THE MAKING OF FATEHPUR SIKRI The Sir George Birdwood Memorial Lecture by Satish K. Davar, BA, BArch, MRP, AIA, AITP delivered to the Commontealth Section of the Society on Tuesday, 29th April, 1975, with Sir Fames Richards, CBE, ARIBA, in the Chair Tut CHAIRMAN: Our speaker this evening is Mr. Satish K. Davar, who is going to talk about the remarkable story of Fatehpur Sikri, which was built by that great patron of the arts, the Mughal Emperor Akbar, in the latter part of the sixteenth century. It was only eccupied as the administrative capital of Akbar's empire for fifteen years, after w! ‘it was deserted; and it has remained deserted ever since, that is for nearly four centuries. The central parts of the city, however, are still in a wonderful state of preservation which has made Fatehpur Sikri one of the most admired architectural monuments in India, It is visited by thousands of people both for its beauty and for its fascinating combination ‘of Mughal, Rajpit and Persian styles of architec vure. I emphasize that it is the central parts of the city that are so remarkably preserved. These are what the visitors explore. But within the enclosing walls there are acres more that are still in tuins or of which traces only remain, and it has been Mr. Satish Davar’s task during the past Sik years of more to investigate and identify these less known parts of the city. He is an M a keen personal interest in Fatehpur Siksi, for taking the chair to-day, and then express my pleasure and gratitude to the Royal Society of Arts for asking me to present this Sir George Birdwood Memorial Lecture. It was indeed an honour The following lecture, which was ay I first thank Sir James, who has. architect, a planner and a historian, and when the book he is preparing on the city is published we shall know a great deal more about how the city was designed and built. He is going to tell us this evening about the progress of his re- searches at Fatehpur Sikri and the conclusions that he has drawn from them. ‘This series of annual lectures was founded as fat back a8 1920 in memory of Sir George Birdwood, who lived from 1830 to 1917. He was a great authority on Indian art and design, was 2 voluminous writer, a scholar and an enthusi= ast. He was also a Member of the Council of this, Society for over twenty years and did much to bring the arts of India within its purview. Past Birdwood Lectures have dealt with a fascinating range of Indian subjects. I have been told only this evening, incidentally, that the Chairman at the first Birdwood Lecrure was none other than Lord Curzon, which makes me very proud to be sitting in the same place! I am sure Mr. Satish Davar will give a lecture that Birdwood himself would have velued. illustrated, tas then delivered. the scattered ruins of Fatehpur Sikri with groups of student architects from Delhi School was a stimulating experience which eventually led me to undertake fairly exten- sive site surveys over five winters in order to reconstruct (on paper) this vast area which was meelected and unrecorded so far. TheFiGure 1. marble Chishti tomb in the Jami Masjid courtyard View through Buland Darwazé leading to the white experience, interpret and analyse Fatehpur Sikri as a living city of Mughal India. These site explorations, besides providing a work- ing base, reveal the enormous development potential of this area for educational, archaeological and tourism purposes. At the same time they make me acutely aware of the rapid deterioration of these monuments and the surrounding ruins, taking place constantly, at all levels, due to official and public indifference. I am extremely con- cerned about this thoughtless unmaking of Fatehpur Sikri, which unfortunately seems like an irreversible process. It was a little over 400 years ago, when Michelangelo was busy working on his plans for St. Peter’s in Rome, that the third Mughal Emperor Akbar—a contemporary of Queen Elizabeth I of England—decided to build a new city for his court and residence near Agri in India. Its splendid palaces with their sunken gardens, multi-storied pleasure pavilions, and various courts for public appearance and state work are known for ghaie evant = alaeanee amd an intenealey country, with its lofty southern gate and a gem-like miniature marble tomb for the Chishti saint, is a fascinating complex; and most of the visitors end their visit to the monuments here. To comprehend Fatehpur Sikri as a city we should look beyond this tourist’s com- plex, even beyond the Sikri of the Archae- ological Survey, and look at Akbar’s city in its entirety in a conceptual way to ascertain if any ground rules, traditional practices, topographical considerations or special cir- cumstances, are manifest in this sixteenth- century town layout. Architecture and town layouts are closely related arts and it is per- haps a fair assumption that one cannot have beautiful building complexes in’ a badly considered town layout. No work of art that has stood the test of time is a product of chance or accident, much less a designed city, which is a synthesis of many skills, enormous teamwork, indigenous influences, and, it is to be hoped, an overriding inspira- tion. A city is the largest visual manifestation Sa E eswere concentrated the arts of India in a cosmopolitan setting under one of the great- est and most humane brains in Indian history. A palace citadel was built and a metropolitan city planned in less than a decade. The speed of construction, men- tioned in several contemporary accounts, meant numerous groups of builders and artisans working on separate projects rising at the same time.” The situation can be quite chaotic without an overall concept and specific guidelines for the entire area. What were those guidelines ? What was the con- cept or the art process ? Here, we venture to participate in that art process, which by revealing itself would perhaps augment the art product. This is an inquiry into the mental anticipation of a combination of | means to achieve this end product. Fatehpur Sikri was a vigorous city, a product of exceptional circumstances. De- | signed from scratch and speedily built, utilizing all available talent and unlimited | anxious Akbar visited several shrines and holy men where he offered prayers and sought blessings for the birth of an heir and successor to the throne. Amongst the Muslim divines of that time was Salim Chishti,? who had recently returned to his unassuming hermitage on the Sikri hill after a consider- able absence. He was a well-travelled man, and had made more than twenty pilgrimages to Mecca, most of them on foot. His spread- ing fame brought Akbar barefooted to his door. It was the spell of the octagenarian saint’s personality, or his prophecy that Akbar would have three sons, that comforted Akbar’s troubled mind, The impact was immediate. A few royal palaces were hurriedly constructed adjoining the Shaikh’s house as Akbar decided to reside on Sikri hill. The decision to build an entire city on the spot and to move the court there per- manently, followed a year later. Akbar’s passion for building was insati- able. Despite the fact that he had alreadygreatest of all his architectural projects. And yet in less than fifteen years, when Akbar moved his court to Lahore, the city was to be totally abandoned, to the point that travellers would find itunsafe to go through it. Several factors make Sikri unique. First, its spiritual origin is the most significant. The humble cave of Salim Chishti became a key point in the town concept. Secondly, the enormous speed of its construction helped to maintain the mood. Thirdly, the ‘comparatively open plan of the city because of Chishti’s influence on the king. Fourthly, the complex and extraordinary personality ‘of young Akbar. Finally, its short lite-span, which was responsible for the preservation of its theme and character, Few cities in the world have been built with such impulse and rapidity. The whole fabric of the city was woven around the physical and spiritual presence of the saint Salim Chishti. Many important roads and | streets of Sikri radiating from the centre set the town pattern (Figure 27). Since the Chishti presence drew a large number of pilgrims from distant parts of the country to the little cave, the footpaths which thus developed eventually became the major roadways for the royal passage. ‘Most cities are works of many generations, each adding its own themes and new areas, frequently replacing the old. Many styles can. be seen side by side in most cities, depicting, the different stages of their growth. But Sikri is the work of one man, in a single phase of his life. It was built with great energy while the mood lasted and completely abandoned soon after. It is a frozen moment in history. Its modest chambers, activated corridors and open terraces reflect that mood. What comes through with startling clarity is the active and keen mind of Akbar, his immense ambitions, intellectual subtlety, exquisite taste, and the sense, the drama, of royalty. Each building reveals his imaginative and inventive genius. The growth of the town reflects the growth of Akbar’s mind, whose horizons were widening even faster than the boundaries of his expanding empire. Akbar was discovering himself. He was discovering the people and the country around him, and was interested in distant Cane Erg ca Sate aca Cia cations were dispensed with, a new civic relationship developed between the town and the hill-top palaces. The influence of fine buildings was skilfully radiated out- wards, thereby articulating the whole fabric of the city. Among other things, architecture is defined as a ‘place prepared in time and. space for human activity’. This definition can be stretched to town design as well and no doubt time and space are its two essential aspects besides the various human episodes and historical events that it gradually assi- milajes. In this context it would be appro- priate at this stage to consider the ‘moment’ and ‘site’ as the two coordinates of the situation: the moment being its dynamic aspect, its symbolical projection in time. The site is static, a fundamental geopolitical proposition. The ‘site’ at Sikri was a barren Tocky escarpment about 100 to 150 feet above ground level, forming part of the upper Vindhyan range that extends in a south-westerly direction for about two miles. To the north-west of this ridge lies the wide and shallow valley of the Khari river, ‘bounded on the other side by the low ranges of the Bandrauli hills. On this ridge, a little over a mile from Akbar’s town, stood an old Rajpit citadel held by the Sikarwar Rajpits for several centuries. It was the Sikarwars who gave the place its name Sikri. One can still see the last remains of their palaces on the hill! Their town spread towards the north and north-east of the ridge in the direction of the present Bharatpur Road. From the twelfth to the fifteenth centuries, Sikri was somewhat of a frontier station, feeling the pressure exerted by the Turks and Pathdns from the north and that of the Rajptits from the neighbouring states in the south. The lurking tension in the area made it strategically important and gave it a cer- tain political significance. Even after Agra became a Ladi Capital in the beginning of the sixteenth century, Sikri maintained its significance as a military gathering point. ‘A quarter of a century later, Babur, the first Mughal—Akbar’s grandfather— defeated the last Lodi king near Delhi, pushed on to Agra and later encamped at Sikri to meet the united Rajpat forces under | ok seed dekla lncdeechin Af Dank Ganck atFIGURE 3. open revolt. Babur himself has recorded® that the heat was unusually oppressive. His soldiers longed for the cool air of Kabul. Even his best generals were eager to return home. Babur spent three or four weeks at | Sikri arranging his army and artillery for the decisive battle, waiting for reinforcements to arrive from neighbouring Bayana. The mood at the camp was grim and gloomy. In a determined speech to his dispirited officers, Babur made his memorable renunciation of wine, smashed all his cherished gold and silver drinking-cups, poured wine stocks on | to the ground and pledged that he would henceforth lead a life of austerity. His actions galvanized the troops. Each man seized the Koran and took an oath. Then they advanced on the opponent Rajpit formations. The two armies clashed about ten miles west of Sikri. Spirits were high and the charges desperate. Babur carried the day. His most critical moment was overcome. With two smashing victories in less than a year Mughal supremacy in northern India was established beyond doubt. Overwhelmed, Babur called the place ‘Shukri’—the Arabic term for gratitude. Sikri had still more to offer (Figure 3). Its idge was also known for its quarries, and chisti cave sik citadel “of sikarwer rajputs Khari river to 500 baburs army from agra cee camp site ‘Site characteristics at Agra. Abundance of good red sandstone, ranging from rose pink to deep purple, so near the site must have been a boon. Stone- cutting was perhaps the oldest and largest trade in this region. As a gesture to Salim Chishti, the saintly man meditating in the midst of wild animals, the stone-cutters of the area who came to Sikri for their stone, built a small mosque for his use (Figure 4). So this little mosque around his cave was completed some thirty years before Akl Saigtrashai (Stone-cutters’ Mosque). Thus the main characteristics of the site were an old Rajpat citadel in the east that gave the place its name; quarries in the west that provided abundant building material; a river in the north that was regulated to form a lake; an army campsite and a battlefield in the vicinity that had established the Mughals; and the hill-top abode of Salim Chishti, whose fame had caused Akbar’s visit and subsequent determination to build a dream city around this red rocky ridge. ‘Akbar was only thirteen years old when he was hurriedly crowned in a garden on his way to Delhi. He was quickly coming to his own. Aided by his great physical strength and personal courage everything seemed toFIGURE 4. Sketch of conjecturally restored Masjid-i-Sargtrdshan (Stone- cutters’ Mosque), built thirty years before the founding of Fatehpur his muslim chiefs, whose support was essential for his stability. This enormous courage and conviction places him without doubt far ahead of his time. The Rajpit threat was met in Akbar’s characteristic style. The nearest state of Jaipur was first won over, by a marriage to a Jaipur princess. By a series of other con- trivances, high offices and imperial honours, Mughal-Rajpit cooperation spread from administration and army to the realm of art and culture. When he went to Sikri most of Rajputana except Udaipur and Mewar had accepted the Mughal supremacy and Sikri was in a way the ‘Gateway to Rajputana’, and through Rajputana to fertile Gujrat, whose ports traded freely with Arabia. Abul Fazl observes that from a feeling of thankfulness for his constant success on the Seensheiiette AD tthenaceutd al philosophy and law. Akbar was twenty-eight when he built his city. By then he had ruled for fifteen years and his influence, wealth and territories had multiplied. He was already involved with deeper philosophical ideas. His city reflects these attitudes. This was the moment in time, impregnate with enormous energy, social zeal and intellectual vigour in every walk of life, a time fitted to afford the freest play to his eminent qualities. Near the fifty-year-old clock towet in the main bazaar of present-day Fatehpur, next to the newly constructed police station, lies a tiny, elementary mosque that demands further historical research and closer archae- ological scrutiny. The location and layout of the town suggest that his mosque was important to the Mughals, and it seems to have played a significant rdle in the design Pl leIt is a quiet building of a domestic scale and its super-structure seems to have been rebuilt on an older plinth. Constructed essentially with the local greyish blue quartzite, its corners, mihrab and door- frame have been emphasized by the use of red sandstone. The mosque itself comprises ‘a covered area eleven feet by twenty-three feet opening on to a court-yard twenty-four feet by twenty-nine feet, enclosed by seven- foot-high screen walls on the three sides (Figures 5, 6 and 7). On account of the increase in the number of visitors, perhaps, another court-yard was added later to accommodate larger assemblies. The outer door altered the direction of the main entrance, which is now from the west wall. The open area towards the west between the mosque and the main bazaar is still known as Hat Pardo—it means ‘Market for the Camp’, even though no market is held there now. The word ‘Pardo’ brings to mind those momentous three weeks in 1527 when Babur’s soldiers camped in the area. Could it then be the mosque or the spot where Babur made a moving appeal to his officers and stirred them to determined action lead- ing to glorious success ? This mosque, we find, is the focal point of the town (Figure 8) as its walls went up speedily on Royal orders. The town was named Fatehabad (founded for victory), though it eventually became known as Fatehpur (victory town). For convenience this mosque will be referred to as ‘Centric Mosque’ in this paper. The Masjid-i-Sangirdshan on the ridge,as we know, was the other important landmark that existed prior to the founding of the city. ‘This was perhaps a better-known mosque, actively used by the Chishti family, the local populace, and visitors from outside. Akbar’s pilgrimage to this mosque, which was loaded with personal associations and was the raison d’étre for the new city, must have added a great deal to its popularity. For easy reference we call it ‘Chishti mosque’ in the rest of this paper. It was quite natural for the designers of Fatehpur to utilize these two landmarks in some manner to evolve the town plan around them. As a first step in this direction they ingenuity and imagination. Taking an axis from the centric mosque parallel to the axis of the ridge, and one from the Chishti mosque at right angles to it, determined the placement of a most unusual building—a cross-shaped cdrdvansarai. Most cdrdvan- sarais in India or elsewhere are rows of rooms and open verandahs placed around a square or rectangular courtyard. Sometimes they can be polygonal, adjusted to fit an Ficures 5, 6 and 7.Ficure 8. Centric mosque—its focal position in the town-layout suggests that it woas important to the Mughals irregular site. The idea of a cross-shaped sarai (inn) for visitors to the two mosques at the crossing of the axes through them was a novel, logical and admirable decision arrived at with keen intellectual clarity (Figure 9). ‘This was their most creative moment. This not only helped to bind the two mosques and the subserviant sardi together; it generated a comprehensible relationship between the group and the ridge, preparing a coherent basis for further design decisions. The Pukhté Sardi, as this building is called, can be translated as an inn solidly built of permanent materials (as opposed to mud structures). The name only suggests that it was among the first few public buildings built for common use on royal orders. (The endowment of public sardis and wells was a common royal pictism; the numerous examples on his Grand Trunk Road evince Akbar’s concern in this respect.) The Pukhtd Sardi had about 100 rooms with attached verandahs opening on to a thirty-foot-wide street. After the narrow crooked lanes of present-day Fatehpur it is a refreshing experience to find a straight, wide street over a hundred yards long (Figure 10). Unfortunately, the Pukhtd Sardi lies in the populated part of the present town and is not a protected monument. Its individual occupants make additions and alterations to suit their needs. Old structures gnileses var anc then end new anile anmear.FIGURE 10. recognition, and lost for ever. Its three gates have already disappeared during the last decade and the main gate opening on to the bazar (shopping street) stands sadly dis- figured.§ Nevertheless, the relation of this building with the two mosques and the Jami Masjid that was built a little later can be clearly seen in the aerial photograph (Figure 11). The NE-SW wind of the sardi had to be slightly adjusted in length to relate it with the existing royal palaces, which were temporarily built parallel to the Chishti house and the contours of the ridge, prior to the laying of the city. The distance between the centre point of the sardi and the centric mosque, measured in units of Akbar’s time, is 300 Ilahi Gaz® (lah Gaz cquals 30} in.). This distance was then used as a module to fix the position of other major town elements and important structures (Figure 12). The grid, based on eight super-squares each comprising nine modular squares, determined the location of the major city gates. The Agra gate, how- ever, was placed on the axis of the existing approach road from Agra, because of the special significance of his first visit, when Akbar used that road. Further up, the inter- section of this road with the next super-grid determined the placement of the Naubat Khand Chowk, which was an open square with gates in four directions and marked the The surviving north-east wing of Pukhtd Sardi city gates in the north of the ridge depended on the already existing street pattern of the earlier Sikarwar town. It is interesting to note that the usage of nine squares in architectural plans and garden layouts has been an old tradition in India with its ultimate source in ancient mythology. Arabian mathematicians inte- grated this Indian system into their own synthesis of ancient systems.’® They utilized squares based on the use of numerals 1 to 9, in which numerical relationships reveal characteristic visual patterns (Figures 13 and 14). Throughout the history of ideas we find constant reference to mathematics as an aesthetic; to the recognition of fundamental orders, sequences and patterns. The square formed on a nine-by-nine grid numbered 1 to g horizontally and vertically as illus- trated, was the basis of a whole mathematical system, which contained a numerical model of the universe. Architecturally, the sub- division of a square space into nine equal squares offers the privileged use of the central space, maintaining an implicit visual relationship with its surround. One of the most outstanding, and perhaps the first, buildings in Akbar’s time is the Garden Tomb built for his father— Humayus, supervised by Akbar’s mother— Hameeda Begum; this is to-day an imposing etracmnre on the river hank in nresent NewFicure 10. recognition, and lost for ever. Its three gates have already disappeared during the last decade and the main gate opening on to the bazar (shopping street) stands sadly dis- figured.® Nevertheless, the relation of this building with the two mosques and the Jami Masjid that was built a little Jater can be clearly seen in the aerial photograph (Figure 11). The NE-SW wind of the sardi had to be slightly adjusted in length to relate it with the existing royal palaces, which were temporarily built parallel to the Chishti house and the contours of the ridge, prior to the laying of the city. The distance between the centre point of the sardi and the centric mosque, measured in units of Akbar’s time, is 300 Ilahi Gaz® (Waki Gaz cquals 30} in.). This distance was then used as a module to fix the position of other major town elements and important structures (Figure 12). The grid, based on eight super-squares each comprising nine modular squares, determined the location of the major city gates. The Agri gate, how- ever, was placed on the axis of the existing approach road from Agri, because of the special significance of his first visit, when Akbar used that road. Further up, the inter- section of this road with the next super-grid determined the placement of the Naubat Khand Chowk, which was an open square with earec in four directinne and marked the The surviving north-east wing of Pukhtd Sardi city gates in the north of the ridge depended on the already existing street pattern of the Coe Sikarwar town. interesting to note that the usage of nine squares in architectural plans and garden layouts has been an old tradition in India with its ultimate source in ancient mythology. Arabian mathematicians inte- grated this Indian system into their own synthesis of ancient systems." They utilized squares based on the use of numerals 1 to 9, in which numerical relationships reveal characteristic visual patterns (Figures 13 and 14). Throughout the history of ideas we find constant reference to mathematics as an aesthetic; to the recognition of fundamental orders, sequences and patterns. The square formed on a nine-by-nine grid numbered 1 to 9 horizontally and vertically as illus- trated, was the basis of a whole mathematical system, which contained a numerical model of the universe. Architecturally, the sub- division of a square space into nine equal squares offers the privileged use of the central space, maintaining an implicit visual relationship with its surround. One of the most outstanding, and perhaps the first, buildings in Akbar’s time is the Garden Tomb built for his father— Humiyua, supervised by Akbar’s mother— Hameeda Begum; this is to-day an imposingFigure 12. Town layout based on a modular gridtown layout on the nine-square arrangement is the eighteenth-century Rajpit city of Jaipur. The Rajas of Ambér were in close contact with the Mughal court because of marriage alliances, and there was a constant cultural exchange that reveals itself in many Mughal and Rajpiit practices. Nevertheless, when Raja Jai Singh decided to build his new city he leaned heavily on the scriptures for its layout and extent (Figure 16). Even though the nine-square grid has formed the basis for the town plans for both Fatehpur Sikri and Jaipur, unlike Jaipur, Sikri does not have a grid plan. While it uses the grid for siting most of its important land- marks, its street system does not adhere to a grid pattern and its palaces are influenced by a variety of other factors, including the Mecca orientation of the Mosque and the topography of the ridge. Sikri seems to grow from the site, its surroundings and the sentiments associated with it. Jaipur on the other hand is a pre-conceived plan pattern transferred on to the site rather superficially. Another capital city which provides an interesting comparison is Shahjahindbid or Old Delhi, built by Akbar’s grandson, Shahjahin, seventy years after the founding of Fatehpur Sikri. Shahjahandbid was designed as a city of the same size as Fatehpur Sikri and a similar design approach shows that it was influenced by the earlier concept (Figure 17). Figure 16. Town plan of Jaipur— a designed city Like Fatehpur Sikri, it was also based on eight super-squares, each comprising of nine modular squares. The module used in Shahjahanabad, surprisingly, corresponds to the one used at’ Sikri, which we know was obtained in the latter case from the relative location of its two already existing mosques. Sited at the bend of the river, the four corners of Shahjahanabid were cut along the diagonals of the corner squares. The super-grid was used to adjust the directions of the rest of the city walls more or less symmetrically in both directions, forming a graceful boat-shape. In both cities the walls are about five miles long. The location of most of the city gates is determined by the super-grid. The citadel has been placed in more or less similar positions in both cases and is approximately one-tenth of the city area. In both cases the palace buildings were placed in cardinal directions, parallel to the mosque and inclined at 45° to the direc- tion of the town grid. Unlike Fatehpur Sikri, Shahjahan’s citadel again became a separate entity, separated from the town by high walls and moats. Chandni Chowk Bazar and Faiz Bazar were, however, well related with the palace complex, till Aurangzeb decided to alter the axial approach. The Jami Masjid, another main feature of the city, was sited outside the citadel walls on a hill site reserved for this purpose. Splendour was the mood at Shahjahdnabad, and the city was designed for formal state processions. Hence the location of Jami Masjid away from the citadel placed symmetrically between the euun hBaSee ua aatown layout on the nine-square arrangement is the eighteenth-century Rajpit city of Jaipur. The Rajas of Ambér were in close contact with the Mughal court because of marriage alliances, and there was a constant cultural exchange that reveals itself in many Mughal and Rajpit practices. Nevertheless, when Raja Jai Singh decided to build his new city he leaned heavily on the scriptures for its layout and extent (Figure 16). Even though the nine-square grid has formed the basis for the town plans for both Fatehpur Sikri and Jaipur, unlike Jaipur, Sikri does not have a grid plan. While it uses the grid for siting most of its important land- marks, its street system does not adhere to a grid pattern and its palaces are influenced by ‘a variety of other factors, including the Mecca orientation of the Mosque and the topography of the ridge. Sikri seems to grow from the site, its surroundings and the sentiments associated with it. Jaipur on the other hand is a pre-conceived plan pattern transferred on to the site rather superficially. Another capital city which provides an interesting comparison is Shahjahinabid or Old Delhi, built by Akbar’s grandson, Shahjahan, seventy years after the founding of Fatehpur Sikri. Shahjahandbad was designed as a city of the same size as Fatehpur Sikri and a similar design approach shows that it was influenced by the earlier concept (Figure 17). Ficure 16. Town plan of Jaipur— ‘a designed city Like Fatehpur Sikri, it was also based on eight super-squares, each comprising of nine modular squares. The module used in Shahjahanabad, surprisingly, corresponds to the one used at’ Sikri, which we know was obtained in the latter case from the relative location of its two already existing mosques. Sited at the bend of the river, the four corners of Shahjahanadbad were cut along the diagonals of the corner squares. The super-grid was used to adjust the directions of the rest of the city walls more or less symmetrically in both directions, forming a graceful boat-shape. In both cities the walls are about five miles long. The location of most of the city gates is determined by the super-grid. The citadel has been placed in more or less similar positions in both cases and is approximately one-tenth of the city area. In both cases the palace buildings were placed in cardinal directions, parallel to the mosque and inclined at 45° to the direc- tion of the town gri Unlike Fatehpur Sikri, Shahjahan’s citadel again became a separate entity, separated from the town by high walls and moats. Chandni Chowk Bazar and Faiz Bazdr were, however, well related with the palace complex, till Aurangzeb decided to alter the axial approach. The Jami Masjid, another main feature of the city, was sited outside the citadel walls on a hill site reserved for this purpose. Splendour was the mood at Shahjahanabad, and the city was designed for formal state processions. Hence the location of Jami Masjid away from the citadel placed symmetrically between the twa h&vSre wae inet rioht and. annranrijare.Froure 18, Location of Jami Masjid and Imperial household on ‘Sikri ridge determined Fiaure 19. The geometrical location of the Seat of Throne (Aurang Chhatr)Ficure 18. Location of Jami Masjid and Imperial household on ‘Sikri ridge determined Ficure 19. The geometrical location of the Seat of Throne (Aurang Chhatr)services, workshops and stores for the palace were placed around the central core and were accessible from an outer road.1* The day guards and night guards would form another outer ring, protecting the royal enclosures and their services. More space was reserved at the back to accommodate female attendants and maids for the royal occupants. This overall arrangement must have formed the basis for the planning of the palace precinct. There were, of course, several other site conditions to reckon with. The ridge was narrow for the usual space requirements of the royal enclosure in a camp. It commanded an excellent view of the lake in the north-east that was artificially created for the purpose (it brings to mind a similar situation successfully met in Chandigarh in our own times) and it was all happening against the backdrop of the great Jami Masjid. The palace courts were laid out parallel to the mosque, and the four enclosures fitted Ficure 22. Nakshd-i-Ain-i-Mansil (Sketch ‘of Camp Order) in the Court chronicle “Ain-i-Akbari? inter-locking axial system creates an ordered composition inducing a relaxed mood and pleasure of movement, so perceptively analysed by Jacqueline Tyrwhitt.!° The changing levels of various courts based on the slope of the ridge was used imaginatively to control the flow of running water. Finally it would collect in the huge reservoir, ninety feet by ninety feet, and thirty feet deep. Breeze-catching pavilions were built ‘on its wide retaining walls, enjoying a panaromic view of the lake. The movement about these courtyards is a feast for the senses and heightens that sense of participa- tion in a great drama of life (Figure 25). The narrowness of the ridge at certain places led to the extension of some of the terraces and platforms beyond its edge, making it necessary to build supporting structures under them. The situation led to several functional as well as aesthetic advantages (Figure 26). The supporting structures were ideally suited for the Fiaure 23. The four royal enclosures were arranged axially in order of increasing privacy and security. Service areas and security ‘guards formed outer ringsiw material irom the street level, and alter processing delivering them at the top level for consumption, seems like an efficient arrangement based on economy of move- ment. Besides, it lent itself to quick and regular royal supervision—an essential part of Akbar’s daily routine. It was particularly important for the extensive kitchen depart- ment to be reasonably near. Working on a perfection scale all the buildings for the royal use were placed carefully parallel to the Jami Masjid, while service buildings, for reasons of economy, were placed along the contours of the ridge. The combination produced many unusual, irregular open areas around the palaces which were linked together by gateways to provide access to the Diwan-i-Am and Mahal-i-Khas (the Royal Residence). The space volumes obtained in this manner are very contemporary in sp’ It reminds one of Louis Kahn’s way of look- ing at the streets as a series of open rooms. The Utopian images of the two most Ficure 24. (Below, left) Royal areas in dressed red sandstone were laid out parallel to the mosque, while service areas in grey quartzite followed the contours Ficure 25. (Above, right) Terrace plan showing the relationship of interconnected courts Ficure 26. (Below, right) Alll factors synthethized into a space-setting offering visual drama and ‘frequent change of sceneFIGURE 27. Chishti mosque serving as a movement focus influenced the street layoutSes Sree Oe beginning of the royal area poememnariisipecntest FIGuRE 30. View of this novel structure, called Diwan-i-Khas (with most unusual interior space), from Akbar’sKhwabgah (Bed chamber). (Photograph by courtesy of the Department of Archaeology, Government of India) Tur |The feel of the site, open vista and open | guards’ rooms, stables and water tanks as character of the citadel, its diagonal place- ment to the ridge, wide ramps and high gate- ways for elephant movement (Akbar had 110 elephants for personal use), along with Akbar’s temperament, contributed to the dramatic character of most of the palace approaches from the north-east of the ridge (Figure 31). The gates and enclosures on the other side disappeared, being closer to the town. The inter-linked courts with grand ramps and controlled vistas provide a space setting in which every rise in level offers a surprise and a complete change of scene. Unfortunately these approaches are an im- possible experience now as their connections with the palaces have been completely severed during recent years.!® The government’s decision, about eight years ago, to collect entrance money from the tourists visiting the monuments has led to a system of entry control which, it seems, made it necessary for the Archaeological Survey to close most of the palace gates and outside areas. This unnatural separation of the monuments has proved most unfortunate in many ways. First of all, it deprives visitors of the opportunity of fully experiencing the palaces by using different gates for entering or leaving them. It obscures the function of many inside areas, e.g. the Purdah Passage, where continuity was an important con- sideration. The open character of the city, which was its chief characteristic, has been completely destroyed. Since one has to go a Jong distance around the walls to visit out- side areas, most tourists cannot visit them in a short stay. Since these are not visited much now, even the site engineers and mainte- nance men have lost their interest in them. It did not take the town long to encroach on these areas: new structures have been put up, new roads made for individual use, and free use made of stones that were lying scattered around. These happenings could not be checked by the Survey very effectively; its own labour gangs quite carelessly dug upFIGURE 32. tro WATHT POL Sketch of Sikri ridge from Bharatpur Road showing two important approaches to the monuments ruins of the Jauhri Bazar to widen the existing road and to build a bigger car park. In this context the last decade was mostly the unmaking of Fatehpur Sikri. Mention of deteriorating monuments at Sikri did seem to disturb many in the government, but unfortunately we are still losing Fatehpur Sikri very fast every year. Many beautiful monuments located near system is totally inadequate. Some of the gates in the city walls present a panoramic view of the palaces from advantageous angles, but they are so inaccessible by car that very few people can get up there. From Gwalior Gate in the south-east, one gets a grand view of the imposing Buland Darwaza, dominating the whole countryside. The stepped up city wall across the hill in the distance looks very sculpturesque from this point. Nearby is Todar Mal’s!? octagonal pavilion, which once stood in an extensive garden. Not far from here, outside the ‘Tétha Gate, is Bahdu-ud-Din’s Tomb. Bahdu-ud-Din was the Superintendent of Works, responsible for the construction of the city. This pleasant little tomb lies | neglected, unkown and unvisited. The best view of the ridge and the royal palaces can be obtained from the Bharatpur Road (Figure 32). The long lines of palaces with their domes and pinnacles can be seen from a distance of several miles as you drive towards the city. An approach road from this side could lead the visitors either straight to the Diwdn-i-Am or to the Hathi Pél (Elephant Gate) entrance on the other side. | Both these entries are a rewarding experi- ence, and need to be developed with due care and consideration. The complete road system at Fatchpur Sikri needs to be re- viewed afresh, considering the ever-increas- officials on their routine visits to the monu- ments. These roads cutting through the preserved courtyards must be discontinued and a circulatory road built instead which approaches the monuments from several directions without disfiguring them, and without causing inconvenience to the pedestrian experience. With greater thought and careful survey it should be possible, without interfering with the life of the town, to introduce a road system which would cover a much larger area and bring all the scattered monuments within the reach of the tourists. The implicit visual energies of the town need to be augmented by a movement pattern based on. a sympathetic perception of the monuments, their functions and the sensitivity of their placement. Carefully handled, Fatehpur Sikri can assume an entirely new dimension by enabling visitors to experience Akbar’s dream city objectively as a meaningful sequence. The first step in this direction is to check the disruptive forces at all levels that are causing the present unmaking of this unique historical heritage and to stop all arbitrary decisions that are eroding the very principles of this magnificent townplan. That is the very least that we can do towards the making of Fatehpur Sikri. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am indebted to Mr. Din Dayal Parashar, Municipal Commissioner, Fatehpur Sikri, for showing me around some of the old parts of present Fatehpur town. His brother, Mr. Murari Lal Parashar, very kindly enabled me to examine several old documents and drawings in the family possession. Special thanks are due to Mr. Krishna Ailawadi for his help in the preparation of graphic material, and to Miss Anne Upsom forhere that the basic theme of this paper was first presented at Fatehpur Sikri in Decem- ber 1972, in a Seminar sponsored by the Department of Archaeology, Government of India, to celebrate the gooth anniversary of the founding of Akbar’s Fatehpur. I am grateful to the Department for making this participation possible and for extending other courtesies from time to time, which have greatly helped in further investigations. GLOSSARY Ain-i-Akbari_ ‘Law and Regulations at Akbar’s ‘Court’, compiled by his Court Chronicler and close associate Abul Fazal. Aurang Chhatr The royal throne with its overhead ornamental pavilion. Badshahi_ King’s; royal. Buland Darwaza Lofty gateway built in the south wall of fami Masjid at Fatehpur Sikri. Chishti The Chishti dervish order (si/sild) was introduced into India by Khwaja Muin al-Din Chishti of Ajmer (1141-1236) and rapidly established a reputation for sanctity. Diwan-i-Am Court of public audience. Diwan-i-Khas Hall of private audience. Hammam Baths. Hat Pardo Market for the camp. Hathi Pol Elephant Gate. Wéhi Gaz A unit of measurement of Akbar’s time. Jami Masjid Principal mosque for assemblies—especially on Fridays, Kaérkhandjét Plural of kirkhin’; meaning workplace. Service areas and production centres. Khwabgah Bed chamber. Lédi_ An Afghan tribe. Mahal-i-Khds ‘The Emperor's private apart- ments. Masjid-i-Sangtrashén —Stone-cutters’ mosque. Mir Manzil The Superintendent of Encamp- ment. Nakshd-i-Ain-i-Manzil Sketch of Camp Order as described in Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazal. Naubat Khana Chowk City square with music gallery to announce royal arrivals and departures and other important hours, Pardo Halt; stay; army camp or royal camp. Pathan A people inhabiting the hilly country to the north-west of Lahore; a soldier; a warrior; the Afghan race. Pukhté Strong; permanent; (a structure) made of baked brick or stone. A Hindu equivalent to a king, ‘a0 Baas large en GRRE WIRUS SOUS, UUIN equenay U7 Va kings. Shahjahdndbdd Present Old Delhi; new capital built by Shahjahan when he moved from Agra to Delhi. Shaikh A Muslim saint or scholar. Sikri Abode of Sikarwirs. Sikarwar A Rajpit tribe Safi A Muslim mystic; a dervish. NOTES 1. Vincent A. Smith, Akbar the Great Mogul 1542-1605, New Deihi, 1962, pp. 77. ‘Agra and Fatepore are two Yeo great ‘ites, either of them much greater than London and very populous. “Between “Agra and i Fat ~ sald Hertha adit aaa eat Pint vai tae a nathan Be sseription by Rete Fitch, Seprember 5 market Description eprember 1585. Pitter) af India, Vol. 1, New Dealt, a ee ee Lek, Nal de Cat ta lant ‘were orepared, srtizans summoned. from all arte of his dominion, and the work pushed on with Puch lightning rapidity that not only its. splendour ‘but the almost magical speed with which it wat completed was a matter of contemporary exmament! B.D, Sanwaly Agra and itr Monuments, 1988, 0p. For detail of the Chi Mi household. see tay ari Tin Bate le Saved?» Design incor. grating Ind ‘indian Bader, April 1973, BD 4. he Sitarwar Citadel da the adjoining bil north-east of Fatehpur hae been completely chitclled down by 4 large number of stone-cutters working on it for the last seven years. Its last remnants are two Bdolis (stepped wells) which still exist ina rather dilapidated sondition in the north-west and south-east of this iil: ‘These’seem ‘to be part of the water Supply system which once served this citadel, Stanley Lane-Poole, Babar, New Delhi, 1964, p. 169. Recently the courtyard walls of this ‘mosque have been used for the extension of @ neighbouring flour mail. Left unchecked, this encroachment would soon ‘endanger the existence of this structure. 7. Parts of this road can be seen in the old revenue maps of Fatehpur Sikri, 8. Awell in the north-east of this gate was covered and ‘concreted some years ago to make room for the new municipal offices built there. ‘This well fulfilled the needs of the occupants of this Sardi and also supplied the great public Hammdm situated between this gate and the Buland Darwdsd. | 9. Br. Chast, basing his calculation on the discovery manuscript ives measurements of the Ta) i ‘gees defings 1 pon ee caual wo O79 mewen, Le. I inches. ro. Keith Albar, Jenny Miall Smith, Stanford Steele, Dinah Walker, The Language of Pattern, 1974, pp. 10-12. 11, Minutely observing Mughal miniatures, Bllen Smart Presents an. illustration from EP Baburt Galnted in "Akbar's time) showing ‘Bibur and his rchitect discussing the plan of Bagh-i-Wa/d. Babur is pointing with his right hand at the plan and three of the gardeners stretch, rope to check the position of the waterway. ‘Smart convincingly gn cobarged Geval that tas plon hes lunes drawn to form a gnd. : See B'S" Smart, ‘Graphic Evidence for Mughal Archi- tectural Plans’, AARP (Art and Archaeological Research Papers), 6, London, 1974, Bp. 22-3. forhuls, pp. a, Willi Tevine, The Army of Indian 109 13. Abul Fazal Allimi, Aini-Akbori, tans. H. Bloch- ann, Delhi 1965, Plate IV and np. 49-5 14. For a detailed account of service “areas, see_my acl, “Imperial Workshop at Fatehpur Sikri—The Royal Kitchen AARP 5, Bn, 28-41- Is. J, Tyrwhitt “The Moving Eye’ 6. See amy artcks, "Ber indkee Rreeacolosisy Ki 16. article, india's’ Archaeologists Know whe Ener ‘Are Dot Fatehpur Sut, Den Incorporating’ Indian ‘Builder, New Delhi,” March tre te aanee, — oe & Explorations inee ee ee eee of times, but Mr. Davar has shown me how relatively little I do know and what an enormous amount there is still to know. I can hardly wait t0 go back there, and look again with the insights he has given us this evening. Mr. Oscar Davies: Why was the city abandoned after fifteen years ? ‘THE LECTURER: It seems that there were several personal, political and cultural factors which must have contributed towards this. In the first instance, the very circumstances that led to this speedy undertaking lost their validity over the years. The new city was a way of celebrating the birth of Prince Salim. It was a way of acknowledging the divine blessing and the good luck that the place had brought. ‘This initial fondness for the place must have even- tually become a sore point for Akbar, who at a later stage became seriously concerned about the habit and attitude of the young prince. In this growing antagonism, the king must be resent- fully aware of the natural sympathy and unex- pressed loyalty of Chisht! household for Prince Salim, who had grown up with Chishti grand- sons from carly childhood. This is just one aspect. Shaikh Chishti, whose presence initially inspired the project, died soon after. After a decade at Sikri, Akbar was passing through the most critical period of his reign. His involvement in the famous religious debates at Sikri eventually led him, step by step, to assume all powers of a religious head. Then he introduced a new religion, which in spite of subtle pressures, was not accepted by most of his close associates. This must have resulted in a deep sense of personal defeat at that moment, in spite of compensations provided by success in other areas. Intelligence reports about a planned rebellion at this time must have caused some uneasiness. There was trouble in Bengal on one end, and his cousin Mirza Hakim in Kabul on the other end, had ambitious plans to take advantage of the situation. An army march to Kabul kept Akbar away from Sikri for about a year. Around this time, severe floods in Stkri caused havoc, disrupting many services. The fact that these services were never fully restored suggests that Akbar was already disillusioned with this place. Later, suspected danger from Badikashin made it necessary for him to stay on in Lahore, which was also more suitable for extending the empire northwards and west- wards. In history it is not at all uncommon for kings to shift capitals to new geographical centres close to areas of ity. In the case of Sikri, however, since it was a young city, this Ot tl Ps Sn I do not accept the view put forward by some historians that the city was abandoned for ever because of an unexpected shortage of water. Mr. REGINALD Massey: Is it known whom the architects employed were? Were they Indians? Were they Hindus, or Muslims from Iran ? Also, is there any indication of the size of the labour force employed ? ‘Tue Lecturer: There is no definite informa- tion about the architects employed. Kasim Khan was Akbar’s chief engincer for building the fort at Agra and is mentioned here and there in other contexts. There is a small tomb at Sikri outside the town wall—between the palaces and the quarries. It is called Bahau-ud-Din’s Tomb. Bahdu-ud-Din is traditionally believed to be Superintendent of Works, pethaps responsible for the mosque and palace complex. As the citadel arose with great speed, a large number of master builders and craftsmen from all over the country contributed here. Many provincial styles can be seen at Sikri side by side, and prominent among these is that of Gujarat. It has not been estimated, so far, how many pcople were em- ployed for the job. Mrs. Marjorie Gator: Did the aban- donment of the city seem a very dramatic event at the time ? Did it have any impact on literature, were there lamentations for the abandonment, or was it more or less written off? Tue Lecturer: It is a very fascinating question. There are references to the aban- doned city in some travelogues, but I have not come across, so far, any lamentation or personal sorrow expressed in the poetry or prose of the time. Mr. Derick Garnier: Whether or not one believes that there was a shortage or failure of water at Sikri, there certainly was a very exten- sive system of plumbing. Would Mr. Davar like to say something about the water system, its creation and preservation ? Tue Lecturer: There was indeed a very elaborate water supply system for the palaces and most of it is in an excellent state of preservation. As the city was built, a large lake was created in the north-west, which must have helped in soil saturation, as a large number of wells were built by the people. Two large reservoirs were built near the palaces on the two sides of the ridge. Persian wheel system was used to pull water to the palace level in three stages. The flow would then be directed through garden canals, tanks, decorative channels, fountains, etc., using the natural slope of the hill and the varying levels of anlar marie on mailers oll olan eeawem to, chun ounand dry climates depend on nature and on rains to some extent. ‘Tue Cuarrman: Is it known whether the abandonment of the city happened to follow a number of years when there was a bad mon- soon? Is there a record of the years when the monsoon was good ? ‘Tue Lecturer: If does not seem likely that the abandonment of the city was caused by | failure of monsoons. On the other hand, several contemporary references mention the floods caused by the outburst of the lake dam a little before its abandonment. These floods, caused possibly by heavy monsoons, damaged many services at the foot of the ridge. It could not have been very difficult for Akbar to restore these areas to their normal functioning, but it seems he was fast losing interest in this place because of various stresses mentioned earlier. Mr. ROBERT SHAW: May I ask Mr. Davar if he could place the building of Fatehpur Sikri in relation to the Forts at Agri and at Delhi. Which came first? They were also built by Akbar, I think, Tue Lecturer: The fort at Agra comes first. It was more or less near completion when the building of the Jami mosque and the palace was started at Sikri. After twelve or thirteen years, Akbar started building another fort at Allahabad, but that project was not pressed with speed, and was later abandoned in favour of Lahore fort. ‘The fort at Delhi was built by Akbar’s grand- son, Shahjahin, about seventy years after Sikri. Mr. Massey: J am interested in the inscription on the main gate which apparently comes from the New Testament. Could Mr. Davar tell us which quotation it is? I was also interested to hear that Akbar, as a born Muslim, should have insisted on drinking pure water from the holy Ganges! ‘Tue Lecturer: I am not very familiar with the New Testament, but the ins Buland Darwiz4 that you mention is to the effect that the World is a bridge; pass over it but do not build on it. It is interesting that Akbar had this quotation inscribed on the tallest build- ing at Fatehpur Sikri, which was a gateway. The concept of the World as a bridge appealed to Akbar’s mind. This should help us in our under- standing of his complex mental make-up. His most original and novel building at Fatehpur Sikri, called Diwan-i-Khas, consists of four bridges springing from the four internal corners leading to a central platform, where Akbar sat up in space and perhaps meditated. On the other end of the courtyard, in his rest chamber, he meted an « hich nlerfarm an fanr ealemne | dane and the oreat natenh quality of the bridge or the space experience it offers. May be it was the act of bridging itself: the bridging of the people, the bridging of the languages and literature and the bridging of the religions that he attempted in a big way. Akbar was an orthodox Muslim when he came to Sikri. Eventually he started experimenting with practices from other religions as well. Din-i- ahi or the Divine Religion started by him was based on many practices adapted from other religions. His drinking of Ganges water could be attributed to this. ‘THe CHAIRMAN: One notices in the plans of Fatehpur Sikri how very wide is the extent of the walls round the palace area. Was the city at one time completely built up to those walls, or were there, inside the walls, fields and farms and cultivated areas ? Tue Lecturer: It was customary in Mughal cities to plan large gardens within the city walls, as well as outside. Shahjahan’s Delhi, which had a number of similarities with Fatehpur Sikri, gives a fair idea of land use distribution at that time. About one-tenth of the walled area in Delhi along Chandni Chowk bazar was planned as gardens. At Sikri, most of the area between the ridge and the lake in the north-west was recreational. Many private gardens existed within the city walls in the south-east. At the same time, site evidence suggests that the built ‘up area extended beyond the city gate, called Birbal Pol, in the east and there was population in the north beyond Delhi gate. This now forms part of the present village called Nagar. ‘Tue CHarrMan: So the walls marked the defended area and not the inhabited area ? THe LectuRER: No, the population did spread beyond the walls. It was even mandatory for certain sections of the community to live outside the town limits. ‘THe CHAIRMAN: The wall was really mili- tary? ‘THe Lecturer: In this case, it was more a question of defining the boundary or some kind of administrative area. The city walls were not very strong and the palace area again was not enclosed by high walls. It would seem that the military aspect was not considered important, and a much stronger fort at Agra was quite near. Mr. G. V. CHARLES, FRIBA: Is it possible that the town can be declared a national monu- ment to save it from the spoliation taking place ? Tue Lecturer: Considering thecomplexity of the situation, the extent of the damage already nf che mlace whic icthem off when necessary. similarly some struc- tures are under municipal jurisdiction. Some legislation will be necessary before the town can be declared a national monument. This, how- ever, should be possible if the respective govern- ment departments feel strongly concerned about the situation. Mr. CuarLes: Is there any movement to educate public opinion to persuade the govern- ment to take the necessary measures ? Tue Lecturer: There is no organized movement as such. A few articles did appear in various national newspapers a few years ago. Design Magazine from New Delhi did a great deal to persuade the government to take the necessary measures before it is too late. Several proposals were made to the Archaeological Department. Unfortunately there is no organi- zation or professional body which was com- mitted to work consistently in this direction. THe CHAIRMAN: Isn't it to some extent the result of a shortage of money available in India for the conservation of historic monuments ? Tue Lecturer: Generally speaking this is quite true. And of course any proposals for con- servation have to be considered within the limitations of the budget. However, my chief | concern in this matter are the wrong priorities and damaging methods that seem to ignore the historical basis and the design qualities in the larger sense. Also, looking around the ruins I am convinced that in many areas lots of results can be obtained at comparatively very little cost. ‘As an example, in many areas near the palaces if all the loose stones lying about scattered were picked up and stacked on the visible plinths, the plan arrangements would become much more intelligible and interesting for visitors to look around. Many other ways can be suggested as Fatehpur Sikri during a very short period must have required tremendous organization of labour. Did Akbar sct up any special machinery for the construction of the city ? Tue Lecturer: This is an aspect which is really remarkable and was very well taken up by Akbar. Every type of building material—stones, bricks and woods—were classified and their prices fixed. Different types of jobs were defined and wages determined. The weights, the measures, the specifications, the way to mix the mortar and plaster and so on, were all recorded carefully. By personal supervision and keen interest the king had accumulated enormous information on building techniques. When work on Lahore and Agra had hardly finished, he decided to build a whole large city again. He was an absolutely passionate builder and had care- fully worked out every detail connected with his | building department. ‘Tre CHarrMan: Lam afraid that we have to draw the meeting to a close, and I am glad that we end it with Akbar as a passionate builder rather than on the rather depressing subject of the deterioration of the fabric. I hardly need say how fascinating Mr. Davar’s lecture has been, because the questions asked are the best evidence of the interest that his talk has aroused. I am sure many of us will look forward to the oppor- tunity of going back to Fatehpur Sikri, If any of us succeed in doing so in the next few years and find people poking around outside the conven- tional tourist area, I think we will know where some of them got the incentive! I thank Mr. Davar for a splendid lecture. The meeting concluded with the usual acclama- tion of the Lecturer and Chairman.