Topic 7 Technological Approaches in Knowledge Management

Topic X Technological
Approaches in
7 Knowledge
Management
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Identify the components of knowledge management systems;
2. Identify the role of artificial intelligence in managing knowledge;
3. Recognise different types of artificial intelligence tools used for
knowledge management;
4. Discuss the implementation of knowledge management systems; and
5. Describe how knowledge engineering processes are used in
developing knowledge-based systems.
X INTRODUCTION
Because we do not understand the brain very well we are constantly tempted to
use the latest technology as a model for trying to understand it. In my childhood
we were always assured that the brain was a telephone switchboard. („What else
could it be?‰) I was amused to see that Sherrington, the great British neuroscientist,
thought that the brain worked like a telegraph system. Freud often compared the
brain to hydraulic and electro-magnetic systems. Leibniz compared it to a mill, and
I am told some of the ancient Greeks thought the brain functions like a catapult. At
present, obviously, the metaphor is the digital computer.
John R. Searle, minds, brains and science, p 44

132 X TOPIC 7 TECHNOLOGICAL APPROACHES IN KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
The quotation shows the important role of technology for humans, and how our
perception of technology changes as it evolves over time.
In Topic 6, you have studied in detail the process of knowledge management

such as knowledge creation, discovery, sharing and application. The topic also
gave an overview of the systems that could support these processes.
This topic discusses the role of information communication technologies as a tool

for knowledge management activities, and will explain in detail the components
of knowledge management systems and how artificial intelligence technologies
have influenced knowledge management. The topic also discusses different types
of artificial intelligence tools that are popular for knowledge management,
namely, knowledge-based systems, case-based reasoning, fuzzy logic, neural
networks and intelligent agents. Knowledge management systems implementation
based on different types of products and vendors, consulting firms and
application service providers are described here. The topic also highlights the
integration of knowledge management systems with other information systems
in the organisations. The different processes of knowledge engineering in
developing knowledge-based systems, and details of the systems in terms of
architecture, issues, advantages and development are discussed in detail.
Knowledge management concerns better management of organisational

knowledge using appropriate tools, procedures and techniques from diverse
domains. Though managing knowledge is a human-related task, technology
can complement human knowledge handling and one such example is the
knowledge-based system, which is capable of managing explicit and implicit
knowledge. Having appropriate tools and techniques will ensure that knowledge
is fully utilised within the organisation and employeesÊ knowledge is captured
and retained in a form that can be used even when the employee leaves.
Technology is a catalyst in supporting knowledge management activities, which

in some cases are developed specifically within the domain of Artificial
Intelligence (AI) for managing knowledge. Examples of such systems are
knowledge-based systems (KBS), ontologies, business intelligence solutions and
organisational memories as well as conventional information system software
such as databases and decision support systems. Tsui et al. (2000) in their
editorial comments made in a special issue on artificial intelligence in knowledge
management support this perspective by arguing that „every knowledge
management project should embrace some knowledge engineering (or artificial
intelligence or web-based business rule execution) expertise to (attempt to)
TOPIC 7 TECHNOLOGICAL APPROACHES IN KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT W 133
provide value-added services often needed in knowledge processing.‰ Most

current software systems adopt all or some of these technologies and they
underpin the services and products of the knowledge economy.
However, not all types of knowledge can be managed successfully through the
use of technology as some are better managed through human-oriented
processes with the support of ICT. Tsui (2005) believes that successful
implementation of any KM project involves the blending of technology, people,
process and content. To select the appropriate technology support for KM
requires an understanding of the extent to which knowledge can be structured
and the type of strategy adopted: codification versus personalisation strategy.
The codification strategy relies on knowledge which is stored in databases that
are easily accessible by people who need to access it. The personalisation
strategy, on the other hand, focuses on the tacit dimension of knowledge that is
embedded in people and is shared through person-to-person contact.
ACTIVITY 7.1
1. Discuss why information communication technology is important

for knowledge management initiatives in organisations.
2. Describe how technology can be used in knowledge management
projects.
3. Based on your personal experience in using technology tools,
identify the type of tools that would be useful for knowledge
management.
7.1 COMPONENTS OF KNOWLEDGE

MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Knowledge management can be seen as a methodology applied to business
practices rather than a technology or product. Nevertheless, information
communication technology is crucial to the success of knowledge management
system implementation in organisations. Information communication technology
enables KM by providing the enterprise architecture upon which it is developed.
Knowledge management systems are built based on three sets of technologies:
communications, collaboration, and storage and retrieval.
Communication technologies enable users to access the required knowledge, and

to communicate with each other, especially the experts. E-mail, Internet,
corporate intranet and other web-based tools provide communication functions.
Even fax machines and telephones are used for communication especially when
ICT tools are not available or cannot support the communication.
Collaboration technologies provide the ways to perform group work or team

work. Groups can work together on common documents at the same time
(synchronous) or at different time (asynchronous); in the same location or in
different locations. This is important especially for members of a community of
practice working on knowledge contribution or different groups working on a
business proposal at different time zones. Other collaborative computing
capabilities are electronic brainstorming sessions and enhanced group work,
especially for knowledge contribution. Other forms of group work involve
experts working with individuals trying to apply their knowledge, and this
requires collaboration at the higher level. Other types of collaborative computing
systems enable organisations to create virtual spaces so that employees can work
online anywhere and at anytime.
Storage and retrieval technologies are originally meant for using a database
management system to store and manage knowledge. This system worked well
in the early days for storing and managing explicit knowledge, and tacit
knowledge that are converted to explicit knowledge. Nevertheless, capturing,
storing and managing tacit knowledge requires a different set of tools. Electronic
document management systems and specialised storage systems that are part of
collaborative computing systems fill this void. These storage systems are
commonly known as knowledge repositories or organisational memory.
Table 7.1 shows the relationship between these knowledge management systems
and the Web.
Table 7.1: Knowledge Management Technologies and Web Impact
Knowledge
Web Impacts Impacts on the Web
Management
Communication Consistent, friendly, graphical user Knowledge captured and
interface for client units shared is utilised in
improving
Improved communication tools
communication,
Convenient, fast access to knowledge communication
and knowledgeable individuals management and
communication
Direct access to knowledge on the technologies
servers
Collaboration Improved collaboration tools Knowledge captured and
shared is utilised in
Enables anywhere/anytime
improving collaboration,
collaboration
collaboration
Enables collaboration between management, and
organisation, vendors and customers collaboration technologies
(Group Support Systems)
Enables document sharing
Improved, fast collaboration and links
to knowledge sources
Makes audio and video conferencing
a reality, especially for individuals
not using a Local Area Network
(LAN)
Storage and Consistent, friendly, graphical user Knowledge captured and
Retrieval interface for clients shared is utilised in
improving data storage
Server provides for efficient and
and retrieval systems,
effective storage and retrieval of
database
knowledge
management/knowledge
repository management,
and database and
knowledge repository
technologies
SELF-CHECK 7.1
1. What is collaboration technology and how does it support group

work?
2. Why are communication tools important in managing knowledge?
3. Describe how the Web has influenced the three sets of knowledge
management technologies.
7.2 THE ROLES OF AI IN KNOWLEDGE

MANAGEMENT
Artificial intelligence (AI) is a branch of computer science that allows computers
to represent and manipulate symbols, thus enabling them to solve problems that
could not be solved through algorithmic models. Computers are designed to
perform repetitive tasks such as complex arithmetic calculations or database
storage and retrieval. The common aspect in these repetitive tasks is that they are
algorithmic in nature, as these are based on a precise and logically designed set
of instructions that produce a single correct output, which is the basis of
conventional computer programs. However, human problem solving involves
using symbols to which meaning can be attached such as when deciding on a
sequence of tasks, and the manipulation of these symbols is considered as the
basis of AI.
Most modern AI systems are founded on the principle that intelligence is

intertwined with knowledge, and knowledge is associated with the symbols that
people manipulate. Artificial intelligence plays an important role in knowledge
management although it is rarely mentioned as the linkage of AI to KM is rather
controversial. This is because while some believe that knowledge creation is
almost impossible without AI applications, there are those who argue that AI is
only a technological prerequisite for a knowledge management solution. Both
these stands are considered as extreme as technology complements human
processes and knowledge management is a human-related process as knowledge
is in human minds.
In the early 1970s and 1980s, AI development was ready for the technology that
KM would bring. Computer scientists from the AI field strongly believed that
expert knowledge could be codified, directly transferred and managed through
an expert system. However, this proved to be a costly mistake as human
knowledge was much more complex and context dependent than was first
thought; in the end, not all of it could be coded into a computer program.
Nevertheless, work in this area continued, and by the mid-1990s, artificial

intelligent systems were no longer limited to the emulation of expert reasoning;
they could also be applied to managing organisational knowledge, such as
business rules, procedures and guidelines. At around the same time,
organisations started to recognise the importance of knowledge as a corporate
asset and the knowledge management movement started to gain momentum.
However, KM placed more emphasis on managing knowledge as part of a
human-related process because it viewed tacit knowledge, which is closely
inter-related with human activities, as being the most crucial knowledge for
commercial success.
By the end of the 1990s, researchers in AI started to realise that organisational

knowledge needed to be managed within a far wider context than the traditional
AI application. Some researchers such as Tsui et al. (2000) and Binney (2001)
felt that KM provided a macro view of managing knowledge, allowing the
formulation of strategies such as knowledge capture, sharing and re-use within
an organisation. Knowledge engineering (KE), on the other hand, provided the
technical focus in developing AI applications. The integration of the AI and KM
fields of study has influenced the adoption of techniques such as expert seeking
activities and social network analysis used to identify and share knowledge.
During this period, AI technology was adopted in enterprise and Internet
applications through its new role as an embedded system that provides
reasoning capabilities.
ACTIVITY 7.2
1. Discuss how artificial intelligence differs from conventional

computer systems.
2. Argue why the linkage betwen knowledge management and
artificial intelligence is rather controversial.
7.3 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE TOOLS

AI methods and tools are widely used to assist in finding expertise, eliciting
knowledge automatically and semi-automatically, interfacing through natural
language processing, and intelligent search through intelligent agents. AI
methods such as knowledge-based systems, neural networks, fuzzy logic,
evolutionary algorithms and intelligent agents, are used in knowledge
management systems to do the following:
(a) Enhance knowledge search through the use of intelligent agents in web
searches;
(b) Help establish knowledge profiles of individuals and groups;
(c) Help determine the relative importance of knowledge when it is
contributed to and accessed;
(d) Scan e-mail, documents and databases to perform knowledge discovery,
find new meaningful relationships or induce rules for knowledge-based
systems;
(e) Identify patterns in data (through neural networks);
(f) Forecast future results using existing knowledge;
(g) Provide advice directly from knowledge using neural networks or
knowledge-based systems; and
(h) Provide a natural language or voice command driven user interface for
knowledge management systems.
The next section discusses some popular AI tools such as knowledge-based

systems, case-based reasoning, fuzzy logic, neural networks and intelligent
agents.
7.3.1 Knowledge-Based Systems

Knowledge-based systems are computer systems that are used to assist decision
making where human knowledge is represented explicitly as rules in the
knowledge base. Knowledge-based systems were developed for managing
codified knowledge. Widely known as expert systems, these were originally
created to emulate the human expert reasoning process, hence the name expert
system. It became one of the most successful inventions to result from AI
research and has been successfully implemented in medical, engineering,
business, law, education and other domains. MYCIN, used to diagnose infectious
diseases, and Digital Equipment CorporationÊs XCON for configuring computer
systems are two well-known examples of early and successful expert systems.
This has led to the birth of knowledge engineering, a domain that supports the
development of these systems.
Expert systems continue to evolve as the need to have a stable technology for
managing knowledge grows and their current role as an enabler for KM
initiatives has led to greater appreciation of this technology. As a result of this
evolutionary process, different names have been given to this technology to
reflect its current impact and adoption as an established tool for managing
knowledge, business rules and process automation in software systems. In recent
years, the terms knowledge-based systems (KBS), business rule management
systems (BRMS), rule-based systems, and knowledge systems (KS) have been
used interchangeably with the term expert system. They all refer to the same type
of system, where knowledge (in the form of rules) is inferred in order to arrive at
a decision.
Knowledge-based systems lack the breadth of knowledge and the

comprehension of fundamentals of human experts. These systems typically
perform limited tasks such as accessing credit applications and diagnosing
malfunctioning machines which can be accomplished by human experts in a few
minutes or hours. Problems that cannot be solved by human experts in the same
short time frame are considered difficult for KBS. Nevertheless, by capturing
human expertise in certain domains, KBS can provide benefits by helping
organisations make high-quality decisions with fewer experts. Today,
knowledge-based systems are widely used in business in discrete, highly
structured decision making situations.
7.3.2 Case-Based Reasoning

Knowledge-based systems mainly capture the tacit knowledge of human experts
as rules, but organisations also would have collected knowledge of previous
experience and expertise that they have developed over the years. This type of
valuable organisational knowledge can be captured and stored using case-based
reasoning. In case-based reasoning (CBR), detailed description of organisational
past experiences of human experts dealing in various projects are represented as
cases. These cases are stored in a database and retrieved when the organisations
employees encounter a new case with similar parameters. In this situation, the
CBR adapts the solutions used to solve previous problems successfully for use in
solving the new problems. The system searches for stored cases with similar
problems, finds the most applicable case and applies the solution of the old case
to the new case. Unsuccessful solutions are appended to the case database along
with descriptions as to why they failed.
Knowledge-based systems function by applying a set of IF-THEN-ELSE

rules extracted from human experts. However, case-based reasoning represents
knowledge as a series of cases, and this knowledge base is continuously growing
and refined by the users. Case-based reasoning is widely used in diagnostic
systems in the medical domain or customer support, where the users can retrieve
previous cases similar to the new case. The system then suggests a solution or
diagnosis based on the best-matching retrieved case.
7.3.3 Fuzzy Logic Systems

Humans do not think in terms of conventional IF-THEN rules or precise
numbers. People tend to group things imprecisely using rules for decision
making that may have many grey areas. For example, a person can be strong or
intelligent. An organisation can be small, medium or large. Temperature can be
hot, cold cool, or warm. These categories represent a range of values.
Fuzzy logic is a rule-based technology that can represent this imprecision by

creating rules that use approximate or subjective values. It can elaborate on a
particular situation or process linguistically and then represent that description
in a small number of flexible rules. This technique uses the mathematical theory
of fuzzy sets and stimulates the process of normal human reasoning by letting
the computer behave less precisely and logically than conventional computer
methods. Fuzzy logic can be useful because it is an effective and accurate way to
describe human perceptions of decision-making problems. Most situations are
not 100% true or false. There are many control and decision-making problems
that cannot easily fit into a strict true-false situation. Organisations can adopt
fuzzy logic in developing software systems that capture tacit knowledge where
there exists linguistic ambiguity.
To comprehend this situation better, let us look at the technique how fuzzy logic
would represent various temperatures in a computer application to control room
temperature automatically. These terms (known as membership functions) are
imprecisely defined so that, for example in Figure 7.1, cold is between 50 degrees
and 70 degrees (in Fahrenheit), although the temperature is most clearly cool
from about 60 to 67 degrees. Note that the values of cold, cool and warm can
overlap with each other. To control the room environment using this logic, the
programmer would develop similarly imprecise definitions for humidity and
other factors, such as outdoor wind and temperature. One of the rules would be:
„If the temperature is cool or cold and the humidity is low, while the outdoor
wind is high and the outdoor temperature is low, raise the heat and humidity
in the room‰. The computer would then combine the membership function
readings in a weighted manner, and using all the rules, raise and lower the
temperature and humidity.
Figure 7.1: Membership functions for the input temperature in the logic of the thermostat
to control room temperature
Fuzzy logic provides solutions to problems requiring expertise that is difficult to

represent in the form of concrete IF-THEN rules. There are many real-life
applications of fuzzy logic systems in use worldwide. In Japan, SendaiÊs subway
system uses fuzzy logic controls to accelerate smoothly, and standing passengers
do not need to hold on. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries in Tokyo have been able to
lower the power consumption of its air conditioners by 20% through the
implementation of control programs in fuzzy logics. CamerasÊ auto focus device
works because of fuzzy logic. In this case, fuzzy logic enables incremental
changes in inputs to produce smooth changes in outputs instead of
discontinuous ones. This makes fuzzy logic useful for consumer electronics such
as in refrigerators, washing machines and rice cookers, and engineering
applications.
Fuzzy logic systems are also useful in management decision making and
organisational control. It is used to detect possible fraud in medical claims, help
stock traders select companies for potential acquisition and decide risk categories
for insurance applications.
7.3.4 Neural Networks

Neural networks are used for solving complex, poorly understood problems for
which a huge amount of data has been gathered. Neural networks work by
finding patterns and relationships in large amounts of data that would be very
complicated and difficult for human to analyse. They discover this knowledge
by using hardware and software that parallel the processing patterns of the
biological aspect of the human brain. Neural networks are designed to learn
patterns from large quantities of data by going through data, searching for
relationships, building models, and correcting the modelsÊ errors over and over
again.
A neural network contains a large number of sensing and processing nodes that
continuously interact with each other. Figure 7.2 shows one type of neural
network consisting of an input layer, an output layer and a hidden processing
layer. People train the network by providing it with a set of training data for
which the input produce a known set of outcomes or conclusions. This enables
the computer to learn the correct example. As more data are entered into the
computer, each case is compared with the known outcome. If the outcome is
different from the expected one, then a correction is calculated and applied to the
nodes in the hidden processing layers. These steps are repeated until a specific
condition is met, for example, correction of less than 5% is achieved. The neural
network shown in Figure 7.2 has learned how to identify a fraudulent credit
purchase.
Knowledge-based systems are designed to emulate the ways human experts

solve problems, while neural network developers claim that they do not program
solutions and do not aim to solve specific problems. Instead, neural network
developers seek to put intelligence into hardware in the form of a generalised
capability to learn. A knowledge-based system, in contrast, is very specific to a
given problem or domain, and cannot be retrained easily.
Figure 7.2: How a neural network works
Neural network applications can be found in medicine, science and business

domains, which solve problems involving pattern classification, prediction,
financial analysis, and control and optimisation. In the medical domain, neural
network applications are used to screen patients for coronary artery disease,
diagnose patients with epilepsy, and do pattern recognition of pathology images.
In the financial industry, neural networks are used to discover patterns in a vast
amount of data that might assist in predicting the performances of equities,
corporate bond ratings and future markets. Visa International monitors all Visa
transactions for sudden changes in the buying patterns of cardholders using
neural network to detect credit card fraud.
Although neural networks are very useful, there are several puzzling aspects
about them. Unlike a knowledge-based system, which has the ability to explain
why it has arrived at a solution, neural networks cannot always explain how a
solution is reached. Furthermore, neural networks cannot always guarantee a
completely certain solution, arrive at the same solution again with the same input
data, or guarantee the best solution. They are also very sensitive and may not
perform well if their training is too little or too much. Currently, neural networks
are used to aid human decision makers.
7.3.5 Intelligent Agents

Intelligent agent technology can assist businesses in navigating through a large
amount of data to find and act on information that is considered important.
Intelligent agents are software programs that work in the background without
direct human intervention to perform specific repetitive and predictable tasks for
an individual user, business process or software application. The agent uses a
limited built-in or learned knowledge base to perform tasks or make decisions on
behalf of the user, such as deleting junk e-mails, scheduling appointments, or
travelling over interconnected networks to find the cheapest airfare to Langkawi.
There exist many intelligent agent applications nowadays and these can be found
in operating systems, application software, e-mail systems, mobile computing
software, virus detection programs and network tools. For example, wizards
found in Microsoft Office software tools have built-in capabilities to show users
how to accomplish various tasks such as formatting documents, or drawing
tables, and to anticipate when a user requires assistance. Several names are used
to describe intelligent agents and these include software agents, wizards,
software daemons, knowbots, softbots and bots (intelligent software robots).
These terms sometimes refer to agent of different types or intelligence levels.
Many complex phenomena can be modelled as systems of autonomous agents

that follow relatively simple rules for interaction. Agent-based modelling
applications have been built to model the behaviour of consumers, stock markets
and supply chains.
Procter & Gamble (P&G), manufacturer of personal care, food and household
products, used agent-based modelling to improve coordination between different
members of its supply chain in response to changing business environments.
Figure 7.3 illustrates the use of intelligent agents in Procter & GambleÊs supply
chain network. The network models a complex supply chain as a group of
semiautonomous agents representing individual supply chain components such
as trucks, productions facilities, distributors and retailers. The behaviour of each
agent is programmed to follow rules that mimic actual behaviour, such as
„dispatch a truck when it is full‰. Using agents, the company can do simulations
to perform what-if analyses on inventory levels, ion-store stockouts and
transportation costs.
Using intelligent agent models, P&G found that trucks must be dispatched before
they are fully loaded. Although transportation costs would be higher for partially
loaded trucks due to driver time and fuel to deliver fewer goods, the simulation
showed that retail store stockouts would happen less frequently, thus reducing
the amount of lost sales, which would be more than the higher distribution cost.
Through agent-based modelling, P&G saved about $300 million annually on an
investment that is around 1% of the saving amount.
Figure 7.3: Intelligent Agents in P&GÊs Supply Chain Network
Integrating intelligent agents with enterprise portals is a powerful technique that

can deliver to users the required information they need to perform their tasks.
The intelligent agent learns what the users prefer to see, and how users organise
it. Then, the intelligent agent takes over to provide it at the desktop like how an
assistant does.
ACTIVITY 7.3
1. Briefly discuss how knowledge expert systems have evolved.
2. What is case-based reasoning and how is it used in managing
knowledge?
3. Argue the importance of having fuzzy values compared to precise
values.
4. Describe the limitations of neural networks compared to
knowledge-based systems.
5. Justify why intelligent agent technology is useful for knowledge
management.
7.4 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

(KMS) IMPLEMENTATION
In the previous Sections 7.2 and 7.3, you have studied the role of AI in managing
knowledge and popular AI tools used for knowledge management. In this
section, you will look at the different categories of commercially available tools
that can be used by organisations in managing knowledge.
The greatest challenge of KMS is to identify and integrate the three components
of communications technologies, collaboration technologies and retrieval
technologies, to meet the knowledge management needs of the organisation.
Earlier knowledge management systems were built with networked technology –
intranets, collaborative computing tools – groupware and databases – knowledge
repository. These systems were constructed from a variety of off-the-shelf
IT components. Larger management consulting firms like Accenture and
J. D. Edwards developed their own knowledge architecture with a set of tools
that combined all the three types of technology. Collaborative computing suites
like IBMÊs Lotus Notes/Domino and GroupSystemsÊ OnLine also provide many
KMS capabilities. Other systems integrate different sets of tools from a single or
multiple vendors, like J. D. EdwardsÊ Knowledge Garden KMS which integrates
Microsoft tools and products. However, the KMS technology has evolved to
integrate the three components into a single package.
7.4.1 Knowledge Management Products and Vendors

Technology tools that support knowledge management are known as knowware.
Many knowledge management software packages consist of one or more of the
following tools: collaborative computing tools, knowledge servers, enterprise
knowledge portals, electronic document management systems, knowledge
harvesting tools, search engines and knowledge management suites. Several
of these packages provide many tools as they are important in an effective
knowledge management system. For example, many electronic document
management systems have integrated collaborative computing capabilities in
their tools to make them much more applicable for knowledge management.
Knowledge management systems can be purchased as a complete system or in

modules from one of the many software development companies and enterprise
information systems vendors. These systems can also be acquired from large
consulting firms, or outsourced to the application services providers (ASP). The
different types of alternatives in acquiring KMS will be discussed in the next
section.
(a) Software Development Companies and Enterprise Information Systems

Vendors
Software development companies and enterprise information systems
vendors offer a variety of knowledge management packages, ranging from
individual tools to comprehensive knowledge management suites. These
large selections of tools allow companies to search for tools that will match
the requirements for knowledge management. The following subsections
review these software packages based on the seven knowware categories.
(i) Collaborative Computing Tools

Collaborative tools, or groupware, were first adopted to enhance the
transfer of tacit knowledge amongst employees within an organisation.
GroupSystems, one of the earliest collaborative computing systems,
provides several tools that support group work such as electronic
brainstorming and idea categorisation, while, Lotus Notes/Domino
are popular in supporting an enterprise-wide collaborative
environment. Other collaborative tools are MeetingPlace (Latitude),
Lotus Sametime (Lotus Development Corp.), WebEx (Cisco Corp.),
Groove Networks (Microsoft Corp), and Oracle Collaboration Services
(OCS) 10g (Oracle Corp.), and eRoom (eRoom Technology Inc.).
(ii) Knowledge Servers

A knowledge server hosts the main knowledge management
software, including the knowledge repository, and provides access to
other knowledge, information and data. Examples of knowledge
servers are Hummingbird Knowledge Server, the Sequois Software
XML Portal Server, and AutonomyÊs Intelligent Data Operating Layer
(IDOL) Server. AutonomyÊs IDOL Server connects people to content,
content to content, and people to people through modules that enable
organisations to integrate various personalisation, collaboration, and
retrieval features. The server provides a knowledge repository, a
centralised location for searching and accessing information from
various sources, such as the Internet, corporate intranets, databases
and file systems, thereby enabling the efficient distribution of time-
critical information. The server can be seamlessly integrated with
the companyÊs e-business suite, which allows rapid deployment of
applications across the enterprise.
(iii) Enterprise Portals

Enterprise Knowledge Portals (EKP) are the doorways into many
knowledge management systems. They have evolved from the
concepts underlying executive information systems, group support
systems, web browsers and data management systems. An enterprise
portal provides a single access point for a huge body of explicit
information such as project plans, white papers, technical
specifications, financial reports, product announcements and others.
These enterprise knowledge portals are one of the ways to organise

the many sources of unstructured information in the organisation.
Most of the portals combine data integration, reporting mechanism,
and collaboration, while document and knowledge management is
handled by a server. The portal is a virtual place in a network of
online users. The portal aggregates each userÊs total information needs
such as data and documents, e-mail, web links and queries, dynamic
feeds from the network, and calendar and task lists. The personal
portals have been transformed into an enterprise knowledge portal,
useful for knowledge management.
CiscoÊs Employee Connection is one highly successful portal that

provides anytime, anywhere access to the companyÊs intranet. The
purpose of the system is to connect as many systems and applications
as possible so that users have a single entry into all of CiscoÊs
information systems.
The earlier enterprise information portals in the market did not have
knowledge management features, however, now most of them do.
Leading portal vendors include Autonomy, Brio, Corechange,
Dataware, Intraspect, Hummingbird, InXight, IBM/Lotus, Knowmadic,
OpenText, Plumtree, Verity, Viador and Vignette. Database vendors
such as Oracle, Sybase and Microsoft are also selling knowledge
portals. Portal prices typically range from a few hundred thousand
to a few millions depending on the requirements and the size of the
organisation. One popular knowledge portal in Malaysia is
myGoverment – the Malaysian governmentÊs official portal.
(iv) Electronic Document Management (EDM)

Electronic document management systems focus on documents in
electronic form as the collaborative focus of work. EDM systems
enable users to access the required documents, usually through
a web browser over the corporate intranet. EDM systems allow
organisations to manage documents and workflow better for
smoother operations. They also enable users to collaborate on
document creation and revision. Many knowledge management
systems adopt an EDM system as the knowledge repository, as there
is a common link in terms of purpose and benefits.
Electronic document management systems such as DocuShare (Xerox

Corp.) and Lotus Notes (IBM) allow direct collaboration on a common
document. Some other EDM systems include Eastman Software DMX
(Eastman Software), FileNet P8 (IBM), infoRouters DMS (infoRouter),
LiveLink (Open Text Corporation), Pagis Pro (ScanSoft Inc.) Xpedio
(IntraNet Solution), and CaseCentral.com (Document Repository Inc.)
The current approach to electronic document management, known as

content management systems (CMS), is changing the way documents
and their contents are managed. A content management system
produces dynamic versions of documents, and automatically maintains
the current set for use at the enterprise level. The growth of web-
based materials requires organisations to maintain a mechanism to
provide content that is consistent and accurate across enterprises.
EDM systems, enterprise knowledge portals and other CMSs fill this
need. The main goal here is to provide knowledge workers with
access to large amounts of unstructured text. CMS. A subset of CMS
for managing changing business requirements is business rule
management with tools like Ilog JRules and Blaze Advisor that are
designed to handle smaller chunks of content. These tools are also
used in knowledge-based systems.
(v) Knowledge Harvesting Tools

Tools for capturing knowledge unobtrusively are useful as they
enable a knowledge contributor to be minimally involved in
knowledge harvesting projects. An ideal approach to knowledge
capture is to embed this type of tool in a knowledge management
system. An example is the AutonomyÊs ActiveKnowledge, which is an
expertise-location software package that analyses a userÊs outgoing
e-mail to parse subject expertise. It maintains a directory of expertise
and offers ways to contact experts, while maintaining privacy controls
of the experts. It can also be used on other standard document types.
(vi) Search Engines

Search engines are useful in performing the essential functions of
knowledge management, locating and retrieving necessary documents
from vast collections accumulated in corporate repositories. Companies
such as Google, Yahoo, Verity, Inktomi (bought over by Verity) and
Nervana are offering a variety of search engines that are capable of
indexing and cataloguing files in various formats as well as retrieving
and prioritising relevant documents in response to user queries.
(vii) Knowledge Management Suites

Knowledge management suites are complete knowledge management
solutions ready to use. They integrate communications, collaboration,
and storage technologies in a single convenient package. A knowledge
management suite must still have access to internal databases and
other external knowledge sources; therefore, some integration is
required to make the software truly functional. Knowledge
management suites are powerful approaches to developing a KMS
because they offer one user interface, one data repository and one
vendor.
Lotus/IBM offers a complete range of knowledge management

products including the Domina platform and the WebSphere portal.
There are other acceptable sets of tools for knowledge management
initiatives such as Dataware Knowledge Management Suite,
KnowldgeX by KnowledgeX, Inc., and others. Autonomy Knowledge
Management Suits provides document categorisation and workflow
integration. Some enterprise information system vendors such as SAP
and Oracle are developing knowledge management related technologies
as a platform for business applications. Siebel Systems is repositioning
itself as a business-to-employee knowledge management platform.
(b) Consulting Firms

Many major consulting firms such as Accenture, Cap Gemini Ernst & Young
and others have successful knowledge management initiatives. In most cases,
these become products after they have succeeded internally and provide
assistance in establishing knowledge management systems and measuring
their effectiveness. Consulting firms also provide some direct, out-of-box
proprietary systems for vertical markets and several management consulting
firms define their knowledge management as a service.
(c) Knowledge Management Application Service Providers

Application service providers (ASPs) have evolved as a type of KMS
outsourcing on the web. There are many ASPs for e-commerce on the
market. For example, Communispace (communispace.com) is a high-level
ASP collaboration system that focuses on connecting people to people (not
just people to document) to achieve specific objectives, regardless of
geographic location, time and organisational barriers. Figure 7.4 shows the
main web page of the Communispace website. As a hosted ASP solution, it
is easy to rapidly deploy within organisations. Unlike traditional KM
systems that organise data and documents, or chat rooms where people
simply swap information, Communispace contains a rich assortment of
interactions, activities and tools that connect people to the colleagues who
can best help them make decisions. It attempts to make a community
conscious about taking responsibility for its actions and knowledge. Its
climate components help participants to measure and understand how
people are feeling about the community. The virtual cafe gives
geographically dispersed employees a way to meet and learn about each
other through pictures and profiles.
Figure 7.4: Communispace Web Page

SELF-CHECK 7.2
1. What is a collaborative computing tool?

2. How do knowledge servers support knowledge management
activities?
3. Why are enterprise knowledge portals considered as the doorways
to knowledge management systems?
4. What is the current approach to electronic document management
systems?
5. Identify two features that make knowledge suites attractive to
organisations as a tool for effective knowledge management.
7.5 INTEGRATION OF KMS WITH OTHER

INFORMATION SYSTEMS
In Sections 7.3 and 7.4, you have studied various types of knowledge
management systems and applications. In this section, you will see how
knowledge management systems can be integrated with other types of
organisation business information systems.
Knowledge management system is an enterprise system; therefore, it must be

integrated with other enterprises and information systems in the organisation.
Obviously, when it is designed and developed, it cannot be perceived as an add-
on application. It must truly be integrated into other systems. Through the
structure of the organisational culture, a knowledge management system and its
activities can be integrated into the firmÊs business processes. For example, a
group working on customer support can capture its knowledge to provide help
on customersÊ difficult problems. In this case, help-desk software would be one
type of package to integrate into a KMS, especially into the knowledge
repository. A major challenge here is in integrating data that resides in a variety
of systems and formats.
(a) Integration with Decision Support Systems

Knowledge management systems usually do not involve running models to
solve problems, which is a typical activity done in decision support systems
(DSS). However, since a knowledge management system provides help in
solving problems by applying knowledge, part of the solution may involve
running models. A KMS could be integrated into an appropriate set of
models and data, and activated them when a specific problem calls for it.
(b) Integration with Artificial Intelligence

Knowledge management has a natural relationship with artificial intelligence
methods and software, though knowledge management is not an artificial
intelligence method. There are many ways in which KM can be integrated
with artificial intelligence. For example, if the knowledge stored in a KMS is
to be represented and used as a sequence, then the knowledge-based
system becomes part of the KMS. A knowledge-based system could also
help a user in identifying how to apply a chunk of knowledge in the KMS.
(c) Integration with Customer Management Systems

Customer relationship management (CRM) systems help users in dealing
with customers. One important aspect is the help-desk notion described
earlier. However, CRM goes even deeper. It can develop usable profiles of
customers and predict their needs, so that an organisation can increase sales
and better service its clients. A KMS can certainly provide tacit knowledge
to people who use CRM directly in working with customers.
(d) Integration with Supply Chain Management Systems

The supply chain is often considered to be the logistics end of business. If
products do not move through the organisation and go out of the door, the
firm will fail. So it is important to optimise the supply chain and manage it
properly, and supply chain management (SCM) systems attempt to do so.
SCM can benefit through integration with KMS because there are many
issues and problems in the supply chain that require the company to
combine both tacit and explicit knowledge. Accessing such knowledge will
directly improve supply chain performance.
ACTIVITY 7.4
1. Discuss how knowledge management systems can be integrated

with decision support systems.
2. Describe the relationship between knowledge management
systems and supply chain management systems.
3. Argue why knowledge management systems need to be
integrated with various information systems in managing
knowledge.
7.6 KNOWLEDGE ENGINEERING

Knowledge engineering (KE) was established as a discipline in AI in the 1980s
with the aim of establishing methods and tools for developing knowledge-based
systems in a systematic and controllable manner. KE, as with other engineering
disciplines, offers scientific methodology together with theories and techniques
for analysing and engineering that knowledge. KE techniques are used in
building and developing knowledge-based systems. These are similar to software
engineering (SE) techniques, but have an emphasis on knowledge rather than
data or information processing. The emphasis on knowledge is fundamental as it
differentiates KE and SE applications. This is a characteristic of the KE problem
domain, which is mainly related to human problem solving with the system
architecture based on inference engines. KE techniques are similar to SE in that
they both advocate an engineering approach in developing systems through
well-defined development processes that turn system specifications into
workable computer programs.
Early versions of KBS were built around expert knowledge, as KE activities were
approached as a transfer process; however, this approach lacks the problem-
solving capabilities of the expert. Nevertheless, KBS developers quickly
discovered that such capabilities could only be captured through the use of
conceptual models in order to understand the problem-solving behaviour of the
expert. This leads to defining KE as a modelling process. Sections 7.6.2 and 7.6.3
will discuss this in more detail.
7.6.1 Knowledge Engineering Process

Both KE and SE development processes have the same objective: to develop the
system given the user requirements, in order to solve a particular problem
related to the domain. Systems development in SE involves the following
iterative stages regardless of the methodology adopted: gathering and analysing
user requirements, designing the system by translating user requirements into a
software specification using conceptual models, coding the software specification
into computer programs, testing the program to ensure the agreed results are
produced, implementing the system and maintaining the system throughout its
intended life span.
The KE processes for constructing a KBS in general are: requirements analysis

involving identifying the scope for the KBS, designing the system by identifying
the sources of expert knowledge for the KBS and how to represent them,
acquiring the knowledge from the expert through knowledge acquisition
techniques and constructing the knowledge base with instances of the domain
knowledge, coding the system on target application languages or shells, testing
the system to ensure the inference mechanism is working properly and

producing the correct results, implementing the system incrementally and
performing maintenance on the system. These iterative stages of KE are
compared with SE in Figure 7.5.
KBS testing is done in two phases: verification and validation of the system. In
the verification phase, the rules in the knowledge base are analysed for sequence,
structure and specification to ensure the logical correctness of the rules. Then, the
validation of the KBS is carried out to test the behaviour of the system in a
realistic situation. There are well-established techniques for the verification and
validation of KBS which are dependent on the implementation domain of the
system. For example, in safety-critical applications such as aeroplanes and space
missions, the reliability of the KBS is essential, and therefore a formal method
verification is essential, whereas in a low-risk application such verification is not
necessary. However, testing can also be done on the correctness of the rules
during the iterative development process.
The knowledge acquired from the expert is logically checked for its correctness
before populating the knowledge base. Reliability of the knowledge base is
achieved by removing circular rules that are contradictory in meaning or logic,
deleting redundant rules that provide different methods for the same problem
which causes knowledge duplication, and removing unusable rules that never
execute because of the contradictions in the premise of the rule.
Software Engineering Knowledge Engineering
Requirement Analysis Requirement Analysis
System Design System Design
Knowledge
Acquisition
Coding Coding
Testing Testing
Implementation Implementation
Maintenance Maintenance
Figure 7.5: Comparison of software and knowledge engineering development processes
In comparison with SE, the KE has one additional stage: that of knowledge
acquisition (KA). This stage is vital in KBS development as the KBS is designed
around the domain expertÊs knowledge of solving problems for a particular task,
such as diagnosis, assessment and so on. The acquired knowledge is then used to
populate the knowledge base in the form of rules, with which the system will
perform reasoning. However, in SE there is no KA stage as the system is
intended to capture information rather than reason with it and the actual dataset
of the database will be populated by the system user when the system is
deployed. Therefore, it may be concluded that the KA stage differentiates the SE
and KE domains when developing software systems.
7.6.2 Knowledge Engineering as a Transfer Process

In the early 1980s, KE techniques were widely used to construct KBS, which were
built on the codifiable knowledge of one or more experts stored in a knowledge
base, essentially a process of knowledge transfer. This transfer approach is
influenced by the success of the Mycin expert system, which has affected the
design of earlier expert systems and expert system shells. Moreover, the
development process of KBS was based on the assumption that the codifiable
knowledge for the system already existed and just had to be collected and
implemented. The knowledge of the expert was directly transferred into the
knowledge base by identifying the rules gleaned from the knowledge acquisition
process. However, this approach fails when the knowledge of the expert is coded
with little understanding of how rules are linked or connected with one another.
For example, domain specific knowledge for disease diagnosis is mixed up with
strategic knowledge on how the diagnosis should be performed. The transfer
approach misses out the expertsÊ problem-solving experiences and capabilities
that are not directly accessible through this approach.
The transfer approach also ignores the importance of the tacit knowledge
of an expertÊs problem-solving capabilities. This creates a new problem if the
knowledge base is to be updated, as changes require substantial effort in
reconstituting the coded rules in order to implement the needed changes.
Consequently, the transfer approach is only feasible for developing prototype
systems and fails to scale up when building larger and more reliable KBSs where
knowledge bases change. These deficiencies have caused the transfer approach to
be replaced by the modelling approach. During this time, the SE community had
already used the modelling approach to construct information systems and it
seems to also suit KBS development.
Another direction taken by the KE community during this time to overcome the
limitations of the knowledge transfer approach is through Knowledge Sharing
initiatives and the major outcomes of this work are ontologies, knowledge
interchange format (KIF), Knowledge Query and Manipulation Language
(KQML) and Knowledge Representation System Specification.
7.6.3 Knowledge Engineering as a Modelling Process

KE is no longer simply a means of mining knowledge from the expertÊs head and
the assumption that knowledge can be directly transferred into computer
programs is indeed false. The transfer approach was replaced by the modelling
approach, which promotes the creation of models that offer similar performance
when solving problems in the area of concern. KE now encompasses methods
and techniques for knowledge acquisition, modelling, representation and use

of knowledge and KBS development is viewed as a modelling activity in the
analysis and design stages of the systems development.
The foundation for the modelling process is based on the knowledge-level

principle popularised by Alan Newell (Newell 1982), who emphasises the
importance of developing problem-solving models of the problem domain rather
than focusing on knowledge representation. As a result, two different areas of
research have been established based on the knowledge-level modelling
principle. One emphasises the refinement of existing knowledge-level
formalisation languages such as KARL (Knowledge Acquisition and
Representation Language) and KADS (Knowledge Acquisition and Design
Support) ML2 language. The other area of research concerns the development of
knowledge-level models for a variety of tasks and domains in order to
understand the problem-solving techniques used. Knowledge modelling efforts
are based on two distinctive approaches, the problem-solving method and
domain ontology.
Problem-solving methods (PSM) are domain independent abstract models

describing the generic inference patterns for different tasks. Ontologies define the
commonly agreed vocabularies for representing the domain knowledge. Figure 7.6
shows the use of conceptual models in KE for developing KBS.
Conceptual Model
Programming the KBS

Knowledge Acquisition
If income = 2000
then credit = 3500
If income = 3000
then credit = 5500
If income = 4000
then credit = 7500
Inference Engine
Expertise Implemented System
Figure 7.6: The role of conceptual models in problem-solving

Source: Luger, 2004
Developers feel that building a KBS means building a computer model that has
problem-solving capabilities similar to those of a domain expert. It is not
necessary to be an exact replica of human cognition; instead, it must simulate the
thinking processes involved in the narrow area of concern. While experts may
consciously articulate part of their knowledge, they will not be aware of a
significant part of this knowledge because it is hidden in their skills. This view
has been an important part of KE activities.
Therefore, using models KE emphasises how an expert solves a particular

problem and develops problem-solving mechanisms in computer systems. It also
helps articulate hidden tacit knowledge of the expertsÊ skills, which is lost in the
knowledge acquisition process (as most of the acquired knowledge is explicit
knowledge). As such, the modelling process in KBS development mainly
involves modelling an expertÊs reasoning mechanisms and the models are useful
in bridging the gap between user requirements and the expert, with the KBS
performing the required functionality. As a result of the modelling approaches,
many KE methodologies have been developed such as CommandKADS, Model-
based and Incremental Knowledge Engineering (MIKE), Protégé and KARL. The
shift towards the modelling approach has also enabled KBS models to be re-used
in different areas of the same domain. In the past, most KBSs had to be designed
from scratch every time a new system was needed and they could not interact
with other systems in the organisation.
7.6.4 Process Roles in Knowledge Engineering

There are several important roles for humans in the process of developing KBS:
knowledge experts, knowledge engineers, knowledge-system developers and
users. Different individuals in larger projects usually perform these roles.
However, in smaller projects the same person usually performs a combination of
the roles.
Knowledge experts are knowledge providers; content is extracted from them

using different knowledge elicitation techniques such as interviewing, protocol
analysis, laddering, concept sorting and repertory grids. Knowledge experts
need not be the real experts in the domain but might be a person or a group of
people whose expertise is often used in decision-making processes within the
organisation. The tasks of knowledge acquisition from experts, understanding
the domain of the targeted system and the analysis of knowledge activities are
those of the knowledge engineer. The engineer will also interact with the
knowledge users of the system to gather user requirements for the system and is
the system analysts in a KBS project. The KBS developer will take the knowledge
requirement gathered during the analysis stage and present it in the form of
analysis models that are used to design and implement the KBS. People use the
KBS in order to perform their job functions and it is important to include them in
the project when gathering user requirements.
Knowledge-based systems are developed using knowledge engineering

techniques that are similar to those used in software engineering as both
techniques adopt an engineering approach to systems development. Knowledge
engineering advocates the modelling approach to construct KBS and this enables
the reuse of the knowledge model in different areas of a domain. It has replaced
the conventional knowledge transfer approach, which only concentrated on
extracting expert knowledge in the form of rules without making an effort to
understand the expertÊs reasoning processes in decision-making. The modelling
approach adopted in knowledge engineering is similar to conceptual modelling
that is widely used in the software engineering domain. Consequently, the
modelling techniques, tools and languages used in the software engineering
domain can be utilised in constructing models for knowledge engineering.
SELF-CHECK 7.3
1. Identify the major differences between knowledge engineering

and software engineering.
2. What are the stages in knowledge engineering development
processes?
3. Why is knowledge engineering as a modelling process better than
the transfer process?
4. How is the knowledge-level principle used in knowledge
engineering?
5. What are the process roles for knowledge workers in knowledge
engineering projects?
7.7 KBS ARCHITECTURE, ISSUES,

ADVANTAGES AND DEVELOPMENT
PROCESS
A knowledge-based system is software that has some knowledge or expertise
about a specific, narrow domain and is implemented such that the knowledge
base (KB) and the control architecture – KB inference engine are separate.
Knowledge-based systems have capabilities that often include inferential
processing (as opposed to algorithmic processing), explaining rationale to users
and generating non-unique results (OMG, 2004). From this definition, it can be
seen that the important functional features of KBS are that domain specific
knowledge is represented in the knowledge base, and this knowledge is used in
the reasoning process of the inference engine to generate decisions related to the
problem domain. These features are unique to KBS and as such are commonly
used to define KBS in the literature.
Nevertheless, there is no single dividing line that differentiates KBS from

information systems (IS), as almost all examples contain elements of both
knowledge and information and are developed using sound engineering. An IS is
a set of interrelated components that collects, processes, stores, analyses, and
disseminates data and information within an organisation. The main differences
between IS and KBS are that in a KBS its functionality is embedded in the
inference engine and the knowledge about the application domain is represented
in an explicit form in the knowledge base. However, current implementations of
certain types of KBS are based on procedural (algorithmic) processing in contrast
with conventional inferential processing. The KBSÊ unique functionality can be
seen in the architecture discussed in the next section.
7.7.1 Architecture
Architecture differentiates a knowledge-based system from an information
system. The reasoning engine (inference engine) and the knowledge base are the
main constituents of KBS architecture. This basic architecture was originally
developed and used in expert systems in the late 1970s and is still in use today.
The inference engine is usually programmed in a shell-based programming
language rather than developed and run with explicit declarative knowledge and
information to arrive at a conclusion. The knowledge base contains all the
domain knowledge represented as rules (production rules) that are to be
consumed by the inference engine during execution.
The current use of this architecture is a modified version of the original one. The
original architecture is shown in Figure 7.7. Here, the reasoning control actually
refers to the reasoning or inference engine, and application domain knowledge
refers to the knowledge base of the domain.
Reasoning control
Application domain knowledge
Figure 7.7: The basic architecture of the first generation of expert systems
The implementation of this modular architecture is well accepted in the area of

KBS development by both researchers and practitioners; the reasoning engine is
the main structural difference between an IS and a KBS. Examples of the current
usage of this architecture are shown in Figure 7.8. The knowledge base in both
these examples contains the knowledge acquired from the domain expert
through the knowledge acquisition process and is represented in the knowledge
base as rules, decision criteria, facts and other forms of knowledge
representation. As for the inference engine, it contains the necessary reasoning
steps that will be used to guide the decision-making process.
User User Interface Context
Inference
Explanation facility
Mechanism
Knowledge
Expert Knowledge base
acquisition facility
Figure 7.8: Schematic view of a KBS
KBS comprises of three basic components (with reference to Figure 6.7): a

knowledge base, the context and an inference mechanism. The context
component, which is additional to the original architecture, contains the current
problem scenario that is dynamically constructed by the inference mechanism
and the knowledge base. The knowledge is used to manipulate the context, by
employing the inference mechanism to make decisions. Other additional
components to the basic ones are: the user interface, an explanation facility and
knowledge acquisition system. Users will interact through the interface, which
will then send the inputs to the system. The reasoning steps and the knowledge
used in achieving a particular result will be provided by the reasoning
component. The knowledge acquired from the domain experts will populate the
knowledge base through the acquisition system.
Based on the KBS architecture presented in Figures 7.7 and 7.8, it may be
concluded that the core components of any given KBS are the knowledge
base and the inference engine (or reasoning mechanism). However, current
architectures differ from the original because new components such as
knowledge acquisition, user interface, and the explanation facilities are now
added to the core components to make the architecture much more suitable for
those current practices used in systems development. One example of this is the
user interface component, which has become an important part of any systems
development project and takes the form of a conventional graphical user
interface (GUI). Due to the growing importance of the user interface element in
any system, this component has been explicitly included in the current KBS
architecture.
7.7.2 Issues in KBS for Managing Knowledge

The need to manage knowledge and business rules through technology has
caused KBS to be implemented in various (newer) domains and the capabilities
of modern KBS technologies have been exploited to manage human
competencies, i.e. knowledge. Examples of these domains are: software
architecture design assistant, a tool for inferring semantic concepts from visual
models, hospital management, clinical management, managing bank loan risk
and currency exchange advising. Other examples include legal regulations,
knowledge-based engineering for managing knowledge related to product
design, learning context management for e-learning applications, and the
production of metals and related compounds.
Furthermore, while traditionally KBSs were stand-alone applications, today they

are becoming a part of an enterpriseÊs information system. KBSs have been
embedded/integrated with Computer Aided Design (CAD) systems to manage
engineering product design knowledge. Other examples of integration can be
seen in the field of power system monitoring using the SCADA standard where
the knowledge system is successfully used to perform intelligent alarm
interpretation. Some KBS capabilities have been integrated into Geographical
Information Systems (GIS) to provide intelligent advice. KBSs have also been
incorporated into customer support applications for managing mortgages and
bank loans. Even e-commerce systems have adopted KBS technology in order to
provide recommendations.
KBS provides solutions which cannot be obtained by conventional methods

through its unique inferential process. There are a number of commercial KBSs in
use, for example, Design-a-Trial (DaT) by InferMed Ltd assists in designing and
planning clinical trials and EULE, developed in-house by Swiss Life (a leading
provider of life insurance), processes insurance and TURBOLID was developed
in Spain for on-line plant-wide supervision of the continuous processes to be
found in a sugar-beet factory. All these solutions are well received and have been
judged as successful in their respective commercial domains.
Most knowledge systems adopt rules to drive their inference engines. Earlier
inference engines (such as CLIPS, VP-Expert, XeprtRule and KnowledgePro)
used shell-based production rule systems. These were written in a declarative
rather than procedural programming style based on algorithms such as RETE.
However, there have been developments in inference engines in which support
for embedding features in conventional programming languages such as C++
and Java are implemented, which simplifies the integration of conventional
program code with rule inferencing capabilities.
As a result, the Java Expert System Shell (Jess), based on C-Language Integrated
Production System (CLIPS), has been developed to enable enterprise software
developed using Java to have some built-in reasoning capabilities. Use of the Java
programming language to develop rule-based applications has prompted the
Java community to develop standards for Java-based rule engines based on the
JSR-94 Java Rule Engine API. The JSR-94 specification is popular among vendors
and is implemented in ILOG JRules, Jess, Fair Isaac Blaze Advisor, Computer
Associates CleverPath Aion, Drools and others.
The KBS technology has evolved from the early rule-based reasoning to
accommodate other strands of AI research, such as fuzzy logic, genetic
algorithms, case-based reasoning and neural networks. This evolution has been
beneficial to the knowledge management initiatives community as different KBS
technologies can be utilised in providing solutions to the problem domains.
Nevertheless, production rules are considered as the most convenient approach
in representing most business rules and are widely supported by many inference
engines. Section 7.7.3 discusses the benefits and problems of using KBS as a tool
for managing knowledge.
7.7.3 Benefits of KBS in Managing Knowledge

KBSs offer many advantages as an assistive tool for humans in managing
knowledge and these can be categorised as: productivity, knowledge
preservation, quality improvement, training and job enrichment related benefits.
KBS technology is better appreciated when the benefits of adopting them are well
understood. A comprehensive literature review of the benefits of using KBS
technology found advantages linked to improved decision quality, improved
availability of expert knowledge, improved cost saving and higher productivity.
However, these benefits are only achievable if the quality of knowledge in

a knowledge base is thoroughly verified and validated using appropriate
techniques, as this ensures that the KBS results are accurate and consistent. This
is performed by using logical verification and rule verification, which verify the
expert knowledge for completeness and consistency. Completeness is the ability
of the KBS to produce some decision for all possible inputs, while consistency is
the KBSÊ ability to produce a standard set of decisions that are true for all
possible inputs. Rule verification identifies redundant rules, inconsistent rules,
circular rules and unreachable decisions. Validation of the KBS is done by
executing the system and comparing the test results against the required
performance. This proves that the KBS is producing decisions only for the set of
given inputs. Validation and verification is an important area in KE and any KBS
that is crucial to safety and health decisions must be verified and validated; this
contrasts with those systems that are not safety or mission critical.
Using KBS the quality of the decisions made increases because there are fewer
inconsistencies than if the decisions were performed manually. Results produced
by the KBS are consistent throughout its operational lifespan unless it is modified
to incorporate new rules or delete older ones. Two copies of the same KBS will
provide the same answer to the same problem; human experts do not achieve
this level of consistency and such consistency is important in certain domains
such as insurance premium calculations for insurance policies. Achieving such
consistency is vital as decision quality is an important criterion when adopting
KBS, particularly in relation to decisions involving huge amounts of data,
variables and information.
KBSs are also capable of assisting experts in decision making even if the experts
have that knowledge to hand; this improves the accuracy and timeliness of
decisions made. Experts are humans, who have the tendency to forget and make
mistakes when making decisions. However, when the knowledge of the experts
is stored as rules in the knowledge base, such mistakes can be avoided provided
there are no implementation errors. KBSs will always produce the desired result
for every decision case, as they will not leave out any rule (consideration) in the
reasoning process. The decision made will always be the same and reliable.
Availability of expertise knowledge in an organisation improves as the KBS can

be replicated to make the knowledge available at more than one location. Except
in situations such as routine downtime, KBSs also make expert knowledge
available throughout the day for the whole year, delivering the same decisions.
This contrasts with human experts, who have fixed working hours or are only
available for a limited time throughout a day. They will also experience fatigue,
which might have a damaging effect; KBSs are not subject to fatigue and are
therefore always available.
Implementing KBS in organisations provides the means for reducing operational

and other overhead costs through reducing the time needed for decision making,
improving the decisions so that they are infallible and consistent and generating
reports faster. All this reduces the financial costs of making decisions.
Consequently, KBS decision-making strategies can be analysed and studied in
greater detail, which in turn can help to improve the organisation decision-
making strategies which, then enables better decisions in the future.
7.7.4 Stages in KBS Development

The development process of a KBS is similar to any general system development;
stages such as requirements gathering, system analysis, system design, system
development and implementation are common activities. The general stages in
KBS development can be classified as: business modelling, conceptual modelling,
knowledge acquisition, KBS design and KBS implementation, which corresponds
to the KE development process discussed earlier in Section 7.6 but with slightly
different terminology. This is different names are given to the same activities or
some activities are grouped together. Figure 7.9 shows the stages of a KBS
development and the corresponding stages in the KE development process
discussed in Section 7.6, along with the description of each stage.
(a) Business Modelling

In business modelling, the business processes of an organisation are
modelled from a knowledge point of view. The business models are used to
view the overall context in which the knowledge model will function; this is
also known as problem domain identification or requirements analysis.
This is where the business case, the technical and project feasibility study
are conducted. It allows for an analysis of the actual need for a knowledge-
based application and the knowledge that is to be modelled. The
components of business modelling are the business model and system
context model. A business model will describe the overall view of the
business structure, functions, processes, problems and opportunities, the
people involved, the knowledge processes and flow, and the knowledge
assets of the organisation. The system context model is used to describe the
organisational environment with which the system will interact. It typically
models the information and control flow between the system and its
environment. There are variations in how these stages should interact,
but the essence here is conducting the feasibility study and defining the
problem scope of the system.
Knowledge Engineering KBS Development
Requirement Analysis Business Modelling
System Design Conceptual Modelling KBS Design
Knowledge Knowledge
Acquisition Acquisition
Coding
Testing KBS Implementation

(Coding, Testing,
Deployment and
Implementation Maintenance)
Maintenance
Figure 7.9: Activities in KBS development with the corresponding stages in KE
(b) Conceptual Modelling

Conceptual modelling is an important stage in the KBS development
process, as it deals with the creation of implementation-independent
knowledge models and defines the expert problem-solving characteristics.
Inputs for conceptual modelling are the knowledge-intensive tasks that are
identified during the business modelling which are considered feasible
for KBS development. Conceptual models specify the knowledge and
reasoning requirements of the proposed system using either problem-
solving methods (PSM) or ontologies. Using the PSM approach, the model
has three knowledge categories: strategy models (for task level knowledge),
reasoning models (for inference level knowledge) and domain knowledge.
Each category is used to capture different knowledge structures of the
system. Conceptual models are valuable blueprints in designing KBS and
the creation of such models is the central focus of this research. Within the
field of KBS the process of creating these models is widely referred to as
knowledge modelling and is similar to the Platform Independent Model
(PIM).
(c) Knowledge-Based System Design

KBS are designed using the problem-solving requirements and the
knowledge model from the conceptual modelling stage, together with the
knowledge acquired from the knowledge acquisition stage. The steps
involved during this design stage are: designing the system architecture,
identifying the targeted implementation platform, specifying the
architectural components and specifying the applications within the
architecture. The outcome of this stage is the design model, which describes
the structure of the KBS along with its subsystems, modules, computational
mechanism and representational constructs and is similar to the Platform
Specific Model concept. The design model is then implemented on the
deployment platform during the implementation stage.
(d) Knowledge Acquisition

Knowledge acquisition is the process of gathering knowledge from experts
or domain specialists through interactive sessions within the targeted
application domain. It is an essential stage in KBS development as the
knowledge gathered during this process is then used to construct the
knowledge model and the knowledge base for the proposed system. It
involves using a set of techniques and methods to elicit knowledge, such as
repertory grids, laddering, card sorting, twenty questions, protocol
analysis, structured interviews and observations. Knowledge acquired
during this stage is usually in the form of rules, heuristics, formulae, lists of
terms, diagrams and so on. Other sources of knowledge used in this process
are textbooks, technical manuals, case studies, operating procedures and
handbooks.
(e) Knowledge-Based System Implementation

During the implementation stage, KBSs are constructed according to the
design obtained from the system design model. The system is programmed
in the targeted application language (e.g. LISP, Prolog, OO languages,
Aion). In most cases, it involves the development of a workable exploratory
prototype to ensure that the system is functioning as intended and the
inference mechanism is working properly and producing correct results
or decisions. If every aspect of the prototype is working well and the
expectations of the users and domain experts are fulfilled, the prototype
will eventually be expanded into a fully working system and deployed into
production. Throughout its operational life span, the KBS will undergo a
series of periodic maintenance schedules in which new requirements are
incorporated, the rule-base is enhanced, operational errors are corrected
and performance is improved.
ACTIVITY 7.5
1. Describe the basic components in a KBS architecture, and the
additional components in the current KBS architecture.
2. Discuss three important benefits of using KBS in managing
organisational knowledge.
3. Argue why current KBS are usually embedded or integrated into
other larger applications.
4. Compare the activities in knowledge engineering and KBS
development, and justify why conceptual modelling in KBS
development is important.
ACTIVITY 7.6
1. Discuss the five artificial intelligence tools that are widely used
for knowledge management.
2. Provide a brief description for the following terms:
(a) Knowledge engineering
(b) Knowledge-based systems
(c) Electronic Document Management
3. Justify why the modelling process is better than the transfer
process in knowledge engineering.
4. Argue the benefits of knowledge-based systems as a tool in
managing organisational knowledge.
5. Explain why the role of artificial intelligence in knowledge
management is controversial.
x Technology is a catalyst in supporting knowledge management activities,

which in some cases are developed within the domain of artificial
intelligence.
x Not all types of knowledge can be managed successfully through the use of
technology as some types of knowledge are better managed through human-
oriented processes with the support of ICT.
x Knowledge management systems are built based on three sets of

technologies: communications, collaboration, and storage and retrieval.
x AI methods and tools are widely used to assist in finding expertise, eliciting
knowledge automatically and semi-automatically, interfacing through natural
language processing, and intelligent search through intelligent agents. AI
methods such as knowledge-based systems, neural networks, fuzzy logic,
evolutionary algorithms and intelligent agents, are used in knowledge
management systems.
x Knowledge management systems can be purchased as a complete system or

in modules from software development companies and enterprise information
systems vendors. These systems can also be acquired from large consulting
firms, or outsourced to application services providers.
x Knowledge management system is an enterprise system and as such, it

must be integrated with other enterprise and information systems in the
organisation.
x Knowledge engineering provides a scientific methodology together with

theories and techniques for analysing and engineering knowledge-based
systems, and these are similar to software engineering techniques, but have
an emphasis on knowledge rather than data or information processing.
x Previous knowledge engineering techniques were based on the transfer

approach which ignores the importance of tacit knowledge. This was
replaced with the modelling approach that promotes the creation of models
for understanding the problem domain.
x Knowledge-based systems are software that has some knowledge or expertise

about a specific, narrow domain, and is implemented such that the
knowledge base (KB) and the control architecture – KB inference engine are
separate.
Application service providers Intelligent agents

Artificial intelligence Knowledge-based systems
Case-based reasoning Knowledge engineering
Collaboration technologies Knowledge management systems.
Communication technologies Neural networks
Fuzzy logic systems Storage and retrieval technologies
Awad, E., & Ghaziri, H. H. (2004). Knowledge management. New Jersey: Prentice
Hall.
Becerra-Fernandez, I., Gonzalez, A., & Sabherwal, R. (2004). Knowledge
management – Challenges, solutions, and technologies. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.
Debowski, S. (2006). Knowledge management. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
Loudon, K. C., & Laudon, J. P. (2007). Management information systems –
Managing the digital firms. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Natarajan, S., & Shekhar, S. (2000). Knowledge management: Enabling business
growth. New Delhi: McGraw-Hill.
Turban, E., Leidner, D., McLean, E., & Wetherbe, J. (2007). Information
technology for management: Transforming organisations in the digital
economy. Boston: John Wiley & Sons.

Topic 7 Technological Approaches in Knowledge Management

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Topic X Technological

John R. Searle, minds, brains and science, p 44

In Topic 6, you have studied in detail the process of knowledge management

This topic discusses the role of information communication technologies as a tool

Knowledge management concerns better management of organisational

Technology is a catalyst in supporting knowledge management activities, which

provide value-added services often needed in knowledge processing.‰ Most

1. Discuss why information communication technology is important

7.1 COMPONENTS OF KNOWLEDGE

Communication technologies enable users to access the required knowledge, and

Collaboration technologies provide the ways to perform group work or team

Table 7.1: Knowledge Management Technologies and Web Impact

1. What is collaboration technology and how does it support group

7.2 THE ROLES OF AI IN KNOWLEDGE

Most modern AI systems are founded on the principle that intelligence is

Nevertheless, work in this area continued, and by the mid-1990s, artificial

By the end of the 1990s, researchers in AI started to realise that organisational

1. Discuss how artificial intelligence differs from conventional

7.3 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE TOOLS

The next section discusses some popular AI tools such as knowledge-based

7.3.1 Knowledge-Based Systems

Knowledge-based systems lack the breadth of knowledge and the

7.3.2 Case-Based Reasoning

Knowledge-based systems function by applying a set of IF-THEN-ELSE

7.3.3 Fuzzy Logic Systems

Fuzzy logic is a rule-based technology that can represent this imprecision by

Fuzzy logic provides solutions to problems requiring expertise that is difficult to

7.3.4 Neural Networks

Knowledge-based systems are designed to emulate the ways human experts

Figure 7.2: How a neural network works

Neural network applications can be found in medicine, science and business

7.3.5 Intelligent Agents

Many complex phenomena can be modelled as systems of autonomous agents

Figure 7.3: Intelligent Agents in P&GÊs Supply Chain Network

Integrating intelligent agents with enterprise portals is a powerful technique that

7.4 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

7.4.1 Knowledge Management Products and Vendors

Knowledge management systems can be purchased as a complete system or in

(a) Software Development Companies and Enterprise Information Systems

(i) Collaborative Computing Tools

(ii) Knowledge Servers

(iii) Enterprise Portals

These enterprise knowledge portals are one of the ways to organise

CiscoÊs Employee Connection is one highly successful portal that

(iv) Electronic Document Management (EDM)

Electronic document management systems such as DocuShare (Xerox

The current approach to electronic document management, known as

(v) Knowledge Harvesting Tools

(vi) Search Engines

(vii) Knowledge Management Suites

Lotus/IBM offers a complete range of knowledge management

(b) Consulting Firms

(c) Knowledge Management Application Service Providers

Figure 7.4: Communispace Web Page

1. What is a collaborative computing tool?

7.5 INTEGRATION OF KMS WITH OTHER

Knowledge management system is an enterprise system; therefore, it must be

(a) Integration with Decision Support Systems

(b) Integration with Artificial Intelligence

(c) Integration with Customer Management Systems

(d) Integration with Supply Chain Management Systems

1. Discuss how knowledge management systems can be integrated

7.6 KNOWLEDGE ENGINEERING