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Chemistry of Lowland Rice Soils and Nutrient Availability

Article  in  Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis · September 2011

DOI: 10.1080/00103624.2011.591467

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 Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 42:1913–1933, 2011
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0010-3624 print / 1532-2416 online
DOI: 10.1080/00103624.2011.591467

Chemistry of Lowland Rice Soils and Nutrient

Availability

N. K. FAGERIA, G. D. CARVALHO, A. B. SANTOS,

E. P. B. FERREIRA, AND A. M. KNUPP
National Rice and Bean Research Center of EMBRAPA (Empresa Brasileira de
Pesquisa Agropecuaria), Santo Antônio de Goiás, Goiás, Brazil
Downloaded by [Institutional Subscription Access] at 10:48 26 July 2011

Rice is the staple food crop for about 50% of the world’s population. It is grown mainly
under two ecosystems, known as upland and lowland. Lowland rice contributes about
76% of the global rice production. The anaerobic soil environment created by flood
irrigation of lowland rice brings several chemical changes in the rice rhizosphere that
may influence growth and development and consequently yield. The main changes that
occur in flooded or waterlogged rice soils are decreases in oxidation–reduction or
redox potential and increases in iron (Fe2+ ) and manganese (Mn2+ ) concentrations
because of the reductions of Fe3+ to Fe2+ and Mn4+ to Mn2+ . The pH of acidic soils
increased and alkaline soils decreased because of flooding. Other results are the reduc-
tion of nitrate (NO3 − ) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2 − ) to dinitrogen (N2 ) and nitrous oxide
(N2 O); reduction of sulfate (SO4 2− ) to sulfide (S2− ); reduction of carbon dioxide (CO2 )
to methane (CH4 ); improvement in the concentration and availability of phosphorus
(P), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), Fe, Mn, molybdenum (Mo), and silicon (Si); and
decrease in concentration and availability of zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and sulfur (S).
Uptake of nitrogen (N) may increase if properly managed or applied in the reduced
soil layer. The chemical changes occur because of physical reactions between the soil
and water and also because of biological activities of anaerobic microorganisms. The
magnitude of these chemical changes is determined by soil type, soil organic-matter
content, soil fertility, cultivars, and microbial activities. The exclusion of oxygen (O2 )
from the flooded soils is accompanied by an increase of other gases (CO2 , CH4 , and
H2 ), produced largely through processes of microbial respiration. The knowledge of the
chemistry of lowland rice soils is important for fertility management and maximizing
rice yield. This review discusses physical, biological, and chemical changes in flooded
or lowland rice soils.

Keywords Denitrification, Oryza sativa L., oxidation–reduction potential, sub-

merged soil

Introduction
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the staple food crop in the diet of about one-half of the world’s
population (Fageria, Slaton, and Baligar 2003). It is grown mainly under two ecosystems,
known as upland and lowland. Upland rice, also known as aerobic rice, is generally grown
on undulated and unbunded fields and totally depends on rainfall for water requirements.

Received 20 January 2010; accepted 11 February 2011.

Address correspondence to N. K. Fageria, National Rice and Bean Research Center of
EMBRAPA (Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuaria), Caixa Postal 179, Santo Antônio de
Goiás, Goiás, CEP 75375-000, Brazil. E-mail: fageria@cnpaf.embrapa.br

1913
 1914 N. K. Fageria et al.

Lowland rice, also known as irrigated rice or flooded rice, is grown on leveled lands with
bunds and with irrigation facilities. Yields of lowland rice are much greater than those
of upland rice because of the assured water supply and use of high inputs by farmers.
For example, in Brazil, upland rice average yield is about 2.2 Mg ha−1 , whereas low-
land rice yield is more than 5 Mg ha−1 . The lower yield of upland rice is associated with
biotic and abiotic stresses (Fageria 2001). Upland rice has lower yields than lowland rice,
but its cost of production also is lower. Because of the lower cost and lack of irrigation
facilities, upland rice will continue to be an important component of cropping systems in
South America, Africa, and Asia. Figures 1 and 2 show lowland and upland rice growth,
respectively, in the central part of Brazil.
Under normal conditions, lowland rice fields are flooded with water about 3 to 4 weeks
after sowing. The water level of about 10 to 15 cm is maintained during the crop growth
cycle and is drained before harvest. Because of flooding, lowland rice suffers less from
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disease, insects, and weeds compared to upland rice. These factors also contribute to the

Figure 1. Lowland rice crop in the state of Tocantins, central Brazil.

Figure 2. Upland rice crop grown on an Oxisol of central Brazil.

 Chemistry of Lowland Rice 1915

greater yield of lowland rice compared to upland rice. Flooding or waterlogging eliminates
oxygen from the rhizosphere and causes changes in the soil chemical properties. These
chemical changes are associated with physical reactions between the soil and water and
also because of biological processes set in motion as a result of excess water or oxygen
deficiency (Patrick and Mahapatra 1968).
The most important change in the soil as a result of flooding is the conversion of
the root zone of the soil from an aerobic environment to an anaerobic or near-anaerobic
environment where oxygen is absent or limiting (Patrick and Mahapatra 1968). Oxygen
deficiency or exclusion in submerged soils can occur within a day after flooding. The oxy-
gen movement through the flooding water is usually much slower than the rate at which
oxygen can be reduced in the soil. This situation may result in the formation of two dis-
tinctly different layers being formed in a waterlogged soil. On the top is an oxidized or
aerobic surface layer where oxygen is present, with a reduced or anaerobic layer under-
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neath in which no free oxygen is present. Illustrated in Figure 3 is the thin oxidized layer
(usually 1 to 20 mm in thickness) normally found at the interface between water and soil
(Bouldin 1986). In addition, flooding also has major effects on the availability of macro-
and micronutrients. Some nutrients are increased in availability to the crop, whereas oth-
ers are subject to greater fixation or loss from the soil as a result of flooding (Patrick and
Mikkelsen 1971). The objective of this review is to discuss the chemistry of lowland or
flooded rice soils, which may help in better nutrient management and consequently greater
yields.

Type of Soils Used for Lowland Rice Cultivation

Lowland rice is produced on a variety of soils in different agroecological regions of the
world. Because of the heterogeneity of agroecological regions, the pedogenetic and mor-
phological characteristics of soils used to grow rice also vary considerably. The soils
used for rice production worldwide are distributed over the 10 soil orders (Moormann

Figure 3. Oxidized and reduced soil layer in the submerged rice soil.
 1916 N. K. Fageria et al.

1978; Hudnall 1991). Moormann (1978) summarized that, worldwide, rice is grown on
all soil orders identified in the soil classification system (USDA 1975). Worldwide, the
wide array of soils used to produce rice results in an equally diverse assortment of man-
agement practices implemented for successful rice production on these soils. Murthy
(1978) reported that the soils on which rice grows in India are so extraordinarily var-
ied that there is hardly a type of soil, including salt-affected soils, on which it cannot
be grown with some degree of success. In Brazil, flooded rice is mainly grown on Alfisols,
Vertisols, Inceptisols, Histosols, and Entisols (Moraes 1999). In Sri Lanka, rice is grown on
Alfisols, Ultisols, Entisols, Inceptisols, and Histosols (Panabokke 1978). In Indonesia, the
main rice soils are Entisols, Inceptisols, Vertisols, Ultisols, and Alfisols (Soepraptohardjo
and Suhardjo 1978). Raymundo (1978) reported that in the Philippines the soils used
for wetland rice production are mainly Entisols, Inceptisols, Alfisols, and Vertisols. In
Europe, rice is planted on limited areas in Albania, Bulgaria, France, Greece, Hungary,
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Italy, Portugal, Romania, Spain, and Yugoslavia, where the predominate soil orders are
Inceptisols, Entisols, and Vertisols (Matsuo, Pecrot, and Riquier 1978). In the United
States, rice is grown primarily on Alfisols, Inceptisols, Mollisols, and Vertisols (Flach and
Slusher 1978). However, in Florida, a small hectarage of rice is produced on Histosols.
Most of the soils used for rice production in the United States and some other geographic
areas have properties that make them ideally suited for flood-irrigated rice. The soils are
relatively young, contain significant amounts of weatherable minerals, and have relatively
high base saturations despite the fact that some are in areas of high precipitation (Flach and
Slusher 1978).
Soil parameters for optimum rice yields are optimum soil depth, compact subsoil hori-
zon, good soil moisture retention, good internal drainage, good fertility, and a favorable
soil structure (Fageria, Slaton, and Baligar 2003a). Clayey to loamy clay texture soils are
appropriate for lowland rice production. Permeable, coarse-textured soils are less suitable
for flood-irrigated rice production because they have low water- or nutrient-holding capac-
ities. In Brazil, there are about 35 million ha of poorly drained soils, known locally as
“Varzea,” distributed throughout the country. Generally, Varzea soils have good initial soil
fertility, but after 2 to 3 years of cultivation, the fertility level is known to decline (Fageria
and Baligar 1996). Farming systems need to be developed with improved soil manage-
ment technology to bring these areas under successful crop production. A sufficient supply
of nutrients is one of the key factors required to improve crop yields and maintain sus-
tainable agricultural production on these soils. Flood-irrigated rice is an important crop
that needs to be included in the cropping system of these poorly drained areas during the
rainy seasons. During dry periods, other crops can be planted in rotation, provided there is
proper drainage. These soils generally have an adequate natural water supply throughout
year, but are acidic and require routine applications of lime if legumes are grown in rota-
tion with rice. Physical and chemical properties of varzeas soils of Brazil are presented in
Tables 1–4. Data in these tables show that chemical and physical properties varied largely
from state to state and from municipality to municipality within states.

Physical, Biological, and Chemical Changes in the Flooded Soils

Omission of oxygen from the large part of soil profile causes physical, biological, and
chemical changes to occur in the submerged or flooded rice soils. These changes var-
ied with the type of soil, presence of microbial biomass, quality and quantity of organic
matter, cultivar planted, and level of soil fertility. In addition, these changes affect availabil-
ity of essential plant nutrients and consequently plant growth and yield. Furthermore, the
 Chemistry of Lowland Rice 1917

Table 1
Chemical properties of varzeas (lowland) soils of some states of Brazil

Ca Mg Al
MO pH P K (cmolc (cmolc (cmolc
State (g kg−1 ) in H2 O (mg kg−1 ) (mg kg−1 ) kg−1 ) kg−1 ) kg−1 )
Goiás 42 5.2 15.2 85 4.7 2.6 1.5
Mato Grosso 16 5.1 6.9 68 2.5 1.4 1.3
Mato Grosso 69 5.3 21.7 75 7.8 3.4 1.1
do Sul
Paraná 138 4.3 36.4 84 2.6 1.8 4.4
Minas Gerais 25 5.0 17.7 133 3.9 1.6 0.5
Rio Grande do 25 7.1 45.1 168 10.4 6.6 0.1
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Norte
Piauí 10 5.6 13.6 115 10.3 6.7 0.7
Maranhão 8 4.8 1.9 82 6.7 10.7 1.5
Average 42 5.3 19.8 101 6.1 4.4 1.5
Source: Fageria et al. (1991, 1994, 1997).
Note. Values are from the 0- to 20-cm soil depth and lowland rice is generally grown on these soils
during rainy season.

Table 2
Micronutrient concentrations, cation exchange capacity (CTC), base saturation (V), and
aluminum saturation (M) of várzeas (lowland) soils of some states of Brazil

CTC V M
Cu Zn Fe Mn (cmolc (cmolc (cmolc
State (mg kg−1 ) (mg kg−1 ) (mg kg−1 ) (mg kg−1 ) kg−1 ) kg−1 ) kg−1 )
Goiás 7.4 3.0 436 42 27 33 16
Mato Grosso 1.3 1.4 263 33 12 33 32
Mato Grosso 11.9 2.5 193 23 26 42 18
do Sul
Paraná 6.3 1.5 65 12 52 22 29
Minas Gerais 2.9 7.9 627 98 15 42 10
Rio Grande do 1.9 2.0 307 163 39 95 1
Norte
Piauí 3.4 3.2 382 61 30 81 3
Maranhão 0.9 3.7 320 43 29 70 7
Média 4.5 3.2 324 59 29 54 15
Source: Fageria et al. (1991, 1994, 1997).
Note. Values are from the 0- to 20-cm soil depth and lowland rice is generally grown on these soils
during rainy season.

percolation rate decreases with flooding because of physical and chemical changes such as
swelling, dispersion, disintegration of soil aggregates, reduction of soil pores by microbial
activity, and organic-matter decomposition, which reduces the binding effect of aggregates
and causes the soil to seal off (Wickham and Singh 1978).
 1918 N. K. Fageria et al.

Table 3
Textural analysis of várzeas (lowland) soils of some states of Brazil

State Sand (g kg−1 ) Silt (g kg−1 ) Clay (g kg−1 )

Goiás 350 220 422
Mato Grosso 408 282 310
Mato Grosso do Sul 394 250 356
Paraná 600 187 213
Minas Gerais 223 184 593
Rio Grande do Norte 431 308 261
Piauí 301 335 364
Maranhão 118 410 472
Average 354 272 374
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Source: Fageria et al. (1991, 1994, 1997).

Note. Values are from the 0- to 20-cm soil depth and lowland rice is generally grown on these soils
during rainy season.

Physical Changes
As soon as soils of lowland rice are flooded, the oxygen level begins to decline. The rate
of decline is very fast, and within 6 to 10 h after flooding, the O2 level drops to near zero
(Patrick and Mikkelsen 1971). The rapid declines of O2 from the soil are accompanied by
an increase of other gases produced through the microbial respiration. The major gases that
accumulate in the flooded soils are carbon dioxide (CO2 ), methane (CH4 ), nitrogen (N2 ),
and hydrogen (H2 ). Patrick and Mikkelsen (1971) reported that the composition of these
gases may vary from 1 to 20% CO2 , 10 to 95% N2 , 15 to 75% CH4 , and 0 to 10% H2 . This
variation may be associated with the presence of microbial biomass, organic matter, and
inorganic substances and also the cultivar planted.
Flooding may also alter the soil temperature and may disintegrate soil structure. At a
given soil moisture content, and as bulk density increases, thermal conductivity increases
(Ghildyal and Tripathi 1971). As the thermal conductivity of soil particles is greater than
that of air, increased density decreases the volume of gases and increases thermal con-
tact between the soil particles. As a result, thermal conductivity increases (Ghildyal 1978).
Permeability to water may be reduced by clogging the soil pores, which results from phys-
ical, chemical, and biological changes. This may help to reduce percolation of water and
leaching of nutrients. In the lowland rice production system, the subsoil layer is com-
pacted with the help of a roller, a process known as puddling. According to the Soil
Science Society of America (2008), puddling is defined as any process involving both
shearing and compactive forces that destroys natural structure and results in a condition
of greatly reduced pore space. Ghildyal (1978) defined puddling as mixing soil with water
to render it impervious. Intensive tillage by repeated plowing of a wet soil breaks down
coarse aggregates and mean particle size decreases. Soil compaction affects the water-
retention characteristics, water-intake rates, and gas exchange. In compacted soil, bulk
density, microvoids, thermal conductivity and diffusivity, and nutrient mobility increase,
and macrovoids, hydraulic conductivity, and water-intake rates decrease. Medium-textured
soils are most susceptible to compaction.
Puddling is very common in Asian rice-producing countries. Puddling, intensive wet-
land cultivation, breaks the natural aggregates to finer fractions. It decreases the apparent
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Table 4
Chemical and textural properties of várzeas (lowland) soils of state of Rio Grande do Sul of Brazil

Location/ Ca+Mg Sand Silt Clay

municipality MO (g kg−1 ) pH in H2 O (cmolc kg−1 ) K (mg kg−1 ) Al (cmolc kg−1 ) V (%) M (%) (g kg−1 ) (g kg−1 ) (g kg−1 )
Palmares 20 5.0 0.5 20 0,6 15 70 840 60 100
Vacacaí 119 5.0 1.3 20 1,7 23 53 640 260 100
Pelotas 9 5.4 3.1 27 1,1 52 24 440 360 190
Meleiro 8 4.8 0.9 39 2,9 9 73 370 280 350

1919
Colégio 130 4.5 18.6 234 1,2 44 6 240 270 490
Jundaí 32 4.4 3.9 39 8,8 12 67 20 310 670
Jacinto Machado 10 5.5 10.5 78 0,2 74 1 420 270 280
Curumim 40 5.5 1.2 27 3,8 7 73 790 130 80
Average 41 5.0 5.0 61 2,5 28 46 470 246 284
Source: Klamt et al. (1985).
Note. Values are from the 0- to 20-cm soil depth and lowland rice is generally grown on these soils during rainy season. Rio Grande do Sul is the largest
lowland-rice-producing state in Brazil.
 1920 N. K. Fageria et al.
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Figure 4. Puddling is done in the lowland rice plots in the state of Para in the Amazon basin (earlier
project of Jari, funded by D. K. Ludwig), Brazil.

specific volume and hydraulic conductivity, creates an anaerobic environment, and affects
Eh and pH (Ghildyal 1978). Ghildyal (1978) reported that rice root growth, nutrient uptake,
and water use are favorably affected by moderate compaction of a flooded soil where the
soil strength is low. Figure 4 shows that puddling is done in the lowland rice plots before
sowing the pregerminated seeds of rice. In many Asian countries, rice is transplanted in the
puddle fields by small farmers.

Biological Changes
In waterlogged or flooded rice soils, aerobic microorganisms become quiescent or die, and
facultative and obligate anaerobic bacteria proliferate. These new microorganisms bring
many biological changes in the reduced soil environment. In the absence of oxygen, many
facultative and obligate anaerobic bacteria oxidize organic compounds with the release
of energy in a process called “anaerobic fermentation” (Patrick and Mikkelsen 1971).
Anaerobic fermentation usually produces lactic acid as a first product. This is subsequently
converted to acetic, formic, and butyric acids. Among aerobic organisms, oxygen serves
as the electron acceptor, but in anaerobic forms, either an organic metabolic by-product or
some inorganic substance must substitute for oxygen (Patrick and Mikkelsen 1971). In the
flooded soils, organic-matter decomposition is retarded because of lower carbon assimila-
tion rates of anaerobic bacteria. In a submerged soil, the facultative and obligate anaerobic
organisms utilize nitrate (NO3 − ), manganese (Mn4+ ), iron (Fe3+ ), sulfate (SO4 2− ), dis-
similation products of organic matter, CO2 , and H+ ions as electron acceptors in their
respiration, reducing NO3 − to dinitrogen (N2 ), Mn4+ to Mn2+ , Fe3+ to Fe2+ , SO4 2− to
sulfide (S2− ), CO2 to CH4 , and H+ to H2 gas (Patrick and Reddy 1978).

Chemical Changes
The most important chemical changes that occur in flooded or submerged rice soils are to
pH, redox potential, and ionic strength or electrical conductivity. These changes occur as a
result of oxygen depletion.
 Chemistry of Lowland Rice 1921

pH. Soil pH is an important chemical property because of its influence on soil microor-
ganisms and availability of nutrients to plants. It is determined by a pH meter using a glass
electrode and in a specific soil–solution ratio. Usually distilled water or 0.01 M calcium
chloride (CaCl2 ) or 1 M potassium chloride (KCl) solution is used for soil pH determina-
tion. Soil pH indicates acidity, alkalinity, or neutrality of a soil. Soil pH 7.0 is a neutral
value. Above this pH, soils are designated as alkaline, and below this, soils are acidic
in reaction. The pH of acidic soils increases and alkaline soils decreases as a result of
flooding. Overall, pH of most soils tends to change toward neutral after flooding. An equi-
librium pH in the range 6.5 to 7.5 is usually attained (Patrick and Reddy 1978). A majority
of oxidation–reduction reactions in flooded soils involve either consumption or produc-
tion of H+ /OH− ions (Ponnamperuma 1972). The increase in pH of acidic soils is mainly
determined by reduction of Fe and Mn oxides, which consume H+ ions. These reduction
processes are shown in the following equations:
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Fe2 O3 + 6H+ + 2e− ↔ 2Fe2+ + 3H2 O

MnO2 + 4H+ + 2e− ↔ Mn2+ + 2H2 O

The decrease in the pH of alkaline soils is associated with the microbial decomposi-
tion of organic matter, which produces CO2 , and the produced CO2 reacts with H2 O to
form carbonic acid, which dissociates into H+ and bicarbonate (HCO3 − ) ions. Patrick and
Reddy (1978) reported that the decrease in pH of alkaline and calcareous submerged soils is
associated with sodium carbonate (Na2 CO3 )–H2 O–CO2 and calcium carbonate (CaCO3 )–
H2 O–CO2 systems, respectively. Figure 5 shows the change in soil pH of lowland rice
collected from four locations in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. It can be seen from
Figure 5 that soil pH increases with flooding and stabilized around 56 days after flooding
in all the soils. However, the magnitude of pH change differs from soil to soil. The pH of

Figure 5. Change in soil pH with the flooding of lowland rice. Adapted from Moraes and Freira
(1974).
 1922 N. K. Fageria et al.

most agricultural soils is in the range of 4 to 9 (Fageria 2009). The most suitable pH for
growth of annual crops such as soybean, corn, dry bean, and wheat in Brazilian lowland
soils is around 6.5 (Fageria and Baligar 1999).

Oxidation–Reduction Potential
Oxidation–reduction or redox potential has significant influence on chemistry of iron and
other nutrients in the submerged soils. It is the best single indicator of the degree of anaer-
obiosis in the flooded soil and allows reasonable predictions to be made concerning the
behavior of several essential plant nutrients (Patrick and Mikkelsen 1971). Oxidation is
the donation and reduction is the acceptance of electrons from other substances. Oxidizing
agents accept electrons from other substances and thereby reduce themselves. Reducing
agents donate electrons to other substances. For example, iron(II) is an electron donor or
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a reducing agent when it oxidized to iron(III). Hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) is an oxidizing

agent when it accepts electrons from organic matter and oxidizes it to CO2 (Bohn, McNeal,
and O’Connor 1979).
Oxidation–reduction potential is measured in millivolts, and symbol used for this
chemical change in flooded soil is Eh. Oxidized soils have redox potentials in the range
of +400 to +700 millivolts, whereas waterlogged soils’ redox potential is generally in
the range of −250 to −300 millivolts (Patrick and Mahapatra 1968). Important oxidation–
reduction processes that occur in the waterlogged soils are presented in Table 5. Some of
the oxidized soil components that undergo reduction after oxygen is depleted are reduced
sequentially; that is, all of the oxidized components of one system will be reduced before
any of the oxidized components of another system begin to be reduced. Others overlap
during reduction (Patrick and Reddy 1978). As the O2 depletes from the waterlogged soils,
reduction processes occur in sequence. Nitrate and manganese compounds are reduced
first, then ferric compounds are reduced to the ferrous form, and at last sulfate is reduced
to sulfide. Redox potential decreased with flooding of rice soils (Figure 6).

Table 5
Thermodynamic sequence of reduction processes in the submerged soils

Reaction Redox potential E0 7a (V)

O2 + 4H+ + 4e− ←→ 2H2O 0.81
2NO3 − +12H+ +10e− ←→ N2 + 6H2 O 0.74
MnO2 + 4H+ + 2e− ←→ Mn2+ 2H2 O 0.40
CH3 COCOOH +2H+ + 2e− ←→ CH3 CHOHCOOH −0.16
Fe(OH)3 + 3H+ + e− ←→ Fe2+ + 3H2 O −0.19
SO4 2− + 10H+ + 8e− ←→ H2 S + 4H2 O −0.21
CO2 + 8H+ + 8e− ←→ CH4 + 2H2 O −0.24
N2 + 8H+ + 6e− ←→ 2NH4 + −0.28
NADP+ + 2H+ + 2e− ←→ NADPH −0.32
NAD+ + 2H+ + 2e− ←→ NADH −0.33
2H+ + 2e− ←→ H2 −0.41
Ferredoxin (ox) + e− ←→ Ferrodoxin (red) −0.43
a
E0 corrected to pH 7.0.
Sources: Ponnamperuma (1972); Ponnamperuma (1976), and Patrick and Reddy (1978).
 Chemistry of Lowland Rice 1923
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Figure 6. Influence of flooding on redox potential of some Mexican soils. Adapted from Moraes
and Freira (1974).

A rapid decline in redox potential is characteristic of soils with low contents of reduc-
ing Fe and Mn and high organic-matter content. Iron and Mn compounds serve as buffers
against the development of reducing conditions in the soil (Patrick and Mahapatra 1968).
The critical redox potentials for Fe reduction and consequent dissolution are between +300
mV and +100 mV at pH 6 and 7, and −100 mV at pH 8, while at pH 5 appreciable
reductions occur at +300 mV (Gotoh and Patrick 1976). Oxidation–reduction or potential
reduction values for oxidized and submerged soils and reduction processes are given in
Table 6.

Ionic Strength
Ionic strength is defined as the measure of the electrical environment of ions in a solution.
Ionic strength can be calculated by using the following formula (Fageria et al. 2008):

Ionic strength = 1/2 Mi Z2i

where M is the molarity of the ion, Zi is the total charge of the ion (regardless of sign), and
 is a symbol meaning the “sum of.”
The concentration of ions in the soil solution is measured by electrical conductiv-
ity. The ionic strength of the submerged soil increases with the release of macro- and
micronutrients in the soil solution (Patrick and Mikkelsen 1971) (Figure 7).

Nutrient Availability
Reducing conditions in flooded rice soils change concentration and forms of applied as
well as native soil nutrients. Hence, availability of essential macro- and micronutrients is
significantly influenced in the flooded rice soils.
 1924 N. K. Fageria et al.

Table 6
Range of oxidation–reduction potential values in oxidized and
submerged soils and at which reduction processes occur

Soil moisture/reduction processes Redox potential (mV)

Well-oxidized soils +700 to +500
Moderately reduced soils +400 to +200
Reduced soils +100 to −100
Highly reduced soils −100 to −300
NO3 − to N2 +280 to +220
Mn4+ to Mn2+ +280 to +220
Fe3+ to Fe2+ +180 to +150
SO4 2− to S2− −120 to −180
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CO2 to CH4 −200 to −280

O2 to H2 O +380 to +320
Absence of free O2 +350
Sources: Adapted from Patrick (1966), Patrick and Reddy (1978), Marschner
(1995), and Fageria et al. (2008).

Figure 7. Influence of flooding on electrical conductivity of some Mexican soils. Adapted from
Moraes and Freira (1974).

Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a key nutrient in improving growth and yield of crop plants in all agroe-
cosystems. Its main role is in increasing the photosynthesis process in the plants, which
is associated with improving grain yield. Response of five lowland rice genotypes to N
 Chemistry of Lowland Rice 1925
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Figure 8. Responses of five lowland rice genotypes to nitrogen fertilization.

Source: Fageria and Baligar (2006).

fertilization is presented in Figure 8. Nitrogen is responsible for increasing yield compo-

nents such as panicles or heads in cereals and pods in legumes (Fageria 2009). It also
improves grain weight and reduces grain sterility. Figure 9 shows influence of N on yield
components of lowland rice. Grain yield in rice is a function of panicles per unit area,
number of spikelets per panicle, 1000-grain weight, and spikelet sterility or filled spikelets
(Fageria 2007). Therefore, it is very important to understand the management practices that
influence yield components and consequently grain yield. Nitrogen application up to 210
kg ha−1 influenced panicle length significantly (P < 0.01) and the relationship between
N applied and panicle length was linear (Figure 9). The number of panicles m−2 and
1000-grain weight also increased significantly and quadratically with the application of
N fertilizer. Spikelet sterility, however, decreased significantly and linearly with increas-
ing N rates. Nitrogen treatment accounted for about 96% variation in panicle length, about
91% variation in panicles m−2 , about 75% variation in spikelet sterility, and about 73% of
variation in 1000-grain weight. Fageria (2007) also reported that panicles per unit area,
filled spikelet percentage, and 1000-grain weight were major contributors to increased
grain yield in modern high-yielding rice varieties.
A major part of N in the flooded rice soils is lost through leaching and denitrification
(Fageria and Baligar 2005). The major biological reaction involving nitrate in flooded soil
is denitrification. Denitrification is the biological process in which nitrate reduces to N gas
or nitrous oxide, or both. Patrick and Mikkelsen (1971) reported that denitrification losses
of 50% or more of applied N are common in flooded rice soils. Frequent fluctuations in
 1926 N. K. Fageria et al.
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Figure 9. Influence of nitrogen on number of panicles, panicle length, thousand-grain weight, and
spikelet sterility of lowland rice.
Source: Fageria and Baligar (2001).

moisture content of a field as a result of flooding and drainage create ideal conditions for
denitrification (Patrick and Wyatt 1964). Nitrogen converted to the nitrate form during the
period when the soil is drained is lost through denitrification when soil is flooded. Deep
placement of N in the flooded rice reduces N lost through denitrification. Nitrate produced
in the surface oxidized layer of a waterlogged soil can easily move downward by diffusion
and percolate into the underlying reduced layer, where it is rapidly denitrified (Patrick and
Mahapatra 1968).
Even with best management practices such as adequate rate, forms, methods, and tim-
ing of application, the utilization of added N is generally poorer in flooded rice soils.
Fageria and Baligar (2001) and Fageria, Santos, and Cutrim (2007) studied N-recovery effi-
ciency of lowland rice grown on Brazilian Inceptisols (Table 7). Average efficiency under
different rates was 39%, whereas average N-recovery efficiency of five genotypes was 29%.
Hence, a large part of applied N is lost in soil–plant systems. Patrick and Mahapatra (1968)
reported that in Japan 30 to 40% applied N is recovered by lowland rice as compared to an
availability of 50 to 60% when applied to upland crops.
In aerated soils, most of the N is in the form of NO3 − because of the nitrification
process. In waterlogged soils, absence of O2 inhibits the activity of the Nitrosomonas
microorganisms that oxidize NH4 + , and therefore N mineralization stops at the ammonium
(NH4 + ) form. Accumulation of NH4 + in the waterlogged soils would mean that the N is
not lost from the soil–plant system, as is the case in denitrification. This may only happen
if rice fields are constantly flooded during the crop growth cycle. If availability of water is
not under farmers’ control because of lack of rainfall or storage facility, the situation may
change in the transformation and availability of N to plants. Hence, if N is applied in the
 Chemistry of Lowland Rice 1927

Table 7
Nitrogen recovery efficiency in lowland rice as influenced by N rate
and genotypes

N rate N recovery Lowland rice N recovery

(kg ha−1 ) efficiency (%) genotype efficiency (%)
30 49 CNAi 8886 37
60 50 CNAi 8569 29
90 37 BRSGO Guará 29
120 38 BRS Jaburu 26
150 34 BRS Giguá 23
180 33 Average 29
210 32
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Average 39
R2 0.82∗∗
plot − N uptake by plants in control treatment
Note. N recovery efficiency (%) = N uptake by plants in N fertilized
Quantity of N applied
∗∗
Significant at the 1% probability level.
Sources: Adapted from Fageria and Baligar (2001) and Fageria et al. (2007).

reduced soil layer and the water level is maintained in the rice field constantly, N uptake
may improve in flooded rice.

Phosphorus
Phosphorus (P) plays an important role in the growth and development of crop plants.
Its role is well documented in many physiological and biological processes in the plants
(Fageria 2009). Phosphorus deficiency is one of the most important yield-limiting factors
in annual crops grown on highly weathered acidic soils of the tropics (Sanchez and Salinas
1981; Dobermann, George, and Thevs 2002; Fageria and Barbosa Filho 2007). The P defi-
ciency is associated with low natural P as well as with high P-fixation capacity of these
soils. Added soluble P is usually rapidly adsorbed on the surfaces of Fe and aluminum
(Al) oxides, which are followed by immobilization in other forms and within soil particles
(Hedley, Kirk, and Santos 1994; Linquist et al. 1997). Data in Table 8 show that yield and
yield components of lowland rice were significantly improved with the addition of P in a
Brazilian Inceptisol.
Phosphorus availability is increased in the flooded soils because of the reduction of
ferric phosphate to the more soluble ferrous form and the hydrolysis of phosphate com-
pounds. This may be more pronounced in acidic soils where P is immobilized by Fe and
Al oxides. Similarly, P uptake in flooded alkaline soils also improves because of the libera-
tion of P from Ca and calcium carbonate resulting from the decrease in pH. The formation
of insoluble tricalcium phosphate is favored at a high pH.

Potassium
The influence of flooding is lesser on the chemistry of K than on the chemistry of N and P.
The reducing conditions caused by flooding result in a larger fraction of the K ions being
displaced from the exchange complex into the soil solution. The release of a relatively
large amount of Fe and Mn ions and production of ammonium ions result in displacement
 1928 N. K. Fageria et al.

Table 8
Dry-matter yield of shoot, panicle number, panicle length, 1000-grain weight, spikelet
sterility, and grain harvest index as influenced by phosphate treatments

Shoot dry Panicle Panicle 1000-grain Spikelet Grain

P rate weight number length weight sterility harvest
(kg ha−1 ) (kg ha−1 ) (m−2 ) (cm) (g) (%) index
0 3930.3 264.3 19.0 23.2 17.9 0.23
131 7088.7 365.0 20.1 25.1 21.2 0.29
262 7753.5 432.0 21.3 26.3 18.2 0.37
393 7664.3 412.2 20.9 26.5 17.9 0.40
524 8093.3 417.3 20.8 26.0 16.9 0.37
655 7021.0 419.2 22.3 26.6 13.3 0.43
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F-test
∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗
Year (Y) NS NS
∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗
P rate (P) NS
Y×P NS NS NS NS NS NS
CV (%) 22 10 5 5 22 17
Regression analyses were as follows:
P rate (X) vs shoot dry weight (Y) = 4297.5420 + 19.0682X − 0.0229X2 , R2 = 0.6250∗∗
P rate (X) vs panicle number (Y) =276.1075 + 0.7040X − 0.00077X2 , R2 = 0.7497∗∗
P rate (X) vs panicle length (Y) = 19.3166 + 0.0059X − 0.0000031X2 , R2 = 0.5632∗∗
P rate (X) vs 1000 grain weight (Y) = 23.4333 + 0.0135X − 0.000014X2 , R2 = 0.5944∗∗
P rate (X) vs spikelet sterility (Y) = 18.5500 + 0.0104X − 0.0000027X2 , R2 = 0.3845∗
P rate (X) vs grain harvest index (Y) = 0.2314 + 0.00061X − 0.00000051X2 ,
R2 = 0.8193∗∗
Shoot dry weight (X) vs grain yield (Y) = −10332.13 + 3.9319X − 0.00025X2 ,
R2 = 0.8654∗∗
Panicle number (X) vs grain yield (Y) = −15604.45 + 87.1577X − 0.0919X2 ,
R2 = 0.8654∗∗
Panicle length (X) vs grain yield (Y) = −122564.60 + 11227.76X − 246.516X2 ,
R2 = 0.7768∗∗
1000 grain weight (X) vs grain yield (Y) = −30651.68 + 1822.5990X − 18.3971X2 ,
R2 = 0.8107∗∗
Spikelet sterility (X) vs grain yield (Y) = 7529.74 − 244.5112X + 2.2283X2 ,
R2 = 0.1493NS
Grain harvest index (X) vs grain yield (Y) = −10743.00 + 69155.70X − 74449.30X2 ,
R2 = 0.9440∗∗
Notes. Values are averaged across 2 years.
∗ ∗∗ NS
, , Significant at the 5% and 1% probability levels and nonsignificant, respectively.
Source: Fageria and Santos (2008).

of some of the K ions from the exchange complex to the soil solution. This may leads to
greater availability of K to rice in flooded soils (Patrick and Mikkelsen 1971).

Sulfur
In flooded soils, SO4 2− ion is reduced to hydrogen sulfide (H2 S) by anaerobic microbial
activities. Furthermore, in flooded soils, Fe3+ reduction to Fe2+ precedes SO4 2− reduction;
 Chemistry of Lowland Rice 1929

Fe2+ will always be present in the soil solution by the time H2 S is produced, so that H2 S
will be converted to insoluble iron sulfide (FeS). This reaction protects microorganisms and
higher plants from the toxic effects of H2 S (Patrick and Reddy 1978). Overall, availability
of S is reduced in flooded soils due to formation of insoluble FeS.

Calcium and Magnesium

Calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) deficiencies are rare in lowland rice. Rice is highly
tolerant to soil acidity. Optimum soil pH for lowland rice grown on Brazilian Inceptisol
was reported to be 4.9 (Fageria and Baligar 1999). In highly acidic soils, dolomitic lime
can be added to supply Ca and Mg. Only a small amount of these elements are removed
in the grain, and unless the straw is removed from the field, the total removal is small.
Changes in Ca and Mg concentrations are minimum in flooded soils.
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Micronutrients
The Fe3+ reduces to Fe2+ and Mn4+ reduces to Mn2+ ; hence uptake of these elements
increased in the flooded rice soils. The reduction processes of Fe and Mn are shown under
the section on pH changes. The greater concentration of Fe2+ (>300 mg kg−1 ) may be
toxic to rice plants under certain conditions (Fageria 1984; Fageria et al. 2008). Sims and
Johnson (1991) reported that for most crops the critical deficiency soil Fe concentration
range was 2.5–5.0 mg kg−1 of diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA)–extractable Fe
but is also influenced by soil pH. In both field and pot experiments, the degree of bronz-
ing in a given variety showed a highly significant correlation (r = 0.90∗∗ ) with yield
(Breemen and Moormann 1978). Iron toxicity in rice plants, as indicated by bronzing of
leaves, was reported when soluble Fe in the soil solution was more than 300–500 mg
kg−1 (Ponnamperuma, Bradfield, and Peech 1955; Tanaka, Loe, and Navasero 1966) by
DTPA extracting solution. However, Breemen and Moormann (1978) reported that bronz-
ing symptoms appear generally when Fe concentrations in the soil solution are in the range
of 300–400 mg kg−1 by DTPA extracting solution. Barbosa Filho, Fageria, and Stone
(1983) reported that Fe toxicity in lowland rice occurred when Mehlich 1 extracting Fe
in the soil was in the range of 420 to 730 mg kg−1 . This means that Fe toxicity level in the
soil is also dependent on the extracting solution used to extract the Fe from the soil. Values
for the Mehlich 1 extracting solution are greater than for the DTPA solution.
Iron toxicity in lowland rice has been reported in South America, Asia, and Africa
(Sahu 1968; Barbosa Filho, Fageria, and Stone 1983; Fageria 1984; Fageria and Rabelo
1987; Fageria, Slaton, and Baligar 2003; Fageria, Stone, and Santos 2003; Sahrawat 2004).
Metal toxicity in crop plants can be expressed in two ways. One is when metal is absorbed
in greater amounts and becomes lethal to the plant cells. This is known as direct toxicity
of metals. Another metal toxicity is associated with inhibition of uptake and utilization
of essential nutrients by plants. This is known as indirect metal toxicity. Indirect toxicity
creates nutrient imbalance in plants. This type of Fe toxicity is more common in lowland
rice than direct toxicity (Fageria, Baligar, and Wright 1990; Fageria, Baligar, and Clark
2006). The most important nutrient deficiencies observed in irrigated or flooded rice in
Brazil are P, K, and Zn (Barbosa Filho, Fageria, and Stone 1983). The yield reduction
of rice cultivars due to Fe toxicity depends on tolerance or susceptibility of cultivars to
toxicity. Ikehashi and Ponnamperuma (1978) reported that reduction of the yield on an Fe
toxic soil ranged from a mean of 29% for five moderately tolerant lines to a mean of 74%
for five susceptible lines.
 1930 N. K. Fageria et al.

Zinc and copper (Cu) concentrations generally decreased after flooding rice soils. The
decrease in concentration with the flooding may be associated with increase in soil pH
after flooding. Little is known about the behavior of B and Mo in the submerged soils.
Boron concentration seems to remain more or less constant after submergence of rice soils
(Ponnamperuma 1975). Molybdenum concentration in rice soils was found to increase after
submergence (Ponnamperuma 1975), possibly because of the increased pH. In flooded
soils, Si generally tends to increase after submergence. This increase is probably due to
the release of adsorbed and occluded Si from oxyhydroxides of Fe and Al as well as to the
effect of the increased pH resulting from submergence. Decompositing rice straw with its
high silica content may also contribute to the increased Si content of the soil solution of
flooded soils (Patrick and Reddy 1978).
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Conclusions
Rice is mainly produced under upland and lowland ecosystems. Lowland ecosystem con-
tributes the most rice production worldwide. Lowland rice is also known as flooded or
submerged rice. Direct-seeded lowland rice fields are generally flooded about 3 to 4 weeks
after sowing and remain flooded throughout the growing season; water is drained at har-
vest. Because of flooding, chemistry of lowland rice soils changes, which affect physical,
chemical, and biological properties and consequently rice yields. The most significant
chemical changes are increase in the pH of acidic soils and decrease in the pH of alkaline
soils, reduction in the redox potential, and increase in the electrical conductivity or ionic
strength. The magnitude of change of these chemical processes depend on soil type, micro-
bial biomass, soil organic-matter content, and rice cultivar or genotype planted. All these
changes influence availability of essential plant nutrients. Availability of essential nutrients
is significantly influenced by flooding the rice soils. Availability of P, K, Si, Fe, Mn, and
Mo increased in flooded soils, and availability of S, Zn, and Cu decreased. Availability of
N depends on its proper management. If applied in the reduced soil zone, its uptake may
improve as a result of fewer losses by denitrification. Both nitrate and ammonium ions can
be assimilated by the rice plant, but better stability of the ammonium form in flooded soils
makes it the superior form of N for lowland rice. In addition, the ammonium (NH4 + ) form
of N requires less energy for absorption by plants compared to the nitrate (NO3 − ) form of
N. In addition, Al toxicity is decreased in flooded acidic soils because of the increase in
soil pH. Flooding also favors microbial processes that release essential nutrients for plant
growth.

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