily armoured gladiators who probably fought with their left leg leading, and body turned in profile to thei opponent so as to present as small a target as possible.) Lolo mio ate cnt AB Like previous generations, the legionaries at Strasbourg only used the sword to slash when puasting broken twoops (ibid, 16.12.52). Amman also clarifies another issue, He refers 10 the mediumlength or long sword as the ladius, not spatha, the term used by ‘modem sebolars Notably, from the reign of Severus, ordinary soldiers ceased to wear their swords on the right, and wore them on the left, something that was previously the preserve of centurions and senior officers ‘A notable continuity in weaponry during our period isthe dager (puso) In the third quarter of the Sed century it was sill modelled after its ancient Spanish prototype (he Romans had adopted the dagger during the Punic Wars of the 3rd century BC). The metal scabbard of the dagger even retained its suspension rings, With blade lengths fof up to 30cm (13in) this was a formidable sidearm, and very much part of the military identity (cf. Herodian, 2.13.10) Helmet and armour Defensive equipment became more substantial uring our period. Ringemail its commonly had fulllength sleeves 1 could extend far down the thighs, while scale cuirasses were reinforced With chest plates, The use of the famous (orice segmentata, an. articulated armour of ron plates and hoops, was Himited but contintied until at least the middle fof the 3rd century: Supplementary protection for limbs was atforded by articulated arm guards (manica) igreaves and even thigh guards. Helmets also became more substantial Production of the Imperial Talc eles of elute ceased i dhe ealy ed century and all egionariey adopted heavier helmets of single bow! construction, reinforced by crosspieces, and with very deep napes, leaving only a small tshaped ‘opening forthe face (Plates Gand H). They offered excellent protection for the head and neck, but the cheek pieces would obscure peripheral vision and their design did not include ear holes. The depth of the nape made it difficult or impossible for the wearer to adapt a crouched Fighting position. Such helmets predominated until the closing years of uresropos ator restrton ‘eth ogo Fis bat ‘Soy is ne at eionny rsa atest inthe oy (258, Dopod 255-57, [Dur Europ Clection, Yale Univer Art ear) “4 42 ‘Betiesercophagu, 2180-85. ‘Peenape commissioned by one (Gutnors collection) the 3rd century when they were replaced with ridge helmets and spagenhiimes (see plate H). These helmets, adopted from the Sassanian Persians and the Sarmatians, were of poor quality in comparison to earlier pattems but their multi-part bowls could simply be riveted together, and neck guards and cheek pieces were attached by leather straps. Such equipment was a response to the financial crisis faced by Diocletian and the need to replace the huge amount of equipment lost, in the many disasters of the Sr century. Appearance airing the reigns of Marcus Aurelius, Commodus and Septimius Severus (161-211), many legionaries wore full beards and bushy hair after the siyle ofthe emperors, but in the reign of Caracalla a nev military look emerged of short-eropped hair and ight beard. This was the predominant fashion of the 3rd century: Caracalla is also credited by Dio with introducing a nev ‘uniform’ of long-sleeved tunic and the heavy sagum

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