Cement and Concrete

CEMENT
AND CONCRETE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. To be able to define and differentiate the words

“cement” and “concrete.”
2. To be able to properly name different types of cement

and concrete.
3. To be able to enumerate and identify the different

types and properties of concretes.
4. To be able to enumerate and identify the different

materials in making a concrete and their respective
functions.
5. To be able to enumerate and define the different

factors influencing concrete properties.
IMAGE SOURCE:
Kuhmar Meta, 2006
IMAGE SOURCE:
Kuhmar Meta, 2006
IMAGE SOURCE:
Kuhmar Meta, 2006
IMAGE SOURCE:
Kuhmar Meta, 2006
IMAGE SOURCE:
Kuhmar Meta, 2006
IMAGE SOURCE:
Kuhmar Meta, 2006
IMAGE SOURCE:
Kuhmar Meta, 2006
IMAGE SOURCE:
Kuhmar Meta, 2006
Cement - A powdery substance made by calcining lime
and clay, mixed with water to form mortar or mixed with
sand, gravel, and water to make concrete. It came from
the Roman word “caemenium” meaning “building
stone”.
CEMENT NOMENCLATURE
ISOURCE: O.V. Rossack,

2013
Portland Cement: C3S (42%-60%); C2S (15%-35%); C3A (5%-14%), C2AF (10%-16%), C, M
CONCRETE AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL
Concrete is a man-made building material that looks
like stone.
The word “concrete” is derived from the Latin

concretus, meaning “to grow together.”
Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse

granular material (the aggregate or filler) embedded in a
hard matrix of material (the cement or binder) that fills
the space among the aggregate particles and glues
them together.
CONCRETE NOMENCLATURE
Depending on what kind of binder is used, concrete can be

named in different ways.
If a concrete made of hydraulic cement, it is called hydraulic

cement concrete;
If a concrete is made of asphalt, it is called asphalt concrete;
If a concrete is made of polymer, it is called polymer concrete.
If a concrete in made with nonhydraulic cement, it is called

nonhydraulic cement concrete. Nonhydraulic cement cannot
gain strength in water, while hydraulic cement does.
TYPES OF CONCRETE
CLASSIFICATION IN ACCORDANCE WITH UNIT WEIGHT
IMAGE SOURCE: Li, 2011

TYPES OF CONCRETE
CLASSIFICATION IN ACCORDANCE WITH COMPRESSIVE

STRENGTH

TYPES OF CONCRETE
CLASSIFICATION IN ACCORDANCE WITH ADDITIVES
*MDF – Macro Defect Free; DSP – Densified Small ParUcle

As a structural material, the fundamental approach in materials

study also applies to concrete.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONCRETE
Advantages Limitations
1. Economical 1. Quasi-brittle failure

2. Ambient-temperature hardened mode
material 2. Low tensile strength
3. Ability to be cast 3. Low toughness
4. Energy efficient 4. Low specific strength
5. Excellent resistance to water 5. Formwork is needed
6. High-temperature resistance 6. Long curing time
7. Ability to consume waste 7. Working with cracks
8. Ability to work with reinforcing steel
9. Less maintenance required
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
1. Workability - describes how easily freshly mixed concrete

can be mixed, placed, consolidated and finished with minimal
loss of homogeneity
2. Set Control – describes the ability to control the time of set

(defined as the point in time at which penetration resistance
reaches specified values. Ti = 500 psi, Tf=4000psi)
3. Strength - the capacity of an object or substance to

withstand great force or pressure
4. Durability - the ability to withstand wear, pressure, or

damage.
MATERIALS FOR MAKING CONCRETE
1. Aggregates
Aggregates constitute a skeleton of concrete.
Approximately three-quarters of the volume of

conventional concrete is occupied by aggregate.
Effects of aggregates
Aggregate in fresh and plastic concrete
The behavior of fresh concrete, such as fluidity,

cohesiveness, and rheological behavior, is largely
influenced by the amount, type, surface texture, and
size gradation of the aggregate.
Aggregate in hardened concrete
In addition to reducing the cost, aggregate in concrete

can reduce the shrinkage and creep of cement paste.
Moreover, aggregates have a big influence on stiffness,

unit weight, strength, thermal properties, bond, and
wear resistance of concrete.
Classifications of Aggregates
In accordance with size
a. Coarse aggregate
Generally, the size of coarse aggregate ranges from 5

to 150 mm.
For normal concrete used for structural members such

as beams and columns, the maximum size of coarse
aggregate is about 25mm.
For mass concrete used for dams or deep foundations,

the maximum size can be as large as 150 mm. Figure
2-1 shows
b. Fine aggregate
Aggregates passing through a No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve

and predominately retained on a No. 200 (75 µm) sieve
are classified as fine aggregate.
River sand is the most commonly used fine aggregate.
In addition, crushed rock fines can be used as fine

aggregate.
However, the finish of concrete with crushed rock fines

is not as good as that with river sand.
In accordance with source
a. Natural aggregates
This kind of aggregate such as sand and gravel is taken

from natural deposits without changing the nature
during production.
B. Manufactured (synthetic) aggregates
These kinds of aggregate are man-made materials,

resulting from products or by-products of industry.
In accordance with unit weight
a. Ultra-lightweight aggregate

The unit weight of such aggregates is less than 500kg/m3,
including expanded perlite and foam plasUc.

The concrete made of ultra-lightweight aggregates has a bulk
density from 800 to 1100 kg/m3, depending on the volume
fracUon of aggregate.

Such a concrete can be used only as nonstructural members,
like parUUon walls.
b. Lightweight aggregate
The unit weight of such aggregates is between 500 and

1120 kg/m3.
Examples of lightweight aggregates include cinder,

blast-furnace slag, volcanic pumice, and expanded clay.
The concrete made of lightweight aggregate has a bulk

density between 1200 and 1800kg/m3.
Such concrete can be either a structural member or

nonstructural member, depending what type of
aggregate is used.
c. Normal weight aggregate
An aggregate with a unit weight of 1520–1680kg/m3 is

classified as normal-weight aggregate.
Sand, gravel, and crushed rock belong to this category

and are most widely used.
Concrete made with this type of aggregate has a bulk

density of 2300–2400kg/m3.
It is the main concrete used to produce important

structural members.
d. Heavy weight aggregate
If the unit weight of aggregate is greater than 2100kg/

m3, it is classified as heavy-weight aggregate.
Materials used as heavy-weight aggregate are iron ore,

crashed steel pieces, and magnesite limonite.
The bulk density of the corresponding concrete is

greater than 3200 kg/m3 and can reach 4000 kg/m3.
This kind of concrete has special usage, like radiation

shields in nuclear power plants, hospitals, and
laboratories. It can also be used as sound-shielding
material.
Grading Aggregates
The particle size distribution of aggregates is called

grading.
Grading determines the paste requirement for a

workable concrete since the amount of voids among
aggregate particles requires the same amount of
cement paste to fill out in the concrete mixture.

Shapes and Textures of Aggregates
The aggregate shape affects the workability of concrete due

to the differences in surface area caused by different shapes.
Sufficient paste is required to coat the aggregate to provide
lubricaUon.

Among these, spherical, cubical, and irregular shapes are
good for applicaUon in concrete because they can benefit
the strength.

Flat, needle-shaped, and prismaUc aggregates are weak in
load-carrying ability and easily broken.

Shapes and Textures of Aggregates
The surface texture of aggregates can be classified in 6

groups: glassy, smooth, granular, rough, crystalline, and
honeycombed. The surface texture of aggregates has
significant influence on the fluidity of fresh concrete and
the bond between aggregate and cement paste of hardened
concrete.

2. Cementitious Binders
Classifications based on composition
a. Organic binders – can be easily burned; Polymers

and asphalt are the two most commonly used binders.
b. Inorganic binders – usually made from different

natural minerals
Hydaulic cement - can harden and gain strength in

water (Example: Portland cement)
Nonhydualic cement – such cement cannot harden

and thus gain strength in water (Examples: Gypsum and
lime)
b-1. Portland cement concrete with sand and gravel
as aggregates.
Employed extensively as an structural material.
Advantages: It can be poured in place and hardens at

room temperature and even when submerged in water.
Disadvantages: Relatively weak and extremely brittle;

its tensile strength is approximately 10 to 15 times
smaller than its compressive strength; water penetrates
into its external pores, which can cause severe cracking
Note: Most inadequacies may be eliminated or at least

improved be reinforcement and/or incorporation of
additives.
SOURCE: Li, 2011
Hydration of cement is the reaction between cement
particles and water, including chemical and physical
processes.
The properties of fresh concrete, such as setting and

hardening, are the direct results of hydration.
The properties of hardened concrete are also influenced

by the process of hydration.

B-2: Geopolymers
Geopolymers are an abundant raw resource, and have low CO2

emission, less energy consumption, low production cost, high early
strength, and fast setting.
High fire resistance and low thermal conductivity:

Can synthesized simply by mixing alumino- silicate-reactive
materials and strongly alkaline solutions, then curing at room
temperature. In a short period, reasonable strength will be gained.
Good volume stability: Geopolymers have 80% lower shrinkage

than Portland cement.
Reasonable strength gain in a short time: Geopolymers can obtain

70% of the final compressive strength in the first 4 hrs of setting.
High fire resistance and low thermal conductivity:

Possesses excellent high temperature resistance up to 1200◦C and
can endure 50-kW/m2 fire exposure without sudden property
degradation.
b-3: Magnesium Phosphoric Cement (MPC)
MPC concrete is a type of artificial stone made from an acid–base

reaction of magnesia and phosphates.
Due to its rapid setting and high early strength, MPC has been
utilized in rapid repair of concrete structures, such as highways,
airport runways, and bridge decks, for many years. It can save a lot
of idle time and cost caused by the long disrupting period of other
materials.
MPC can be incorporated with nontoxic industrial waste and be

converted into useful construction materials.
The raw material of MPC is hard burnt magnesia, and is, in fact, a
refractory material. Therefore, MPC can be designed to be
fireproof and/or as a cold setting refractory, according to practical
need.
b-4: Magnesium Oxychloride Cement (MOC)
Also known as Sorel cement is a type of nonhydaulic cement.
It is formed by mixing powdered magnesium oxide (MgO) with a

concentrated solution of magnesium chloride (MgCl2).
It has high fire resistance, low thermal conductivity, and good

resistance to abrasion, and is unaffected by oil, grease, and
paint.
It also has high early strength and is suitable for use with all kinds
of aggregates in large quantities, including gravel, sand, marble
flour, asbestos, wood particles, and expanded clays.
The lower alkalinity of magnesium oxychloride (pH of 10–11),

compared to the higher alkalinity of ordinary cement (pH of 12–13),
makes it suitable for use with glass fiber by eliminating aging
problems.
3. Admixtures
An admixture is defined as a material other than water,

aggregates, cement, and reinforcing fibers that is used
in concrete as an ingredient, and added to the batch
immediately before or during mixing
(a) Air-entraining agents: This kind of admixture is used

to improve the frost resistance of concrete.
(b) Mineral admixtures: This kind of admixture consists

of finely divided solids added to concrete to improve its
workability, durability, and strength.
(c) Chemical admixtures: A chemical admixture is any

chemical additive to the concrete mixture that enhances
the properties of concrete in the fresh or hardened
state. The general-purpose chemicals include those that
reduce the water demand for a given workability (called
water reducers), and those chemicals that control the
setting time and strength gain rate of concrete (called
accelerators and retarders). Apart from these chemicals,
there are others for special purposes—viscosity-
modifying agents, shrinkage- reducing chemicals, and
alkali–silica reaction-mitigating admixtures.
(d) Miscellaneous admixtures include all those

materials that do not come under the above- mentioned
categories, such as latexes, corrosion inhibitors, and
expansive admixtures.
Types of Chemical Admixtures
Water-reducing admixtures are used to reduce the

water content of a concrete mixture while maintaining a
given constant workability.
The resultant effect of reduced water content is

increased strength and durability of concrete.
The water content (or water-to-cement ratio) is held

constant, and the addition of the admixtures makes the
concrete flow better, while the compressive strength
(which is a function of the water-to-cement ratio) is not
affected .
Shrinkage-reducing admixtures (SRA) provide a

significant technical approach to reduce the drying
shrinkage of concrete.
The main mechanism of SRA in reducing drying

shrinkage of concrete is that the SRA lowers the surface
tension of the pore solution and subsequently reduces
the stresses in the pore solution that are directly
proportional to the surface tension. With the reduction of
the driving stress, the drying shrinkage can be reduced.
Setting-control admixtures are used to either extend

or shorten the plastic stage of concrete to meet the
special requirements of the construction of concrete
structures.
If the admixture is used to extend the plastic period, it is

called a retarder.
If the admixture is used to shorten the plastic period, it

is called an accelerator.
Air-entraining admixtures entrain air in the concrete.
An air-entraining admixture contains surface-active

agents that have two poles: one is hydrophobic and the
other hydrophilic. The agents are concentrated at the
air–water interface, the hydrophilic side with water and
the hydrophobic side with air. The surface tension is
lowered so that bubbles can form more readily and then
stabilize once they are formed.
In summary, the entrained air is produced by admixtures

that cause the mixing water to foam, and the foam is
locked into the paste during hardening.
Mineral admixtures are finely divided siliceous

materials that are added to concrete during mixing in
relatively large amounts.
Silica fume is a very active pozzolan material and

readily reacts with CH and water to form secondary C–
S–H. Through pozzolanic reaction, silica fume can
consume a large amount of CH, and generated C–S–H
also fills the capillary voids. The process can further
reduce the porosity and permeability in concrete as
well as the possibility of chemical reaction of CH with
other ions to form harmful products. Thus, the durability
of concrete can be greatly enhanced.
Metakaolin improves concrete performance by the

packing effect and by reacting with calcium hydroxide to
form secondary C–S–H. MK was found to improve
concrete properties while offering good workability. It
has also been demonstrated that MK is particularly
effective in reducing the rate of diffusion of sodium and
chloride ions. MK and SF had similar functions in
improving strength of concrete, reducing free drying
shrinkage, and chloride diffusion rate. In addition,
because of its white color, high-reactivity MK does not
darken concrete as SF typically does which makes it
suitable for color matching and other architectural
applications. The cost of MK is now much lower than
that of SF, which gives MK a bigger potential for
application in concrete structures.
Fly ash can be used to produce a so-called blended

cement. Incorporation of fly ash into concrete can
improve the workability due to the spherical shape and
glassy surface of fly ash particles. By replacing cement
with fly ash, the cost of concrete can be reduced, since
fly ash costs low than cement.
The disadvantages of fly ash concrete are low early age

strength and longer initial setting time due to the low
reactivity of fly ash
Slag particles of less than 10 µm contribute to early

strengths in concrete up to 28 days; particles of 10 to 45
µm contribute to later strengths, but particles coarser
than 45 µm are difficult to hydrate.
Slag-modified concrete shows an improved slump

retention as well as both early and long-term strength
4. Water
Water is an important ingredient of concrete, and a

properly designed concrete mixture, typically with 15 to
25% water by volume, will possess the desired
workability for fresh concrete and the required durability
and strength for hardened concrete.
The total amount of water in concrete and the water-to-

cement ratio may be the most critical factors in the
production of good-quality concrete. Too much water
reduces concrete strength, while too little makes the
concrete unworkable. Because concrete must be both
strong and workable, a careful selection of the cement-
to-water ratio and total amount of water are required
when making concrete
FACTORS INFLUENCING CONCRETE PROPERTIES
1. Water/Cement Ratio
The w/c ratio is one of the most important factors influencing

concrete properties, such as compressive strength,
permeability, and diffusivity.
A lower w/c ratio will lead to a stronger and more durable

concrete.
2. Cement Content
The cement content influences concrete workabilities in the

fresh stage, heat release rate in the fast hydration stage, and
volume stabilities in the hardened stage.
The range of the amount of cement content in mass concrete

is 160–200kg/m3, in normal strength concrete it is less than
400kg/m3, and in high strength concrete it is 400–600kg/m3.
3. Aggregates
Maximum aggregate size
The maximum coarse aggregate size mainly influences the

cement paste requirement in the concrete.
Generally, the maximum size of coarse aggregate should be

the largest that is economically available and consistent with
the dimensions of the structure.
In no event should the maximum size exceed one-fifth of the

narrowest dimension in the sizes of the forms, one-third of the
depth of slabs, or three-quarters of the minimum clear spacing
between reinforcing bars.
Aggregate grading
Aggregate grading refers to the size distribution of the

aggregate.
Well-defined grading with an ideal size distribution of

aggregate will decrease the voids in the concrete and hence
the cement content. It will also lead to a better compressive
strength and low permeability, but also is more economical at
lower cost.
Aggregate shape and texture
The aggregate shape and texture can influence the

workability, bonding, and compressive strength of concrete.
At the same w/c ratio and with the same cement content,
aggregates with angular shape and rough surface texture
result in lower workability, but lead to a better bond and better
mechanical properties.
On the other hand, aggregates with spherical shape and

smooth surface texture result in higher workability, but lead to
a lower bond and lower mechanical properties.
Sand/coarse aggregate ratio
The fine/coarse aggregate ratio will influence the packing of

concrete.
It also influences the workability of concrete in the fresh stage.

Increase of the sand to coarse aggregate ratio can lead to an
increase of cohesiveness, but reduces the consistency.
Of all the measures for improving the cohesiveness of

concrete, increasing the sand/coarse aggregate ratio has
been proven to be the most effective one.
Aggregate/cement ratio
The aggregate/cement ratio has an effect on the concrete

cost, workability, mechanical properties, and volume stability.
Due to the price difference between the aggregate and

cement, increasing the aggregate/cement ratio will decrease
the cost of concrete. From a workability point of view, an
increase of the aggregate to cement ratio results in a lower
consistency because of less cement paste for lubrication. As
for mechanical properties, increase of the aggregate/cement
ratio can lead to a high stiffness and compressive strength if
proper compaction can be guaranteed. Increasing the
aggregate/cement ratio will definitely improve concrete’s
dimension stability due to reduction of shrinkage and creep.
4. Admixtures
Admixtures are important and necessary components for

contemporary concrete technology. The concrete properties,
both in fresh and hardened states, can be modified or
improved by admixtures.
5. Mixing procedures
Mixing procedures refer to the sequence of putting raw

materials into a mixer and the mixing time required for each
step. Mixing procedures directly influence the workability of
fresh concrete and indirectly influence some mature properties
of concrete.
6. Curing
Curing is defined as the measures for taking care of fresh

concrete right after casting.
The main principle of curing is to keep favorable moist

conditions under a suitable temperature range during the fast
hydration process for concrete.
It is a very important stage for the development of concrete

strength and in controlling early volume changes.
Careful curing will ensure that the concrete is hydrated

properly, with good microstructure, proper strength, and good
volume stability.
Careless curing always leads to improper hydration with

defects in the microstructure, insufficient strength, and
unstable dimensions.
One of the common phenomena of careless curing is plastic

shrinkage, which usually leads to an early age crack that
provides a path for harmful ions and agents to get into the
concrete body easily and causes durability problems.
Curing is a simple measure to achieve a good quality of

concrete.
IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS IN THE MAKING OF
CONCRETES
1. The correct mixture of ingredients
To achieve the optimum strength and workability of a

cement mixture, the ingredients must be added in
correct proportions and all the ingridients should be
thoroughly mixed.
The ingredients of portland concrete include portland

cement, a fine aggragate (sand), a coarse aggregate
(gravel) and water.
The aggregate paticles act as a filler material to reduce

the over-all cost of the concrete product because they
are relatively cheap. They comprise 60% to 80% of the
total volume.
CONCRETES
The amount of cement-water paste should be sufficient

to coat all the sand and gravel particles otherwise the
cementitious bond will be incomplete.
Too little water leads to incomplete bonding and too

much results in excessive porosity; in either case, the
final strength is less than the optimum
2. The character of the aggregate particles
The size distibution of the aggregate particles influences

the the amount of cement-water paste required.
CONCRETES
The surfaces should be clean and free from clay and

silt, which prevent the formation of a sound bound at the
particle surface.
REFERENCES:
Callister Jr., W., (2007) Material Science and

Engineering: An Introduction, USA, John Wiley & Sons
Kumar, M. P., and Monteiro, P.J.M. (2006) Concrete

Microstructure, Properties, and Materials. 3rd Ed., USA,
McGraw Hill
Li, Z., (2011) Advanced Concrete Technology. New

Jersey, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Roussack, O.V., Gesser. H.D., (2013). Applied

Chemistry: A Textbook of Engineers and Technologists,
2nd Ed., London, Springer
REFERENCES:
https://www.globalgilson.com/what-is-workability-of-
concrete
https://www.slagcement.org/aboutslagcement/
is-03.aspx
www.google.com

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CEMENT

1. To be able to define and differentiate the words

2. To be able to properly name different types of cement

3. To be able to enumerate and identify the different

4. To be able to enumerate and identify the different

5. To be able to enumerate and define the different

ISOURCE: O.V. Rossack,

The word “concrete” is derived from the Latin

Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse

Depending on what kind of binder is used, concrete can be

If a concrete made of hydraulic cement, it is called hydraulic

If a concrete is made of asphalt, it is called asphalt concrete;

If a concrete is made of polymer, it is called polymer concrete.

If a concrete in made with nonhydraulic cement, it is called

CLASSIFICATION IN ACCORDANCE WITH UNIT WEIGHT

IMAGE SOURCE: Li, 2011

CLASSIFICATION IN ACCORDANCE WITH COMPRESSIVE

IMAGE SOURCE: Li, 2011

CLASSIFICATION IN ACCORDANCE WITH ADDITIVES

IMAGE SOURCE: Li, 2011

*MDF – Macro Defect Free; DSP – Densiﬁed Small ParUcle

As a structural material, the fundamental approach in materials

1. Economical 1. Quasi-brittle failure

1. Workability - describes how easily freshly mixed concrete

2. Set Control – describes the ability to control the time of set

3. Strength - the capacity of an object or substance to

4. Durability - the ability to withstand wear, pressure, or

Aggregates constitute a skeleton of concrete.

Approximately three-quarters of the volume of

Aggregate in fresh and plastic concrete

The behavior of fresh concrete, such as fluidity,

Aggregate in hardened concrete

In addition to reducing the cost, aggregate in concrete

Moreover, aggregates have a big influence on stiffness,

In accordance with size

Generally, the size of coarse aggregate ranges from 5

For normal concrete used for structural members such

For mass concrete used for dams or deep foundations,

Aggregates passing through a No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve

River sand is the most commonly used fine aggregate.

In addition, crushed rock fines can be used as fine

However, the finish of concrete with crushed rock fines

In accordance with source

This kind of aggregate such as sand and gravel is taken

B. Manufactured (synthetic) aggregates

These kinds of aggregate are man-made materials,

In accordance with unit weight

The unit weight of such aggregates is between 500 and

Examples of lightweight aggregates include cinder,

The concrete made of lightweight aggregate has a bulk

Such concrete can be either a structural member or

c. Normal weight aggregate

An aggregate with a unit weight of 1520–1680kg/m3 is

Sand, gravel, and crushed rock belong to this category

Concrete made with this type of aggregate has a bulk

It is the main concrete used to produce important

d. Heavy weight aggregate

If the unit weight of aggregate is greater than 2100kg/

Materials used as heavy-weight aggregate are iron ore,

The bulk density of the corresponding concrete is

This kind of concrete has special usage, like radiation

The particle size distribution of aggregates is called

Grading determines the paste requirement for a