TE Lab

EXPERIMENT NO.
OBJECT:
To find the Brake Horse Power, Thermal Efficiency of a four stroke diesel engine.
INTRODUCTION:
POWER:
The main purpose of running an engine is to obtain mechanical power. Power is defined as the
rate of doing work or it can also be defined as the product of force acting and linear velocity or also the
product of torque and angular velocity. Thus the measurement of power involves the measurement of force
(or Torque) as well as speed (either linear or angular). Torque can be measured with the help of
dynamometer and the speed by a tachometer or by some other suitable device.
The power developed by an engine at the shaft output is called the Brake Power (B.P.) and is
given by -
B.P. = 2π N T
Where,
T is torque in Nm
N is rotational speed in rev / sec.
T = W*R
Where,
W = 9.81 x Net mass in kg applied
R = Radius in m.
The total power developed by combustion of fuel in the combustion chamber is however more
than the B.P. and is called indicated power. A part of total power generated is consumed in overcoming
friction between moving parts and some in the processes of inducting the air and exhausting the products of
combustion from the engine combustion chamber.
Indicated power is the power developed in the cylinder and thus forms the basis of evolution of
combustion efficiency or the heat release in the cylinder.
The difference between I.P. and B.P. is the indication of the power lost in the mechanical
components of the engine and forms the basis of mechanical efficiency.
MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY (ηm)

It is the ratio of brake horse power (delivered power) to the indicated horsepower (power
provided to the piston).
ηm = B.P. / IP.
The difference between I.P. & B.P. is called friction power (F.P.)
F.P. = I.P. - B.P.
ηm = B.P. / (B.P. + F.P.)
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VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY (ηV):
It is defined as the ratio of the mass of air inducted in to the engine cylinder during the suction
stroke to the mass of air corresponding to the swept volume of the engine at atmospheric temperature and
pressure.
Volumetric efficiency is an indication of the ‘breathing’ ability of the engine and is defined as
the ratio of the air actually induced at ambient conditions to the swept volume of the engine. In practice the
engine does not induce a complete cylinder full of air on each stroke and it is convenient to define.
Alternatively, it can be defined as the ratio of the actual volume inhaled during suction stroke
measured at intake conditions to the swept volume of the piston.
FUEL-AIR RATIO (F/A):

The relative proportions of the fuel and air in the engine are very important from standpoint of
combustion and efficiency of the engine. This is expressed either as the ratio of the mass of the fuel to that of
the air or vice versa.
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION - (SFC):

Specific fuel consumption is defined as the amount of fuel consumed (in kg) per unit of power
developed per hour.
SFC = Fuel consumed in grams per unit hour per unit horse power developed.
i.e. SFC = kg/kWh
BRAKE SPECIFIC FUAL CONSUMPTION (BSFC):

BSFC is determined based on brake output of the engine while indicated specific fuel
consumption (ISFC) is determined based on indicated output of the engine.
THERMAL EFFICIENCY (ɳth):

Thermal efficiency of an engine is defined as the ratio of the output to that of the chemical
energy input in the form of fuel supply. It may be based on brake or indicated output.
HEAT BALANCE:
The energy input to the engine goes out in various forms, a part is consumed in the form of
brake output, a part goes in to exhaust and the rest is taken by cooling water, and lubricating oil. The brake
up of the total energy in put in to these different parts is called the heat balance.
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DETAILED SPECIFICATION OF TEST RIG:
A) ENGINE
MAKE – New Assemble Engine MARUTI MAKE
SPEED – 800-6000 RPM
B) HYDRAULIC DYNAMOMETER:
A Hydraulic Dynamometer is another simple device for measuring B.P. of an engine.
C) AIR INTAKE MEASUREMENT:

Air box method: In IC engines, as the air flow is pulsating, for satisfactory measurement of air
consumption an air box of suitable volume is fitted with orifice. The air box is used for damping out the
pulsations. The differential pressure across the orifice is measured by manometer and differential pressure
transmitter. Air flow to the engine was measured with the help of an air box. It was used to dampen out the
pulsation of air. An orifice of diameter 20 mm having coefficient of discharge (Cd) of 0.6 was fitted at the
entrance on one of the side walls. The outlet was at the bottom, through which it was connected to the air
filter mounted on the engine. Pressure inside the air box remained less than atmospheric pressure during
operation, which was provided for air suction from atmosphere due to favorable pressure gradient.
This engine works as constant rpm engine; hence it takes the constant air flow rate. The amount of air
induced per second or volume flow rate of air (Va) was obtained with the help of the following relation:
𝑉𝑎 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 √2𝑔 ℎ𝑤 𝜌𝑤 /𝜌𝑎 m3/s
Where,
Cd = Coefficient of discharge
hw= manometer reading of water column ( meters)
Aorifice = Area of orifice = πd02/4 = 0.0003141 m2
w = Density of water = 1000 kg/m3,
a = Density of air = 1.2 kg/m3
Mass flow rate of the air (ma) can be calculated by following equation:
Mass flow rate of air (ma) = (Volumetric flow rate) * (Density of Air)
D) FUEL INTAKE MEASUREMENT:

Calibrated Burette arrangement fitted on the control panel to measure the fuel consumption with
2 Nos. Ball valves to control and measure the quantity of fuel consumed.
3
E) EXHAUST GAS CALORIMETER:
Water-cooled exhaust gas calorimeter, shell and coil type to study the heat lost to exhaust gases.
Water flows inside the copper tubes and exhaust Gases flows into the shell.
F) MULTI CHANNEL TEMPERATURE INDICATOR:

For measuring inlet and outlet temperature of exhaust gases and water from Engine Cooling
Jacket and Calorimeter with Cr-Al Thermocouples.
1. Water Inlet Temp. to Engine and calorimeter.

2. Water Outlet Temp. to Engine
3. Water Outlet Temp. to Calorimeter.
4. Exhaust Gas inlet Temp. to Calorimeter.
5. Exhaust Gas Outlet Temp. to Calorimeter.
6. Ambient Temp.
PROCEDURE:
1. Adjust the flow rate of water for calorimeter and Engine jacket.
2. Now adjust the flow rate of water for Hydraulic Dynamometer.
3. Start the engine: - To start the Engine start Ignition switch that turns the flywheel.
4. First, measure the speed of the engine with the Help of Tachometer (Not supplied along with this Unit)
5. Then measure the time required for consumption of Fuel.
6. Measure the flow of cooling water from calorimeter from engine jacket with the Help of Flow meter.
7. Then take the reading of manometer and Temp indicator.
8. Thus take all these reading by increasing load by turning the wheel fitted o n the Hydraulic
dynamometer.
9. Note Down all the readings in the Observation Table.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Specific gravity of fuel = 0.76
2. Calorific value of fuel = 44000 KJ / kg.
3. Diameter of Orifice = 32. mm.

4. Coefficient of discharge of orifice meter (Cd) = 0.80.
5. Density of air (Pa) = 1.207 kg/m3
6. Specific heat of water = 4.2 kJ/Kg0k
7. Specific heat of exhaust gas = 1.05 KJ/kg/ 0C
8. Water ambient temp. = __________0 C
9. Air ambient temperature = __________ 0C
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OBSERVATUION TABLE:
Sr.No. T1 0C T2 0C T3 0C T4 0C T5 0C T6 0C
S.No. Manometer Fuel Water Flow rate Water Flow rate Calorimeter
Consumption
Difference Engine Jacket (kg/sec)
For 10 ml
H1-H2 (kg/sec)
(Meters)
1.BRAKE POWER:
BP=W*N
Where,
N = Engine Speed
W = Weight of Hydraulic Dynamometer
2000 = Dynamometer Constant
2. TOTAL FUEL CONSUMPTION:
cc (ml)∗specific gravity
𝑇𝐹𝐶 = kg/s
time∗1000
Where: -
Time is in Seconds
Sp Gravity of Fuel = 0.76
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3. BREAK SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION:
𝑇𝐹𝐶
BSFC = ∗ 3600 kg/ kWh
𝐵𝑃
Where, TFC in kg/hr and BP in kW
4. BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY:
𝐵𝑃
BTE = ∗ 100 %
𝑇𝐹𝐶∗𝐶𝑉
Where,
BP in kW
TFC in kg/sec
CV= 42500 kJ /kg
5. AIR FUEL RATIO:

ma mass of air consumed in unit time
=
mf mass of fuel consumed in unit time
Mass of air, ma = Q x pa
Q = Cd A √2g ha
Where,
Cd = 0.80
A = area of orifice meter, m2
g = 9.81 m/s2
Dia of Orific = 32 mm
ρw∗Hw
ha = m
ρa
Hw = H1 - H2
Where,
ρw =Density of Water = 1000 kg/m3
Hw =Manometer Reading, m
ρa =Density of Air = 1.178 kg/m3
Mass of Air Ma = Q x ρa
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6. HEAT BALANCE:
(A)Total heat input

(H i/p) =TFC x C.V = ----------- kW
Where,
TFC in kg/sec
CV in kJ/kg = 42500 for Diesel
(B)Heat Carried Away by Cooling Water (In Engine Cooling Jacket)

= Heng.( in KJ/sec)
=mw x Cpg x (Tw2-Tw1)
Where,
Tw2 - Tw1 = Difference in temperature (in 0C)
mw = Cooling water flow rate (kg/sec)
Cpg = Specific heat of water 4.187 kJ/kg0C
Convert this into % by
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑔∗100
Heng. % = %
𝐻𝑖/𝑝
(C)Heat Converted to BP (HBP)
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
BP = 60
𝐵𝑃
HBP =𝐻𝑖/𝑝 ∗ 100
(D) Heat Carried Away by Exhaust Gases (kJ/sec)

= (Heat gained by water in exhaust gas calorimeter from exhaust gases) + (Heat in exhaust gases at exit from
exhaust gas Calorimeter above Room Temperature)
=mw x Cpw x (Tw3-Tw1) + mg*Cpg*(T5-Tr)
Where,
mg = Mass of Exhaust Gases formed per minute
= Fuel Supplied/Sec. x (Air Fuel Ratio + 1)kg/sec
Cpg = Specific Heat of Exhaust Gases =1.05kJ/kg.K
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(E)Heat Unaccounted = {Total Heat Input} – {Heat converted to B.P + Heat carried by exhaust gases +
Heat carried away by Cooling Water)
RESULT:
The efficiency and BHP of four stroke diesel engine is ---------.
Viva Questions:
 Define dynamometer?
 What is compression ratio of a Diesel Engine?
 What is meant by capacity of an IC engine and how does it affect the power of the engine?
 What are the different types of a Dynamometer, explain with their application?
 What is EGR?
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EXPERIMENT NO.2
OBJECT:
To find the Indicated Power (IP) on Multi-Cylinder Petrol Engine by Morse test.
APPARATUS USED:
Multi-Cylinder Petrol Engine Test Rig, Stop Watch, Hand Gloves and Digital Tachometer.
THEORY:
The purpose of Morse Test is to obtain the approximate Indicated Power of a Multi-cylinder
Engine. It consists of running the engine against a dynamometer at a particular speed, cutting out the firing of
each cylinder in turn and noting the fall in BP each time while maintaining the speed constant. When one
cylinder is cut off, power developed is reduced and speed of engine falls. Accordingly the load on the
dynamometer is adjusted so as to restore the engine speed. This is done to maintain FP constant, which is
considered to be independent of the load and proportional to the engine speed. The observed difference in BP
between all cylinders firing and with one cylinder cut off is the IP of the cut off cylinder. Summation of IP of
all the cylinders would then give the total IP of the engine under test.
FORMULAS USED:
(i) Brake Power:

BP = (W*N)/ C kW
Where, W = Load on the Dynamometer Kg, N = rpm of the Engine and
C = Dynamometer Constant.
(ii) Indicated Power (IP) of each Cylinders:

IP1 = ( BPT - BP2, 3,4 ) kW
IP2 = ( BPT - BP1,3,4 ) kW
IP3 = ( BPT - BP1,2,4 ) kW
IP4 = ( BPT - BP1,2,3 ) kW
(iii) Total IP of the Engine:

IPT = ( IP1 + IP2 + IP3 + IP4 ) kW
(iv) Mechanical Efficiency:

ηmechanical = BPT / IPT
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PROCEDURE:
1. Before starting the engine check the fuel supply, lubrication oil, and availability of cooling water.
2. Set the dynamometer at zero load.
3. Run the engine till it attains the working temperature and steady state condition. Adjust the dynamometer
load to obtain the desired engine speed. Record this engine speed and dynamometer’s reading for the BP
calculation.
4. Now cut off one cylinder. Short-circuiting its spark plug can do this.
5. Reduce the dynamometer load so as to restore the engine speed as at step 3. Record the dynamometer’s
reading for BP calculation.
6. Connect the cut off cylinder and run the engine on all cylinders for a short time. This is necessary for the
steady state conditions.
7. Repeat steps 4, 5, and 6 for other remaining cylinders turn by turn and record the
dynamometer’s reading for each cylinder.
8. Bring the dynamometer load to zero, disengage the dynamometer and stop the engine.
9. Do the necessary calculations.
OBSERVATIONS:
Engine Speed, N = rpm
No. of Cylinders, n = Four
Calorific Value of Fuel, C.V. = 42,000 kJ/kg
OBSERVATIONS TABLE:
S. No. Cylinders Dynamometer Brake Power, BP IP of the cut off
Working Reading, (kW) (kW) cylinder, (kW)
1. 1-2-3-4 BPT
2. 2-3-4 BP2,3,4 = IP1 =
3. 1-3-4 BP1,3,4 = IP2 =
4. 1-2-4 BP1,2,4 = IP3 =
5. 1-2-3 BP1,2,3 = IP4 =
CALCULATIONS:
RESULT:
Total IP of the Multi-Cylinder Petrol Engine by Morse Test:
IPT = ……………kW
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Viva Questions
 Define the Morse test?

 What is transmission dynamometer?
 What is need of measurement of speed of an I.C. Engine?
 What is valve timing diagram of an IC engine?
 What is the break power of I.C. Engines?
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EXPERIMENTNO. 3
OBJECT:
Study of exhaust gas analysis using Orsat apparatus.
APPARATUS USED:
Orsat apparatus, caustic potash solution, alkaline solution of pyrogallic acid, cuprous chloride
solution, brine and dry flue gas sample.
THEORY:
To check the combustion efficiency of an I. C. engine, it is essential to know the constituents of
the flue gases being exhausted. The various constituents the flue gases are CO2, excess O2, CO, SO2, and
N2.The volumetric analysis of mainly CO2, O2, and CO is required, because the heat released is sufficiently
large when carbon of the fuel burns to rather than when it burns to CO, secondly to determine the requisite
amount of oxygen for proper burning of fuel. Such an analysis can be carried out conveniently with the help
of Orsat.
APPARATUS:
An Orsat apparatus is shown in figure. It consists of three flasks to absorb different gases. Flask
no. 1 contains caustic potash solution and this absorbs CO2 present in the flue gas. Similarly flask no. 2 and 3
contains alkaline solution of pyrogallic acid, and cuprous chloride solution to absorb O2, and CO
respectively. 100 ml of a dry flue gas sample is sucked in the eudiometer tube of the apparatus and is allowed
to react with the three solutions turn by turn. The amount of CO2, O2, and CO absorbed in the respective
solution is estimated from the eudiometer scale.
PROCEDURE:
1. Fill 2/3 of the aspirator bottle with the brine solution.
2. Fill three flasks i.e. flask no. 1, 2,and 3 with the required quantity of the caustic potash solution, alkaline
solution of pyrogallic acid, and cuprous chloride solution respectively and close their valves.
3. Open the valve of flask no. 1, now by operating the rubber bladder and opening the three way cock to the
atmosphere, bring the level of caustic potash solution to the mark A. close the valve of flask no1
4. Repeat as step 3, to bring the level of alkaline solution of pyrogallic acid, and cuprous chloride solution to
their respective marks B and C. Close the valves of flask no. 2 and 3.
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5. Open the three-way cock to the atmosphere and raise the aspirator bottle so that air present in the
Eudiometer is expelled to atmosphere. Close the three way cock and lower the aspirator bottle to read zero on
eudiometer scale. The eudiometer is ready to receive 100 ml of gas sample.
6. Open the three-way cock and allow the flue gas sample to enter the eudiometer. Close the three-way cock,
now 100 ml of gas has entered the apparatus. Open the three-way cock to the atmosphere and raise the
aspirator bottle so that whole gas present in the eudiometer is expelled to atmosphere. Repeat this step twice
or thrice so that 100 ml of representative flue gas sample remain in the apparatus. Close the three way cock
finally.
7. Now open the valve of flask no. 1. Raise and lower the aspirator bottle few times so that gas is passed-in
and out of flask several times. Lower the aspirator bottle and bring the level of caustic potash solution again
to mark A. Close the valve of flask. Bring the aspirator bottle near the eudiometer and position it so that, the
liquid level in the both is same. Note the liquid level on the scale. This gives the %age of CO2 present in the
flue gas sample.
8. Repeat the procedure as step 7 to determine the %age of O2, and CO respectively by passing the remaining
sample through the two flasks.
OBSERVATIONS:
Amount of flue gas after absorption by caustic potash solution = X ml
Amount of flue gas after absorption by alkaline solution of pyrogallic acid = Y ml
Amount of flue gas after absorption by cuprous chloride solution = Z ml
CALCULATIONS:
(i) Amount of flue gas sample = 100 ml
(ii) Amount of CO2 = (100 - X) ml
(iii) Amount of O2 = (X –Y) ml
(iv) Amount of CO = (Y + Z) ml
(v) Amount of N2 = (100 – Z) ml
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The apparatus should be air tight.
2. The eudiometer tube of the apparatus should be well flushed with the flue gas sample before performing
the experiment.
3. The brine solution in the aspirator bottle should be saturated, as it may absorb some constituents of the gas
sample and thereby cause errors.
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RESULTS:
Performance curves are plotted and they are similar to the standard performance curves.
Viva Questions:
 What are the different types of air pollutant in exhaust of an IC engine?

 What is smoke?
 What is unit of smoke?
 Does the compression ratio affect engine exhaust?
 What are the factors affecting formation of NOx depend?
 Why HCs are present in exhaust of the engine?
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EXPERIMENT NO. 4
OBJECT:
To study refrigeration cycle, determine of coefficient of performance of cycle and determine
tonnage capacity of refrigeration unit.
APPARATUS USED:
Refrigeration test Rig consists of (Compressor (rotary), Air cooler , condenser, Capillary tube,
Evaporator coil, voltmeter, current meter, voltmeter, energy meter, Thermo couple pressure gauge, vacuum
gauge and freezer.
DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST RIG:-
The experimental refrigeration cycle test rig consists of a compressor unit, condenser,
evaporator, cooling chamber, controlling devices and measuring instruments those are fitted on a stand and a
control panel. The apparatus is fabricated in such a way; to refrigeration system hermetically sealed
compressor is fitted on stand with the help of flexible foundation bolts to minimize vibrations. Electric
power input to the compressor is given through thermostatic switch.
Temperature sensor details:
1. T1=Temperature Sensor: Fixed at Compressor Discharge Line
2. T2=Temperature Sensor: Fixed after Condenser
3. T3=Temperature Sensor: Fixed after Capillary Tube
4. T4=Temperature Sensor: Inside freezer
5. T5=Temperature Sensor: Fixed at Compressor Suction Line.
THEORY:
The coefficient of performance of refrigeration plant is given by the ratio of heat absorbed, by
the refrigerant when passing through the evaporator or the system, to the working input to the compressor to
compress the refrigeration.
Co-efficient of Performance = Heat removed by refrigerant /Power input
(COP)plant= (m*Cp*ΔT)/Win
Where,
m =mass of water kept in cooling chamber Q2
Cp =specific heat of water=4.18kJ/kg.K
ΔT =temperature of cooling water, K
Win =work absorbed bythe refrigeratortoprovidedesiredrefrigerationeffect Q1
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Room maintained at
High Temperature, T2
W= Q2-Q1
Refrigerat
or
kWh =1000*V*I*60*60 kJ =V.I.kJ=V.Ix3600kJ

Surroundings Low
kWh =reading of energy meter. Temperature, T1
Co-efficient of performance of refrigeration cycle is given by the ratio of net refrigeration effect to the power
required to run the compressor. COP (cycle) Net refrigerant effect in unit time / Power input in unit time.
COP =m*Cp*ΔT/ kWh
Where;
m =mass flow rate of the refrigerant, m3/sec
Cp =Specific heat of refrigerant
ΔT =Temperature difference (T1-T3)
kWh=Kilowatt hours energy meter reading.
The co-efficient of performance of a refrigeration system is given by the ratio of heat absorb, to the work
input.
COP=Heat removed by refrigerant / Power input
COP =m*Cp*ΔT/ kWh
Where,
m =mass of water kept in cooling chamber
Cp =specific heat of water=4.18kJ/kgK
ΔT =temperature of cooling water, K
kWh =power consumed by the compressor in unit time.
Tonnage capacity:
The capacity of a refrigeration machine is the refrigeration effect in a given time from a body.
This capacity of machine is given by standard commercial ton of refrigeration. This is called as refrigerating
effect i.e. melting of 1 ton of ice at 0⁰C in 24 hours.
1 TR=336x1000/24x60x60=3.88kJ/sec.
Tonnage capacity of the machine = Net refrigerating effect of machine/3.88
=m*Cp*ΔT/3.88
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PROCEDURE:
Switch on the compressor and let it run for considerable time. Say for automatic cut off by
thermostatic switch at normal position. Fill a measured quantity of water in ice cane (100gm) and put it in to
cooling chamber. Measure initial temperature of water before putting into cooling chamber by noting the
value of T4 as T4i, note down the energy meter reading. Wait till compressor starts. Compressor shall be
started automatically as and when temperature of cooling chamber falls up-to adjusted temperature.
After starting the compressor note down the temperature T4 at the interval of every 15 minutes and note it
down as T4C.
Note down the power consumed by compressor till ice forms i.e. temperature T4should reach 0⁰C. At 0⁰ C
of ice note down all the temperature i.e. T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5. Also note down the suction and discharge
pressure by the respective gauges. Note down the flow rate of refrigerant by rotameter.
Hence,
Refrigeration effect TR =336x1000/24x14000kJ/hour Where.
Latent heat of fusion of ice=336kJ/kg.
Tonnage capacity of the plant

=Net refrigerant effect of plant/14000kJ/hour
=m*Cp*ΔT/14000
Where,
m=mass of water kept in cooling chamber
Cp=initial and final heat of water=4.18
ΔT=initial temp.Tc = final temperature water T1-T2
T1=initial temperature of water.
Tc=final temperature of water
Tonnage capacity of cycle

=Net refrigerating effect produced by refrigerant / 14000kJ/h
=m*Cp*ΔT / 14000 tones
Where,
m =mass flow rate of refrigerant
Cp =Specific heat of refrigerant
ΔT =Temperature of refrigerant at discharge and suction=T1-T5
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OBSERVATIONTABLE:
Sr.No Energy meter reading Mass of Temperature of chilling water T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
. water initial-final ΔT
Initial Final C=(a-b)
(a) (b)
1.
2.
CALCULATION:
COPplant =m*Cp*ΔT/ kWh
Where,
m = Mass of water kept in ice cane (kg)
Cp = Specific heat of water =4.18 kJ/kg
ΔT =T4i–T4C
kWh =Total energy meter reading (Final value–initial value of energy meter.)
Sample Calculation
COP=m*Cp*ΔT / kWh = (20x4.187x12)/(245x3.9)
Tonnage capacity =COP/3.88 TR
RESULT:
Viva Question:
1. Mention the advantages of vapour compression refrigeration system?

2. Describe the mechanism of a simple vapour compression refrigeration system?
3. What is sub-cooling?
4. What is superheating?
5. Why is superheating considered to be good in certain cases?
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EXPERIMENT NO. 5
OBJECT:
To determine the COP and Tonnage capacity of a Mechanical Heat pump.
APPARATUSUSED:
Compressor, Condenser, Evaporator, Capillary Tube, Ammeter and Voltmeter.
THEORY:
A mechanical heat pump is mechanical equipment which is used to supply the heat to the
system, where it is installed and maintain its temperature more than that of surrounding. Mechanical heat
pump absorbs heat from surrounding (atmosphere) and delivers it to the desired place where high
temperature is required to be maintained. Work input to a heat pump is supplied by compressor. With
reference to the figure Heat Q2 is supplied to the room and temperature T2 is maintained above the T1
whereas heat Q1 is absorbed from the surrounding. Hence performance of heat pump is given by:
COP= Q2/Win
Room maintained at
Where, High Temperature, T2
Q2 =heat delivered to the system.
Win =work supplied in compressor. B Q2
W= Q2-Q1
Heat
Pump
Q1
Q2 =ṁ*Cp*ΔT watts. Surroundings Low

Temperature, T1
ṁ =mass of water in heating (condensation) or cooling (evaporator) tank.
Cp =Specific heat of water kJ/kg.K
ΔT =Initial and final temperature of water for unit time K.
W =Power consumed by compressor of unit time W.
=energy meter reading.
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Technical Specification: -
Compressor =hermetically sealed of 1/3 T
Discharge pressure gauge =0-3-psi
Suction pressure gauge=-30-0-150 psi
T1&T2 are temperature of discharge suction side 0̊ C T3 and T7 are
temperature of water 0̊ C.
T2, T3, T5 and T6 are temperature of inlet and outlet of heating and cooling coil.
PROCEDURE:
Fill measured quantity of water in condenser and evaporator banks and note down the initial
temperature of tank by means of selector switch as T4i. Now note down the energy meter and switch on the
power supply to compressor. Run the compressor for unit time (say 30 minute) and note down the change in
temperature of T4f and energy meter reading. Above procedure may be repeated for cooling coil also.
Temperature sensor details:
1. T1=Temperature Sensor : Fixed at Compressor Discharge Line
2. T2=Temperature Sensor : Fixed after Condenser
3. T3=Temperature Sensor : Inside hot water tank
4. T4=Temperature Sensor : fixed after capillary tube
5. T5=Temperature Sensor : Inside cold water tank
6. T6=Temperature Sensor : Fixed at Compressor Suction Line
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ObservationTable:
Mass of Mass of water in Energy meter reading
Sr.No. Time T3i T4f
water in condensation evaporator
CALCULATION:
Q2 =m*Cp*ΔT =……….Watts
W =………Watts
COP =Q2/W……
Precautions:
1. Use stabilized power supply.
2. Drain the water from tanks after performing experiment.
3. When apparatus is no longer in use condense the refrigerant.
4. Use stop watch for time measurement.
RESULT:
COP of the heat pump was found to be ……….
Viva Questions:
1. Explain the working principle of mechanical heat pump?

2. What is the COP of mechanical heat pump?
3. What is the difference between air conditioning and mechanical heat pump?
4. How the cooling and heating is done in mechanical heat pump?
5. What is the relation between COP of refrigerator and heat pump?
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EXPERIMENT NO. 6
OBJECT:
To study the various controls used in Refrigeration and Air conditioning system.
APPARATUS USED:
Schematic diagrams of Refrigeration and Air Conditioning controls.
THEORY:
The controls are very essential for satisfactory and economical working of a refrigerant.
The electrical connection diagram of a domestic refrigerator is shown in the figure, the refrigerant
is fitted with following controls.
1.Starting Relay:-
The starting relay is used to provide the necessary starting torque required to start the
motor. It also disconnects the starting winding of the motor when the motor speed increases. When
the compressor motor is to be started, the thermostat is in closed position. When the electric supply
is given, an electric current is passed through the running winding of the motor and the starting
relay. Due to the flow of electric current through relay coil & due to electro-magnetism, its armature
is pulled thereby closing the starting winding contacts. The current through starting winding
provides the starting torque and the motor starts. As the motor speed increases, the running winding
current decreases. The current in the starting relay is no longer able to hold the relay and it gets
released thereby opening the starting winding contacts. Thus, the starting winding gets
disconnected.
2.Overload protector :
The basic function is to protect the compressor motor winding from damage due to
excessive current, in the event of overloading or due to some fault in the electric circuit. It consists
of a bi-metallic strip. During the normal working of the compressor, the contacts are closed.
Whenever there is any abnormal behavior, the bimetallic strip gets heated and bands, thereby
opening the motor contacts and de-energizing it. The overload protector is fitted on the body of the
compressor and operates due to the combined action of heat produced when current passes through
the bimetallic strip and a heater element and heat transferred from the compressor body. It may be
noted that the abnormal behavior of compressor may be due to low voltage, high voltage, high load,
low suction pressure, high suction & discharge pressure.
3.Thermostat: -
A thermostat is used to control the temperature in the refrigeration. The bulb of the
thermostat is clamped to the evaporator or Freezer. The thermostat bulb is charged with few drops
of refrigerant. The thermostat can be set to maintain different temperature at a time. When the
22
desired temperature is obtained, the bulb of the thermostat senses it; the liquid in it compresses and
operates the bellows of the thermostat and open compressor motor contacts. The temperature at
which motor stops is called cut-out temperature. When the temperature increases, the liquid in the
bulb expands thereby closing the bellow contact of the compressor motor. The temperature, at
which compressor motor starts, is called cut-in temperature. A thermostat is very crucial in
operation of refrigerator as the running time of compressor is reduced considerably thereby cutting
the operation cost as well as enhancing the compressor life due to non-continuous working.
Viva Questions: -
1. Describe the functioning of various controls in a refrigerator?
2. What is Thermostat?
3. What is overload protector?
4. What is starting relay?
5. What is the Function of overload protector?
23
EXPERIMENT NO. 7
OBJECT:
The objective of this experiment is to study the determination of the dryness fraction of
wet steam by using:
1. Tank Calorimeter
2. Separating Calorimeter
3. Throttling Calorimeter
4. Separating and Throttling Calorimeter
THEORY:
Tank Calorimeter:
The dryness fraction of steam can be found with the help of a tank calorimeter. A
known mass of steam is passed through a known mass of water and steam is completely
condensed. The heat lost by steam is equal to heat gained by the water.
Figure 1: Tank Calorimeter
24
The arrangement of this calorimeter is shown in figure. The steam is passed through the
sample tube into the bucket calorimeter containing a known mass of water. The weight of
calorimeter with water before mixing the steam and after mixing the steam is obtained by weighing.
The temperature of water before and after mixing the steam is measured by mercury thermometer.
The pressure of steam passed through the sample tube is measured with the help of pressure gauge.
ps= Gauge pressure of steam (kPa)

pa= Atmospheric pressure (kPa)
Ts= Saturation temperature of steam known from the steam table at pressure (Ps+Pa)
hfg= latent heat of steam
x= dryness fraction of steam
cpw= Specific heat of water, kJ/kg.K
cps= Specific heat of calorimeter, kJ/kg.K
mc= mass of calorimeter, kg
mcw= mass of calorimeter and water, kg
mw= (mcw-mc)= mass of water in calorimeter, kg
mcws= mass of calorimeter, water and condensed steam, kg
ms= (mcws-mcw)= mass of steam condensed in calorimeter, kg
Tcw= Temperature of water and calorimeter before mixing the steam in oC
Tcws= Temperature of water and calorimeter after mixing the steam in oC
Neglecting the losses and assuming the heat lost by steam is gained by the water and calorimeter, we
can write
(mcws-mcw)[x*hfg+cpw(Ts-Tws)] =(mcw-mc)*cpw*(Tcws-Tcw)+mc*cpc*(Tcws-Tcw)
Hence,
ms*[x*hfg + cpw* (Ts-Tcws)] = (Tcws-Tcw)(mcw-mc)(cpw+mccpc)
ms*[x*hfg + cpw* (Ts-Tcws)] = (Tcws-Tcw)(mw*cpw+mc*cpc)
The mccpc is known as water equivalent of calorimeter.
The value of dryness fraction, x, can be found out by solving above equation.
Where cpw and cpc are the specific heats of water and calorimeter respectively.
NOTE:-As the losses due to convection and radiation are not taken into account, thedryness fraction
determined involves some inaccuracy. The calculated value of dryness fraction neglecting losses is
always less than the actual value of the dryness.
25
Separating Calorimeter:
The quality of wet steam is usually defined by its dryness fraction. When the dryness
fraction, pressure and temperature of the steam are known, then the state of wet steam is fully
defined. In a steam plant it is at times necessary to know the state of the steam. For wet steam, this
entails finding the dryness fraction. When the steam is very wet, we make use of a separating
calorimeter. Construction of separating calorimeter is as shown in figure:
Figure 2: SeparatingCalorimeter
The steam is collected out of the main steam supply and enters the separator from the top.
The steam is forced to make a sharp turn when it hits the perforated cup (or any other mechanism
that produces the same effect). This results in a vortex motion in the steam, and water separates out
by the centrifugal action. The droplets then remain inside the separator and are collected at the
bottom, where the level can be recorded from the water glass. The dry steam will pass out of the
calorimeter into a small condenser for the collection of the condensate. However, not all the water
droplets remain in the collector tank. Some water droplets pass through to the condenser, and hence
this calorimeter only gives a close approximation of the dryness fraction of the steam.
From the results obtained from the two collectors, the dryness fraction may then be found from:
Dryness fraction= mass of dry steam/mass of wet steam containing dry steam
This can be expressed as:
X= M/(m+M)
Where,
M is the mass of dry steam and
m is the mass of suspended water separated in the calorimeter in the same time.
26
NOTE:-
In practice, it is not possible to remove all the water particles from the steam by this
mechanical process and, therefore, the dryness fraction obtained by this calorimeter will not be very
accurate. The dryness fraction calculated by this method is always greater than the actual. The only
advantage of this method is the quick determination of the dryness fraction of a very wet steam.
Throttling Calorimeter:
If we have steam that is nearly dry, we make use of a throttling calorimeter as shown in
figure. This calorimeter is operated by first opening the stop valve fully so that the steam is not
partially throttled as it passes through the apparatus for a while to allow the pressure and temperature
to stabilize. If the pressure is very close to atmospheric pressure, the saturation should be around
100°C, it may be assumed that the steam is superheated.
When the conditions have become steady, the gauge pressure before throttling is read
from the pressure gauge. After throttling, the temperature and gauge pressure are read from the
thermometer and manometer respectively. The barometric pressure is also recorded.
From equation h1=h2,
27
Figure 3: Throttling calorimeter
NOTE:
The condition for the successful operation of this calorimeter is that the steam must be
superheated after throttling. This condition requires a high dryness fraction of the steam before
throttling. This calorimeter cannot be used if the dryness fraction of the steam is above 0.95. The
minimum dryness fraction of the steam that can be measured by throttling calorimeter depends upon
the initial pressure of the steam as the pressure after throttling virtually remains near atmospheric.
28
Separating and Throttling Calorimeter:
If the steam whose dryness fraction is to be determined is very wet then throttling to
atmospheric pressure may not be sufficient to ensure superheated steam at exit. In this case it is
necessary to dry the steam partially, before throttling. This is done by passing the steam sample from
the main through a separating calorimeter as shown in figure. The steam is made to change direction
suddenly, and the water, being denser than the dry steam is separated out. The quantity of water
which is separated out (mw) is measured at the separator, the steam remaining which now has a
higher dryness fraction, is passed through the throttling calorimeter. With the combined separating
and throttling calorimeter it is necessary to condense the steam after throttling and measure the
amount of condensate (ms). If a throttling calorimeter only is sufficient, there is no need to measure
condensate, the pressure and temperature measurements at exit being sufficient.
Figure 4: Schematic diagram for the separating and throttling Calorimeters

Let,
State 1 = Properties of steam Coming to Separating Calorimeter
State 2 = Properties of steam leaving Separating Calorimeter
State 3 = Properties of steam leaving Throttling Calorimeter
X1= Dryness fraction of the steam at Separating Calorimeter
X2= Dryness fraction of the steam at Throttling Calorimeter
Dryness fraction at 2 is X2, therefore, the mass of dry steam leaving the separating
calorimeter is equal toX2ms and this must be the mass of dry vapour in the sample drawn from the
main at state 1.
Hence fraction in main,
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒇𝒅𝒓𝒚𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒓
x1= 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
29
𝒎𝐬
x1 = (𝒎𝒘+𝒎𝒔)
RESULT:
Hence we studied different calorimeters for determination of dryness fraction
of steam.
Viva Questions:
 What is dryness fraction?
 Why superheating is done?
 Why the expansion process is chosen isenthalpic?
 Why compression of wet steam is avoided?
 What is the difference between VCRC and Joule cycle?
30
EXPERIMENTNO.8
OBJECT:
Study of Simple Steam Turbine.
THEORY:
A STEAM TURBINE is a device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized
steam and uses it to do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft. Its modern manifestation was
invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884.
Because the turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly suited to be used to drive an electrical
generator – about 90% of all electricity generation in the United States is by use of steam
turbines.The steam turbine is a form of heat engine that derives much of its improvement in
thermodynamic efficiency through the use of multiple stages in the expansion of the steam, which
results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible process.
HISTORY:
The first device that may be classified as a reaction steam turbine was little more than
a toy, the classic Aeolipile, described in the 1st century by Greek mathematician Hero of
Alexandria in Roman Egypt. In 1551, Taqi-al-Din in Ottoman Egypt described a steam turbine
with the practical application of rotating a spit. Steam turbines were also described by the Italian
Giovanni Branca (1629) and John Wilkins in England (1648). The devices described by al-Din and
Wilkins are today known as steam jacks.
The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by the Anglo-IrishengineerSir

Charles Parsons, whose first model was connected to a dynamo that generated 7.5 kW (10 hp) of
electricity.[8] The invention of Parson's steam turbine made cheap and plentiful electricity possible
and revolutionized marine transport and naval warfare. His patent was licensed and the turbine
scaled-up shortly after by an American, George Westinghouse. The Parsons turbine also turned out
to be easy to scale up. Parsons had the satisfaction of seeing his invention adopted for all major
world power stations, and the size of generators had increased from his first 7.5 kW set up to units
of 50,000 kW capacity. Within Parson's lifetime the generating capacity of a unit was scaled up by
about 10,000 times, and the total output from turbo-generators constructed by his firm C. A.
Parsons and Company and by their licensees, for land purposes alone, had exceeded thirty million
horse-power.
A number of other variations of turbines have been developed that work effectively
with steam. The de Laval turbine (invented by Gustaf de Laval) accelerated the steam to full speed
before running it against a turbine blade. Hence the (impulse) turbine is simpler, less expensive and
does not need to be pressure-proof. It can operate with any pressure of steam, but is considerably
less efficient.
31
TYPES:
Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small <0.75 kW (1< hp)
units (rare) used as mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft driven equipment, to
1,500,000 kW(2,000,000 hp) turbines used to generate electricity. There are several classifications
for modern steam turbines. These types include condensing, non-condensing, reheat, extraction and
induction.
Condensing turbines are most commonly found in electrical power plants. These
turbines exhaust steam in a partially condensed state, typically of a quality near 90%, at a pressure
well below atmospheric to a condenser.
Non-condensing or back pressure turbines are most widely used for process steam
applications. The exhaust pressure is controlled by a regulating valve to suit the needs of the
process steam pressure. These are commonly found at refineries, district heating units, pulp and
paper plants, and desalination facilities where large amounts of low pressure process steam are
available.
Reheat turbines are also used almost exclusively in electrical power plants. In a reheat
turbine, steam flow exits from a high pressure section of the turbine and is returned to the boiler
where additional superheat is added. The steam then goes back into an intermediate pressure
section of the turbine and continues its expansion.
Extracting type turbines are common in all applications. In an extracting type turbine,
steam is released from various stages of the turbine, and used for industrial process needs or sent to
boiler feedwater heaters to improve overall cycle efficiency. Extraction flows may be controlled
with a valve, or left uncontrolled.
Induction turbines introduce low pressure steam at an intermediate stage to produce

additional power.
32

Casing or shaft arrangements

These arrangements include single casing, tandem compound and cross compound
turbines. Single casing units are the most basic style where a single casing and shaft are coupled to
a generator. Tandem compound are used where two or more casings are directly coupled together
to drive a single generator. A cross compound turbine arrangement features two or more shafts not
in line driving two or more generators that often operate at different speeds. A cross compound
turbine is typically used for many large applications.
Two-flow rotors A two-flow turbine rotor. The steam enters in the middle of the shaft, and exits
at each end, balancing the axial force.
The moving steam imparts both a tangential and axial thrust on the turbine shaft, but
the axial thrust in a simple turbine is unopposed. To maintain the correct rotor position and
balancing, this force must be counteracted by an opposing force. Either thrust bearings can be used
for the shaft bearings, or the rotor can be designed so that the steam enters in the middle of the
shaft and exits at both ends. The blades in each half face opposite ways, so that the axial forces
negate each other but the tangential forces act together. This design of rotor is called two-flow or
double-exhaust. This arrangement is common in low-pressure casings of a compound turbine.
33
Principle of operation and design An ideal steam turbine is considered to be an isentropic
process, or constant entropy process, in which the entropy of the steam entering the turbine is equal
to the entropy of the steam leaving the turbine. No steam turbine is truly isentropic, however, with
typical isentropic efficiencies ranging from 20–90% based on the application of the turbine. The
interior of a turbine comprises several sets of blades, or buckets as they are more commonly
referred to. One set of stationary blades is connected to the casing and one set of rotating blades is
connected to the shaft. The sets intermesh with certain minimum clearances, with the size and
configuration of sets varying to efficiently exploit the expansion of steam at each stage.
To maximize turbine efficiency the steam is expanded, doing work, in a number of stages. These
stages are characterized by how the energy is extracted from them and are known as either impulse
or reaction turbines. Most steam turbines use a mixture of the reaction and impulse designs: each
stage behaves as either one or the other, but the overall turbine uses both. Typically, higher
pressure sections are impulse type and lower pressure stages are reaction type.
IMPULSE TURBINES:
An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the steam flow into high speed jets.
These jets contain significant kinetic energy, which the rotor blades, shaped like buckets, convert
into shaft rotation as the steam jet changes direction. A pressure drop occurs across only the
stationary blades, with a net increase in steam velocity across the stage. As the steam flows through
the nozzle its pressure falls from inlet pressure to the exit pressure (atmospheric pressure, or more
usually, the condenser vacuum). Due to this higher ratio of expansion of steam in the nozzle the
steam leaves the nozzle with a very high velocity. The steam leaving the moving blades has a large
portion of the maximum velocity of the steam when leaving the nozzle. The loss of energy due to
this higher exit velocity is commonly called the carry over velocity or leaving loss.
REACTION TURBINES:
In the reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves are arranged to form convergent
nozzles. This type of turbine makes use of the reaction force produced as the steam accelerates
through the nozzles formed by the rotor. Steam is directed onto the rotor by the fixed vanes of the
stator. It leaves the stator as a jet that fills the entire circumference of the rotor. The steam then
changes direction and increases its speed relative to the speed of the blades. A pressure drop occurs
across both the stator and the rotor, with steam accelerating through the stator and decelerating
through the rotor, with no net change in steam velocity across the stage but with a decrease in both
pressure and temperature, reflecting the work performed in the driving of the rotor.
34
Schematic diagram outlining the difference between an impulse and a 50% reaction turbine
Operation and maintenance When warming up a steam turbine for use, the main steam stop
valves (after the boiler) have a bypass line to allow superheated steam to slowly bypass the valve
and proceed to heat up the lines in the system along with the steam turbine. Also, a turning gear is
engaged when there is no steam to the turbine to slowly rotate the turbine to ensure even heating to
prevent uneven expansion. After first rotating the turbine by the turning gear, allowing time for the
rotor to assume a straight plane (no bowing), then the turning gear is disengaged and steam is
admitted to the turbine, first to the astern blades then to the ahead blades slowly rotating the turbine
at 10–15 RPM (0.17–0.25 Hz) to slowly warm the turbine.
Speed regulation The control of a turbine with a governor is essential, as turbines need to be run
up slowly, to prevent damage while some applications (such as the generation of alternating current
electricity) require precise speed control. Uncontrolled acceleration of the turbine rotor can lead to
an over speed trip, which causes the nozzle valves that control the flow of steam to the turbine to
close. If this fails then the turbine may continue accelerating until it breaks apart, often
35
spectacularly. Turbines are expensive to make, requiring precision manufacture and special quality
materials.During normal operation in synchronization with the electricity network, power plants
are governed with a five percent droop speed control. This means the full load speed is 100% and
the no-load speed is 105%. This is required for the stable operation of the network without hunting
and drop-outs of power plants. Normally the changes in speed are minor. Adjustments in power
output are made by slowly raising the droop curve by increasing the spring pressure on a
centrifugal governor. Generally this is a basic system requirement for all power plants because the
older and newer plants have to be compatible in response to the instantaneous changes in frequency
without depending on outside communication.
Thermodynamics of steam turbines
Rankine cycle with superheat
Process 1-2: The working fluid is pumped from low to high pressure.
Process 2-3: The high pressure liquid enters a boiler where it is heated at constant pressure by an
external heat source to become a dry saturated vapor.
Process 3-3': The vapour is superheated.
Process 3-4 and 3'-4': The dry saturated vapor expands through a turbine, generating power. This
decreases the temperature and pressure of the vapor, and some condensation may occur.
Process 4-1: The wet vapor then enters a condenser where it is condensed at a constant pressure to
become a saturated liquid.
The steam turbine operates on basic principles of thermodynamics using the part of
the Rankine cycle. Superheated vapor (or dry saturated vapor, depending on application) enters the
turbine, after it having exited the boiler, at high temperature and high pressure. The high
heat/pressure steam is converted into kinetic energy using a nozzle (a fixed nozzle in an impulse
type turbine or the fixed blades in a reaction type turbine). Once the steam has exited the nozzle it
36
is moving at high velocity and is sent to the blades of the turbine. A force is created on the blades
due to the pressure of the vapor on the blades causing them to move. A generator or other such
device can be placed on the shaft, and the energy that was in the vapor can now be stored and used.
The gas exits the turbine as a saturated vapor (or liquid-vapor mix depending on application) at a
lower temperature and pressure than it entered with and is sent to the condenser to be cooled.[14] If
we look at the first law we can find an equation comparing the rate at which work is developed per
unit mass. Assuming there is no heat transfer to the surrounding environment and that the change
in kinetic and potential energy is negligible when compared to the change in specific enthalpy we
come up with the following equation
Where Ẇ is the rate at which work is developed per unit time

ṁ is the rate of mass flow through the turbine
Isentropic turbine efficiency To measure how well a turbine is performing we can look at its
isentropic efficiency. This compares the actual performance of the turbine with the performance
that would be achieved by an ideal, isentropic, turbine. When calculating this efficiency, heat lost
to the surroundings is assumed to be zero. The starting pressure and temperature is the same for
both the actual and the ideal turbines, but at turbine exit the energy content ('specific enthalpy') for
the actual turbine is greater than that for the ideal turbine because of irreversibility in the actual
turbine. The specific enthalpy is evaluated at the same pressure for the actual and ideal turbines in
order to give a good comparison between the two.The isentropic efficiency is found by dividing the
actual work by the ideal work.
Where,
 h1 is the specific enthalpy at state one

 h2 is the specific enthalpy at state two for the actual turbine
 h2s is the specific enthalpy at state two for the isentropic turbine
Viva Questions:
 What is the difference between gas turbine and steam turbine?
 What is the difference between Impulse turbine and Impulse-Reaction turbine?
 What are the applications of Impulse turbine?
 What are the applications of Impulse-Reaction turbine?
 What is compounding of a turbine?
 What are the types of compounding?
37
EXPERIMENT NO.9
OBJECT:
To conduct performance test on the given Pelton wheel turbine.
APPARATUS:
Pelton wheel turbine test rig.
INTRODUCTION:
The Closed circuit self-sufficient portal package system Pelton Turbine is of
improved version. This system has several advantages, like does not require foundation; trench
work etc. so that the experiments can be conducted with the unit soon after arrival of the equipment
and it can be placed anywhere in the laboratory.
The Pelton wheel Turbine Test Rig is supplied as a complete set to conduct
experiments on model Pelton Turbine Test Rig in Engineering Colleges and Technical Institutions.
It has been specially designed to conduct experiments in S.I units.
The test rig mainly consists of
1. A Pelton Turbine,
2. A Supply pump unit to supply water to the above Pelton Turbine,
3. Flow Measuring unit consisting of An Orificemeter,
4. Piping system and
5. Sump.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION:
The unit essentially consists of casing, with a circular transparent window kept at the
front for the visual inspection of the impact of the Jet on buckets. a bearing pedestal, a rotor
assembly of shaft, Runner & brake drum, all mounted on a suitable sturdy iron base plate, A rope
brake arrangement is provided to load the turbine. The input to the turbine can be controlled by
adjusting the spear position by means of a hand wheel fitted. The water inlet pressure is measured
by a pressure gauge and for the measurement of speed a digital tachometer is used.
An Optimum size sump is provided to store sufficient water from independent
circulation through the unit for experimentation.
CONSTRUCTIONAL SPECIFICATIONS:
CASING: made of iron and having a large circular transparent Window.

RUNNERS: made of electroplated MS disc fitted with accurately finished electroplated buckets.
SHAFT: madeof Stainless steel for rust free operation and for high strength.
NOZZLE: designed for smooth flow and efficient operation.
SPEAR: of stainless steel designed for efficient operation.
BALL BEARINGS: of double row deep groove rigid type in the casing and double row self
aligning type in the pedestal both of liberal size.
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS:
38
PELTON TURBINE:
1. Power output : 1 K Watt
2. No. of Buckets : 17Nos.
SUPPLY PUMPSET:
Capacity : 5 HP
Type : Centrifugal
FLOW MEASURING UNIT : Orifice meter
BEFORE COMMISSIONING:
1. Check whether all the joints are perfectly matched.

2. Check whether all the electric connection is correct.
3. See that the gauges are mounted on the correct position and their cocks are closed.
STARTING UP:
Pour adequate water in the sump. Make sure before starting that the pipe lines are free
from foreign matter. Also note whether all the joints are water tight and perfectly matched. Prime
the pump and start it with closed gate valve. Then slowly open the gate valve situated above the
turbine and open the cock fitted to the pressure gauge and so that the pump develops the rated
head. If the pump develops the required head, slowly open the turbine spear by rotating the hand
wheel until the turbine attains the normal rated speed (1000 RPM). Run the turbine at the normal
speed for about 10 minutes and carefully note the following:
1. Operation of the bearings, temperature rise, noise etc.

2. Vibration of the unit.
3. Steady constant speed and speed fluctuations if any.
In addition to this, on the sump side note the operation of the stuffing box. (The
stuffing box should show an occasional drip of water. If the gland is over tightened, the leakage
stops but the packing will heat up burn and damage the shaft.) .If the operation of the above parts is
normal, load the turbine slowly and take readings. Open the water inlet valve and allow some
cooling water through the brake drum when the turbine runs under load, so that the heat generated
by the brake drum is carried away by the cooling water.Do not suddenly load the turbine, load the
turbine gradually and at the same time open the spear to run the turbine at normal speed.
EXPERIMENT:
Water turbines are tested in the hydraulic laboratory to demonstrate the principles of
water turbines, to study their construction, and to give the students a clear knowledge about the
different types of turbines and their characteristics. Turbines shall be first tested at constant net
39
supply head by varying the load, speed and spear setting. However the net supply head on the
turbines tested in which case the power developed by the turbine and the best efficiently speed will
also be reduced. The output power from the turbine is calculated from the readings taken on the
brake and the speed of the shaft. The input power supplied to the turbine is calculated from the net
supply head on the turbine and discharge through the turbine. Efficiency of the turbine being the
ratio between the output and input and can be determined from these two readings. The discharge
is measured by the 50mm Venturi meter and with the Pressure Gauges. Supply Head is measured
with the help of the pressure gauge. The speed of the turbine is measured with digital tachometer
fitted to the turbine. After starting and running the turbine at normal speed for some time, load the
turbine and take readings.
Note the following:
1. Net supply head (pressure gauge reading + height of the gauge center above the center
line of the jet).
2. Discharge (Pressure Gauges readings)
3. Turbine shaft speed.
4. Alternator readings
For any particular setting of the spear first run the turbine at light load and then
gradually load it. The net supply head on the turbine shall be maintained constant at the rated
value and this can be done by adjusting the gate valve fitted just above the turbine.
SHUT DOWN:
Before switching off the supply pump set, first remove the load on the brake down.
Close the cooling inlet water Jet valve. Slowly close the spear to its full closed position. Then close
the gate valve just above the turbine. Pressure Gauge cocks and Venturimeter cocks should be
closed in order to isolate the pump set when the turbine is working under load. If the electric line
trips off when the turbine is working first unload the turbine, close all the valves and cocks. Start
the electric motor against, when the line gets the power and then operate the turbine by opening the
valve in the order said above.
PROCEDURE:
1) Connect the supply water pump-water unit to 3ph, 440V, 30A, electrical supply, with neutral
and earth connections and ensure the correct direction of the pump motor unit.
2) Keep the Gate Valve and Sphere valve closed.
3) Keep the Brake Drum loading at zero.
4) Press the green button of the supply pump starter. Now the pump picks-
Up the full speed and becomes operational.
5) Slowly open the Sphere Valve so that the turbine rotor picks the speed and conduct experiment
on constant speed.
6) Note down the speed, load, and pressure gauge readings.
40
Tabulate the readings.
IMPORTANT FORMULA:
Discharge Q = 𝐴 ∗ 𝑉(𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐)

𝑉 = 𝐶𝑣 * √2𝑔ℎ ∗ (𝜌𝑚 − 1)
𝑤
𝜔 𝑄𝐻
Input Power = 𝑘𝑊
1000
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
Output Power = 60∗1000 𝑘𝑊
N = RPM of the turbine shaft

T= Torque of the turbine shaft
T= (W1-W2) x R x 9.81
W = Load applied on the turbine.
R = Radius of the brake drum with rope in meters = 0.12 meters
𝐼𝑁𝑃𝑈𝑇 𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅
Efficiency =𝑂𝑈𝑇𝑃𝑈𝑇 𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅 X 100
TABLE:
S. speed Pressure Gauges Readings Discharge Break wt Input Output Efficie

N m³/sec Power ncy
P1 P2 P1 - P2 W1-W2 Power
o.
1
2
3
4
5
CALCULATION:
RESULTS ANDCONCLUSIONS:
41
Viva Questions:
 Draw the velocity triangle diagram for Pelton turbine?
 What is casing of the Pelton turbine?
 Explain different types of Casing?
 What is draft tube?
 Why draft tube is not used in Pelton turbine?
42
EXPERIMENT NO.10
OBJECT:
To conduct performance test on the given Francis turbine.
APPARATUS:
Francis turbine test rig.
INTRODUCTION:
THEORY:
Reaction Turbine:-In this type of turbine the reis a gradual pressure drop and takes
place continuously over the fixed and moving blades or over guide vanes and moving vanes. The
function of the guides’ vanes is that they alter the direction of water as well as increases its
velocity. As the water passes over the moving vanes its kinetic energy is absorbed by them.
FRANCIS TURBINE:
The inward flower action turbine having radial discharge at outlet is known as
Francis turbine, after the name of J.B Francis an American engineer hoin beginning designed in
ward radial flow reaction turbine. In the modern Francis turbine, the water enters the runner of the
turbine in the radial direction and leave sin the axial direction at the outlet of the runner. Thus the
modern Francis turbine is a mixed flow type Turbine.
The Francis Turbine Test Rig is supplied as a complete set to conduct experiments on model
Francis Turbine Test Rig in Engineering Colleges and Technical Institutions. It has been specially
designed to conduct experiments in S.I units.
The test rig mainly consists of
1) A Francis Turbine, 2)
2) A Supply pump unit to supply water to the above Pelton Turbine,
3) Flow Measuring unit consisting of an Orifice Meter and Pressure Gauges,
4) Piping system and
5) Sump.
The unit essentially consists of casing, a bearing pedestal, a rotor assembly of shaft, Runner
& brake drum, all mounted on a suitable sturdy iron base plate, A rope brake arrangement is
provided to load the turbine. The input to the turbine can be controlled by adjusting the valve. The
water inlet pressure is measured by a pressure gauge and for the measurement of speed a digital
tachometer is used. An Optimum size sump is provided to store sufficient water from independent
43
The main parts of the Francis turbine are:

1. Penstock
2. Casing
3. Guide mechanism
4. Runner
5. Draft tube
1. Penstock: - It is a long pipe at the outlet of which a nozzle is fitted. The water from reservoir
flows through the penstock. The nozzle increases the kinetic energy of water flowing through the
penstock.
2. Casing: - In case of reaction turbine, casing and runner are always full of water. The water from
the penstocks enter the casing which is of spiral shape in which area of cross-section of the casing
goes on decreasing gradually. The casing completely surrounds the runner of the turbine. The
casing is made of spiral shape, so that the water may enter the runner at constant velocity
throughout the circumference of the runner. The casing is made of concrete or cast steel.
3. Guide Mechanism: - It consists of a stationary circular wheel all around the runner of the
turbine. The stationary guide vanes are fixed on the guide mechanism. The guide vanes allow the
water to strike the vanes fixed on the runner without shake at inlet. Also by a suitable arrangement,
the width between two adjacent vanes of a guide’s mechanism can be altered so that the amount of
water striking the runner can vary.
4. Runner: - It is a circular wheel on which a series of radial curved vanes are fixed. The surface
of the vanes is made very smooth. The radial curved vanes are so shaped that the water enters and
leaves the runner without shock. The runners are made of cast steel, cast iron or stainless steel.
They are keyed to the shaft.
5. Draft tube: - The pressure at the exit of the runner of a reaction turbine is generally less than
atmosphere pressure. The water at exit cannot be directly discharged to the tail race. A tube or
pipe of gradually increasing area is used for discharging water from the exit of the turbine to the
tail race. This tube of increasing area is called draft tube. The draft tube, in addition to serve a
passage for water discharge, has the following two purposes also.
1. The turbine may be placed above the tail race and hence turbine may be inspected properly.
2. The kinetic energy rejected at the outlet of the turbine is converted into useful pressure energy.
44
1. Type –Reaction Turbine
2. Type of flow – Mixed (Redial & Axial)
3. Head –Medium 45 to 250m
4. Specific speed – Medium 50 to 250
5. Shaft position – Mainly vertical ( it may be horizontal also )
6. Discharge – Medium
FRANCIS TURBINE:
1. Power output : 1 K Watt

2. No. of GUIDE VANES : 10 Nos.
SUPPLY PUMPSET:
Capacity : 5 HP
Type : Centrifugal
FLOW MEASURING UNIT: ORIFIECE METER

STARTING UP:
1. Operation of the bearings, temperature rise, noise etc.,
In addition to this, on the sump side note the operation of the stuffing box. (The stuffing box
should show an occasional drip of water. If the gland is over tightened, the leakage stops but the
packing will heat up burn and damage the shaft.) .If the operation of the above parts is normal, load
the turbine slowly and take readings. Open the water inlet valve and allow some cooling water
through the brake drum when the turbine runs under load, so that the heat generated by the brake
drum is carried away by the cooling water. Do not suddenly load the turbine, load the turbine
gradually and at the same time open the spear to run the turbine at normal speed.
45
EXPERIMENTS:
Water turbines are tested in the hydraulic laboratory to demonstrate the principles of water
turbines, to study their construction, and to give the students a clear knowledge about the different
types of turbines and their characteristics. Turbines shall be first tested at constant net supply head
by varying the load, speed and spear setting. However the net supply head on the turbines tested in
which case the power developed by the turbine and the best efficiently speed will also be reduced.
The output power from the turbine is calculated from the readings taken on the brake and the speed
of the shaft. The input power supplied to the turbine is calculated from the net supply head on the
turbine and discharge through the turbine. Efficiency of the turbine being the ratio between the
output and input and can be determined from these two readings. The discharge is measured by the
orifice meter and with the Pressure Gauges. Supply Head is measured with the help of the pressure
gauge. The speed of the turbine is measured with digital tachometer fitted to the turbine. After
starting and running the turbine at normal speed for the some-time, load the turbine and take
readings.
Note the following:
a) Net supply head (pressure gauge reading + height of the gauge center above the centerline of
the jet).
b) Discharge (Pressure Gauges readings)
c) Turbine shaft speed.
d) Alternator readings
For any particular setting of the spear first run the turbine at light load and then gradually load
it. The net supply head on the turbine shall be maintained constant at the rated value and this can
be done by adjusting the gate valve fitted just above the turbine.
GOVERNINGMECHANISM:
The governing mechanism changes the position of guide blades to affect a variation in the water
flow rate in the wake of changing load condition of the turbine. When the load changes, the
governing mechanism rotates all guide blades about their ax is through the same angle so that the
water flow rate to the runner and its direction essentially remain the same at the all passages
between any two consecutive guide vans. The penstock pipe feeding the turbine is often fitted with
a life valve, also known as the pressure regulator. When guide vanes are suddenly closed, the
relief valve opens and diverts the water direct to tail race. The simultaneous operation of guide
vanes and relief valve is termed as double regulation.
PROCEDURE:
1) Connect the supply water pump-water unit to 3ph, 440V, 30A, electrical supply, with neutral
2) Keep the Gate Valve and Sphere valve closed.
3) Keep the Brake Drum loading at zero.
46
4) Press the green button of the supply pump starter. Now the pump picks- up the full speed and
become operational.
5) Slowly open the Sphere Valve so that the turbine rotor picks the speed and conduct experiment
on constant speed.
6) Note down the speed, load and pressure gauge readings.Tabulate the readings.
IMPORTANT FORMULA:
Discharge Q = 𝐴 ∗ 𝑉(𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐)

𝑉 = 𝐶𝑣 * √2𝑔ℎ ∗ (𝜌𝑚 − 1)
𝑤
𝜔 𝑄𝐻
Input Power = 𝑘𝑊
1000
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
Output Power = 60∗1000 𝑘𝑊
N = RPM of the turbine shaft

T= Torque of the turbine shaft
T= (W1-W2) x R x 9.81
W = Load applied on the turbine.
R = Radius of the brake drum with rope in meters = 0.12 meters
𝑂𝑈𝑇𝑃𝑈𝑇 𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅
Efficiency = X 100
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. Speed Supply Pressure Discharge WEIGHTS Input Output Efficiency

No. Gauges m³/sec Power
Head Power
Readings
W1 W2
P1
47
CALCULATION:
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS:
Viva Questions:
 Define Degree of Reaction?
 Write down the formula for the efficiency of Pelton turbine?
 Write down the formula for the efficiency of Francis turbine?
 What is the role of Draft tube in Francis turbine?
 What is 50% Reaction turbine?
 What is Hero’s turbine?
Schematic diagram of a Francis turbine
48
EXPERIMENT NO.11
OBJECT:
To conduct performance test on the given Kaplan turbine.
APPARATUS:
Kaplan turbine test rig.
INTRODUCTION:
THEORY:
Axial flow Turbine:
1. Kaplan Turbine (Adjustable blades)
2. Propeller (Blades are fixed)
KAPLAN TURBINE:
Kaplan Reaction turbines are axial flow turbines in which the flow is parallel to the axis of
the shaft. They are low head, high discharge turbine. In this water turn at right angles between the
guide vanes, runner & then flow parallel to the shaft. It is inward flow reaction turbine. The flow
was along the radius from periphery to the center of the runner. (From outer diameter to the inner
diameter of the runner). It is capable of giving high efficiency at overloads (upto15-20%), at
normal loads (upto94%). The runner of this turbine is in the form of boss or hub which extends in
a bigger dia. Casing with proper adjustment of blades during running. The blade angles should be
properly adjusted so that water enters & flow through the runner blades without shock.
The KAPLAN Turbine Test Rig is supplied as a complete set to conduct experiments on model
Francis Turbine Test Rig in Engineering Colleges and Technical Institutions. It has been specially
designed to conduct experiments in S.I units. The test rig mainly consists of 1) A Turbine, 2) A
Supply pump unit to supply water to the above Pelton Turbine, 3) Flow Measuring unit consisting
of a Orifice Meter and Pressure Gauges, 4) Piping system and (5) Sump.
The unit essentially consists of casing, a bearing pedestal, a rotor assembly of shaft, Runner &
brake drum, all mounted on a suitable sturdy iron base plate, A rope brake arrangement is provided
to load the turbine. The input to the turbine can be controlled by adjusting the valve. The water
inlet pressure is measured by a pressure gauge and for the measurement of speed a digital
tachometer is used. An Optimum size sump is provided to store sufficient water from independent
1. PENSTOCK
49
2. SPIRAL OR SCROLL CASING
3. GUIDE MECHANISM
4. RUNNER
5. DRAFTTUBE
Penstock: It is the water way used to carry the water from the reservoir to the turbine. At
the inlet of the penstock trash cracks are used to prevent the debris from going into the
turbine.
Spiral or Scroll casing: In case of reaction turbine casing and runner are always full of
water. The water from the penstock enters the casing which is of spiral shape in which area
of cross-section of the casing goes on decreasing gradually. The casing completely surrounds
the runner of the turbine. The casing is made of spiral shape, so that the water may enter the
runner at constant velocity throughout the circumference of the runner.
Guide Mechanism: It consists of a stationary circular wheel all around the runner of the
turbine. The stationary guide vanes are fixed on the guide mechanism. The guide vanes
allow the water to strike the vanes fixed on the runner without shock at inlet. Also by a
suitable arrangement, the width between two adjacent vanes of a guide mechanism can be
altered so that the amount of water striking the runner can be varied. A space, called whirl
Chamber, is provided between the guide vanes and the runner. In this chamber, the flow
turns by 90° & move as a free vortex i.e. without the aid of any external torque. The radial
component changes into axial component due to the guidance from the fixed housing.
Runner: It is a circular wheel, also called ‘hub’ or ‘bass’ on which a series of radial curved
vanes are fixed. The surface of the vanes is made very smooth. The radial curved vanes are
so shaped that water enters and leaves the runner without shock. The runners are made of
cast steel, cast iron or stainless steel. In Kaplan turbine, the shaft is the extended part of
runner with smaller diameter.
Drafttube: The pressure at the exit of an axial turbine is generally less than atmospheric
pressure. The water at exit can’t be directly discharged to the tailrace. A tube or pipe of
gradually increasing area is used for discharging water from the exit of the turbine to the
tailrace. This tube of increasing area is called draft tube.
 Type – Reaction turbine
 Type of flow – Axial
 Head – Low (below 40 m)
 Number of blades on runner – 3 or 4 (max. 6)
 Specific speed – High - 250 to 850
 Discharge – High
50
KAPLAN TURBINE:
POWER OUTPUT: 1.0 HP

SUPPLY PUMP SET:
Capacity : 7.5 HP
Type : Centrifugal high speed
FLOW MEASURING UNIT: Orifice meter

STARTING UP:
1. Operation of the bearings, temperature rise, noise etc.

In addition to this, on the sump side note the operation of the stuffing box. (The
stuffing box should show an occasional drip of water. If the gland is over tightened, the leakage
stops but the packing will heat up burn and damage the shaft.) .If the operation of the above parts is
normal, load the turbine slowly and take readings. Open the water inlet valve and allow some
cooling water through the brake drum when the turbine runs under load, so that the heat generated
by the brake drum is carried away by the cooling water. Do not suddenly load the turbine, load the
turbine gradually and at the same time open the spear to run the turbine at normal speed.
EXPERIMENTS:
Water turbines are tested in the hydraulic laboratory to demonstrate the principles of
water turbines, to study their construction, and to give the students a clear knowledge about the
different types of turbines and their characteristics. Turbines shall be first tested at constant net
51
supply head by varying the load. However the net supply head on the turbines tested in which case
the power developed by the turbine and the best efficiently speed will also be reduced. The output
power from the turbine is calculated from the readings taken on the brake and the speed of the
shaft. The input power supplied to the turbine is calculated from the net supply head on the turbine
and discharge through the turbine. Efficiency of the turbine being the ratio between the output and
input and can be determined from these two readings. The discharge is measured by the orifice
meter and with the Pressure Gauges. Supply Head is measured with the help of the pressure gauge.
The speed of the turbine is measured with digital tachometer fitted to the turbine. After starting and
running the turbine at normal speed for the some-time, load the turbine and take readings.
Note the following:
1. Net supply head (pressure gauge reading + height of the gauge center above the center line of
the jet).
2. Discharge (Pressure Gauges readings)
3. Turbine shaft speed.
4. Alternator readings
For any particular SPEED first run the turbine at light load and then gradually load it.
The net supply head on the turbine shall be maintained constant at the rated value and this can be
done by adjusting the gate valve fitted just above the turbine.
PROCEDURE:
1) Connect the supply water pump-water unit to 3ph, 440V, 30A ,electrical supply, with neutral
2) Keep the Gate Valve closed.
3) Keep the Brake Drum under loading.
4) Press the green button of the supply pump starter. Now the pump picks- up the full speed and
become operational.
5) Slowly open the Valve so that the turbine rotor picks the speed and conduct experiment on
constant speed.
6) Note down the speed, load and pressure gauge readings.
Tabulate the readings.
Discharge = 𝐴 ∗ 𝑉(𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐)
𝑉 = 𝐶𝑣 * √2𝑔ℎ
Here,
h = ( P1– P2 ) *10 m of water
𝜌𝑤 𝑄𝐻
Input Power = 𝐻𝑃
75
𝜌𝑤 𝑄𝐻
= ∗ 0.746 kW
75
52
𝐻 = 10 ∗ (𝑃𝑔 + 𝑃𝑉 ⁄760)
(w1 −w2 )Re 2πN

Output Power = HP
4500
(w1 −w2 )Re 2πN
= x 0.746 kW
4500
Effective Radius:
(D + 2d )
Re = m
2
𝑂𝑈𝑇𝑃𝑈𝑇 𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅
Efficiency = X 100
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. No. Speed Pressure Gauges Readings Discharge Break wt Input Output Efficiency
Q m³/sec Power
P1 P2 P1 - P2 W1-W2 Power
CALCULATION:
Viva Questions:
 What is the difference between Kaplan and Propeller turbine?

 How radial turbine and axial turbine are differentiated?
 For which kind of applications Kaplan turbine is used?
 Write down the formula to calculate efficiency of the Kaplan Turbine?
 What is the difference between inward reaction turbine and outward reaction turbine?
53
Figure: Schematic diagram of KAPLAN turbine
54
EXPERIMENT NO.12
OBJECT: -
To conduct a test at various heads of given centrifugal pump find its efficiency.
APPARATUS:
Centrifugal pump, stop watch, scale, collecting tank.
INTRODUCTION:
Closed Circuit Self sufficient portable package system Experimental single stage
Centrifugal pump Test Rig is designed to study the performance of the single stage Centrifugal
pump. In this equipment one can study the relationship between
1. Discharge Vs Head
2. Discharge Vs Input power
3. Discharge Vs Efficiency
This unit has several advantages like does not require any foundation, trench keeping in the
laboratory.
The Test Rig mainly consists of:
(1) Centrifugal pump set
(2) Panel Board,
(3) Pressure and vacuum gauges to measure the head,
(4) SS Measuring Tank to measure the discharge,
(5) Energy meter to measure the input to the motor and
(6) SS Sump.
CONSTRUCTIONAL SPECIFICATION:
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPSET:
The pump set is of special design, horizontal spindle, and vertical split case. The
pump is of such a size, type & design that 1) The total head 2) Discharge and 3) Power
requirements at normal speed is well suited for the experimental purposes in technical institutions.
A.C. MOTOR: The electric motor suitable for operation on 50 cycles A.C. supply is provided.
GAUGES: Suitable range of pressure and vacuum gauges to measure the total head on the pump
with reasonable accuracy.
SS MEASURING TANK:It provided to measure the discharge of the pump with overflow
arrangement. The tank is complete with gauge glass and scale arrangement.
PIPING SYSTEM: Suitable piping system with pipes, bends and valves are provided. A Simple
strainer valve is provided on the suction side to prevent any foreign matter entering into the pump.
55
The gate valve is provided in the delivery side to control the head on the pump. While starting the
motor always keep the valve in close position.
PANEL BOARD: The Panel Board houses all the necessary electrical items, like switch, starter
for the above pump set and an energy meter to read the power input and it is fitted with the unit on
a strong iron base with sufficient height.
INPUT POWER MEASUREMENT: A Kilowatt-hour meter is provided to measure the power

input to the motor. The energy meter constant (The Number of Revolutions per minute of the
energy meter Disc) is stamped on the meter from this the input power can be easily calculated.
SS SUMP Is provided to store sufficient water for independent circulation through the unit for
experimentation and arranged within the floor space of the main unit.
 Check whether all the joints are leak proof and watertight.
 Check the gauge glass and meter scale assembly of the measuring tank and see that it
is fixed water tight and vertically.
 Check whether all the electric connection is correct.
 See that the gauges are mounted on the correct position and their cocks closed.
STARTING:
Before starting the required electrical connection should be done correctly.
EXPERIMENT:
The apparatus is designed to study the performance of a single stage Centrifugal Pump. The
readings to be taken on the single stage centrifugal pump are:
(1) Total Head
(2) Discharge
(3) Power input and
(4) Efficiency.
Provision has been made to measure all these and hence the complete characteristics of the single
stage Centrifugal pump in question can be studied.
First prime the pump and start the motor. While starting closing and delivery valve and the gauge
cocks. Then slowly open the delivery valve and adjust to the required total head. The total head is
measured with the help of the pressure gauge. Total head is the sum of the pressure head, Velocity
head and the datum head.
Discharge is the amount of liquid the pump delivers over a definite period of time. It is usually
expressed in liter per minute. The actual discharge is measured with the help of the measuring tank.
In this case the power input into the pump cannot be measured directly. Hence the power input into
the AC motor is measured with the help of the energy meter connected in the line.
56
Efficiency is the relation between the power input into the pump and the power output from the
pump. The power output from the pump is directly proportional to the total head and discharge. As
the power input into the pump cannot be measured the power input into the motor only is taken
into account and the overall efficiency of the pump is calculated.
If the total head (H) is measured in meters and the discharge (0) in liter per minute. The kilowatt
input to the motor is measured with the help of the meter constant stamped on the energy meter.
The efficiency is calculated by dividing the output by input.
For a particular desired speed of the pump, the entire above variable can be studied individually,
thus the complete characteristics can be studied.
PROCEDURE:
1. Start the motor keeping the delivery valve close.
2. Note down the pressure gauge and vacuum gauge reading by adjusting the delivery valve to
require head say 0 meters. Now calculate the total head (H).
Pressure Head = kg/cm² x 10 = meters.
mm of hg x 13.6
Vaccum Head= meters
1000
Datum head = Distance between pressure and vacuum gauge in meters
Total head ( H ) = Pressure Head + Vacuum Head + Datum Head
3. Note down the time required for the rise of 10cm (i.e. 0.1m) water in the collecting tank by using
stop watch. Calculate discharge using below formula.
FORMULAS:
Discharge:- The time taken to collect some ‘X’ cm of water in the collecting tank in m³/sec.
AxR
Q=
t
Where:
A = area of the collecting tank in m² (0.35m X 0.35m)
h = rise of water level taken in meters (say 0.1m or 10cm)
t = time taken for rise of water level to height ‘h’ in seconds.
4. Note down the time taken for ‘x’ revolutions of energy meter disk and calculate the Input
power
X x 3600 x 0.80
Input power =
C xT
Where,
0.80 = Motor efficiency
X = No. of revolutions of energy meter disc
T = Time for Energy meter revolutions disc. In seconds
C = Energy meter constant
5. Now calculate the output power
WxQxH
Output power = Kw
1000
57
Where:
W = Specific weight of water (9810 N/m³)
Q = Discharge
H = Total Head
6. Repeat the steps from 2 to 5 for various heads by regulating the delivery valve.
A Typical tabular form is given below for convenience during experiments.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Time
Pressure taken Total
Vacuum for 5 rev Time taken for Discharge Input Output
gauge head Efficiency
Sr. of collecting 10cm
gauge Q Power Power
No reading energy rise of water In (P +V)
reading collecting tank kW kW
Meter meters
disc
CALCULATIONS:
RESULTS ANDCONCLUSIONS:
Graphs for :-
Viva Questions:
 What is the difference between a pump and a turbine?
 What is the difference among pump, compressor and blower?
 Differentiate reciprocating pump and centrifugal pump?
 What is meant by a continuous supply pump?
 Write down the formula for calculating efficiency of the pump?
58
EXPERIMENT NO.13
OBJECT:
To conduct a test at various heads of given multistage centrifugal pump find its
efficiency.
APPARATUS:
Multistage centrifugal pump, stop watch, collecting tank.
INTRODUCTION:
Closed Circuit self-sufficient portable package system Experimental Multi stage
Centrifugal pump Test Rig is designed to study the performance of the Multi stage Centrifugal
pump. In this equipment one can study the relationship between
This unit has several advantages like does not require any foundation, trench keeping in the
laboratory.
The Test Rig mainly consists of:
(1) Multi stage centrifugal pump set
(2) Panel Board,
(3) Pressure and vacuum gauges to measure the head
(4) SS Measuring Tank to measure the discharge
(5) Energy meter to measure the input to the motor and
(6) SS Sump.
CONSTRUCTIONAL SPECIFICATION:
MULTI STAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMPSET:

The pump set is of special design, horizontal spindle and vertical split case. The pump
is of such a size, type & design that
1) The total head
2) Discharge and
3) Power requirements at normal speed is well suited for the experimental purposes in technical
institutions.
A.C. MOTOR : The electric motor suitable for operation on 50 Hz A.C. Supply is provided.
GAUGES: Suitable range of pressure and vacuum gauges to measure the total head on the pump
with reasonable accuracy
59
SS MEASURING TANK: It is provided to measure the discharge of the pump. The tank is
complete with piezo-meter and scale arrangement.
PIPING SYSTEM: Suitable piping system with pipes, bends and valves are provided. A Simple
strainer valve is provided on the suction side to prevent any foreign matter entering into the pump.
The gate valve is provided in the delivery side to control the head on the pump. While starting the
motor always keep the valve in close position.
PANEL BOARD: The Panel Board houses all the necessary electrical items, like switch for the
above pump set and an energy meter to read the power input and it is fitted with the unit on a
strong iron base with sufficient height and with provisions for foundation.
SS SUMP: Is provided to store sufficient water for independent circulation through the unit for
experimentation and arranged within the floor space of the main unit.
INPUT POWER MEASUREMENT: A Kilowatt-hour meter is provided to measure the power

input to the motor. The energy meter constant (The Number of Revolutions per minute of the
energy meter Disc) is stamped on the meter from this the input power can be easily calculated.
 Check whether all the joints are leak proof and watertight.
 Check the piezo-meter assembly of the measuring tank and see that it is fixed water tight and
vertically.
 Check whether all the electric connection is correct.
 See that the gauges are mounted on the correct position and their cocks closed.
STARTING: Before starting the required electrical connection should be done correctly.
EXPERIMENTS:
The apparatus is designed to study the performance of a multi stage Centrifugal
Pump. The readings to be taken on the single stage centrifugal pump are:
(1) Total Head
(2) Discharge
(3) Power input and
(4) Efficiency.
Provision has been made to measure all these and hence the complete characteristics
of the single stage Centrifugal pump in question can be studied.
First prime the pump and start the motor. While starting closing and delivery valve
and the gauge cocks. Then slowly open the delivery valve and adjust to the required total head. The
total head is measured with the help of the pressure gauge. Total head is the sum of the pressure
head, Velocity head and the datum head.
60
Discharge is the amount of liquid the pump delivers over a definite period of time. It
is usually expressed in liter per minute. The actual discharge is measured with the help of the
measuring tank. In this case the power input into the pump cannot be measured directly. Hence the
power input into the AC motor is measured with the help of the energy meter connected in the line.
Efficiency is the relation between the power input into the pump and the power output from the
pump. The power output from the pump is directly proportional to the total head and discharge. As
the power input into the pump cannot be measured the power input into the motor only is taken
into account and the overall efficiency of the pump is calculated.
If the total head (H) is measured in meters and the discharge (0) in liter per minute, the HO/6120
gives the output in kW. The kilowatt input to the motor is measured with the help of the meter
constant stamped on the energy meter. The efficiency is calculated by dividing the output by input.
For a particular desired speed of the pump, the entire above variable can be studied individually,
thus the complete characteristics can be studied.
PROCEDURE:
1. Start the motor keeping the delivery valve close.
2. Note down the pressure gauge and vacuum gauge reading by adjusting the delivery valve to
require head say 0 meters.
Now calculate the total head (H).
Pressure Head = kg/cm² x 10 meters.
mm of hg x 13.6
Vaccum Head= meters
1000
Datum head = Distance between pressure and vacuum gauge in meters
Total head ( H ) = Pressure Head + Vacuum Head + Datum Head
3. Note down the time required for the rise of 10cm (i.e. 0.1m) water in the collecting tank by using
stop watch. Calculate discharge using below formula.
Discharge:
The time taken to collect some ‘X’ cm of water in the collecting tank in m³/sec:
AxR
Q=
t
Where:
A = area of the collecting tank in m² (0.35m X 0.35m)
h = rise of water level taken in meters (say 0.1m or 10cm)
t = time taken for rise of water level to height ‘h’ in seconds.
4. Note down the time taken for ‘x’ revolutions of energy meter disk and calculate the Input power
X x 3600 x 0.60
Input power =
C xT
0.6 = combined motor (0.75) and transmission losses (0.8).
X = No. of revolutions of energy meter disc (say 5 Rev.)
61
T = Time for Energy meter revolutions disc. In seconds
C = Energy meter constant
5. Now calculate the output power

WxQxH
Output power = Kw
1000
Where,
W = specific weight of water (9810 N/m³)
Q = Discharge
H = Total Head
6. Repeat the steps from 2 to 5 for various heads by regulating the delivery valve.
A Typical tabular form is given below for convenience during experiments.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Time taken
for
Pressure Vacuum Time taken Total head Discharge
collecting
Sr. for 5rev of
gauge gauge 10 cm rise (P + V) Q
No. energy
reading of water In
reading meters
Meter disc collecting
tank
62
GRAPHS FOR :
Viva Questions:
 What is meant by staging of a centrifugal pump?
 How does the discharge can be increased?
 How does the head can be increased?
 Draw characteristic curves for the pump?
 State few applications of staging in practical life?
63

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EXPERIMENT NO.

MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY (ηm)

FUEL-AIR RATIO (F/A):

SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION - (SFC):

i.e. SFC = kg/kWh

BRAKE SPECIFIC FUAL CONSUMPTION (BSFC):

THERMAL EFFICIENCY (ɳth):

C) AIR INTAKE MEASUREMENT:

𝑉𝑎 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 √2𝑔 ℎ𝑤 𝜌𝑤 /𝜌𝑎 m3/s

hw= manometer reading of water column ( meters)

Aorifice = Area of orifice = πd02/4 = 0.0003141 m2

w = Density of water = 1000 kg/m3,

a = Density of air = 1.2 kg/m3

D) FUEL INTAKE MEASUREMENT:

F) MULTI CHANNEL TEMPERATURE INDICATOR:

1. Water Inlet Temp. to Engine and calorimeter.

3. Diameter of Orifice = 32. mm.

2. TOTAL FUEL CONSUMPTION:

Where, TFC in kg/hr and BP in kW

4. BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY:

5. AIR FUEL RATIO:

(A)Total heat input

(B)Heat Carried Away by Cooling Water (In Engine Cooling Jacket)

Convert this into % by

(C)Heat Converted to BP (HBP)

(D) Heat Carried Away by Exhaust Gases (kJ/sec)

(i) Brake Power:

(ii) Indicated Power (IP) of each Cylinders:

(iii) Total IP of the Engine:

(iv) Mechanical Efficiency:

Total IP of the Multi-Cylinder Petrol Engine by Morse Test:

 Define the Morse test?

1. Fill 2/3 of the aspirator bottle with the brine solution.

Amount of flue gas after absorption by caustic potash solution = X ml

Amount of flue gas after absorption by alkaline solution of pyrogallic acid = Y ml

Amount of flue gas after absorption by cuprous chloride solution = Z ml

(ii) Amount of CO2 = (100 - X) ml

(iii) Amount of O2 = (X –Y) ml

(v) Amount of N2 = (100 – Z) ml

 What are the different types of air pollutant in exhaust of an IC engine?

kWh =1000*V*I*60*60 kJ =V.I.kJ=V.Ix3600kJ

Tonnage capacity of the plant

Tonnage capacity of cycle

COPplant =m*Cp*ΔT/ kWh

1. Mention the advantages of vapour compression refrigeration system?

Q2 =ṁ*Cp*ΔT watts. Surroundings Low

1. Explain the working principle of mechanical heat pump?

Figure 1: Tank Calorimeter

ps= Gauge pressure of steam (kPa)

Figure 4: Schematic diagram for the separating and throttling Calorimeters

The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by the Anglo-IrishengineerSir

Induction turbines introduce low pressure steam at an intermediate stage to produce

Casing or shaft arrangements

Thermodynamics of steam turbines

Rankine cycle with superheat

Where Ẇ is the rate at which work is developed per unit time

 h1 is the specific enthalpy at state one

CASING: made of iron and having a large circular transparent Window.

FLOW MEASURING UNIT : Orifice meter

1. Check whether all the joints are perfectly matched.

1. Operation of the bearings, temperature rise, noise etc.

Discharge Q = 𝐴 ∗ 𝑉(𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐)

N = RPM of the turbine shaft

S. speed Pressure Gauges Readings Discharge Break wt Input Output Efficie

kWh =1000VI6060 kJ =V.I.kJ=V.Ix3600kJ

COPplant =mCpΔT/ kWh

Q2 =ṁCpΔT watts. Surroundings Low