How Science works

Analysis and evaluation

Questions to ask about an experiment

1. What is the hypothesis?

2. What is the independent variable?- what has been changed
3. What is the dependent variable?- results
4. What is the sample size?- reliability
5. What is the percentage error?- accuracy
6. How accurate is the experiment- protocol/ method, results
7. Were there any limitations/ confounding variables?
8. What do the results show us?
9. Were there repeats- is the result an average?
10. Why does the independent variable affect the results?- is it cause and effect/ a correlation
11. Are there any anomalies?- is there a reason for these
12. What is the control, to measure the effects of the independent variable?

Data Presentation

Results from experiments and investigations can be presented in the form of

tables, charts and graphs.

Tables: when constructing a table of numerical results the following guidelines

should be followed:

The first column should contain the independent variable

The second and subsequent columns should contain the dependent variables

Numbers only in the table – no units.

Columns should be headed with physical quantity and appropriate SI unit

The table should have an informative title

Exercise: an investigation was carried out to see the effect of temperature on
the amount of gas produced. The following results were obtained, at
temperatures 10, 15 and 20, the volume of gas produced was 3, 8 and 12
respectively.

Identify the independent variable and dependent variable.

State a suitable SI unit for temperature and volume.

Using the guidelines above, construct a results table for this data.

Pie Charts: these are used when displaying data that are proportions or
percentages.

Ideally pie charts should not contain more than 6-7 sectors

There should be labels or a key

There should be an informative title

The size of pie sections is calculated by finding the fraction each section is of
the total and then multiplying that by 360˚.

Exercise:

The number of aquatic animals of various feeding categories in an upland

stream

Feeding category Site A

Herbivore 2
Carnivore 9
Omnivore 1
Detritivore 2
Unknown 1

Total number of organisms collected = 15

Eg. Herbivores= 2

2/15 X 360˚ = 48˚

So the herbivore sector will be 48˚

Use the same method to calculate the remaining sectors.

Construct a pie chart using the guidelines above.

Bar charts: these are used to present data when the independent variable is
non-numerical.

The data is discontinuous

A bar chart is made up of lines or blocks of equal width, which do not touch

The lines or blocks can be arranged in any order but are usually arranged in
descending order

Each axis should be clearly labelled with appropriate scale

There should be an informative title.

Histogram: these are used when the independent variable is numerical and the
data are continuous.
The x axis will have a continuous scale and be labelled with appropriate units

The y axis represents numbers or frequency and should be labelled with

appropriate scale

The class size needs to be established then the number in each class sorted
(usually using a tally chart)

The blocks should be drawn touching

There should be an informative title

Look at the 2 tables of data below, decide whether the data should be
presented as a bar chart or a histogram. Draw the appropriate graph for each
set of data using the guidelines.
Number of different species of insect collected Frequency of leaf length
from different species of tree
Tree species Number of insect species Leaf length/mm Number of
leaves
Oak 80 120-129 8
Birch 70 130-139 14
Hazel 57 140-149 18
Willow 36 150-159 16
Rowan 32 160-169 9
Larch 11 170-179 6
Line graphs: these are used to show the relationships in data.

The term graph should be used to refer to the whole diagram. The term curve should be used to
refer to both curves and lines which are used to join the points plotted.

Only numbers are used when plotting points

Each axis should be labelled clearly with the quantity and appropriate SI unit

Each axis should be drawn using a sensible scale. The scale does not have to start at zero.

The independent variable should be plotted on the x axis

The dependent variable on the y axis

Plotted points must be clearly marked with an X, using a pencil

A straight, pencil line should be used to join the points on the graph.

A smooth curve should only be drawn if you are sure that intermediate values fall on the curve.

If the graph shows more than one curve, each curve should be labelled
There should be an informative title

Scattergrams: these are used when investigating the relationship between 2 variables.

The data can be used to establish if there is a relationship between the variables – positive or
negative correlation or no correlation at all.

The 2 axes of the graph marked out with appropriate scale

The 2 variables are plotted for each sample as a point on the graph

Each point represents an individual

There should be an informative title

Relationship between height of plant and number of flowers

Height of plant/cm Number of flowers
106 47
148 83
113 52
73 18
96 47
141 102
98 39
98 70
77 20
115 51

Plot the data in the table as a scattergram using the guideline above.

Preparation for EMPA paper 3

In order to perform well students need to be able to handle a variety of scientific techniques. To
help prepare you, we have identified 6 activities from AQA Biology (Bill’s Book)

Activity Page  Key points

reference
Designing an investigation, to obtain 29
reliable results

Understanding the importance of 29

controls in experiments
Hypothesis

Accuracy
Calculating magnification 35
Independent variable

Anomalous data
Null hypothesis

Calibration
Controlling variables, including the 51
Placebo importance of temperature in enzymes
experiments
Causal link
Precision

Chance
Probability
Drawing graphs and understanding 53
Confounding whether
variable to join the points or not
Protocol

Control experiment
Random distribution
Standard deviation & error bars 200-201
( teacher assistance)
Control group
Random errors

Control variable
Raw data Evaluating evidence 111-112

Correlation
Reliability
Unit 3 Investigative and Practical Skills
Dependent variable
Systematic errors

Double-blind trial
True value

Errors
Validity

Evidence
Zero errors

Fair test