Chapter 1

COMPUTER
FUNDAMENTALS
1.1
Hardware
Computer Hardware Basics
Input Device
Input Device
An input device is any peripheral (piece of
computer hardware equipment) used to provide
data and control signals to an information
processing system (such as a computer).
Output Device
Output Device
An output device is any piece of computer
hardware equipment used to communicate
the results of data processing carried out
by an information processing system (such
as a computer) to the outside world.
Communication Device
Communication Device
System Unit
 System Unit
A system unit, also known as a base unit, is the main body of a
desktop computer, typically consisting of an enclosure containing
the motherboard, power supply, cooling fans, internal disk drives,
and the memory modules and expansion cards that are plugged
into the motherboard, such as video and network cards.
MotherBoard
MotherBoard
The main circuit board of a microcomputer.
The motherboard contains the connectors
for attaching additional boards. Typically,
the motherboard contains the CPU, BIOS,
memory, mass storage interfaces, USB
ports, expansion slots, and all the controllers
required to control standard peripheral
devices, such as the display screen,
keyboard, and disk drive. Collectively, all
these chips that reside on the motherboard
are known as the motherboard's chipset.
System Clock
 System Clock
The system clock determines the clock speed
of the computer which is the speed at which a
microprocessor executes instructions. Every
computer contains an internal clock that
regulates the rate at which instructions are
executed and synchronizes all the various
computer components.
 Primary Storage

Rom Ram

BIOS
 Primary Storage
Primary storage, presently known as memory, is the only one directly accessible to the CPU. The
CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as required. All computers have
primary storage.

Rom
ROM (read-only memory): Computers almost
always contain a small amount of read-only
Ram
RAM (random access memory), a type
of computer memory that can be
memory that holds instructions for starting up the accessed randomly; that is, any byte of
computer. Unlike RAM, ROM cannot be written to memory can be accessed without
touching the preceding bytes. RAM is

BIOS
The BIOS is boot firmware,
designed to be the first code run by
the most common type of memory
found in computers and other devices,
such as printers.

a PC when powered on. The initial

function of the BIOS is to identify,
test, and initialize system devices
such as the video display card,
hard disk, and other hardware.
Secondary Storage
 Secondary Storage
Secondary storage is not directly accessible by the CPU. The computer must transfer the desired data
into primary storage before it can use it. Secondary storage does not lose the data when the device is
powered down—it is non-volatile. It is typically also much less expensive and can hold than primary
storage. Consequently, modern computer systems typically have an order of magnitude more secondary
storage than primary storage and data is kept for a longer time there.

In modern computers, hard disks are usually used as secondary storage.

Some other examples of secondary storage technologies are: flash memory (e.g. USB sticks or keys),
floppy disks, magnetic tape, paper tape, punch cards, standalone RAM disks, and Zip drives.
CPU
 CPU
Abbreviation for central processing unit, and pronounced as separate letters. The
CPU is the brains of the computer. Sometimes referred to simply as the central
processor, but more commonly called processor, the CPU is where most calculations
take place. In terms of computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a
computer system.
Bus
 Bus
A collection of wires through which data is transmitted from one part of a computer to another.
You can think of a bus as a highway on which data travels within a computer. When used in
reference to personal computers, the term bus usually refers to internal bus. This is a bus that
connects all the internal computer components to the CPU and main memory. There's also an
expansion bus that enables expansion boards to access the CPU and memory.
Examples include PCI and PCI express for expansion boards and SATA for hard drives.
External
 External
A bus that connects a computer to peripheral devices. The most commonly used
external bus is the Universal Serial Bus (USB) but there is also Thunderbolt, Firewire
and eSATA (External SATA).
 Expansion Cards
An expansion card (also expansion board, adapter card or accessory card) in computing is a
printed circuit board that can be inserted into an expansion slot of a computer motherboard
to add additional functionality to a computer system. Examples include video cards, sound
cards, network cards, TV tuner cards.
Desktop Vs Server
 Desktop Vs Server
• Designating a machine or hardwareas "server
hardware“ or "server-class hardware" implies
that it is more powerful and more importantly
more reliable than standard personal computer
or components
1.2
Networks and Mobile
Devices
 A network is defined as the interconnection of
two or more computers either homogeneous or
heterogeneous in nature to carry out a
successful transmission of data or information
and resource sharing.
 A network is the most powerful mechanism to
establish communication between computers.
 A computer over a network can be either client
(resource requester) or server ( resource
allocator).
 Local area network (LAN):

•A LAN covers a
relatively small area
such as a classroom,
school, or a single
building.

• LANs are inexpensive to

install and also provide
higher speeds.
 Metropolitan area network(MAN):

• A MAN spans the

distance of a
typical metropolitan
city.
• The cost of
installation and
operation is higher.
• MANs use high-
speed connections
such as fiber optics
to achieve higher
speeds.
 Wide area network(WAN):

•WANs span a larger area

than a single city.

•These use long distance

telecommunication
networks for connection,
thereby increasing the
cost.

•The Internet is a good

example of a WAN.
 In layered approach , the overall task is broken
down into sub-tasks and each task is handled at
different layers of a virtual model to bring about
efficiency and reliability in data transmission.
Layered approach in networking , broadly,
involves:
 Open System Interconnection(OSI) model.
 Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) model.
 Cisco 3- layered model.
The OSI is not physical; rather, it is a set of guidelines that application
developers can use to create and implement applications that run on a network.
It also provides a framework for creating and implementing networking
standards, devices, and internetworking schemes.
 Application Application
Layer Layer

Presentation Presentation
Layer Layer

Session Session
Layer Layer

Transport Transport
Layer Layer

Network Network
Layer Layer

Data Link Data Link

Layer Layer

Physical Physical
Layer Layer
8
 Application Application
Layer Layer

Presentation Presentation
Layer Layer

Session Session
Layer Layer

Transport Transport
Layer Layer

Network
Layer
SpecifiesNetwork
Layer
electrical
Data Link Data Link
Layer connectionLayer
Physical Physical
Layer Layer
9
 Application Application
Layer Layer

Presentation Presentation
Layer Layer

Session Session
Layer Layer

Transport Transport
Layer Layer

Network Network
Layer Layer
Amplification
Regeneration
Data Link Data Link
Layer Layer

Physical Physical
Hub
Layer Layer
10
 Application Application
Layer Layer

Presentation Presentation
Layer Layer

Session Session
Layer Layer

Transport Transport
Delineation
Layer
Error Layer
Address
of
Network Detection
FormattingNetwork
Layer Data Layer

Data Link Data Link

Layer Layer

Physical Physical
Layer Layer
11
 The Data Link Connection
Application Application
Layer Layer

Presentation Presentation
Layer Layer

Session Session
Layer Layer

Transport Transport
Layer Layer

Network Network
Layer Layer

Data Link Bridge Data Link

Layer & Switch Layer

Physical Physical
Layer Layer
12
 Application Application
Layer Layer

Presentation Presentation
Layer Layer

Session Session
Layer Layer

Transport
Layer
End to endTransport
Layer
routing
Network Network
Layer Layer

Data Link Data Link

Layer Layer

Physical Physical
Layer Layer
13
 Application Application
Layer Layer

Presentation Presentation
Layer Layer

Session Session
Layer Layer

Transport Transport
Layer Layer

Network Network
Layer Router Layer

Data Link Data Link

Layer Layer

Physical Physical
Layer Layer
14
Application Application
Layer Layer

Presentation Presentation
Layer Segmentation to offer re- Layer
-liable or unreliable con-
Session Session
-nection using TCP or UDP.
Layer Layer

Transport Transport
Layer Layer

Network Network
Layer Layer

Data Link Data Link

Layer Layer

Physical Physical
Layer Layer
Application Maintains different Application
ses-
Layer Layer
-sions for different app-
-lications or information
Presentation Presentation
Layer To be transmitted. Layer

Session Session
Layer Layer

Transport Transport
Layer Layer

Network Network
Layer Layer

Data Link Data Link

Layer Layer

Physical Physical
Layer Layer
Application Application
Layer Layer

Presentation Presentation
Layer Layer

Session Session
Layer Encryption , Layer
decryption ,
Transport compression and Transport
Layer decompression of Layer
data
Network Network
Layer Layer

Data Link Data Link

Layer Layer

Physical Physical
Layer Layer
Application Application
Layer Layer

Presentation Presentation
Layer Provides interface Layer
to the end users
Session by means of Session
Layer network aware Layer
applications.
Transport Transport
Layer Layer

Network Network
Layer Layer

Data Link Data Link

Layer Layer

Physical Physical
Layer Layer
TCP/IP also is a layered protocol but does not use all of the OSI layers, though
the layers are equivalent in operation and function .The network access layer is
equivalent to OSI layers 1 and 2. The Internet Protocol layer is comparable to
layer 3 in the OSI model . The 5,6 and 7 layer of OSI model is equivalent to the
operation of the Application layer of TCP/IP model.
Cisco has defined a hierarchical model known as the hierarchical
internetworking model. This model simplifies the task of building a
reliable, scalable, and less expensive hierarchical internetwork because
rather than focusing on packet construction, it focuses on the three
functional areas, or layers, of network:

Core layer: This layer is considered the backbone of the network and includes the
high-end switches and high-speed cables such as fibre cables. This layer of the
network does not route traffic at the LAN. In addition, no packet manipulation is
done by devices in this layer. Rather, this layer is concerned with speed and
ensures reliable delivery of packets.

Distribution layer: This layer includes LAN-based routers and layer 3 switches.
This layer ensures that packets are properly routed between subnets and VLANs
in your enterprise. This layer is also called the Workgroup layer.

Access layer: This layer includes hubs and switches. This layer is also called the
desktop layer because it focuses on connecting client nodes, such as workstations
to the network. This layer ensures that packets are delivered to end user
computers.
 The devices that allows user to transmit data over a network ,thereby
allowing successful transference and retrieval of the sent data over a
network are called networking devices.
The devices which operate within a network
are called intra-networking devices and the devices that allow
transmission over distinct networks are called inter-networking
devices. The major networking devices are:

• Hub
• Repeater
• Modem
• Gateway
• Bridge
• Switch
• Router
 A hub is the most basic networking device that connects multiple
computers or other network devices together . A network hub has no
routing tables or intelligence on where to send information
and broadcasts all network data across each connection. Most hubs
can detect basic network errors such as collisions, but having all
information broadcast to multiple ports can be a security risk and
cause bottlenecks.

 Hubs are commonly used to connect segments of a LAN. A hub

contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied
to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all packets.

 A hub interconnects two or more workstations into a local area

network. When a workstation transmits to a hub, the hub
immediately resends the data frame to all connecting links . Hubs
expand one Ethernet connection into many. For example, a four-
port hub connects up to four machines.
 A repeater is a network device that retransmits a received signal
with more power and to an extended geographical or topological
network boundary than what would be capable with the original
signal.

 A repeater is implemented in computer networks to expand the

coverage area of the network, repropagate a weak or broken signal
and or service remote nodes. Repeaters amplify the
received/input signal to a higher frequency domain so that it is
reusable, scalable and available.

 Repeaters were introduced in wired data communication

networks due to the limitation of a signal in propagating over a
longer distance and now are a common installation in wireless
networks for expanding cell size.
 Modem is abbreviation for Modulator –
Demodulator. Modems are used for data transfer from
one computer network to another computer network
through telephone lines. The computer network works
in digital mode, while analog technology is used for
carrying massages across phone lines.

 Modulator converts information from digital mode to

analog mode at the transmitting end and
demodulator converts the same from analog to digital
at receiving end.

 The process of converting analog signals of one

computer network into digital signals of another
computer network so they can be processed by a
receiving computer is referred to as digitizing.
 A node on a network that serves as an entrance to another
network. In enterprises, the gateway is the computer that routes
the traffic from a workstation to the outside network that is
serving the Web pages. In homes, the gateway is the ISP that
connects the user to the internet.

 In enterprises, the gateway node often acts as a proxy server and a

firewall. The gateway is also associated with both a router, which
use headers and forwarding tables to determine where packets are
sent, and a switch , which provides the actual path for the packet
in and out of the gateway.

 So precisely , a gateway is such a networking device which allows

a node in a network to communicate with other node of distinct
network by allowing it to pass through it , thereby providing a
gate like mechanism for conversion of protocols . A router ,
sometimes, comes under the class of a gateway.
 A bridge reads the outermost section of data on the data packet, to tell
where the message is going. It reduces the traffic on other network
segments, since it does not send all packets.

 Bridges can be programmed to reject packets from particular networks.

Bridging occurs at the data link layer of the OSI model, which means the
bridge cannot read IP addresses, but only the outermost hardware
address of the packet.

 In general case the bridge can read the ethernet data which gives the
hardware address of the destination address, not the IP address. Bridges
forward all broadcast messages.

 Only a special bridge called a translation bridge will allow two networks
of different architectures to be connected. Bridges do not normally allow
connection of networks with different architectures.

 Bridging has nothing to do with logical addressing . It is primarily used

to connect two or more segments of a same network. A bridge device
filters data traffic at a network boundary
 A switch is a high-speed device that receives incoming data packets and
redirects them to their destination on a local area network (LAN). A LAN
switch operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) or the network layer of the
OSI Model and, as such it can support all types of packet protocols.

 Essentially, switches are the traffic cops of a simple local area network.

 A switch in an Ethernet-based LAN reads incoming TCP/IP data frames

containing destination information as they pass into one or more input
ports. The destination information in the frame is used to determine
which output ports will be used to send the data on to its intended
destination.

 Switches are similar to hubs, only smarter. A hub simply connects all the
nodes on the network -- communication is essentially in a haphazard
manner with any device trying to communicate at any time, resulting in
many collisions. A switch, on the other hand, creates an electronic tunnel
between source and destination ports for a split second that no other
traffic can enter. This results in communication without collisions.
 With a switch, multiple
stations may transmit Switch
simultaneously: no
congestion as traffic
grows.
Station
Station
Connection 1 C
A
A-C

Connection 1
A-C Station
Station Connection 2 D
B B-D

Connection 2
B-D
 A router is used to route data packets between two networks. It reads the
information in each packet to tell where it is going. If it is destined for an
immediate network it has access to, it will strip the outer packet, readdress the
packet to the proper ethernet address, and transmit it on that network. If it is
destined for another network and must be sent to another router, it will re-package
the outer packet to be received by the next router and send it to the next router.

 The section on routing explains the theory behind this and how routing tables are
used to help determine packet destinations. Routing occurs at the network layer of
the OSI model. They can connect networks with different architectures such as
Token Ring and Ethernet. Although they can transform information at the data
link level, routers cannot transform information from one data format such as
TCP/IP to another such as IPX/SPX.

 Routers do not send broadcast packets or corrupted packets. If the routing table
does not indicate the proper address of a packet, the packet is discarded.

 Routers are located at gateways, the places where two or more networks connect.
Routers use headers and forwarding tables to determine the best path for
forwarding the packets, and they use protocols such as ICMP to communicate with
each other and configure the best route between any two hosts.
 What is a Mobile Device?
- What is a Smart Mobile Device?
 Types of Mobile Devices
 Mobile Operating System
- Features of Mobile OS
- Popular Mobile Operating Systems
 Form Factors: Then & Now
 Recent Trends in Smart Device Accessories
 Mobile Device Security
 Positive Effects of Mobile Device
 Negative Effects of Mobile Device
 Some Key Features to Expect in the Future
A mobile device is a small handheld and
extremely portable computing device having a
display screen with touch input or miniature
keyboard.
It is a device that has:

 the ability to connect to the internet

 supports user input and interaction
 autonomous operationality
 offers multiple functionality
 light weight and small size
 Wireless, portable personal computer
 Touch screen interface
 Form factor smaller than notebook but larger
than smartphone.
 Idea of tablet came from Alan Kay of Xerox in
1971.
 First Widely sold tablet was Apple’s Newton
which was not a commercial success.
 Most common type today is slate style e.g.,
Apple’s iPad, Microsoft’s Surface, Amazon
Kindle Fire, etc.
 E-book is electronic version of traditional print
book.
 Have either an e-paper display or LCD display.
 e-paper or electronic paper usually displays in
black & white.
 It’s not backlit, so it’s not a trouble out in the
sun.
 Doesn’t support videos or other apps because
refresh rate is too low.
 LCD is the screen found in laptops and
computers.
 Coloured & versatile but more difficult to view in
bright sunlight.
 Cellular device with integrated computer and
other features not associated with telephones.
 Has operating system, web browsing and ability
to run software applications.
 Either have a virtual keyboard or physical one.
 First smartphone was IBM’s Simon, which was
presented as a concept device at the 1992
COMDEX computer industry trade show.
 A mobile operating system (or mobile OS) is a
system software that manages the device’s
hardware and software resources and provides
common services for its programs.
 Along with the features of a personal
computer, mobile OS also has

 touchscreen  speech recognition

 cellular  voice recorder
 bluetooth  music player
 WiFi  near field
 GPS navigation communication
 camera  infrared blaster
• Android is an open source,
Linux-derived platform backed
by Google Inc. along with major
hardware and software
developers.
• It has the largest installed
base worldwide on
smartphones.
• Currently Android Lollipop
(Android 5.1.1) is available.
• A closed source platform.
•.Built on open source Darwin core
OS.
• Earlier called iPhone OS is
created and developed by Apple
Inc.
• Distributed exclusively for Apple
Hardware such as iPhone, iPad,
iPod Touch and second generation
Apple TV.
• The third largest
installed base on
smartphones behind
Android and iOS
• From Microsoft.
• It is a closed source
and proprietary
platform.
Some other prominent mobile OS are BlackBerry,
Firefox OS, Sailfish OS, Tizen, Ubuntu Touch OS.
Windows Others RIM
Phone (1,129) Blackberry
iOS
(8,198) (1,153)
(48,086)

Android
(271,010)

Gartner: World-wide smartphone sales (in thousands of units)

 Also referred to as “candy bar”, this is
the most basic of handset form factors.
 The phone is rectangular in shape, and
does not have any hinges or moving
parts.
 You’ll find a display screen and the
standard set of number keys.
 Depending upon the specific phone
model, you may also find soft keys,
‘answer’ and ‘end’ buttons, and
navigation keys.
 The screen and all these keys are placed
on the front of the device.
 Since the keys are exposed, most phones
using this form factor also provide a key-
guard feature.
 Most components including the
screen and the keys are placed on
the bottom half of the phone.
 The top half is usually a plastic flap
that folds on top.
 Depending upon the phone model,
the top half may contain a speaker
and even a transparent window
that enables the user to see a
portion of the screen when the
phone is closed.
 The visible part of the screen
displays the time and caller ID
information.
 The phone has two parts - one
with the screen and speakers
along with some keys, and the
other half containing the main
keypad.
 However, instead of folding, the
bottom half with the keypad
slides out from under the top half.
 This kind of design also allows the
phone to be quite small.
 Also, in most cases, you can
perform certain operations such
as answering and ending calls and
accessing the phone book and call
history without opening the slider.
 This is the form factor which is
in common use nowadays.
 Smartphones, tablets,
phablets, e-book readers, etc.
have this kind of form.
 A touchscreen or slate phone
is a subset of the bar form that
has few physical buttons,
instead relying upon
touchscreen and an onscreen
QWERTY keyboard.
 Bluetooth keyboards, phone covers that double as keys, and styli
(either built-in, or third-party, which you keep in your pocket) are
growing in popularity and getting better too.
 LG recently came up with a foldable and ultra-portable keypad
which rolls itself to fit anywhere, called the LG Rolly.
 The keypad houses a remarkable design and a feature that lets you
roll the keypad into a cube, so it can be more portable when not in
use.
 Microsoft also has a foldable keyboard you can slip into your
pocket, which works with Android and iOS.
 Samsung's Note series of phones meanwhile has always made great
use of the stylus, and Apple revealed the Apple Pencil recently as
well, albeit it works with only one iPad model right now.
 There are different levels of security that a
wireless network can provide.
 Building on levels of security a network can
provide, there are multiple types of
encryption.
 The oldest and least secure of these different
security levels is Wired Equivalent Privacy
(WEP) (introduced in 1999).
 This form of security for wireless networks is
rarely used anymore due to its many security
flaws.
 Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) provides a more
secure way of connecting to the network than WEP.
 Two different modes exist, personal mode or
preshared key (PSK) and enterprise or WPA-802.1X.
 PSK is most often used in small offices and homes,
since it is meant for small amount of users.
 Enterprise mode means that the user is using a
username and password, or digital certificate, to
authenticate to a server rather than using a
preshared key.
 The 802.11i standard, or WPA2, was released in
2004 and improves on the security mechanisms
that WPA uses.
 WPA2 has the same two different modes that
WPA has.
 Hashing is a technique used to secure a user’s
password.
 It is essentially a complicated algorithm.
 There are many different hashing algorithms
out there: SHA1, MD6, SHA256, etc.
 MS-CHAP is the Microsoft version of the
Challenge-Handshake Authentication
Protocol (CHAP).
 There are two versions of the protocol, MS-
CHAPv1 and MS-CHAPv2.
 MS-CHAPv1 is very weak and easy to crack
but MS-CHAPv2 solves this disadvantage.
The working cycle of CHAP authentication. Once the link has
been established, the authenticator sends a challenge
message to the peer. Both the client and the server must know
the challenge; in this case, “pizza.”
 They are lightweight, small size and portability.
 We can stay with our loves ones anywhere
anytime.
 So, it is the best way of communication.
 Mobile device is nothing but a complete
portable entertainment devices.
 It entertains us on the go.
 These devices have super impressive features
related to entertainment.
 In both fields, it has become a compulsory
gadget.
 Students can access internet on the go, and
thus can get knowledge of any topic they wish
to.
 The business persons can keep themselves
updated with the markets, also they can stay n
touch with their employees and clients.
 Students are getting addicted to mobile
phones.
 They can be seen playing games or chatting.
 It has become more of a waste of time.
 Many accidents happen because of mobile
devices.
 These have resulted in dangerous driving.
 It has bad impact on health too.
 Harmful rays of damage our health.
The term ‘augmented reality’ or AR when used in the
context of computer technology refers to what we
perceive through our senses (usually sight)
enhanced through the use of computer-generated
sensory input such as sound, video, graphics and
GPS data.
It is the technology of OLED (Organic Light Emitting
Diode) in which screens can be folded and
unfolded. This paper-thin screen can even project
from both sides of the screen.
Using a built-in DLP (Digital Light Projection), WVGA
projectors can project device’s screen to 50 inches
in size at 15 lumens.
Samsung Galaxy Beam was released back in the
second half of 2010 with similar technology.
The interest with voice control for computers and
especially smartphones has always been there since
the pioneer MIT research, "Put That There" studied
different ways to communicate with computers in
1980.

Voice control exists in many devices, such as Siri in

Apple devices. Research has been made to advance
the development of voice control. That, combined
with gestures may bring interactivity to a new level
for smart devices and their users.
After Apple’s ‘Retina display’ which can actually
provide a resolution that is sharper than what the
human eye can perceive, companies are moving from
2D to 3D screens.
At present, we have a couple of 3D smartphones in the
market, such as the LG Optimus 3D, the Motorola
MT810 as well as the very first Samsung AMOLED 3D.
Holographic projections will mean a combination of 3D
screen devices and projections from the it.
According to Mobiledia Network, MasterImage 3D had
previously showcased their ongoing development on a
projection system that allows smartphones to display
3D holograms at the annual Mobile World Congress.
 Mobile Devices: Tools & Technologies by Lauren
Collins and Scott R. Ellis
 Digit Fast Track to Mobile Telephony
 Gartner Inc. website
 searchmobilecomputing.techtarget.com
 www.hongkiat.com