Matter

Matter is any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume.[1] All
everyday objects that can be touched are ultimately composed of atoms, which are
made up of interacting subatomic particles, and in everyday as well as scientific usage,
"matter" generally includes atoms and anything made up of them, and any particles
(or combination of particles) that act as if they have both rest mass and volume.
However it does not include mass less particles such as photons, or other energy
phenomena or waves such as light or sound.[1][2] Matter exists in various states (also
known as phases). These include classical everyday phases such as solid, liquid,
and gas – for example water exists as ice, liquid water, and gaseous steam – but other
states are possible, including plasma.

State of Matter
A state of matter is one of the distinct forms in which matter can exist. Four states of
matter are observable in everyday life: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. Many other states
are known to exist, such as glass or liquid crystal, and some only exist under extreme
conditions, such as Bose–Einstein condensates, neutron-degenerate matter, and quark-
gluon plasma, which only occur, respectively, in situations of extreme cold, extreme
density, and extremely high-energy. Some other states are believed to be possible but
remain theoretical for now.

Matter in the solid state maintains a fixed volume and shape, with component particles
(atoms, molecules or ions) close together and fixed into place. Matter in the liquid state
maintains a fixed volume, but has a variable shape that adapts to fit its container. Its
particles are still close together but move freely. Matter in the gaseous state has both
variable volume and shape, adapting both to fit its container. Its particles are neither
close together nor fixed in place. Matter in the plasma state has variable volume and
shape, but as well as neutral atoms, it contains a significant number of ions and
electrons, both of which can move around freely.

Physical Property of Matter

A physical property is any property that is measurable, whose value describes a state
of a physical system.[1] The changes in the physical properties of a system can be used
to describe its changes between momentary states. Physical properties are often
referred to as observables. They are not modal properties. Quantifiable physical
property is called physical quantity.
 Chemical Property of Matter
A chemical property is any of a material's properties that becomes evident during, or
after, a chemical reaction; that is, any quality that can be established only by changing
a substance's chemical identity.[1]Simply speaking, chemical properties cannot be
determined just by viewing or touching the substance; the substance's internal
structure must be affected greatly for its chemical properties to be investigated. When
a substance goes under a chemical reaction, the properties will change drastically,
resulting in chemical change. However, a catalytic property would also be a chemical
property.

Physical Change of Matter

Physical changes are changes affecting the form of a chemical substance, but not
its chemical composition. Physical changes are used to separate mixtures into their
component compounds, but cannot usually be used to separate compounds
into chemical elements or simpler compounds.[1]
Physical changes occur when objects or substances undergo a change that does not
change their chemical composition. This contrasts with the concept of chemical
change in which the composition of a substance changes or one or more substances
combine or break up to form new substances. In general a physical change is reversible
using physical means. For example, salt dissolved in water can be recovered by
allowing the water to evaporate.

Chemical Change of Matter

Chemical changes occur when a substance combines with another to form a new
substance, called chemical synthesis or, alternatively, chemical decomposition into two
or more different substances. These processes are called chemical reactions and, in
general, are not reversible except by further chemical reactions. Some reactions
produce heat and are called exothermic reactions and others may require heat to
enable the reaction to occur, which are called endothermic reactions. Understanding
chemical changes is a major part of the science of chemistry.
When chemical reactions occur, the atoms are rearranged and the reaction is
accompanied by an energy change as new products are generated. An example of a
chemical change is the reaction between sodium and water to produce sodium
hydroxide and hydrogen. So much energy is released that the hydrogen gas released
spontaneously burns in the air. This is an example of a chemical change because the
end products are chemically different from the substances before the chemical
reaction.
 Pure Substances
A pure substance is one that is homogeneous (i.e., it has the same chemical
composition throughout the substance), and it can exist in three phases (gas, liquid,
and solid). Properties of pure substances can help in understanding thermodynamic
principles.
Common properties of pure substances include: temperature, pressure, volume, mass,
density, specific volume, energy, enthalpy, and entropy. These properties can be
categorized as either extensive or intensive. An intensive property is one which does
not depend on the size of the system. Temperature is an example. Extensive properties
are those which do depend on the size of the system. Examples include mass and
volume.

Elements
An element is a species of atom having the same number of protons in their atomic
nuclei (that is, the same atomic number, or Z).[1] For example, the atomic number
of oxygen is 8, so the element oxygen consists of all atoms which have exactly 8
protons.
118 elements have been identified, of which the first 94 occur naturally on Earth with
the remaining 24 being synthetic elements. There are 80 elements that have at least
one stable isotope and 38 that have exclusively radionuclides, which decay over time
into other elements. Iron is the most abundant element (by mass) making up Earth,
while oxygen is the most common element in the Earth's crust.[2]

Compound
A chemical compound is a chemical substance composed of many
identical molecules (or molecular entities) composed of atoms from more than
one element held together by chemical bonds. A chemical element bonded to an
identical chemical element is not a chemical compound since only one element, not
two different elements, is involved.
 Mixture
A mixture is a material made up of two or more different substances which are mixed.
A mixture refers to the physical combination of two or more substances in which the
identities are retained and are mixed in the form
of solutions, suspensions and colloids.[1][2]
Mixtures are one product of mechanically blending or mixing chemical substances
such as elements and compounds, without chemical bonding or other chemical change,
so that each ingredient substance retains its own chemical properties and
makeup.[3] Despite that there are no chemical changes to its constituents, the physical
properties of a mixture, such as its melting point, may differ from those of the
components. Some mixtures can be separated into their components by using physical
(mechanical or thermal) means. Azeotropes are one kind of mixture that usually pose
considerable difficulties regarding the separation processes required to obtain their
constituents (physical or chemical processes or, even a blend of them).[4][5][6]

Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Mixtures

A homogeneous mixture is a solid, liquid, or gaseous mixture that has the same
proportions of its components throughout any given sample. Conversely,
a heterogeneous mixture has components whose proportions vary throughout the
sample. "Homogeneous" and "heterogeneous" are not absolute terms but depend on
context and the size of the sample. In chemistry, a homogeneous suspension of
material means that when dividing the volume in half, the same amount of material is
suspended in both halves of the substance; however, it might be possible to see the
particles under a microscope. An example of a homogeneous mixture is air.
In physical chemistry and materials science this refers to substances and mixtures
which are in a single phase. This is in contrast to a substance that is heterogeneous.

Solution
A solution has been a special type of homogeneous mixture. Solutions are
homogeneous because the ratio of solute to solvent remains the same throughout the
solution even if homogenized with multiple sources and stable because the solute will
not settle out after any period of time, and it cannot be removed by a filter or
by centrifuge.[2]This type of mixture is very stable, i.e., its particles do not settle, or
separate. As a homogeneous mixture, a solution has one phase (liquid) although the
solute and solvent can vary: for example, salt water.
 Solvent
A solvent (from the Latin solvō, "loosen, untie, solve") is a substance that dissolves a
solute (a chemically distinct liquid, solid or gas), resulting in a solution. A solvent is
usually a liquid but can also be a solid, a gas, or a supercritical fluid. The quantity of
solute that can dissolve in a specific volume of solvent varies with temperature.
Common uses for organic solvents are in dry cleaning (e.g. tetrachloroethylene),
as paint thinners (e.g. toluene, turpentine), as nail polish removers and glue solvents
(acetone, methyl acetate, ethyl acetate), in spot removers (e.g. hexane, petrol ether), in
detergents (citrus terpenes) and in perfumes (ethanol). Water is a solvent for polar
molecules and the most common solvent used by living things; all the ions and
proteins in a cell are dissolved in water within a cell. Solvents find various applications
in chemical, pharmaceutical, oil, and gas industries, including in chemical
syntheses and purification processes.

Solute
A solute is the dissolved component of a solution. For example, in a hydrochloric acid
solution, water would be the solvent or the dissolving substance and the hydrochloric
acid would be the solute that is dissolved.
 Atomic Theory of Matter
Atomic theory is a scientific theory of the nature of matter, which states that matter is composed of discrete
units called atoms. It began as a philosophical concept in ancient Greece and entered the scientific mainstream
in the early 19th century when discoveries in the field of chemistry showed that matter did indeed behave as if it
were made up of atoms.

The word atom comes from the Ancient Greek adjective atomos, meaning "indivisible".[1] 19th century chemists
began using the term in connection with the growing number of irreducible chemical elements. Around the turn
of the 20th century, through various experiments with electromagnetism and radioactivity, physicists discovered
that the so-called "uncuttable atom" was actually a conglomerate of various subatomic
particles (chiefly, electrons, protons and neutrons) which can exist separately from each other. In fact, in certain
extreme environments, such as neutron stars, extreme temperature and pressure prevents atoms from existing
at all.

John Dalton
John Dalton FRS (/ˈdɔːltən/; 6 September 1766 – 27 July 1844) was an
English chemist, physicist, and meteorologist. He is best known for introducing
the atomic theory into chemistry, and for his research into colour blindness,
sometimes referred to as Daltonism in his honour.

J. J. Thomson
Sir Joseph John Thomson OM PRS[1] (18 December 1856 – 30 August 1940) was an
English physicist and Nobel Laureate in Physics, credited with the discovery and
identification of the electron; and with the discovery of the first subatomic particle.
In 1897, Thomson showed that cathode rays were composed of previously unknown
negatively charged particles (now called electrons), which he calculated must have
bodies much smaller than atoms and a very large charge-to-mass ratio.[2]Thomson is
also credited with finding the first evidence for isotopes of a stable (non-radioactive)
element in 1913, as part of his exploration into the composition of canal rays (positive
ions). His experiments to determine the nature of positively charged particles,
with Francis William Aston, were the first use of mass spectrometry and led to the
development of the mass spectrograph.

Plum pudding model

The plum pudding model is one of several scientific models of the atom. First
proposed by J. J. Thomson in 1904[1] soon after the discovery of the electron, but
before the discovery of the atomic nucleus, the model represented an attempt to
consolidate the known properties of atoms at the time: 1) electrons are negatively-
charged particles and 2) atoms are neutrally-charged.
 Ernest Rutherford
Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson, OM, FRS[2] HFRSE LLD (30 August
1871 – 19 October 1937), was a New Zealand-born British physicist who came to be
known as the father of nuclear physics.[3] Encyclopædia Britannica considers him to be
the greatest experimentalist since Michael Faraday (1791–1867).[3]
In early work, Rutherford discovered the concept of radioactive half-life, the
radioactive element radon,[4]and differentiated and named alpha and beta
radiation.[5] This work was performed at McGill University in Canada. It is the basis for
the Nobel Prize in Chemistry he was awarded in 1908 "for his investigations into the
disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances",[6] for
which he was the first Canadian and Oceanian Nobel laureate.

Rutherford gold foil experiment

Rutherford began his graduate work by studying the effect of x-rays on various
materials. Shortly after the discovery of radioactivity, he turned to the study of the -
particles emitted by uranium metal and its compounds.

Before he could study the effect of -particles on matter, Rutherford had to develop a
way of counting individual -particles. He found that a screen coated with zinc sulfide
emitted a flash of light each time it was hit by an -particle. Rutherford and his
assistant, Hans Geiger, would sit in the dark until his eyes became sensitive enough.
They would then try to count the flashes of light given off by the ZnS screen. (It is not
surprising that Geiger was motivated to develop the electronic radioactivity counter
that carries his name.)

Rutherford found that a narrow beam of -particles was broadened when it passed
through a thin film of mica or metal. He therefore had Geiger measure the angle
through which these -particles were scattered by a thin piece of metal foil. Because it is
unusually ductile, gold can be made into a foil that is only 0.00004 cm thick. When this
foil was bombarded with -particles, Geiger found that the scattering was small, on the
order of one degree.

These results were consistent with Rutherford's expectations. He knew that the -
particle had a considerable mass and moved quite rapidly. He therefore anticipated
that virtually all of the -particles would be able to penetrate the metal foil, although
they would be scattered slightly by collisions with the atoms through which they
passed. In other words, Rutherford expected the -particles to pass through the metal
foil the way a rifle bullet would penetrate a bag of sand.
 Nuclear shell model
In nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry, the nuclear shell model is a model
of the atomic nucleus which uses the Pauli exclusion principle to describe the structure
of the nucleus in terms of energy levels.[1] The first shell model was proposed
by Dmitry Ivanenko (together with E. Gapon) in 1932. The model was developed in
1949 following independent work by several physicists, most notably Eugene Paul
Wigner, Maria Goeppert Mayer and J. Hans D. Jensen, who shared the 1963 Nobel Prize
in Physics for their contributions.
The shell model is partly analogous to the atomic shell model which describes the
arrangement of electrons in an atom, in that a filled shell results in greater stability.
When adding nucleons (protons or neutrons) to a nucleus, there are certain points
where the binding energy of the next nucleon is significantly less than the last one.
This observation, that there are certain magic numbers of nucleons: 2, 8, 20, 28, 50,
82, 126 which are more tightly bound than the next higher number, is the origin of the
shell model.

Niels Bohr
Niels Henrik David Bohr (Danish: [nels ˈboɐ̯ˀ]; 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962)
was a Danish physicist who made foundational contributions to understanding atomic
structure and quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in
1922. Bohr was also a philosopher and a promoter of scientific research.
Bohr developed the Bohr model of the atom, in which he proposed that energy levels
of electrons are discrete and that the electrons revolve in stable orbits around
the atomic nucleus but can jump from one energy level (or orbit) to another. Although
the Bohr model has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain
valid. He conceived the principle of complementarity: that item could be separately
analyzed in terms of contradictory properties, like behaving as a wave or a stream of
particles. The notion of complementary dominated Bohr's thinking in both science and
philosophy.

Bohr model
In atomic physics, the Rutherford–Bohr model or Bohr model or Bohr diagram,
presented by Niels Bohr and Ernest Rutherford in 1913, is a system consisting of a
small, dense nucleus surrounded by revolving electrons —similar to the structure of
the Solar System, but with attraction provided by electrostatic forces rather
than gravity. After the cubic model (1902), the plum-pudding model (1904),
the Saturnian model (1904), and the Rutherford model (1911) came the Rutherford–
Bohr model or just Bohr model for short (1913). The improvement to the Rutherford
model is mostly a quantum physical interpretation of it. The model's key success lay in
explaining the Rydberg formula for the spectral emission lines of atomic hydrogen.
While the Rydberg formula had been known experimentally, it did not gain a
theoretical underpinning until the Bohr model was introduced. Not only did the Bohr
model explain the reason for the structure of the Rydberg formula, it also provided a
justification for its empirical results in terms of fundamental physical constants.