INTRODUCTION

WHAT IS UTILITARIANISM?

The dictionary definition of Utilitarianism is: ‘The doctrine that the greatest happiness of

the greatest number should be the guiding principal of conduct.’ When making a

moral decision, we should look at the outcome of an action.

Whatever brings the greatest happiness to the most people is the morally ‘right’

decision. It is a consequentialist principal where the majority rules. It is also relative as

each situation is looked at differently and will have a different outcome. Utilitarianism is

known as the theory of utility.

The meaning of utility is usefulness. Each action is judged by its usefulness in bringing

about desired consequences. The word utility was first used to describe a group of

social reformers. They attempted to make laws and practices of use-useful to people.

It was Scottish Philosopher David Hume (1711-76) who introduced utility into ethics.

However, he was not viewed as a Utilitarian. The well-known phrase associated with

Utilitarianism was produced by Francis Hutcheson. He said:

“The nation is best which produces the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers,

and that worst which in like manner occasions misery.”

This is the basis of Utilitarianism yet, like Hume, Hutcheson was also not regarded as a

Utilitarian.
DISCUSSION

One of the main exponents of Utilitarianism is Jeremy Bentham. He was an English

philosopher who was particularly concerned with social conditions of his time. Oxford

University saw him graduate at just 16 and become a barrister. He was responsible for

the reforms of prisons, and education, influenced by the French and American

Revolutions.

Bentham, a strong atheist who was very much opposed to the monarchy wrote a book

in 1789 named ‘The principles of Morals and Legislation’. He believed that all people

should be treated equally and what is right for society relies on what makes the

individual happy. Happiness is determined in terms of pleasure.

Bentham was a hedonist – pleasure seeker. His aim was to pursue pleasure and avoid

pain. Pleasure is the sole good or intrinsically good, and pain is the soul evil or

intrinsically evil.

“Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain

and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to

determine what we shall do.”

The intent of this was to maximize pleasure. An action is morally right if it generates the

greatest pleasure for the majority and the least pain.

This idea of pleasure and pain is known as the Hedonic Principal.

Bentham said that if you wanted to find out which of your actions would bring about

the greatest happiness, then you could measure pleasure. The quantity of pleasure can

be measured according to Bentham using the Hedonic Calculus.

The following criteria are used for measuring pleasure: duration, intensity, certainty,

propinquity, fecundity, purity, and extent. It does not matter if an action goes against

the law, at least the result will be maximum pleasure.

One of the earliest Utilitarian’s to live by this principle was Epicurus – he stated

that “Friendship goes dancing round the world proclaiming to us all to awake to the

praises of a happy life.”

He believed that a good life was one with pleasure and the absence of pain.

There were a number of things Mill did to change Utilitarianism. Bentham suggested that

all pleasures were of equal value, no pleasures were higher or lower than others. This

evoked criticism so the main point he made was that of changing qualitative pleasure

to quantitative pleasure. He divided pleasure into two, higher and lower.

The higher pleasures were associated with the mind, and the lower pleasures with the

body. Once the basic lower pleasures of the body (food, water etc.) have been

reached, we can then go in search of higher, intellectually challenging pleasures. Mill

said: “Better to be a human dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be a Socrates

dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.” The other exponent of Utilitarianism is John Stuart Mill.

He had a strict upbringing having very little contact with the outside world.
He was around intelligent people a lot of the time as his father’s friends consisted of

philosophers, politicians, and economists-one being Bentham. He joined the Utilitarian

Society, which met at Jeremy Bentham’s house – this is where Mill became interested in

the theory. Two of his important books were ‘On Liberty’ in 1859 and ‘Utilitarianism’ in

1861. Mill wanted to modify Bentham’s theory of Utilitarianism to make it more

acceptable.

Mill also linked Utilitarianism with Christian morality. He connected the theory with the

teachings of Jesus. He said that the ‘ideal perfection of utilitarian morality’ was abiding

by the ‘Golden Rule’- ‘Do onto others as you have them do to you.’ This made many

more people accept Utilitarianism as it linked with their religion. Rules were introduced

into Utilitarianism by Mill.

The rules introduced were ones that generally brought about the greatest happiness for

the greatest number. For example, Mill argued that society needs the principal of

truthfulness as it brings the most happiness on the long run.

There are three types of Utilitarianism, Act, Rule, and Preference. Act Utilitarianism is

where you look at the consequences of each individual action and asses which brings

the most good. Act Utilitarian’s like Bentham do not see the need for rules when

deciding morality, each situation is different.

Rule Utilitarianism does not look at individual acts but the usefulness of a rule in morality.

Mill was an Act Utilitarian and applied rules that usually bring the most good to

situations. Strong Rule Utilitarian’s never break rules, and Weak Rule Utilitarianism keep
rules in mind yet are prepared to break them if necessary. Preference Utilitarianism is

where the preferences of those involved are considered when making the decision.

The morally right thing to do in any situation is one that satisfies most people’s

preferences. Utilitarianism is used in many societies, especially in politics. We encounter

it every time we make a democratic vote.

Our government rule by majority without the consent of the minority Right and wrong

are relative to the people involved and the things that give them pleasure. Utilitarianism

is there to ensure that this pleasure is present and is maximized to its full potential.

CONCLUSION

As with all moral theories, there are strengths and weaknesses. Although they are both

Utilitarian’s, Bentham and Mill disagreed with each other on some matters. Many

different people have their own interpretations of Utilitarianism and some may not

agree with the strengths and weaknesses but here are some of the major arguments

connected with the theory.

The major criticism of Utilitarianism is that it is extremely hard to predict the results of an

action. The outcomes of all situations are hard to predict, so how can we possibly apply

the rule of the greatest happiness for the greatest number if we do not know who will

benefit most? It is also difficult to decide whether an outcome is morally good or bad.

People have contrasting opinions on what they think is right or wrong. It really depends

on the person who is making the decision, a lot of pressure is then put on that person’s

shoulders. How can we define happiness? The decision-maker may have a different

perception on happiness than others-causing conflict. “One man’s happiness is another

man’s pain.” Without an absolute definition of happiness, it is hard to arrive at a ‘right’

decision.

Different decisions may result in different kinds of pleasure. Is long term or short-term

pleasure more valuable? For example, when deciding whether to take an ecstasy

tablet at a club. Taking the pill may give you a lot of short-term pleasure, but in the long

term, it may cause more harm than good. Not taking the tablet would involve fewer

risks and would avoid potential pain.

Even here, you cannot predict the results of your decision, as there is no way of telling

the effect the ecstasy has on you until you have tried it. Bentham would look for the

long-term pleasures, as this is what Hedonists seek. Also, we do not know how long the

result will last for.

Hume argued for this statement:

“The effects of an action form part of a chain that stretches into the indefinite future.

Here is always the possibility that a very positive result of an action may subsequently

lead to very negative consequences.”

How do we decide which pleasure the majority would prefer? This refers to preference

Utilitarianism where the action is taken that is most favorable to the majority.

The rules of Utilitarianism allow people to do things, which are usually considered

immoral. This is the idea of “The end justifies the means”. If an action brings about the

greatest happiness for the greatest number, then whatever needs to be done to obtain

this is just.
This means that even serious rules are permitted, often requiring the breaking of the

law. Utilitarianism requires people to put their personal feelings and ties aside and act

on the absolute rule of the theory. Prior commitments a person may have should not

influence their decision, although when decisions need to be made quickly, the reflex

action would be to act on human instinct (e.g. save their family).

Bentham’s theory is suggesting that good and happiness are the same thing.

G.E. Moore argued that moral terms such as good cannot be defined. It is wrong to

define good as happiness as this is creating the naturalistic fallacy. He believed that by

defining good, important aspects or meanings are missed out, so by not defining them,

they stay as they are.

Utilitarianism sees that everybody’s duty is to do what is best for the majority. It is

allowing for the well-being of the majority to rule over the minority. Just because the

majority benefit, it does not mean that the action is the morally correct thing to do.

Despite all the arguments against Utilitarianism, there are some valid points for the

theory. It is widely accepted, many countries run by means of democracy.

Our political leaders are elected through the ballot box, the majority overriding the

minority. This however does not automatically mean that they are the most suited

people for the job. Utilitarianism allows people to contemplate the situation before

making the decision. This time prevents people from making hasty, unethical

judgements, as it encourages thought before action.

The aim of the theory is to produce happiness and pleasure. These are two desirable

things as Utilitarianism says that pleasure is the sole good and pain is the soul evil.

“Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters-pleasure

and pain”

A theory that promotes pleasure must be a good thing as most people see pleasure as

desirable over pain. The intention of Utilitarianism was not to create immorality but to

please to maximum number of people possible.

Surely it is better for a hundred people to be happy than five. There are other ethical

theories that have many rules you have to learn and abide by. Utilitarianism has one

simple absolute which can be applied to all situations with a positive outcome. In times

of difficulty, it eases people out of difficult situations. They cannot be blamed for

making the wrong decision if they claim it was for the happiness of the majority.

Prejudices the decision maker may hold are eradicated in Utilitarianism, as they have to

stick to the main rule. There is some leeway for emotions in moral decision making

according to Rule Utilitarianism. This strand of the theory allows respect for the rules that

are created to better our society. Even these rules do not have to be kept all the time if

you are a weak rule Utilitarian.

Some people would see this kind of Utilitarianism more compassionate than Act

Utilitarianism. One of the main strengths is that it prevents the few people that think they

better the rest from dictating society. Utilitarianism acts as a good weapon for reform.

Utilitarianism is a theory that Christians can relate to. Mill brought it closer to the Christian

church by introducing Rule Utilitarianism. This would be closer to the principals Jesus
lived by. For example, it was against the Jewish law to work on the Sabbath but when

people were in need, Jesus bent this rule and healed them.

The largest connection Christianity has with Utilitarianism is the death of Jesus. He was

crucified and died for the sins of mankind-sacrificing himself for the majority. However,

Utilitarianism does accept evil where Christianity most certainly does not.

Philosophers like Bentham and Mill worked hard to produce a theory that could aid us

make complex decisions with a desirable outcome. The different types of Utilitarianism

make it easier to live by, yet it is hard not to let our emotions override our actions.

Despite the many flaws in the theory, it is simple and easy to apply.

PERSONAL INSIGHTS

“For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction” as the laws of motion says.

The same as the scenario of our daily lives. Our daily life actions and decisions made

our selves of what we are in workplace, school, community and country.

We must inculcate to our minds that every actions and decisions we made, will play big

part of ourselves and the people around us. Utilitarianism gives us the idea of what

should be the best options in making action and decisions that will gives us the best

result as possible.

On the other hand, Utilitarianism has a negative side. For instance, the case of Kaliwa

dam project of Tanay Rizal which aims to supply adequate water supply

in Metro Manila. The increasing demand and frequent water shortage in the Metro

Manila lead to this Project. Yes, it will benefit and solve the problem of the majority, but

how about those minority people? Especially to those Dumagat Tribe settling in the
area. It is the land of their ancestors a heritage place and sacred for them. In this case

we are the oppressor majority who oppress minority for our own benefits.

Another situation, Brunei’s death penalty punishment on same sex relations, adultery,

sodomy, rape, blasphemy. It is for the goodness of majority of Muslims as stated at their

Quran teachings. However, it will affect the free will and right of the minority in the LGBT

community to choose what gender orientation they prefer but then again, they are

minority so the majority will prevail again.

But the most important thing is it made us cautious to take the best actions as possible

which more likely yields the positive result. The greater choices you choose the best

outcome you get.

Reference

JEREMY BENTHAM - 1979 “THE PRINCIPLES OF MORALS AND LEGISLATION”

“HEDONIC CALCULUS”

JHON STUART MILL – ‘’ ON LIBERTY’’ 1859

UTILITARIANISM 1861

DAVID HUME (1711-1776) - SYSTEMS OF MORALITY UPON UTILITY

UTILITARIANISM
 TERM PAPER

A PARTIAL FULFILLMENT IN VALUES

AND

PROFESSIONAL ETHICS

PREPARED BY:

MARK CRIS L. SALUDES

SUBMITTED TO: PROF. MAXIMO

ALBERTO