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50 Modifying Microclimates

MODIFYING MICROCLIMATES
INTRODUCTION
The “climate” of a region can be described by the air
temperature, humidity, wind speed, precipitation,
and amount of solar and terrestrial radiation that is
experienced over large areas (see Regional Climate). HOUSE
There are several scales at which climate can be con-
sidered. The two most useful in landscape architecture
are “mesoclimate” (tens to hundreds of miles in size)
HOUSE
and “microclimate” (inches to tens of feet in size).
There are myriad microclimates within a region, each
AREA 2
of which can be described by the same measures as
climate but confined to a relatively small area.
Movement through the landscape from one microcli-
AREA 2
mate to the next is experienced by a person as a WINDBREAK
change in his or her thermal comfort. For example,
on a hot day, a person moving from a sunny micro-
climate into the shade of a densely leafed deciduous WINDBREAK
tree would experience this as a move to a “cooler”
microclimate. However, it is a common misconcep-
tion that the air temperature is lower in the shade of
the tree, whereas the temperature of the ground and
other surfaces in the sun would likely be consider-
ably higher than that of shaded surfaces. But because
the air is a very efficient mixer, temperature differ-
DECIDUOUS
ences are lost by the time the air is measured at a TREE
standard height of 5 feet, a height that is more repre-
sentative of the air that affects people’s thermal
comfort level.
Careful measurement with a properly shielded AREA 1 AREA 1

instrument would show that the air temperature, at

the level that people experience it is almost always
essentially the same in the shade of the tree as it is in
the full sun. In this case, it is the reduction in solar
radiation received by the person that is being inter-
preted as a cooler microclimate. Similarly, moving
from a windy sidewalk on a cold day into the shelter
of a row of coniferous trees would be experienced as
moving to a “warmer” microclimate. Again, the air tem-
perature would be essentially the same in the two
microclimates and it would be the reduction in con-
vective cooling of the wind that would be experienced
as a warmer microclimate.
The various measures that describe a microcli-
mate can be divided into two groups: those that can
be modified by the design of the landscape and
those that, in general, cannot be modified through
design. The amount of wind and the amount of
solar radiation received in a landscape can be read-
ily and substantially modified through design. The
temperature and humidity of the air, in general,
cannot be readily or substantially modified through
design.
Large differences in the temperature and humidity
of the air can be experienced at the “mesoscale,” such
as the “urban heat island” effect experienced in large
cities, as shown in the illustration. The air tempera-
ture in urban areas tends to be warmer than that of
the surrounding countryside because of the typically
hard, dry surfaces. This effect is most pronounced on
clear, calm nights when the temperature in the mid-
dle of the city can be as much as 8–10°F higher than
the countryside but is not as pronounced during the
day or under windy or cloudy conditions. This island
of warm air can have pockets of cooler air over green
or wet surfaces, such as parks or water bodies.
N
Prevailing microclimatic conditions in a typical urban landscape
during the spring season. Area 1 would be inherently com-
fortable (sometime known as a sun-catch) while area 2 would
be inherently too cool or cold to use in spring. N
WINTER WIND AND SHADOW
PATTERNS
Area 1, which was inherently comfortable in springtime,
might be inherently too hot in summer as it would be open
to full sun, and would not experience any cooling breezes.To
make it more comfortable for summer use, a deciduous tree
STANDARDS could be located so as to cast a shade on Area 1 in midsum-
mer.The lack of leaves in the spring would allow much of the
General Guidelines solar radiation to pass through at this time, warming the peo-
ple. Dominant summer winds in this location are typically
General guidelines for modifying microclimates
from the south and southeast, while spring winds were domi-
through design include the following:
nantly from the west.This provides an opportunity to use a
windbreak to slow the spring winds, but leave the site open
• The thermal comfort of people in the landscape to the southerly and southeasterly winds.
can be greatly affected by the microclimate and
SUMMER WIND AND SHADOW
should be a high priority for design of urban out-
PATTERNS
door areas. The flows of energy to and from a
person are affected by the microclimate.
• The amount of energy used to heat and cool build-
ings in the landscape can be greatly affected by the
local microclimate.
• When designing urban areas for use during cool
sible (see Modifying Wind). In warm and hot seasons,
seasons, the first priority is to provide protection
the wind has little cooling power because its temperature
from the wind; the second priority is to provide
is very nearly that of a person. In this case, the amount
access to the sun (remember: winter-wind).
of solar radiation a person receives should be reduced as
• When designing urban areas for use during warm
much as possible (see Modifying Solar Radiation).
seasons, the first priority is to provide shade from
the sun; the second priority is to provide access to Identifying Existing Microclimates
the wind (remember: summer-sun).
The microclimates in an urban landscape can be
In cool and cold seasons, the wind is a very effective defined by the amount of solar radiation and wind
cooling element and should be reduced as much as pos- received. Shadow and wind diagrams (see Modifying

Dr. Robert D. Brown, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada; Robert T. LeBlanc, Ekistics Planning and Design, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada

PART 2 STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES

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Solar Radiation, and Modifying Wind) can be gener-
ated to illustrate existing conditions, which then can
be used to provide an indication of the inherent ther-
mal comfort conditions for people. For example, the
area on the map of spring conditions that would be
an inherently comfortable place for people to use
would be the zone in full sun and out of the domi-
nant wind. Alternatively, the area shaded from the
sun and open to the dominant wind would be inher-
ently too cool or cold for people to use in springtime.
Tools for Modifying Microclimates
A microclimate can be modified through the strategic
placement of objects that will modify the wind and
the solar radiation. In combination, these can sub-
stantially change the thermal comfort conditions for
people, as well as the energy required to heat and
cool buildings in the landscape.
Tools for Modifying Mesoclimates
Individual sites are often too small to have much of an
effect on the air temperature of the site or of the city.
Dr. Robert D. Brown, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada; Robert T. LeBlanc, Ekistics Planning and Design, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada
Modifying Microclimates 51
However, larger areas of vegetation or water can have able for estimating the human thermal comfort levels
a cumulative effect on reducing urban heat islands. and energy conservation opportunities across a land-
scape, and these will undoubtedly improve over time.
LIMITATIONS
RESOURCES
Microclimates constantly change throughout the day
and through the year. Current knowledge and tech- Brown, G. Z., and M. DeKay. 2001. Sun, Wind &
nology does not afford a complete understanding or Light: Architectural Design Strategies (2nd ed.).
description of the microclimates in a landscape. The New York: John Wiley & Sons.
most appropriate approach, at present, is to map the Brown, Robert D., and Terry J. Gillespie. 1995.
elements of a landscape that will have an effect on Microclimatic Landscape Design: Creating
the solar radiation and the wind at strategic times of Thermal Comfort and Energy Efficiency. New
the day in specific seasons. York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Oke, T. R. 1987. Boundary Layer Climates. New
EMERGING ALTERNATIVES York: Routledge.
Computer modeling and simulation holds promise for
more complete and accurate descriptions of micro- and See also:
mesoclimates in the future. Already, solar radiation is Modifying Air Quality
being modeled quite effectively, while research contin- Modifying Solar Radiation
ues on methods for modeling and simulating wind. Modifying Wind
Computer models are also becoming more widely avail- Regional Climate
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS