Models and Similarity

Physical Model
 A physical model is a scaled replica of the actual
structure (Prototype).
 A physical model is a scaled representation of a
hydraulic flow situation.
 Physical hydraulic models are commonly used during
design stages to optimize a structure and to ensure a
safe operation of the structure
Lp1 Lm1

Lm2
Fm1 Fm2
Lp2
Fp1 Fp2

Fm3 Lm3

Fp3 Lp3
Physical Model
 A hydraulic model may help the decision-makers to
visualize and to picture the flow field, before selecting a
`suitable' design.
 In civil engineering applications, a physical hydraulic
model is usually a smaller size representation of the
prototype .Other applications of model studies (e.g.
water treatment plant, floatation column) may require the
use of models larger than the prototype.
 In any case the model is investigated in a laboratory
under controlled conditions.
Physical Model
 A few examples, where models may be used are ships in
towing basins, air planes in wind tunnel, hydraulic
turbines, centrifugal pumps, spillways of dams, river
channels etc and to study such phenomenon as the
action of waves and tides on beaches, soil erosion, and
transportation of sediment etc.

The towing tank is used to determine and investigate the hydrodynamic performance of ships and marine structures.
Model Analysis
 Usually, it is impossible to obtain a pure theoretical
solution of hydraulic phenomenon, therefore
experimental investigations are often performed on small
scale models to find solutions of complex flow problems.

 The followings are the advantages of the model analysis

 The performance of the hydraulic structure can be predicted in
advance from its model.
 Using dimensional analysis, a relationship between the variables
influencing a flow problem is obtained which help in conducting
tests.
 The merits of alternative design can be predicted with the help of
model analysis to adopt most economical, and safe design.
Similitude/similarity
 In a physical model, the flow conditions are said to be
similar to those in the prototype if the model displays
similarity of form (geometric similarity), similarity of
motion (kinematic similarity) and similarity of forces
(dynamic similarity).
Similitude-Type of Similarities
 Geometric Similarity: is the similarity of shape. It is said to exist
between model and prototype if ratio of all the corresponding linear
dimensions in the model and prototype are equal. E.g.

Lp Bp Dp
= = = Lr
Lm Bm Dm

 Where: Lp, Bp and Dp are Length, Breadth, and diameter of prototype

and Lm, Bm, Dm are Length, Breadth, and diameter of model.
 Lr= Scale ratio

 Note: Models are generally prepared with same scale ratios in every
direction. Such a model is called true model. However, sometimes it
is not possible to do so and different convenient scales are used in
different directions. Such a models is call distorted model
Similitude-Type of Similarities
 Kinematic Similarity: is the similarity of motion. It is said to exist
between model and prototype if ratio of velocities and acceleration at
the corresponding points in the model and prototype are equal. E.g.
V p1 V p 2 a p1 a p 2
= = Vr ; = = ar
Vm1 Vm 2 am1 am 2
 Where: Vp1& Vp2 and ap1 & ap2 are velocity and accelerations at point
1 & 2 in prototype and Vm1& Vm2 and am1 & am2 are velocity and
accelerations at point 1 & 2 in model.
 Vr and ar are the velocity ratio and acceleration ratio

 Note: Since velocity and acceleration are vector quantities, hence

not only the ratio of magnitude of velocity and acceleration at the
corresponding points in model and prototype should be same; but
the direction of velocity and acceleration at the corresponding points
in model and prototype should also be parallel.
Similitude-Type of Similarities
 Dynamic Similarity: is the similarity of forces. It is said to exist
between model and prototype if ratio of forces at the corresponding
points in the model and prototype are equal. E.g.
( Fi ) p ( Fv ) p ( Fg ) p
= = = Fr
( Fi )m ( Fv )m ( Fg )m
 Where: (Fi)p, (Fv)p and (Fg)p are inertia, viscous and gravitational
forces in prototype and (Fi)m, (Fv)m and (Fg)m are inertia, viscous and
gravitational forces in model.
 Fr is the Force ratio

 Note: The direction of forces at the corresponding points in model

and prototype should also be parallel.
Types of forces encountered in fluid Phenomenon
 Inertia Force, Fi: It is equal to product of mass and acceleration in
the flowing fluid.

 Viscous Force, Fv: It is equal to the product of shear stress due to

viscosity and surface area of flow.

 Gravity Force, Fg: It is equal to product of mass and acceleration

due to gravity.

 Pressure Force, Fp: it is equal to product of pressure intensity and

cross-sectional area of flowing fluid.

 Surface Tension Force, Fs: It is equal to product of surface tension

and length of surface of flowing fluid.

 Elastic Force, Fe: It is equal to product of elastic stress and area of

flowing fluid.
Froude’s Model Law
 It is based on Froude’s number and states that Froude’s
number for model must be equal to the Froude’s number
for prototype.
 Froude’s Model Law is used in problems where gravity
forces is only dominant to control flow in addition to inertia
force. These problems include:
 Free surface flows such as flow over spillways, weirs, sluices,
channels etc.
 Flow of jet from orifice or nozzle
 Waves on surface of fluid

VP Vm VP Vm
=( F e ) P ( F=
e )m or = or
g P LP g m Lm LP Lm
VP VP LP
= Vr = =
/ Lr 1; where : Vr = , Lr
 LP  Vm Lm
Vm  
 Lm 
Froude’s Model Law
 The Various Ratios for Reynolds’s Law are obtained as
VP Vm
sin ce =
LP Lm
VP Lp
=
Velocity Ratio: Vr = = Lr
Vm Lm
TP L P /VP Lr
Time Ratio: Tr== = = Lr
Tm L m /Vm Lr
aP VP / TP Vr Lr
Acceleration Ratio: a r = = = = = 1
am Vm / Tm Tr Lr
APVP
Discharge Ratio:=
Qr = L=2
V
r r L2
r =
Lr L5/ 2
r
AmVm
Force Ratio: Fr=mr ar = ρ=Q V
r r r ρ =
L2
V V
r r r r ρ= L2 2
V
r r r ρ= L2
L
r r r ρ L3
r r

( )
3
Power Ratio: Pr=Fr.Vr=ρ r L=
V V ρ=
2 2
r r r rL V ρr L =
2 3
r r Lr ρ r L7r / 2
2
r
 Froude’s Model Law
 Q. In the model test of a spillway the discharge and velocity of flow
over the model were 2 m3/s and 1.5 m/s respectively. Calculate the
velocity and discharge over the prototype which is 36 times the model
size.

 Solution: Given that For Discharge

Qp
= (=
Lr ) ( 36 )
2.5 2.5

Qm

For Model = ( 36 ) =
× 2 15552 m3 / sec
2.5
Qp


 Discharge over model, Qm=2 m3/sec For Dynamic Similarity,

 Velocity over model, Vm = 1.5 m/sec Froude Model Law is used
 Linear Scale ratio, Lr =36 Vp
= =
Lr =
36 6
Vm
 For Prototype V p =6 × 1.5 =9 m / sec
 Discharge over prototype, Qp =?
 Velocity over prototype Vp=?
Numerical Problem:
 Q. The characteristics of the spillway are to be studied by means of a geometrically
similar model constructed to a scale of 1:10.
 (i) If 28.3 cumecs, is the maximum rate of flow in prototype, what will be the
corresponding flow in model?
 (i) If 2.4m/sec, 50mm and 3.5 Nm are values of velocity at a point on the spillway, height
of hydraulic jump and energy dissipated per second in model, what will be the
corresponding velocity height of hydraulic jump and energy dissipation per second in
prototype?
 Solution: Given that
For Model
 Discharge over model, Qm=?
 Velocity over model, Vm = 2.4 m/sec
 Height of hydraulic jump, Hm =50 mm
 Energy dissipation per second, Em =3.5 Nm
 Linear Scale ratio, Lr =10
 For Prototype
 Discharge over model, Qp=28.3 m3/sec
 Velocity over model, Vp =?
 Height of hydraulic jump, Hp =?
 Energy dissipation per second, Ep =?
Froude’s Model Law

For Discharge: For Hydraulic Jump:

Qp Hp
= L= 2.5
r 102.5 = L=
r 10
Qm Hm
Qm =
28.3 /102.5 0.0895 m3 / sec H p = 50 ×10 = 500 mm
For Velocity: For Energy Dissipation:
Vp Ep
= = Lr 10 = L= 3.5
r 10 3.5

Vm Em

V p =2.4 × 10 =7.589 m / sec E p =3.5 ×103.5 =11067.9 Nm / sec

Classification of Models
 Undistorted or True Models: are those which are
geometrically similar to prototype or in other words if the scale ratio
for linear dimensions of the model and its prototype is same, the
models is called undistorted model. The behavior of prototype can
be easily predicted from the results of undistorted or true model.
 Distorted Models: A model is said to be distorted if it is not
geometrically similar to its prototype. For distorted models different
scale ratios for linear dimension are used.
 For example, if for the river, both horizontal and vertical scale ratio
are taken to be same, then depth of water in the model of river will
be very very small which may not be measured accurately.
 The followings are the advantages of distorted models
 The vertical dimension of the model can be accurately measured
 The cost of the model can be reduced
 Turbulent flow in the model can be maintained
 Though there are some advantage of distorted models, however the
results of such models cannot be directly transferred to prototype.
Scale effects
 Scale effects may be defined as the distortions introduced by effects
(e.g. viscosity, surface tension) other than the dominant one (e.g.
gravity in free-surface flows). They take place when one or more
dimensionless parameters differ between model and prototype.
 Scale effects are often small but they are not always negligible
altogether. Considering an overflow above a weir, the fluid is
subjected to some viscous resistance. However the flow above the
crest is not significantly affected by resistance,
 In free-surface flows, the gravity effect is dominant. If the same fluid
(i.e. water) is used in both the model and the prototype, it is
impossible to keep both the Froude and Reynolds numbers in the
model and full-scale.
Classification of Models
 Scale Ratios for Distorted Models

LP BP
Let: ( L r ) H = = Scale ratio for horizontal direction
Lm Bm
hP
( Lr )V = =Scale ratio for vertical direction
hm
2 ghP
=
Scale Ratio for Velocity: Vr=VP / Vm = ( Lr )V
2 ghm
BP hP
Scale Ratio for area of flow: Ar=A P=
/ Am = ( Lr ) H ( Lr )V
Bm hm
APVP
Scale Ratio for discharge: Qr=Q P= = ( Lr ) H ( Lr )V (=
Lr )V ( Lr ) H ( Lr )
3/ 2
/ Qm
AmVm V
Distorted model
 Q. The discharge through a weir is 1.5 m3/s. Find the discharge
through the model of weir if the horizontal dimensions of the
model=1/50 the horizontal dimension of prototype and vertical
dimension of model =1/10 the vertical dimension of prototype.

Solution:
Discharge of River= Q p =1.5m3 /s
LP
Scale ratio for horizontal direction= ( L r ) H = =50
Lm
hP
Scale ratio for vertical direction= ( L r )V = =10
hm
Since Scale Ratio for discharge: Qr=Q P / Qm = ( Lr ) H ( Lr )
3/ 2
V

50 ×103/ 2 = 1581.14
∴ Q p / Qm =
=
⇒ Qm 1.5 /1581.14
= 0.000948 m3 / s
Distorted model
 Q. A river model is to be constructed to a vertical scale of 1:50 and a
horizontal of 1:200. At the design flood discharge of 450m3/sec, the average
width and depth of flow are 60m and 4.2m respectively. Determine the
corresponding discharge in model and check the Reynolds’ Number of the
model flow.

=
Disch arg e of River =
Q p 450m3 / s
= B=
Width p 60m and Depth= y=
p 4.2 m
BP
Horizontal scale ratio= ( L r ) H = =200
Bm
yP
Vertical scale ratio= ( L r )V = =50
ym
Since Scale Ratio for discharge: Q r =Q P / Qm = ( Lr ) H ( Lr )
3/ 2
V

∴ Q p / Qm =200 × 503/ 2 =70710.7

⇒ Qm= 450 /1581.14= 6.365 ×10−3 m3 / s
Distorted model
 VL 
Reynolds Number, Re m =  
 υ m
Lm = 4 Rm
= B=
Width m B p / ( Lr )=
H
= 0.3m
60 / 200
=
Depth y=
m y p / ( Lr =
)V 4.2 / 50
= 0.084 m
Am =Bm ym =
0.3 × 0.084 =
0.0252m
Pm = Bm + 2 ym = 0.3 + 2 × 0.084= 0.468m
A m 0.0252
=
R = = 0.05385
Pm 0.468
Kinematic Viscosity of water =υ =1×10−6 m 2 / sec
 4VR   4 × 0.253 × 0.05385 
=Re =   =  54492.31
 υ m 
−6
1×10 
>2000
∴ Flow is in turbulent range
Distorted model
 A fixed bed model is to be made of a river with a surface width of
80 m. The Manning coefficient for the river is estimated at 0.026.
The horizontal and vertical scale ratios used are 1:150 and 1:25.
Find the required model values of the Manning coefficient
corresponding to prototype depths of water of 2.0 and 5.0 m, if
the cross-sectional shape is assumed to be rectangular. What
material would you recommend to use in the laboratory model for
a prototype depth of 2.0 m?