Ernst Neufert

ARCHITECTS' DATA
Second (International) English Edition

General editor VincentJones

Editorial consultant George Atkinson OBE BAArch) RIBA
USA editor Wm Dudley Hunt Jr BScBArch FAIA
Editor JohnThackara
Deputy editor Richard Miles

b
Blackwell
Science

This document
contains 447 pages
L
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Cataloguing in Publication Data
First English language edition published by Neufert, Ernst,
Crosby Lockwood Staples 1970 Architect's data.—2nd (international)
Reprinted 1973, 1975,1977, 1978(twIce) English ed.
Second (International) English Edition 1. Architectural design: Technical data.
first published in Great Britain 1980by I. Title II. Jones, Vincent,
Granada Publishing Ltd Ill Thackara, John IV. Miles, Richard
Reprinted (with minor amendments)1981 721'.0212
Reprinted 1982, 1984
Reissuedin paperback by ISBN 0-632-02339-2
Collins Professional and Technical Books 1985
Reprinted by BSP Professional Books
1988, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994
Reprinted by Blackwell Science
1995, 1996, 1997, 1998

Original German edition published by

Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn, Braunschweig,
Wiesbaden,as Bauentwurfslehre

Printed and bound in Great Britain

at the Alden Press Limited, Oxford and
Northampton

The Blackwell Science logo is a

trade markof Blackwell Science Ltd,
registered at the United Kingdom
Trade Marks Registry
 V

Contents
ix Contributors Flats & apartments
x Acknowledgements 89 Building types
xi Foreword 90 Access

xii Howto use the book 91 Fire precautions

xiii Abbreviations 92 Internal planning
94 Point blocks

BASIC DATA 96 Duplex & triplex sections

97 Internal access
Human scale in architecture
98 Stepped houses
2 UseofSlunits
99 Shared accommodation
3 Drawing sheets
100 Privategarages
6 Drawing practice
9 Proportions
Gardens
11 Dimensions & space requirements
103 Enclosures
15 Quality of air
104 Siting & layout
16 Thermal comfort
105 Soil preparation
17 Visual efficiency
106 Pergolas/paths/equipment
18 Pattern & texture/noise & acoustics
108 Trees/shrubs
19 Access & circulation
109 Water
20 Roadways/parking
110 Gardens for disabled/rock gardens/roof gardens!
25 Lighting
floodlighting
27 Daylight 111 Garden structures
33 Sunlight
112 Indoor gardens/roof gardens
113 Water lily & fish pools
COMMUNITY 114 Swimming pools
Houses 115 Private indoor pools
38 Design/organisation/orientation 117 Domestic sauna
41 Access
44 Standards & regulations Education
45 Relationship to otherbuildings 118 Schools: principles
47 Thehouseplan 119 Early school
55 Kitchens 120 Rural schools
61 Bathrooms 121 Middle age range
66 Public rooms 123 Olderagerange
70 Bedrooms 127 Boarding schools
73 Storage 129 Media centres
76 Security/privacy 130 Furniture
77 Privateopen space 134 Colleges: lecture rooms
78 Adaptable houses 137 Schools ofart, design, drama,music
79 Underground houses 139 Drawing studios
80 Energy saving houses 140 Student hostels
82 Housing old people 142 Dining rooms
85 Housing disabled 143 Youth hostels
88 Balconies 145 Libraries
vi

Contents
Hospitals Restaurants
149 Health services structure 202 Planning factors
150 Modular design 203 Space allowance
151 Means of escape/fire protection 204 Table sizes
153 Design/building configurations 205 Snack bars
154 Ward design 206 Drive-in & self-service
156 Nurse working rooms 207 Using minimum space: restaurantcars
158 Ward design data/geriatric
160 Maternity Hotels
161 Paediatric& children 208 Types
162 Longstay 209 Flowdiagram
164 Psychiatric centres 210 Plan forms
165 Ward upgrading 211 Public rooms
166 Outpatients 212 Frontof house
168 Accident & emergency 213 Kitchens & food stores
169 Radiology 215 Administration
171 Operating 216 Guest bedrooms
173 Intensive care 218 Building services
174 Cardiac surgical/transplant/limb fitting 219 Motels
175 Burns/physical medicine 221 Convention hotels
176 Laboratories 224 Public houses
177 Pharmacy/libraries
178 Non-residentstaffchanging Office buildings
179 Offices/supply 225 Building type
180 Housekeeping 226 Definition of office areas
181 Community health care 227 Types of officeshell
228 Core
Religion 230 Relationships
182 Churches 231 Means of escape
185 Mosques 232 Services
186 Synagogues 233 lnternalenvironment
187 Crematoria/mortuaries 234 Construction
235 Space standards
COMMERCE 236 Special area requirements
Shops &stores 237 Spaces for meetings
188 Situation 239 Furniture
189 Movement between floors/service details 241 Storage
191 Windows 243 Equipment
192 Fire/boutiques
193 Food shops Banks
195 Chemist/men'swear/shoes/fashion fabrics 245 General/customer services/drive-in
196 Self-service 247 Examples
197 Supermarkets
198 Hypermarkets Vehicleservices
199 Shopping centres& precincts 248 Car parks
 vii

Contents
251 Multi-storey car parks 302 Beef cattle housing
253 Petrol stations 303 Pigs: basic data
255 Bus parks 305 Pigs: management
257 Rail station passengerdetails 306 Pigs: rearing & fattening
307 Sheep: housing

Airports 308 Sheep: handling/poultry housing

258 Planningsequence 309 Poultry: space requirements

259 Runways/taxiways/ferminals 310 Small domestic animals: doves/rabbits/dogs/small
poultry houses
260 Flow & functions
311 Kennels/beehouses/ducks/geese
261 Baggage handling/aircraftparking
312 Crop storage: grass/straw/hay/potatoes
262 Catering/aircraft maintenance/airfreight
313 Crop storage: grain
314 Machinery & implement storage
INDUSTRY
Industrial buildings LEISURE
263 Site selection/site development Sport
264 Basicbuilding types/selection strategy 315 Stadia: general design
266 Factorybuilding types 316 Stadia: sightlines/traffic
269 Warehouses 317 Stadia: terraces/grandstand
273 Site layout 318 Sport centres
275 Industrial parks 320 Sport halls:use of undivided space
276 Building environment 322 Outdoor: pitches
277 Planning for fire control 324 Outdoor: athletics
278 Environmental compartmentation/workplace design 325 Indoor: pitches
280 Hygiene 326 Indoor: pitches/athletics tracks
282 Loading bays 327 Indoor: athletics training
284 Rail-served buildings 328 Indoor: sports needing own space
285 Workshops 329 Swimming: indoorpools
288 Workshop equipment space 333 Swimming: openair pools
289 Workshop examples 334 Swimming: divingpool dimensions
290 Workshop design factors 335 Swimming: slipperbaths/showers
336 Swimming: pool changing rooms
Laboratories 338 Sauna planning
291 Classification/planning principles/space requirements 339 Tennis
292 Services distribution/disposal systems/storage 340 Ski jumping slopes
293 Special requirements/related spaces/finishes 341 Ski lumping slopes/icerinks
342 Ice rinks/roller skating rinks
Farmbuildings 343 Golf
294 Human welfare/cattle: basicdata 344 Equitation
295 Cattle: waste production & disposal 346 Marinas
296 Cattle: straw-bedded pens/cubicles/calf pens
297 Cattle: calf pens/feeding Theatres & Cinemas
298 Cattle: feeding/watering/ventilation/handling 348 Theatre regulation/organisation
299 Cattle handling/milking 349 Sight lines
301 Cattle: bull pens/dairy cowhousing 350 Auditorium
viii

Contents
351 Seating Lighting
352 Stage tower 398 General/building lighting/glare
353 Multiform 399 Task lighting/light sources/emergency lighting/outdoor
354 Cinema techniques/seating/multiple auditoria 400 Integration of electric lighting & daylighting
355 Cloakrooms/projection rooms
356 General layout/lighting systems/heating/ventilation/use Doors &windows
of 16mm
401 Doors: dimensions/fire safety/flow capacity/disabled
357 Screen & sound systems persons
358 Drive-in cinemas 402 Doors: industrial types
403 Windows: coordinatingsizes
Museums 404 Windows: positioning/safety & accessfor cleaning
359 Rooms/general layout 405 Windows: basic types/selection check list/ventilation!
double glazing
360 Lighting
406 Windows: shading devices
361 Examples

Corridors stairselevators
COMPONENTS
407 Walking speeds/corridor capacity/rampsfor disabled!
asurement
waiting areas
363 Introduction 408 Stairs: tread & rise proportions/regulations/fire escape!
364 Conversion factors stairs for disabled

366 Conversion tables 409 Escalatordimensions & traffic capacity/passenger

conveyors
410 Elevator dimensions
Materials
411 Elevator traffic capacity/paternosters
382 Building materials physical characteristics
412 Elavators for disabled/planning

Services
383 Distribution
385 Methods of heating
386 Heating systems
392 Ventilation REFERENCE

393 Thermal insulation 413 Bibliography

395 Sound insulation 429 Index
 ix

ErnstNeufert
Professor Technische Hochschule Darmstadt
Ernst Neufert, born in 1900, in 1919 became the first student of
architecture at the Bauhaus in Weimar. He left at the end of 1920 for a
study tour in southern Europe but before long Gropius called him back
as his assistant. In 1924 he became technical director of the Bauhaus
officesin Weimar and then manager ofthe Gropiusworkshop during the
rebuilding of the Bauhaus in Dessau' and alsotaught in the department
ofarchitecture atthe Bauhaus.
In 1926 he became professor and director of the department of archi-
tectureat the newlyfounded Building Technical College in Weimar and
shortly afterwards assistant director of the construction department. In
1930 he moved to Berlin to become head of the department of
architecture at Itten, a private school of art, and started to workas a
free-lance industrial architect. It was in Berlin that he brought outin 1936
the first edition of Bauentwurfslehre.
Contributors
Following the war he was co-founder and member of the board of
directors of the Bund Deutscher Architekten (Federation of German
Architects), was appointed professor at Darmstadf Polytechnic and
director ofthe Institute forStandardisation (Institut fur Baunormung)and
continued toworkalso as free-lance industrial architect.
Professor Neufert has lectured in many cities, suchas Graz, Belgrade,
Skople, Thessaloniki, Athens, Istanbul, Beirut, Karachi,Rangoon, Hong
Kong, inJapan's major citiesand at Neutrain Los Angelesand FLWright
inTaliesin West Arizona.
He is honorary member of the Real Academica de Ciencias y Artes
Barcelona and of the Royal Institute of British Architects, honorary
professor and doctor at the University of Lima, Peru. He has been
awarded the German Merit Cross with star, as well as various other
German and foreign honours
Ernst Neufert's other works include Bauordnungslehre (1943) and
lndustriebauten (1973).

UK contributors USA contributors

Peter Ackroyd Dip Arch (Poly)Reg Arch TheSports Council 8

Peter Frink BArch MScMFA Principal !rink BeuchatArchitects
AG Aldersley-Williams MArch(MIT) RIBA Engineering Design Walter Hart AlA Architect
Consultants Wm Dudley HuntJr BSc BArch FAIA
Norman SAllanson Des RCA FSIAD John SBonnington Partnership Margaret K Hunter BAAlA Architect
DerekWArnold ARIBA Edgar H Hunter BABArch AlA Architect
Nadine Beddington FRIBA FSIAD Robert T Packard BArch AlA Director AlA Documents/Architectural
(assisted by DermotO'Brien FSIAD) Graphic Standards Division
Robin G Booth MA MSc Dip Arch RIBA MRTPI John SBonnington MimiFord Paul BA BSArch Architect
Partnership Bradford Perkins SeniorVice President & GeneralManager Perkins &
Jan PetrCermák-z-Uhrinova BSc(Hons) TEng(CEI)MIAgrE Scottish WillArchitects
Farm Building Investigation Unit
J B Collins BSc(Eng) CEng MIEE FCIBS
DrFrancis Duffy ARIBA DuffyEley Giffone Worthington
JolyonV P Drury MA(Cantab) DipArch RIBA MIMH Jolyon Drury
Consultancy
Nelson Foley RIBA ChiefArchitect Trust House Forte
JA Godfrey ARIBA
David Jenkin DuffyEley Giffone Worthington
Eva M Jiricna DipI Eng Arch RIBA Louis Soissons Partnership
Geraint John DipArch(UCL) RIBA TheSports Council
Geoffrey Jones BArch(Lvpl)
Olwen C Marlowe ARIBA Dip LD(Dunelm) DipTP(Birm)
David LMedd OBEHon DSc ARIBA Department ofEducation &
Science
Mary B Medd OBE ARIBA Department ofEducation& Science
AlanMorgan DipArch RIBA
DermotO'Brien FSIAD
G J P O'Neill
Robert Payne DuffyEleyGiffone Worthington
Elizabeth Phillips DipArch RWA ARIBA
Dennis Sharp MA AA DipI RIBA
Deyan Sudjic BSc DipArch
Dr Martin Symes MA Dip Arch(Cantab) AA Planning Dip RIBA
Richard E Theakston Dip Arch RIBA JohnSBonnington Partnership
PR Tregenza BArch MBdgSc PhD RIBA MCIBS
R EVickers DLCCEng MICE British LiftStab Ltd
David Whitham MA(Cantab) AA Dipi
x
Acknowledgements
The Editors and the Publishers acknowledge with sincere thanks the
kind help and information provided by many individuals and organis-
ationsduringthe preparation of this work. The Publishers have made
everyefforttoestablish and properly acknowledge thecopyright owners
ofthe drawings and plans used in this book and wishtoapologiseforany
unintentional omissions that may have been made. Should any otner
acknowledgements be necessary the publishers will be happy todo so
whenthe book is reprinted.
Theworksof individual architects are acknowledgedthroughout thetext
but particular thanks are also due to:
HenryDreyfuss Associates forFig. 2 on page 9;
TheArchitecturalPress forFig. 1 onpage19and Figs1 and 2onpage22;
SunsetBooks for Fig. 4 on page 77;
The Architectural Press for Figs 1-9 on page83, Fig. 1 on page 84, and
Fig. 5on page86;
SunsetBooks for Figs 5 and 6on page 113 and for Figs 6-11 on page
114;
Moriyama and Teshima for Fig. 4on page 146;
Ahrends Burton and Koralek for Fig. 2 on page 148;
Powell Moya and Partners forFig. 3 on page 150;
Watkins Gray Woodgate International (UK) forFig. 1 on page 155;
R. Seifert and Partnersfor Fig. 5on page 157;
The Nuffield Foundationfor Fig. 1 on page 161;
Robert Matthew, Johnson-Marshalland PartnersforFig. 2onpage 161;
George TrewDunn Beckles Willson Bowes for Fig. 1 on page 167;
Wilson and Wilson for Fig. 2 on page168;
Robert Matthew, Johnson-Marshalland PartnersforFig. 2onpage 171;
The Oxford Regional HealthAuthority for Fig. 5 onpage172;
Donald A. Goldfinch Associates for Fig. 1 on page 175;
South East Thames Regional HealthAuthority for Fig. 1 on page 176;
The Nuffield Foundationfor Fig. 2 on page 176;
MehmetKonuralp for Fig. 3on page 192;
Isabe lieHebeyfor Fig. 4 on page 192;
The Architectural Press for Fig. 2 on page 198;
The National Playing Fields Association for Fig. 1 on page 322 and
Figures on pages 323—4;
The Architectural Press for Figs. 1, 4and 5 on page346 and forFigs 2-4,
7 and 8 on page 347;
Progressive Architecture for Fig. 3on page 361.
The following are reproduced by permission ofthe Building Directorate,
Scottish Development Department: Fig. 1 on page82, Figs 10and 11 on
page83, Fig. 2 on page84 and Figs 1-4and 6-8 on page86;
Fig. 1 on page 148 is reprinted fromArchitectural Record September
1976 © 1976, by McGraw-Hill, Inc., with all rights reserved;
Fig. 2 onpage155 is reproduced with thepermission of theController of
Her Majesty's Stationery Office;
Fig. 1 on page 162 is reprinted with permission from the American
Health Care Association Journal, Vol. 4, No. 4, July 1978. Copyright
© American Health Care Association. All rights reserved;
Fig. 3 on page 162 isreproduced courtesy ofArchitects Derek Stowand
Partners in association with the Regional Architect, South West
Thames Regional Health Authority;
Fig. 2onpage164 is reprinted from Architectural Record October 1979
© 1979, by McGraw-Hill, Inc., with all rights reserved;
Fig. 3 on page 171 is reproduced courtesy of Cullen Lochhead and
Brown in association with the Chief Architect of Western Regional
Hospital Board, T.D.W. Astorga, Esq., FRIBA;
Fig. 1 onpage174 isreprinted fromArchitectural RecordAugust 1977©
1977, by McGraw-Hill, Inc., withall rights reserved;
Fig. 4 onpage180 is reprinted fromArchitectural RecordAugust 1977©
1977, by McGraw-Hill, Inc., withall rights reserved;
Fig. 1 on page 201 is reprinted fromArchitectural Record June 1978 ©
1978, by McGraw-Hill, Inc., with all rights reserved;
Fig. Son page291 is theZoology Extension, EdinburghUniversity and is
reproduced by permission of the Designers, the Architecture
Research Unit, University of Edinburgh;
Fig. 1 on page 361 is reprinted from Architectural Record June 1977 ©
1977, byMcGraw-Hill, Inc., with all rights reserved.

Architects'Datafirst appeared in English in 1970, nearly thirty-
five years after Ernst Neufert published his rules for building
design' — Bauentwurfslehre — based on his lectures at the
Building Technical Collegein Weimar. He had arranged in one
book for convenient reference during design work, data on the
spatial needsof man in his home, his work place and his leisure,
and on his animals, toolsand belongings. The book clearly meta
need: in 1979 the 30th German edition appeared; it has also
been published in Spanish (12 editions), Italian(5), French (5),
Portuguese(3), Serbocroat(3), and in Russian, Greek andTurkish;
but beforethe present, only one edition in English,which came
late on the scene.
In the 1960s the book'sinternationalrepute led the Professional
Literature Committee of the Royal Institute of British Architects
and manyothers to recognise the need for an English language
edition; but to convert to imperial measureswas a greatobstacle.
Conversion tothemetric system in Britain and the Commonwealth
changed this. An English edition becamepossible. It was edited
by the late Rudolf Herz who had studied in Berlin and had
practised many years as an architect in the United Kingdom.
He had no easy task. With so big a book translationalone wasa
major undertaking; furthermore much terminology and some
practice details had to be modified. At that time, therefore,
publishers and editordid not try to bring the whole book up to
date;theyconcentrated on getting it out.
During the 1970s the need for a new edition thoroughly revised
became more pressing: there were new imperatives of energy
conservation, economic constraintand changing social needs to
affect the design of buildings. More influential still for such a
work: the 'information explosion', whose full force will be felt
duringthe 1 980s, changing the role of such a design handbook.
When he wrote Architects' Data nearly fifty years ago Neutert
provided a mixture of abstracted design, principles, hard data
and examples. Today there is less need for illustration of con-
struction details. Manufacturers increasingly distribute technical
information which can be filed in uniform office systems; and
withtelephone lineand videodisplay unit an office can reach vast
computerised and regularly revised data banks. To make sense
of this mass of information the architect now needs even clearer
guidance on the principles and bases of design.
Basis ofthe revision
Ouraim, therefore, has been to simplify,
rearrange and modernise.
Requirements or advice contained in regulations,standardsand
codes have for the most part been left out: theychange during
the life of the book and vary from country to country; moreover
for legal and codified data the designer should always look tothe
original source. Full references have been given. Informationon
construction elements (such as foundation, brickwork, roofs)
can easily befoundelsewhere; it has been leftout or reduced to
make moreroom for more fundamentalworkon building types.
At the beginning 'Basic data' summarises the essentialsof the
human scale in architecture and at the end 'Components' brings
togethersomenew Europeanplanningguidelines forthespaces
needed to install, operate and maintain the oftencomplex services
now required in buildings; technical aspects of the internal
environment; and practical criteria for such components as
windows, doors, stairs and elevators.Thoughtheyare not directly
applicable in a non-metric context we felt these pages to be of
wide interest in their approach to the presentation of such
information. In the body of the bookthe measureof whatto leave
out, what to put in or to expand has been: does this help the
designerin solving heror his problems of spatial needs?
xi
Foreword
The sequence of sections has been rearranged. All parts have
beenreviewed, revised, brought up to date and in most instances
expanded: this edition is twenty-five per cent longer and perhaps
seventy-five per cent new in substance. Special attention has
been given to new thinking on housing, education, hospitals,
industrial construction and farm buildings. The section on sport
and leisure has been made far more comprehensive.And through-
out the implications of energy conservation, the needs of the
elderly and disabled,and defenceagainstfire havebeen stressed.
As the first internationaledition to be published the book contains
several building types which are not common in some countries.
Both British and American contributors liked this. In some
instances,suchas shopping precincts,more than asingle building
is involved; for these the information given is more general. In
others, such as underground houses, prolects aswell as finished
buildings have been given as examples, although this is the
exception.
Units of measurement
The International System of Units (SI) is used for all units of
measurement. A decision on how to apply the system faces
architects and engineers when drawing plans. at what point to
switch from the basic mm to the derivative m. There appears to
be no ruling by authority on this. In Architects' Data it is solved
in two ways. All linear measurements in text are given in milli-
metresup to 9999, standing as herewithout indicator,and from
10 m upwards they are givenin metres with the indicator m. On
theotherhand in the many smalldiagramswhich formoneof the
book's most useful elements, four figure dimensions would
oftenmake for clutter: wherethereisthisdanger, for dimensions
above 999 metres are used without the indicator m.
There has to be one exception to this rule. In sportinternational
dimensions standardsare given: some of theseare still expressed
in 'imperial'or US customaryunits. This sectionthereforepresents
an unavoidable mixture.
To meetthe needsof users in the United States of America, who
are mostly still using US customary or 'imperial' units, a set of
conversion factors and tables is provided —.p364—81 (with a
simplified version on p434). In other appropriate
instances the graphicscale may be used (see below).
Scales
Many of the plans and diagrams in the book do not needscales;
their purposeis to expressrelationships or situations. In many
others the practical needs of the user are best answered by
giving dimensions on the drawing. Scales are used only in
relation to plans or diagrams of specific buildings or installations
and these are shown graphically in metres and feet.
Style
This book is not literature; it is a practical manual. The text is
telegraphic and predicatory; in this it follows the practice ofErnst
Neufert, who wrote in his first edition that his aim had been to
'reduce, schematise, abstractthe elements of design basics so
as to make simple imitation difficult and to oblige the user to
create form and content out of data'. The size of many of the
diagrams makes necessary the use of abbreviations, these are
therefore used consistently in all plans and diagrams and in
captions, the most common in the text also, the intention being
that theyquickly become familiarto the user. Abbreviationsused
in the book(—pxiii) are also listed forquickreferenceon
p434 which carries the conversion tables and factors.
Language is a usual problem in a book intended for users both
xii
Foreword
sidesthe Atlantic, ntto mention othercontinents. Sometimes it
is possible to find a neutral alternative expression; at others we
have risked annoying everybody occasionally by choosing a
word fromone or the other usage: thusthe British have to accept
aisle', 'elevator' truck'; North Americans must stomach 'foot-
path', 'ground floor' for 'first floor' (and 'second' for 'first' . .
'cooker'for 'range' (which has a limited specific meaning in the
United Kingdom). Only rarely have we fallen back on using a
double expression such as 'trolley (cart)'. NorthAmericanreaders
are also asked to accept that British spelling has been used all
through.
Distantly related is the problem of the rule of the road. Quite a
numberof illustrations show access roads, car parking, turning
circles and such details. Some have their origin in continental
Europe, some in North America, some in the United Kingdom.
Rather than try to convertall to one rule we have indicated on
each relevantpage whether it refersto elior right handcirculation.
Acknowledgements
The contributors in the UK and USA who have made this new
edition possible are named —pix. Authors, publishers,architects,
institutions and public bodies who have allowed the use of
How to use the book
Arrangement
The contents table —.pv shows the grouping of subjects & sequence
ofthe book: frombasicdata for man & his buildings, through man in his
community, to buildings for commerce, industry & leisure, to some
technical planning data & regulations. It can be used to find the pages
referring to a given subject suchas 'shops &stores'.
The index —.p429 is a tool for quick reference to a point of detail eg
'access', 'shower', 'wheelchair'.
Thebibliography —.p41 3 isdivided into3 parts: athe mainalphabetical
(and numbered) list of publications for further reference, & extracted
fromthis ba list of the most important regulations&codesofthe UK &
USA, c a list of references under subject headings eg 'airports',
'disabled', 'offices','schools'.
Abbreviations used—pxiu are also given on p434 together with
conversion tables from metric to USA customary or imperial
measures
Units of measurement: Sl—pl, conversion—p364 & p434.
copyrightsare listed on the pagefollowing. Warmest thanks to
all.
Planning and execution of the revisions, changes, new concepts
and improvements, while a cooperativeeffort, have been entirely
the publishers' responsibility. But theworkwould not have been
possible without consultant editor George Atkinson, whose
experience, technical knowledgeand practicaloutlook have been
invaluable, We are indebted also to Wm Dudley Hunt, whose
professionalism and expertise, which are the basisof the respect
he already enjoys in the USA, have helped enormously in the
completion ofthe book.
Lastly we salute and thank Patricia Crowe, whose secretarial
skills gave us a clear course through the seas of paper, and
deputy editorRichard Miles, whostepped in to see things through
in the later stages ofthe work. The formidabletask of drawing or
revising the manynew or modified figures fell to Sheena Busby
MSAAT and the design and layout of the printed page to Tony
Leonard, to both of whom our sincerest thanks.
Vincent Jones
John Thackara
Application
Suppose you have to prepare a scheme for a college of further
education. Under 'education' inthe contents there are pagereferences
for lecture rooms (134), schools of art (137), student hostels (140),
dining rooms (142), libraries (145): these together givesome ofthemain
components needed.
On studying thesepages you will find cross references (indicated—.) to
other sections suchas accoustics (18 395), auditorium (350), cinemas
(354), fire escape (44 91), kitchens (213), sanitary units (65), seating
systems (351), shared accn (99), sighttines (351 ), space standards(44
48), workshops (288)
General information on proportions & human measurements is given
—.p9—24, on services, heating, lighting, sound ventilation & such
components as elevators, stairs, windows —.p383—4l 2.
Regulations & codes should be studied before starting any design:
—.bibliography fora listof the most important.
 XIII

Abbreviations
Abbreviations used intext and diagrams are listed below, gal gallon
NB: pluralsarenot used inabbreviations gar garage
A ampere GP general practitioner
ar area gu guestroom
AC alternating current
accn accommodation h height orhigh
admin administration ha hall or hectare
arch architect hb (wash) hand basin
ANSI American National Standards Institute hr hour
ASTM American Society for Testing & Materials HUD Deptof Housing & UrbanDevelopment
av average hum humidity
Hz hertz
B bed
b bath ICBO InternationalConference ofBuilding Officials
base basement IES Illuminating Engineering Society
bathr bathroom IFLA InternationalFederation ofLibrary Associations
bedr bedroom ISO InternationalOrganisation for Standardisation
balc balcony (Organisationinternationalede Normalisation)
bldg building in inch
bldg reg building regulation
BOCA Building Officials & Code Administrators J joule
BRE Building Research Establishment
BS(I) British Standards (Institution) °K degree Kelvin
Btu British thermal unit k kitchen or thermal conductivty
BZ British zonal classification kg kilogram
kgf kilogram-force
C orcpd cupboard/USA cabinet km kilometre
degreeCelsius
c/c centre to centre/USA on centers I litre, length, long
Cd candela Ia larder
CGS central general stores lab laboratory
ch children au laundry
CIBS Chartered Institute of Building Services lay lavatory ortoilet
CIE Commission internationalede I'Eclairage(International lib library
Commission on Illumination) liv living room
ck cooker/USA range lob lobby
classr classroom lx lux
do cloakroom
consult consultation, consulting (room) m metre
corr corridor mdr maid's room (Orau pair)
CP code ofpractice max maximum
CSSD central sterile supply depot mech mechanical
med medical
d day or depth ME maintenancefactor
dayr dayroom mm minimum
dB decibel MIT Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology
DC directcurrent mm millimetre
deg degree rn/s metres persecond
dept department mur music room
DES DepartmentofEducation &Science
DF daylight factor N newton
DHSS DepartmentofHealth & SocialSecurity NFPA National Fire Protection Association
dia diameter nur nursery
DoE Department ofthe Environment
DPC damp proofcourse off office
di diningroom oper operating
dre dressing room OS Ordnance Survey
DSR domestic service room OSHA Occupational Safety & HealthAct

E illumination P passenger, patient, person, pupil

el electrical pa parents room/USA master bedroom
eqp equipment pe physical education
exam examination pto power take-off
ptr pantry
°E degree Fahrenheit
fdn foundation R radius
FFL finished floorlevel/USA elevation radr radiator
FHA Federal Housing Authority RC reinforced concrete
fr fire resistant reg regulation
ft foot rh relative humidity
RHA Regional Health Authority
gram RIBA Royal Institute of British Architects
xiv

Abbreviations
s second USHB United States Hospital Board
SBCC Southern Building Code Congress USPHS United States Public Health Service
sd scullery uty utility room
ser servery
SfB system ofclassification (building literature) V volt
sho shower
sitr sitting room W watt
SI Système international dUnités w width
sk sink wa wardrobe/USA closet
St seat washr washroom
sto store (-age) wc water closet
stu study workr workroom
wp working plane
tonne wr waiting room (orarea)
temp temperature
T&G tongued & grooved yd yard
ter terrace yr year
centre line
UDC universal decimal classification 0 diameter
UF utilisation factor greater than orequal to
UK United Kingdom equal toor less than
USA United States of America

1 LeonardodaVinci: ruleofproportion
In the past dimensions based on the human body, and on man's daily
activities, provided a natural basis forall unitsof measurement.Common
units like the inch — twelfth part of the foot, palm, hand, span, cubit —
length of the forearm, eli — outstretched arm, yard — pace are directly
related to dimensions of the body. Other units (pole, furlong, mile —
pound, stone, bushel etc) have theirbasis in human activities.
While trade was largely local and manufacture on a craft basis, local
variations in measurements were of limited importance.The growth of
science and technology, and the establishment of centralised states,
typified in 18th century France, led to a demand for rationalisafion of
weights and measures. This the metric system, first adopted in 1790,
met. It had ageodetic and decimal base, divorced from human dimen-
sionsand fromthe duodecimal bases of many earlier systems
BasicData 1
The human scale in architecture
During the 19th and early 20th centuries, the metric system went
through several refinements asscientific knowledge about the physical
world progressed. Out of these refinementsarose the 'Système Inter-
national d'Unités'(SI) now almost universallyadopted. Architects' Data
isbased onthe use of SI units—.p2
Architectural design remains largely about man and his spatial needs.
The aim of Architects'Data is to bring together in convenient form
dimensional and spatial planning information relating to most human
activities. Thechange to SI which took place in the UK —and many other
English-speaking countries — in the 1970s stimulated a fresh look at
userrequirements and their dimensional framework. The introductionof
SI in the USA during the 1980s will have asimilar effect
2 BasicData
Use of SI units
The rationalisedmetric system Système InternationaldUnités (SI) isa
quantity unit symbol coherent system, nearly all the quantities needed being derived from
only 6 basic and arbitrarily defined units—9(1).
length metre m
mass kilogram kg To avoid using largeorsmall numbers a set ofprefixes hasbeenagreed
time second s note:practicalunit for temp for general use in the SI system. These are set out—C(2). In selecting
el current ampere A isdegreeCelsius(°C): prefixesconsideration should be given toorders of magnitudelikelyto
absolutetemp degreeKelvin CK temp intervalsofKelvin& be met with in practical situations. To reduce confusion preference
luminousintensity candela cd Celsiusare identical should begiven tomultiples and sub-multiples chosenin steps of1000.
Those multiples shown in brackets—.(2)are not recommended.
1 Basic units
SUPPLEMENTARY& DERIVEDUNITS
name symbol orderofmagnitude expression
From the 6 basic units others have been derived and mostly given
G 10 1000000000
giga special names —C(3). For use in design ofbldg thesefall into 5 groups:
mega M i0 1000000
space and time —.(4); mechanics and properties of matter —.(5); heat
kilo k i0 1000
and energy—C(6); acoustics and sound -(7);and illumination—.(8).El
hecto h 102 100
deca da 10 10 units, already well established, are also reproduced—C(3).
2
deci d 10 0.1 Some multiples and sub-multipes of basic units in common use also
centi c 10 2 0.01
have special names:
milli m 10 0.001
6 litre 103m3
micro 10 0.000001
nano n 10 0.000000001 tonne 10 kg
hectare 10 m2
2 MUltiples & sub-multiples of SI units Conversion factors & tables —.p364—81. Use of SI units—.Bib135

physicalquantity name symbol relation tobasicunits

quantity name symbol expression

force newton N = kgrn/S2

oule = kg m7/s2(orNm) temperature degreeKelvin °K 1 °K
work,energy,quantity J
of heat degreeCelsius CC (273.15°K)
Mi 1000000 J
powerorenergyflow watt W = kg m2/s3(orJ/s) energy megajoule2
rate (heatisonly one torm kiloioule kJ 1000 J
= kg/rns2(or N/ni2) ofenergy) ioule J 1 J
pressure,stress pascal Pa mJ 0.001 J
el charge coulomb C = As millijoule
1000000W
el potential volt V = kg rn2/s3A(orW/A) powerorheat flow megawatt MW
= A2s4/kg m2 (orAs/V) rate kilowatt kW 1000W
el capitance farad F watt W 1 W
el resistance ohm ft = kg rn2/s3A2 (orV/A) (energy/time)
= cycle/s milliwatt mW 0.001 W
frequency hertz Hz k-value W/mCC
magneticflux weber Wb = kg m2/s2A2(orVs) conductivity
transmittance U-value W/rn2°C
magneticflux density telsa T = kg/s2A(orWb/m2)
inductance H = kg m2/s2A(Vs/A) vapourpressure newton/rn2 N/m2(1 millibar= 100N/rn2)
henry vapourresistance
luminousflux lumen urn = cd sr
illumination lux lx = cdsr*/rn2(orlrn/rn2) (reciprocal of MN5/g
vapourdiffusion)
* sr sferadianorsolid vapourresistivity
anglesubtended at centreofunitradius sphereby (reciprocal ot
unit area ofsurface MNs/ m
vapourdiffusivityor
permeability)
3 DerivedSI units
1
theabsoluteorKelvinscaleisusedin science andistheofficialSI scale
quantity name symbol expression butforall practical purposesCelsiusisused;
2 1 therm
approximates to 105.5 MJ
length kilometre km 1000rn
metre m lm 6 Energy,heat &thermalinsulation;technicaldatap16 393—4
millimetre mm 0.001 m
area squarekilometre km2 1 000000 rn2 quantity name symbol
hectare ha 10000m2
squaremetre m2 1 m2
frequency hertz Hz
squarecentimetre cm2 1 cm2
(cycle/second)
volume cubic metre m3 1 m3 soundlevel1 decibel dB
litre I 0.001 m3 reverberation time2 second T
absorption3 sabin s
velocity kilometre/hr km/h 0.218m/s
metre/second rn/s 1 rn/s
usuallyasA-weightedsoundpressure inN/rn2
1 sound levels recorded

units: dB(A)
4 Space&time I
2 reverberation time = 0.16 V/AwhereV is volume of rrn in m3 & Ais
totalsoundabsorption
quantity name symbol expression unitofabsorption, thesabin, = a x Swherea isthesound absorption
coefficientofamaterial, Sitsar
mass tonne I l000000g rAcousfics; technicaldata p18 395—7
(1 000 kg)
kilogram kg 1000g
gram g ig quantity name symbol
milligram mg 0.001 g
force candela cd
luminousintensity
(mass/acceleration) meganewton MN 1000000 N luminousflux lumen rn
kilonewton kN 1000N (flowof light)
newton N iN illurninance lux lm/m2
(1 lbforce approximates to 4.5 N) (lightfallingon surface)
pressureor stress Pascal Pa 1 N/rn2
luminance apostilb cd/rn2
(force/area) (sometimes expressed as N/mm2)
(light emittedby source) (candela/rn2)

5 Structuraldesign 8 Illumination; technicaldata p25—6398—9

 BasicData 3

Drawing sheets
LAYOUT& IDENTIFICATION
Layout: on every sheetfiling margin, titleand identification panel.
Filing margin: at left hand edge 20 wide. Filing punch marks and
-- foldmarks printed as ticksatedges ofsheet(microfilming—.p7).
Titlepanel: place in bottom right handcorner of sheet toaid reference
when prints tiled or folded —(1)(2). Include: job title; drawing title;
scale; date of drawing; job number; SfB and UDC reference if appro-
priate; name of architect. Panel may also give initialsof person drawing,
tracing and checking sheet. USA panels—*(3).
Revision suffix should be changed each time drawing issued after
revision; or list each revision as is USA practice.
Printed blank title panels or use of stencils, transfers or rubber stamps
save timeand labOur,
Information panel: note nature and date of each revision, with archi-
tect's initials; start atbottom ofpanel and workupwards Ifgeneral notes
included start at top and workdown.
Key: on large prolecfs give key diagram showing continuous drawing
sheets, with appropriate partblacked inon each relevant drawing.
Orientation: showN point on every plan. When practicable all plans
should have same orientation, except for site location plan. For this draw
N at fop ofsheetto avoid identificationwith official maps

3 Information&title
A2 Al BI AO
panels in USA a vertical
arrangement bhorizontal iniormaiion
panei

iuiiepanei
0
('I

90 I
1 Typicaltitle panel: vertical
b

—Is

180

2 Typicaltitle panel: horizontal

4 Basic Data

Drawing sheets
SIZES & FOLDS
Standard sizes
A0841 xl 189
Al 594 x 841
A2420x 594
A3 297 x 420
A4210x 297
These sizes all proportional, leading to simple reduction and enlarge-
ment: sheets may easily be folded tor filing and despatch. Relatively
small sizes should lead to easier handling in drawing office and on site.
Keepnumber ofsizesto mm toease binding and reference.
Original drawings and contactcopies should each be ofstandard sizes;
therefore avoid trimming sheets to less than A sizes.

Folding
Printsmay be folded toA4 size quite easily from any large A size.
When prints are to be filed necessary to told in such way that punch
holespenetrate only 1 layer. Methods offolding —.( 1)and p5.

I I

—-. —--———.———.-
A0 ———-
841 x 1189
-—

Al
594 x 841

A2

420 x 594

A2

430 x 594

A3

298 x 420

1 Simplefoldingofdrawings
 BasicData 5

Drawing sheets
SIZES & FOLDS

A0

x 1189

:'
841

105

IN' I

//I
/ >! I

rg
I'// I
I

Al
594 x 841
=
i
105—
It
H> N-
V 0)

A2 N-
0)

420 x 594
20

A2

420 x 594

A3

297 x 420

1 Foldingofdrawingsforfiling
6 BasicData

Drawing practice
Designer's principal languageis through drawingand draughtsmanship.
typeof parts ofbldg
information &site Drawingsexpress his intentionsclearly.Theyare internationallyreadable.
Supplemented by schedules and specifications of materialsand work-
manship they enable quantities of materials needed and prices to be
estimated, bids to be drawn up, work to be planned by builder and
kxation carriedout on construction site. Drawingsare principal meansbywhich
designer'sintentions are discussed with clientand authorities.On basis
I-i, substructure of architect's drawings designs of specialists (eg structural, mech,
II!-h.-_ superstructure el engineer) and work of specialist contractors can be planned and
secondary coordinated.
elements
4— finishes In recent years much attention has been given to use of drawings and
.
-thJ-_-
foundation plan
-- seMces
111114__ fixtures
4-— Site
theircoordination —up7. Draughtsmanhas availablewide range ofinstru-
ments and tools. Since first English edition of Architects' Data unpre-
cedented developments in reprographic techniques and computer
graphics.

WORKINGDRAWINGS
assembly—1
Working drawings should convey bulk of technical information about
substructure bldg project. Builder needs to know 'shape', 'size'and 'location' ofbldg
4— superstructure as whole and of all constitutent parts and must be told 'composition' of
4— secondary materials to be used and assembly and fastening methods (—v Bib
elements
4— tinlehes 075 081).
[ (foundation i— services Grids on plans and key reference planes on elevations improve quality
L j details 4— fixtures
of dimensional information on working drawings; when repeated on
4— site
details they help to locate them in bldg. Composition best dealt with in
bills of quantities or specifications. Drawings and schedules should
indicate materials used; graphic symbols may be used for this purpose
(—eBib142).

Theset ofdrawings
substructure Two facetsof information used to classify information needed in struc-
superstructure turing sets of drawings: first differentiates between location,assembly
secondary
elements
andcomponent information; second parts ofbldg and site-.-.(1).
firushes
services —u(2) defines purposes oflocation,schedule, assembly and component
fixtures drawings.
site Not every type of these drawings will be required for 1 bldg proiect.
Some types of drawings and some types of information may be in
appropriate circumstances combined.
*there will beadditional
drawingsdeafing BRE tests favour elemental breakdown of bldg for systematic and
withproject aswhole
convenient arrangement of information. —x(3) shows universal list of
elements with codenumbers based on Cl/SfBtable 1 —up8 (—uBib553)
1 Arrangementoftheset (not used in USA).
iocation site&externai to identify, locate & dimension the
Works Site & externat works
therewill building toidentify, iocate & dimension parts
be additional & spaceswithinbldg & ioshow
iocation overaii shapes by plan,eievahon (— —) site,project
drawings orsection
deahng with to locategrids,datums S key substructure superstructure services site
fittings
pro(ect as reference planes
whole toconvey dimensions forsetting Out
togiveotherinformation ofgenerai (1—) (2—) (3—) (4—) (5—) (6—) (7—) (8—) (9—)
nature forwhichsmat scale is finishes mainly lived loose external
ground primary secondary mainly
approriate (eqdoorswings) substructure eiements eiemenfs piped el elements

element: togiveiocation & setting-out (10) (20) (30) (40) (50) (60) (70) (80) (90)
information about 1 eiemerit. or external
works
groupofreiated elements
(it) (2t( (3t) (4t) (5t) (61) (it) (81) (91)
cross-references ioshow cross-references to ground external evternal external el suppiy circulation circulation
schedules, assembly & wails openings
component drawings
)t2) (22) (32) (42) (52) (62) (72) (82) (92)
internal internat internal drainage, power seating
schedute eiement: tocolectrepetitive information seating
walls openings waste fixed loose
about elements orproducts which
occurin variety (t3( (23) (33) (43) (53) (63) (73) (83) (93)
torecord cross-references to floorbeds floors floor floor liquid hghting culinary cutinary
assembly & component drawings openings supply
(t4) (24) (34) (44) (54) (64) (74) (84) (94)
assembty eiement. toshow assembiy ofparts of
f
element including shape size
stairs,
ramps
baiustrades stair gases
supply
communications sanitary sanitary
ofthoseparts
toshow an element at its unction )t5) (25) (351 (45) (551 (65) (75) (851 (95)
withanother element suspended ceiling space cleaning cieaning
toshow cross-references to other ceitings coohng
assembly & component drawings (t6) (261 (36) (46) 156) (66) (76) (86) (96)
foundations space transport sto sf0
component eiement or toshow shape, dimensions & heating screening screening
sub-elements assembly (&possibly composition) (17) (27) (37) (47) (57) (67) (77) (87) (97)
ofcomponent tobe made away piles roofs roof roof ventitation special special
frombldg openings activity activity
toshow coinponent parts ofan inSitu
(18) (28) 138) (48) (581 (68) (78) (88) (98)
assemblywhich cannotbe defined frames security,
adequately onassembly drawing control

2 Typeofdrawing& purpose 3 Elemental breakdown(from Ct/SfBtable 1)

 BasicData 7

Drawing practice
WORKINGDRAWINGS(cont)
Elementcode (stairs)
Numbering, titling&coding
Sheetnumber —(1)shows simple numbering system, (—.BibO8l).Other information,
suchas job number, or information relating drawing to particularblock,
zoneor rm, best placed inseparate but adjacent block.
Titles should be brief but comprehensive. If drawing shows particular
A(24)2 feature of element, this should be stated in title, If detail applies at
particular location, thistoo should be stated—.(2).
Schedules of components, finishes etc can be used as convenient
Assemblydrawings collecting centres for cross-reference.

Preparation oftechnical drawings formicrofilming

1 Simplenumberingsystem Microfilming increasingly used for storing record drawings Drawing
sizes —=(3) and mm character height for capital letters and numbers
Title Title
(4)(—.Bib128).
Drawings should be on smallest standard sheet size compatible with
Assembly Assembly clarity. Drawing sheets larger than AO' should be avoided. Centring
Stairs Frame markin form of line should be shown at centre of each of 4 sides at
drawing frame —.(3).
Halflanding Beamsongrid
staircase No 3 lines A & C Since size of copy printed back from microfilm usually different from
size oforiginal reference to scale used should bestated on drawing: eg
2 Titling (original scale 1:5).
International papersizes
designation nominal size nominal drawing frame preferred Derivation of ISO A series of paper sizes —.(5). Drawing sheets sizes
ofsheet borderw size orientation*
and folds—.p45.
AU 841 xl189 20 801 x 1149
Scale ratios
Al 594 x 841 20 554 x 801 long
A2 420 x 594 10 400 x 574 horizontal
Introduction of metric reduces number of scale ratios compared with
USA traditional scales —(6).
A3 297x 420 10 277x400 longside
A4 210x297 10 190x277 vertical
* To facilitate automated traditionalscales metricscales remarks
printing on rollstock
(expressed asratio)
preferred other
3 Drawingsheet sizes &framesizes
fullsize [1:11 1:1 nochange
half full size [1:2] 1:2 nochange
drawingsheetsize character h
application mm
4=10" [1:3]
drawing number AU, Al, A2& A3 7 3=10" [1:4]
&title 1:5
A4 5
2=10" [1:6]
11/2'' = 10'' [1:8]
1'lO
dimensions &
all other
AU 3.5
1=10" [1:12]
=
3/4 10" [1:16]
characters Al, A2, A3 & A4 2.5
1:20
1/2'' = 10'' [1:24]
note: it is stressed that recommendations in thistable
aremm; however, whenlowercaselettersare usedthey (1:25) (limited use)
should beproportioned sothatbody h approx is ¾" = 10" [1:32]
1/4''= 10'' [1:48]
0.6 times capital letterh
1:50
Mm characterh forcapital letters&numerals 1" = 5'O" [1:60]
= 10'' [1:64]
/0=10 [1:96]
1:100
1"=lO'O" [1:120]
AD Al = 10" [1:128]
1/16' = 10'' [1:196]
1:200
1=200" [1:240]
B41594 (1:250) (limiteduse)
1/32" = 10" [1:384)
1" =400" [1:480]
1:500
1" =500" [1:600)
1" =600" [1:720]
ll89B41 1" = 1 chain
A3j 1=800"
[1:792]
[1:960]
geometricderivationof successivehalving 420 297 [1 425
ISO 'A'senes ofsheet sizes 1:1000
'2
constant ratio ofsides1:
—
lar ofADsheet 1 m)
total: 24 9 1

(2)

5 ISOAseriesofinternationalpapersizes 6 Metric&traditionalscaleratioscompared
8 BasicData

Drawing practice
LEVELS REFERENCING

General Levelson section& elevation

Levels record distance of position above or below defined datum. UK practice usessame method as for tevets on plan except that level
should be prolectedbeyonddrawingwith arrowhead indicating appropriate
Datum tine—(1a).
Properlysurveys refer site elevationstodatumestablishedbygovernment
on olticial maps. UK temporary bench mark tTBM) USA site bench Classification& coding
mark establishes ptane to which atl other tevets related as positive it tn USA practice drawings used to show locations and dimensions ot
above' and negative if below Dimensions given in mm, or in USA btdg elements and materials identified in notes bygeneric terminology.
rormatiy in ft and tenths of ft. in relation to datum Specifications accompanying drawings describe materials and work-
manship. Widespread use of standard construction indexing system
Levelson plan improved both coordination and reference between drawings and
On site diawings show existing levels ditterently fromintended levets specifications and costestimating and product data
Existirrg contours showndotted new contoursin solidlines. Spot elevations
ahown StB system of classificationand coding ot btdg componentsand elements
(applied in UK as Cl/StB —.Bib553(allows information be coordinated
existingleveL x 58.21 and correlated
row level Ix 60.251
By means of SfB information contained within different kinds of docu-
Exact position towhich level apptiesshould be indicated by 'x ments (eg billsof quantity,drawings, specifications,texts,frade literature)
[root levels should be clearly indicatedon plans can be coordinated and correlated for max benefit of user.
UK Finished Floor Level FFL 60.25 StB is facet system of alpha-numericalsymbols forming 3 tables which
USA Finshed Floor Elevation FFE 60 25 may be used individually or in combination to indicate concepts and
terms required
Levels on sectior' arid elevation —l1).
These tables list: building elements, components/products, materials;
alsop6(3).
Eachtype ofcomponent orelement shown ondrawing may be identified
by appropriate StB notation eg:
FFL 107.0OO 01
lfirsifloor) concrete blocks Ff2
concrete lintels Gf2
G-01 FFL 1O4.OO0 aluminium sections Hh4
mezzanine) V hardwood sections Hi3
FFL 101.0001 G
manholes (52)
(ground floor)
external walls (211
TBM 100.000, windows (31)
level doors (32)
FFL datum 98.000 B-01 radiators (56)
(basementl
Notations may be combined eg:
V

external walls, concrete block (21 (Ff2

windows, aluminium (31)Hh4
doors, hardwood (32)Hi3
Keep number and length of component and element notations to mm
- -.- -- compatible with rational system of identificationforeach particular ob.
elevation9753
U
i— Specific component within any range may be identified by suffix giving
nominal sizesforlength, width, height:
concreteblock Ff2400mmx 100mm x 200mm
1L
secondfloor
elevation6096
Alternatively, where principles of modular coordination are applied,
0 such suffix may give nominalsizes forcomponentorelement in multiples
of 100mm(M( eg: concrete block Ff2 4M x 1M x 2M
C,-,

0-mezzanine
elevation3048

firsto
ground- floor _____
I

eievaiion 00 'I,),
I-)—.
varies
groundlevel
Igrade)
Nexisting grade
elevarion 386r

b Drawing practice references:

—Bibtiography entries061 075081 082 095 127 128 135 142 290 322
1 Levelson section& elevation a UK bUSA 448463553621 638
 BasicData 9

Proportions
MAN: THE UNIVERSALSTANDARD

1 Proportions of humanbody

Bodyand reach characteristicsotpeople of key importance inarchitec-

tural design: fromearly time artists and scientists have been concerned
with dimensions and proportions of human body —.(1). In such dimen-
sional systems human body has been measured in terms ofhand, foot,
arm or head. Using data from anthropometrical survey one can plot sIandnlg6 7
graphsofmeasurements againsttheirfrequency ofoccurrence forming 78

curvedline —.(2). Normal, or bell-shaped, curve obtained when adult 3SD

76
standing heights or other measurementswhich depend on bone struc- 75
ture shownon graph. Curve is symmetrical if measurementsof group 2SD—74
normally distributed.
People by reason ofage, sex, physique and, possibly, disability show 1 SD ___________________
wide range of body and reach dimensions Anthropometry name used mean medrarc& node —

for science of measurement of human body and its movements in mean

space. From studies of functional anatomy concept of effective work 68
space has beendeveloped. Architects' Data brings together much of 6
this information. Although for purposes of design usually necessary to I SD 6€
65
use av human dimensions as criteria, should be borne in mind that only
64
half or less of population under consideration may be fully satisfied. In 2SD'— Semicurve

somecircumstances, particularly when designing for young children, 62

elderly or disabled, necessary totake account ofspecial needs, and of 3SD—61
variations fromav. In stature adult femalesaverageabout 5% less than 60
adult males and elderly women up to 1O% less. 1Q 2000 3000 4000 5000 60 7000 8000 9000 10000
Frequencynumbercr1 maies)

Frequencydistributioncurveforstanding h USA males

10 Basic Data

Proportions
Systems ofproportions have been used in design byarchitectsthrough-
out the centuries. Measurementsof classical bldg show basis of geo-
metrical proportion —.(1).
One frequently used proportionalrelationshipbasedon goldensection:
'1 relationship M:rn in which minor part m is to major part M as this is to
sum of both ie:
m:M = M:(Mm)-.(2)

RELATIONTO HUMAN SCALE

One architect to develop proportional system for use in design was Le
Corbusier. His concept Le Modu/or (Bib445)was first publishedin 1948,
though he had been evolvingthe ideaofcombininghuman dimensionsin
a mathematicalframework for some time previouslyin an attempt to use
in his designs a measure related tothe human scale which was univer-
sallyapplicable.
System uses Golden Section to mark out divisions of human body
—(3)(4). First proposal for Le Modulor was based on mans height of
1 720 (approx 5 ft 9 in), giving with outstretched arm —.(3) overall
dimension of2160. Later height of6ffDin (orabout 1 830) was adopted,
giving overall dimension of 2260 Based on these last dimensions 2
series, red progression and blue progression, were developed —.(6).
Each dimension is proportionally larger, or smaller, than its neighbour
giving harmonious progression. Using dimensions from the 2 series a
series of rectangulargrids can be formed, basedon Golden Section but
related tohuman scale.

1 CornerofDoruc templebased ongoldensection

1
1
\ I
\\
I-,
-
/2

M --\----- 4
a
/:
/ E

m
\' V2
'1

J
j•

2 Rectanglewith sides 4 The modular I

correspondingtogoldensection mA—M—Am-'

2160
5 Greektemplein plan&elevation based,as in—fl),on golden section

dimensions inSI units inmm dimensionsininches roundedto V2"

redprogression biue progression redprogression blue progression

952807
588867 1177735
363940 727880
224927 449855
139013 278025
85914 171829
53098 106196
32816 65633
20282 40563
12535 25069
7747 15494 306 609
4788 9576 1881, 377
2959 5918 1161/2 233
1829 3658 72 144
1130 2260 44½ 89
698 1 397 27½ 55
432 863 17 34
267 534 10½ 21
165 330 6½ 13
102 204 4 8
63 126
39 78
24 48
15 30
9 18
6 11

3 Humanproportions 6 Explanationsof dimensions&workingofLeCorbusier'smodular

 Basic Data 11

Man
DIMENSIONS& SPACEREQUIREMENTS co
Body measurements (I)
—.(1 )—(20) showbody measurementsbasedon Europeandata.—(21 )—
(26) show further body measurements based on USA data. School
children —.p131—32.
a

1375 —1 F—750— '— 625

—625—-—f a 1—300-I

small easychair
for

sewin'
I— —
900—1000

17 I 1250 —1 1V 1500 I 19i 1625 i 201 2000

F—860-—
—710—

24 ___
12 Basic Data

Man
DIMENSIONS& SPACEREQUIREMENTS
Mm dimensions and space requirements of human beings in some
common situations,basedon European measurements—.also p1 1 13 14

Space requirements between walls (for moving personsadd 1 Q% to w)

h*
13751

1
4

Space requirements of groups

i

3
875 4 1000 I
4 5
1150 I —
6
1700 -- - I
7
2250

8 Closelypacked 9 Normalspacing 10 Choir 11 Waitingqueue 12 Withshoulder loads

Step measurements

f
750- 4 750 —4 750 -4 I- 875 - 875—-I—-- 875 -—-4 4-—-- 1250 625 —4 2000
13 14 Marching 15 Strolling 16 Max/rn = 6persons

requirementsof variousbodypostures
r

H—1 125—1 I— 1000—H 4— 1125 —H

4_ 4— 875 —4 4-—625--t b— 875—I —1000 —4 4—-—- 1750 —---4
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Spacerequirements for hand luggage Space requirements with stick & umbrella

F—800 —4 —1000 —I 4— 2125 —4 —875-—1

25 26 27 28
 BasicData 13

Man
DIMENSIONS& SPACEREQUIREMENTS: ACCESS FORWORKON BUILDINGS

+ min2450
—-

1 Bodyclearance: prone

1000 —4-- 9 Service access: panel

-$ r-
2 Body clearance: crawl t mm 560
to 600

I(I recommended forangles 50" to 75"

rnin
if00 handrails required onboth sides ifrisers not
1250 left open orit nosidewalls
w 500-600with handrails

Lj 600mm between sidewalls

3 Bodyclearance: squat angle W 0

mm 300 50—55" 1620—1 570 880
-+--900-+- to350 57—60 1500—1450 900
63—66' 1370—1320 910
10 Serviceaccess: catwalk 69—72' 1270—1200 920
74—55" 1150—1050 950

recommended riser 180—250

tread 75- 150
4 Body clearance: stoop 45 dia max forhandrail

13 Service access: step ladders

w#
5 Bodyclearance maintenance
reachlevels 900
760

stand 1550

el1220 920
11 Service access. stairs

L1_-_600
mm entries for I man
300 330—450difficult
450—610 fair
61 0—920good

150 inclined
vertical

generally suitable forvertical movements75—90

wmin800 ladder frame should extend900aboveplatform
1100 w 380mm. 450 desirable
600 mm between sidewalls
650dia 150 toe space
(800 square
preferable)

ft
7 Service access: crawlway angle R W

75.0° 330 1150

78.0° 335 1050
80.5° 340 1000
83,0° 350 950
850 360 900
875° 370 850
90.00 380 max 800
300
mm 450dia or
square optimumrange provide back guardover 6000h

8 Service access: hatch 12 Service access. ramps 14 Serviceaccess: rung ladders

Proportions references
Bibliography entries 075 081 082 445
14 Basic Data
Man
WALKINGSPEEDS& FLOW CAPACITY —aIsop407
I— 625 - downstairs than up. Design details -.p86(5) 408/3
1 Normalpaceofmale adult on
horizontalplane
3 Tread&riseproportionrule-of-
thumb:going + twicerise = 600
5 If stairswide &straightdistance
ofwalk line fromhandrail550
7 W ofstairsallowing3peopleto
meet &pass
2 On ramp pace reduced:
desirableslope 10%—8%
350—400
a
4 Ifstairs narroworcurved
distanceof walklinefromouterstring
450—400
6 W ofstairsallowing2peopleto
pass
8 Stairs:USA dimensions
DIMENSIONS& SPACEREQUIREMENTS
NB Europeandata (1)—(7); USA (8)(9)
Stairs
Relation between riser and going for most normal staircases 2R: 1G
where R = riser (not greater than 190, or tor elderly and ambulant
disabled not more than 170: external steps 145 preferred) and G =
going (not less than 240, orfor elderly and ambulantdisabled not less
than 250: external steps 370 preferred).
Av walking speeds on stairs lower than in corridors: generally laster
down than up but in dense crowd down may be slower. Number of
mis-steps increases as size of tread reduced: more accidents going
Corridors& ramps
Factors affecting walking speeds on level footways (in oroutdoors):
purpose ofjourney;
age and sex;
whether single person or in group:
air temp(quicker in cold);
floorsurface;
whether carrying weight;
crowd density:
flow pattern.
Walking speeds vary within crowd; range between highest and lowest
speed can be equal to mean value.
Limit of free flow conditions in corridors: approx 0.3 P/rn2; higher
densities limit individual's ability walkat natural speed and overtake. At
density 1.4 P/rn2 (commonly adopted design max) most people will be
walking atless than natural speed and feel some discomfort
(
Short length of slope in level toofway scarcely affects walking speed;
similarly for low gradient ramps 5%). Steeper ramps can reduce
speed markedly: eg by20% with 10% gradient,40% with 15% gradient.
Elderly and disabled (—.p85(2) 87(11)) generally walk more slowly
down than up ramp (gradient 8%). Design details —op407.
Doors
With heavy trafficspeed offlow through doors depends on type of user
(eg old/young, carrying weight) and on density of traffic each side of
door. For heavy 2-waytraffic 2 separateopenings desirable.
Design details op401 —2.
Elevators
Traffic capacity determined by analysisofflowpattern—op410—12
w
same
as
stairs
mm2030
970
5—15
9 Ramp: USA dimensions
 Basic Data 15

Man & his buildings

Bldg shelter man against unwanted effects of weather, A principal Qualityofair
functionof their design is to ensure within bldg environment conducive Fresh air in open country consists largely of nitrogen, oxygen, water
towell-being and efficiency. Severalphysicalvariablestogether involved vapourand small amounts ofothergases. Amount ofwater vapour in air
in determining whether environment is, or is not, acceptable for 1 or always changing. Composition ofdry air—(1).
more human activities. There are indices which combine in various
Outside air may be polluted by contaminants released from industrial
ways physical variables which relate to human responses; 3 of these
indices relate to: thermal comfort, visual efficiency, acceptable levels processes, burning of fossil fuelsfor heatingortransportation,dust etc.
Indoor air may also be polluted —(2). Rates.at which contaminants
of noise—p16 17 18. Quality of air must be acceptable,not containing
contaminants whichmay be unpleasantoreven harmful. produced vary in part according to kinds of activity going on—(3)—(5).
Limiting values of common contaminants—(6).
Odours, mainly body odourand consequences of tobacco smoking,
constituentgas % byvolume present special problem: consist oflarge number ofconstituent chemi-
cals in small but variable proportions. Attempts to define and measure
odours chemicallyusually unsuccessful.In general tobaccoodour masks
nitrogen 78.08
20.94 body odour. Withnearly all odours effects become rapidly less noticed
oxygen
carbondioxide 0.03 after few minutes in conthminatedspace.
argon & othergases 0.95 Fresh air supply needed to maintain body odour at satisfactory level
depends upon standards of personal hygiene. Different for adults and
1 Compositionofdryatmosphere children —.(7).
For tobacco odourconditions, habits and patterns of occupancy vary
source contaminants
greatly. Ventilation requirements for offices depend on whether office
space small (when may be assumed all occupants smoke) or large
physiological C02,H20,bodyodour open-plan (when on avonly 50% or less will be smokers)—(8).
combustion(fullyburntfuels) C02,H20,S02
combustion(unburntor partially C0,CH4, petrolvapour Air quality may be maintained in 3 ways: by controlling production of a
burntfuels) contaminant, venting anyresidue toopenair; bydiluting contaminant by
householdactivities H70,odours bringing in outdoor airthrough windows,ventilatorsetc;byreplacingused
tobaccosmoking GO, odours, irritants
and contaminated airmechanically through system ofairconditioning.
2 Commoncontaminantsofair For exact conditions check relevant codes and standards.

activity contaminant

C02(l/s/P) H20 (water vapour) g/s/P a

resting 0.004 30 0
112

light work 0.006—0.013 40 a

moderatework 0.013—0.02 40 >
0.
heavywork 0.02—0.026 40 0.
very heavy work 0.026—0 032 40 to
a
3 Ratesofproduction of physiologicalcontaminants

activity H20 g/day/household

cooking 3000
bathing 1000
dish washing 1000 a
clotheswashing 500
clothesdrying 5000(automatic dryersto beventedtooutside) C.
a
a
4 Ratesof productionofwatervapour(H20)fromhousehold activities
C.
0.
fuel contaminant a
a
CO2 water vapour(H20) SO2
l/s/kW g/hr/kW l/s/kW

naturalgas 0.027 156 — occupationdensily m'/P

kerosene 0.034 96 8.9 x 10 7 Airsupply rateforodour achildren badults: 1 conditionsregarded as
lowpressure
130 — goodby occupants&acceptableto visitors 2intermediate3conditions
0.033
gas objectionabletovisitorsbutstill bearablebyoccupants
[co
5 ofRates
0.8 I/s/cigarettecarbonmonoxide (00)

production ofcontaminants bycombustion & smoking .? Co2 \ 7bodyodour

'
/[
,.
watervapour

\.' \'\
C) %

C
contaminant limitingconcentration % a
\t \ \\ X
— tobacco smoke

\(
C.,
2 (smalloff)

carbondioxide
carbonmonoxide
toxicity
0.5
0.005
flammability
—
120—75.0
C
o
\ \ \J(o(n-plan)
sulphurdioxide 0.0005 —
methane 30 5.0—15.0
E
a S
>
propane 30 2.0—9.5 I I
butane 30 15—8.5 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
acetylene 302 2.5—8.2 floor space/P: my/P
hydrogen 30 4.0—7.4
petrol(gasoline) 0.1 1.4—7.6 8 Ventilationrequirementsforoff: verticaldottedline shows lowerlimitas
definedbyUKOffices&Shops&RailwayPremises Act (assuming ceilinghof
6 Limitingvaluesof commoncontaminants 2.7m)
16 BasicData

Man & his buildings

THERMALCOMFORT
Am temp required for thermal comtort depends on occupantsactivity
and clothing worn Also depends on speedotairmovement and on hum 0
of air in temperate climates only to a small extentl
"or purpose ot specifying comfortable temp 4 levels of activity have
been suggested —f t) Also convenient to divide clothing worn into o
categories according to insulation which it affords, this being specitied
Eo
0
in the unit 'do': 1 'do' 0.155 ci" C/W. Exceptforbedctothing modern
o IS
indoor clothing rarely exceeds insulationvalue 1 do —.(2)
ri terms ofcomtort people atfected almost as much by tempolsurfaces
monthly mean outdoor temp 'C
which surround them as by that of air. 1 way ot specitying combined
affect of air and surface tempis by use of tempof globethermometer
- 13) However, if little ditference in rm between globe and air temp (as 4 Preferredindoortemp:USAtemprange greater. say —50"— +43C;for
happens in well insulated rm) air temp may be adequate measure ot interpretation—.text
thermal conditions
Important to distinguish between ventilationrateswhich affect airquality
by diluting contaminants and air movement which may aIled thermal
comfort. If air movement in rm exceeds about 0.2 m/s, higher rm temp
required to provide equivalenl comfort. In normal temperate environ-
rnenl effect of hum on perceived warmth very slight: but it people very
hellosduringvery active work or in very warm environment) high hum
will aggravate discomfort Air movement overskin will be beneticial
Nb particular level of tempwill be satisfactory for everybody. Not only

will dress and degree activity vary, but people differ in requirements.
L'sually adequate maintaintemp within 2 Cofoptimum. While no impor-
toot general ditterence between temp preterred by men or women,
yaung or old, there will bedifferences in part due toclothing and in part
toactivity Old people usually less active Children ofsecondary school 0
ade require similar temp to adults. but more tolerant ot variations. .0
0
Younger children even more tolerant and, being more active, prefer .0
lower temp 1 tudor intluencing clothing people wear is prevailing a)

outdoor temp For sedentary activities, carried out by people in their

isual clothing, preferred indoor temp generally lie within bands shown
— )4). Band A for bldg where heating,orcooling, plant operating: band B
toi free running' bldg iewhere no artificialmeans for heating orcooling
used; thermostat seftings USA: C (cooling in summer) D winter. (5)
shows baseline thermal comfort chartbased on USA data
Heating systems --.p385--91 ventilation 392

rateof metabolic
activity description heat produced.
W/m2bodyar
sleeping bodyrelaxed, lying down, reclining 40
sitting reading, typing, clerical work 50—60 drybulb) C)
standing little movement (eg serving at counter) 65—90
active whole bodymoving'walking.
bedmaking 90—130

Baselinethermal comfort chartbased on USA data

'typical surfacear01 male bodies 1 8rn',female1 6rn 5

1 Levelsofactivityusualinbldg

clothing description insulation value: do1

nude naked orlight underwear zero

light summer dress trousers & shirt 0.3—0 7
normal winterdress,skirt & lumper,
3-piecesuit 0.8—1.2

1 dlo—O 155m C/W

2 Categoriesof clothingwornindoors

clothing activity

sleeping sitting standing active'

nude 31 29 25 28
29 26 18
light 21
normal 27 23 17 13

estimates subtedt to degreeofuncertainty

3 Comfortablerm tempinstill air: C in globetemp

 BasicData 17
Man & his buildings
task VISUAL EFFICIENCY
design illuminance
(lux) (foot-candle) Visual performance depends on total perception of space: involves
circulation 150 quality of lightas well astotal amount. Indices tocoverdifferent aspects
13.935 of lightinghave been developed. Theydistinguish between artificialand
casualworkofshortduration 200' 18.5806
routinework (youngpeople) 3001? 27.8709 daylighting.
routinework eg in ott 5002 46.4515
demanding workegindrawing oft 750? 69 6773
Artificial lighting
fine workegtextileprocessing 1000? 92.9031 Important are quantity of light (illuminance)and glare,also reflectances
very fineworkeghandengraving 1 500:' 139.3546 of surfaces beinglit—.p25—6398.The task,and its relative importance
minuteworkeginspectionofveryfineassembly 3500 278 7093 against lighting its background and the whole space, determine Ilumi-
nance. Design illuminances, w mean illuminance over mainfenance
'it area windowlessnext higherlevel recommended cycle of lighting system, forcommon tasks —.(1).
2where retlectances of surfaces unusually low orerrorsintask have Visibility oftaskdepends ondirection ofincident light aswellas quantity
seriousconsequences nexthigherlevel recommended: where taskof Harsh shadows, and glare from bright or very bright light source or its
shortdurationlowerlevel maybeacceptable
reflection, undesirable. Glare can impair vision. But some shadowing
1 Designilluminances forcommontasks'illuminance -.p2526 helps perception of textures and shapes.
Discomfort glare arises when luminaires and other sources of light too
task max valueof glare index bright in contrast with general background. Degree of discomfort indi-
cated by glare index, recommended max values beingdetermined by
demanding 16 task: the more demanding thetask the lower thevalue acceptable—(2)
routine 19
routineforshortduration 22 Surface reflectances and colour of surfaces affect general brightness
casual 25 and distribution of light in rm,
circulation 28
Daylighting—*p27—32
Recommendedmax valuesof glareindex Windows in bldg have 2 main visual functions: to let light in during
daylight hours and to enable people to see out—or in. Theypermit entry
task minDF% into a bldg of solar energy direct, by absorption and reradiation by
atmosphere, and by reflection fromsunlit surfaces.Windowsalso source
of heat loss. Choice of window basic to architectural design - .p4O3—6
demanding 5
routine 2 As source of illuminationdaylight hasmany pleasantdirectionalqualities.
casual &circulation 0.5 Its quantity varies with outside conditions and is specified in terms of
DF; ie ratioof infernalto externaldaylightlevels—.p26—7. For lightingtasks
Mm DFforcertain types of task mm DF specified, based on percentages of typical working year that
required lask illuminance will beexceeded - l3)

COLOUR
Colour in bldg is both aid to vision and meansbywhich architect creates
pleasant, stimulating appearance. Good colouring and good lighting
interdependent.
Common practice of describing colours byarbitrary namesdeprecated.
Several systems for classifying colours. One such, standardised by
CIE, based on 3 physical attributes(wavelength, purify, luminance),
widelyused in colour lab but less suitable for architectural design than
American Munsell system, basedon 'value' (lightness). 'chroma' (satu-
ration ofpigment, or strength(. 'hue'.
Munsell 'hue' scale includes 10 major 'hue' regions, each sub-divided
—.141(5). Major 'hue' regions denoted by initials, positions in region by
numbers eg 7.5RP denotes reddish red-purple hue In UK attribute
'greyness' replacing that of 'value' or lightness. 5 distinct categories
used:grey: nearly grey: grey-clear: nearly clear: clear.
For use in design of lighting possible to determine fromMunsell value
approx equivalent reflection factor independent of hue' or 'chroma'
—(6l Hue planes —p18l1).

4 Munsellhue scale 10 namedhue bandswith 10stepsin each (100hue

stepsinall)

501' 75PB
N 2 4 6 810121416 N 2 4 6 810121416
perfect - - perfect
white white -
9
8
ii....._
•IU UUI 8
._
II
.

UI• UU UIUI
7

III I
UUU •••ii
7
6

4 UI.....
6
Munsellvalue reflection factor%
9)5
- ' U..
3
2

perfect
I
•. -.
perfect
black N 2 4 68 10121416 black
5
>3
iUUIUIUU
2

N
•••••••
UIIUI
._____
2 4 6 810121416
very light
light
middle
dark
9—9.5
7—8
5—6
3—4
72—84
42—56
20—30
6—12

chroma chroma verydark 1—2 1.5—2

5 Vertical '/2-sectionsthroughMunsellsolid at aparticularyellow(5Yl & 6 ReflectionfactorequivalentstoMunsell value

particularpurple-bluehue (7.5 PB) withneutral axiscommonto both filled
rectanglesindicateapproxscopeof colourpatches in Munsell atlas
18 Basic Data

Man & his buildings

PATTERN& TEXTURE
Many bldg materials have texturedorcolour-patternedfinishes. Patterns
large in scale, with clearly distinguishableelements, allow each element
to be related to an individual colour. But if pattern small-scale, only
dominant or composite colour stands out. As scale reduced, eg by
increasing viewing distance,strong contrastsin colourlose effectiveness.
Changes in appearance with distance valued characteristic of such
natural materials as marbles, grained timber, multi-coloured brickwork.
Subtleties of colour and texture, apparent closeto, give way to overall
pattern viewed at middle distance. Atstill greater, become fused into 1
composite colour.

NOISE & ACOUSTICS

High levels ofnoise can leadtodamagetohearing. At lower levels noise
interferes withverbal communication.At still lower levels noise may be
disturbing orannoying. Acoustic design controls intrusive noise and by
choiceof materials, dimensions and shapeofauditorium speechand/or
music to be enjoyed.
Many noise indices available forpredicting noise effects. Formany bldg
and environmental situations equivalent continuous sound level (Leq)
I DiagramofMunsellsolidwith indications of 4hueplanes: —.p17 expressed in dB(A) is adequate predictor. Exposureto high levels on
noise results in hazard to hearing. Upper limit of 90dB(A)Leq has been
suggested for8-hourworking day.
distancebetween
talker &listenerm
normalvoicedB(A) raisedvoice L Interference with speech communication from intrusive noise depends
ondistance between talkerand listener, and onwhether voicenormalor
raised —n(2).
1 57 62
2 51 56 Degree of annoyance from intrusive noise depends on number of
4 45 50 factors, particularly typeof use and task being carried out—.(3).
8 39 44
Sound insulation —np395—7

note:for telephoneuselevel 0150dB(A) satisfactory:

55 dB(A) LU,, maygive occasional difficulty SENSITIVITYTOVIBRATION
2 Max intrusivenoiselevelpermittingreliable conversation Frequencies of vibrations encountered in bldg lie mostly in range 5—50
Hz. When frequency exceeds approx 20—30 Hz passes into audible
range. Ifenergysufficient, /e above thresholdofaudibility ofsound in air,
typeofspace &task noiselevel vibration will be heard as sound.
dB(A)L
At certain frequencies amplitude small as 1 micron (0.001 mm)can be
auditoriarequiringvery goodlistening conditions 20_3D detected byhuman occupantsthough inaudible.Dependingon frequency
smallaudiforia,conference & lecture rm 30_352 and amplitude vibration may be imperceptible or painful —n(4).
bedr & forsleepingorresting 30—40
smalloff,classr& for listeningto radio 40—45
largeoff commercial premises, restaurants 45—50
typing pools, lab, machine rm 50—55

maxpeaklevel of intrusivenoise: needforspecialistadvice

maxprovidedintrusivenoisefairlysteady
higherintrusivenoiselevelsmay beaccepted where thereare
high levels of machinery in space

: \ i \ iii__
3 Recommendedmax intrusive noiselevels

1
I
4 68 4
i
6 8
—r—r 1
2
I
4 6
r1
8
1
100 8
6

:E N
2

a)

.
\I\
ust cieariy
percepilbie perceptibk.
_ annoying
..unpieaSant
ariperceptibie s., 6
-
' ." 4

..L_L L —-
10
I i LJ .J. I I JJ
103 4 Humansensitivity:Reiher-
arrpiitude
_________________________________________________________ Meisterscale (verticalvibrations)
 BasicData 19
Man & his buildings
ACCESS & CIRCULATION design should ensure adequatevisibility butdiscouragevehicle speeds;
parking spaces clearly marked; U)
provide clear zone free from parked cars to allow vehicles and ped- C-)
Space required around for access and circulation of people, prams, estrians to circulate comfortably;
wheelchairs, trolleys(carts) etc. Access to bldg or groups of bldg also
for private cars, delivery vans, moving vans, trucks etc. Space may be
shared surfaces should beadequately litafter dark. ci
required forparking, shortor long term. Separatespace may be required Footways
for parking orsf0 of2-wheel vehicles: bicycles, mopeds, motor cycles. To design footways —*(1)—(5) safe, convenient and secure necessary
ensurethatthey:
Shared surfaces provideshortest routes between dwellings and community services;
Usualto separate circulation of pedestrians and powered vehicles, but are keptseparate fromheavily trafficked roads;
in certain situations (eg shortculs-de-sac giving access to dwellings, have easiest practicalgradients;
car parks) shared surfaces may be adopted. Their design should be are protected from wind and driving rain;
based on: are wideenough toavoid needforpedestrianswhen passing to step out
intocarriagewayoronplantedareasand, wherenecessary,foroccasional
startof shared surface clearly distinguished fromnormal carriagewayby access by emergency vehicles, egambulances.
changeintextureor surface orchange in level;
number ofvehicles using shared surface should be limited; Paths & sidewalks also—.p4385 106

2 Wof800 allowspramsorwheel-
chairstopassthroughnarrowest
point; 1 800 allowspassingoneither
side ofnarrowestpoint

4 W of 1 200 allowsprams&
wheelchairsto proceed in comfort &
pedestriansto passeachother;
wideningto 1 800 at entrances to
curtilagesallowsall usersto passin
comfort

3 Wof 1350 allowsprams&

wheelchairstoproceed&
pedestrianstopasseach otherin
comfort; wideningto 1800 beyond
narrowedpoint allowsall users to
passincomfort

1 Spaces required forvarious
types ofpedestrian movement
5 At entrancestoprivatedrives or -4-
parkingspaceswof800 carried
throughat footwaylevelenables
prams& wheelchairstoavoidramps
& droppedkerbs
20 BasicData
Man & his buildings
ROADWAYS
—.USA standards p21
—accessp41—3
Size and geometric characteristicsofvehicles determine dimensions of
roadways, lunctons,turning and parking spaces. Special requirements
for bldg serving commerce and industry. Not all types ofvehicles likely
to use residential roads. Those which do may not need access to all
partsofsite. In addition to private cars 3 types ofvehicle may generally
be expected in residentialareas:furniture removalvans; refusecollection
1 Furnitureremovalvan vehicles; and fire engines-..(1)—(3)—.p24.
Space required forthesevehicles to move and manoeuvredepends on
context within which they operate. For major roads national highway
authorities lay down max permitted dimensions, axle loads and turning
circles. They recommend road widths, sightlines and other charac-
teristics of major urban and rural roads.
On residential roads traffic flows light and sometolerancein dimensions
acceptable, egtopreserve existing features. Roadwidths narrowerthan
5500acceptable —(4)—(7).
2 Refusecollectionvehicle Parking provision conditions adequacy ofroad width. Where roadsgive
direct access to dwellings and parking spaces roadways likely to be
used for casual parking. Where this does not happen widths largely
determined byconsiderations of movingtraffic. Narrowedsections may
be used to discourage parking where there is danger at pedestrian
crossing —.(8) (rare in USA).
Allowance must be made for increase in width of larger vehicles at
bends and fortheirturning and manoeuvreing—(9).
NB diagrams on this page apply for left hand circulation; for USA
dimensions and reg—p2l250
3 Fireengine

a
1•

4 Normallymaxwforresidential traffic5500:allowsallvehicles to passone

anotherwith overalltolerananceof500forlargestvehicle

4000

5 Carriageway 4800allowswidecar&furnitureremovalvantopasseach

r
otherwithoveralltoleranceof500butistoonarrowtoallowfreemovement of
largevehicles

4100 ____ ___ 5500

... v...... ::X :::.:::.:;:::::::::::::. :•:•:•:•:•:•::•:-:•::•:-:•:•:-:::::S..

6 At4100 carriagewayistoonarrowforlargevansto passvehicles other

than cyclists; carscan passeach otherwith overall toleranceof 500; below
thiswcarriagewaytoonarrowto passeach othercomfortably

rr:in i In 5500
350

7 W of 3000mm between passingbaysinsingle-track system

2180

_-- 1 720

9 Vehicleturningthrough90 afurniturevan b refusevehicle cfire

8 Parkingshouldbediscouragedat pedestrian crossing appliance dprivatecar
 Basic Data 21

Man and his buildings

ROADWAYS Design of roads should include estimating trafficflows and impact of
development on adjacent roadways.
In USA roads described as follows:
Large vehicle dimensions —*(1)
Limited access freeways:
1 000—1 300vehicles/lane/hr (highspeed) Garage entrances
2000 vehicles/lane/hr (slower speed) —.(2) shows dimensions forentrances toprivate garages and gradients
for road to garage ramps. —(3)shows recommended dimensions for
Arterial highways: entrances to pay garages or carparks. Privategarage—pl00—2.
600—800vehicles/lane/hr (open road)
400—500vehicles/lane/hr (withtrafficsignals, parking intersections) NB: diagrams on this pageapply to trafficcirculation on right
Collectors:
100—250trips/lane/hr vehicle I w overhang rear(OR)
(6206 mm for 2lanes residential) 13.7 2.7
intercitybus 3.1
Private roads: citybus 12.2 2.6 2.0
6706 for2 lanes (5486mm) school bus 12.04 2.4 3.9
3962 for 1 lane (3048mm) ambulance 6.5 2.1 1.6
paramedicvan 5.5 2.0 1.5
Note: city busesrequire 6858 road for right angle turnfromright lane. hearse 6.5 2.1 1.6
Narrow roadwithpassing bays—.p20notused in USA: occasionallyon airport limousine 6.9 1.9 0.9
trashtruck 8.6 2.4 1.8
private sites.Single lane provided to remote service area (andturning UPStruck 7.1 2.3 2.5
space). Driveways forprivate houses recommended width 3353. firetruck 9.6 2.5 3.0
Turninglanes frequently used toprevent back up oftraffic at controlled
intersections or forslowing down at exits fromfreeways. 1 Largevehiclesapproxdimensions; exactsizes mayvary

straightin— backout
900 in—backout(1 car)

2 Gar entranceswithgradientsforramps
22 Basic Data
Man & his buildings
PARKING
Basisor layout of vehicle parking spaces in parking bay ranges from
1 800 x 4600to 2400 x 6000. Largerbaydimensions usuallyadopted
A A for open air parking, or where high proportion of larger cars and vans
A___t_ likely use. While 900 parking more economical in space requirement
(20—22m2/car)450parking (23—26 m2/car)more convenient—*(1)—(3).
Vehiclelengths —*p2024251
Vehicle parking spaces for disabled persons should be wider. For
semi-ambulant persons bay widths should be increased to 2700 or
better2800; forwheelchair users 3000—3100—op85 166(3).
1 Parallel parking USA parking spaces vary; depending onzoning ordinances—op250.
A B c NB diagrams on this pageapply totrafficcirculation onthe left
mnbldg 5800 4600 2200—2300

__-
inopen 6100—6700 5500 2400

'
A A D

\ USA
mm 18.3
20.0 preferred

2 450 parking 3 90°parking

A B C 0 E F A B C D E F

inbldg 3000 4600 2300 3260 5000 2800 inbldg 4600 2300 6000
in open 3390 5500 2400 3890 5500 2800—3000 inopen 5500 2400 6100—6700

VEHICLETURNINGSPACES

4 Full lockforward: afurniturevan bcar c refusevehicle dfireappliance 5 Fulllock reverse: afurniturevan bcar crefusevehicle dfireappliance
 BasicData 23
Man & his buildings
PARKING:VEHICLETURNINGSPACES
Vehiclelengths —*p2024 NB diagramson this pageapply totrafficcirculation on the left

a b C d

1 Hammerhead,Tform: afurniturevan bcar crefusevehicle dfireappliance

a b C d

2 Hammerhead,Vform: afurniturevan bcar C refusevehicle dfire appliance

a b C d

3 Forwardside turn: afurniturevan bcar crefusevehicle dfireappliance

a d

b(c
4 Reverseside turn: afurniturevan bcar crefusevehicle d fireappliance
24 Basic Data

Man & his buildings

ROADVEHICLES Typicaldimensions

45' 0"intercity bus (USAdimensions)

40' 0"citybus (USA dimensions)
39' 6' schoolbus (USA dimensions)

Iii 311 1-755÷755--I

E

1)
_ ___ '\USA wheel location

—n--fl--- LiLLLdi
10973
_______ I
1 Coachfor49passengers:seating layoutsvaryaccordingto use intended

fm5\
r?*M r
4216
18'2" (USA)
11

11

USA wheel location

2 12-seaterminibus/largevan 3 Large car

' I
C') c'J
<II
Cl)io

II-'-
T 16' 11" (USA)

Cl)

Li 'USA wheel location

4 Carinmiddle range; USAstandard 5 Small(compact)car

Cl)

II'
6 Minicar

Man& his buildings references.

--BibIiography entries 086 256 445 557
 Basic Data 25

Lighting
Lighting inside a bldg must fulfil 2 functions: (a)to illuminatethe interior
and itscontents; (b) where there issometask, egreading,performing a A goodcolourrenderinglamps
delicate movement, walking up or down stairs, to illuminate the task
appearance lamptype efficacy
appropriately and to appropriate extent so that visual mechanism can of light relative
function athigh levelof efficiency. to 'white'
When visual tasks might needtobecarried out anywhere ininterior bldg lamp

lighting and task lighting may be provided bysame installation.Where

tasks always carried out at some fixed location, eg work points on warm deluxewarm 70 similartoincandescent light
benches or at desks, less energy may be used by providing necessary white, and blendwell withit;yellow
sottone27 emphasised: forhomes,
task illuminance through bench or desk lights, or localised overhead
restaurants, hotels
lightingcombined with lower illuminance from general lighting (but not deluxenatural 65 goodon allcolours,
less than 200 lux) to providethesurroundingvisualenvironment—*(1)(2). emphasis on red:forshops,
(Forstandard techniques and design rules —Bib383 387). particularly food displays
including meat
colour84, 100 reasonably goodon most
plus white colours, subduedeepred:
foroff, dept stores
E intermediate kolorite, 65 goodonall colours: for
trucolor37 display, shops, clinical
areasinhospitals,
U graphicA47 60
museums
complieswith BS 950 pt 2
fluorescent filament for critical workingraphic
tubes lamps arts
*FH-J1 0 natural 70 emphasises yellows:for
off,dept stores,shops

Arrangementsof lightsourcesfortask lighting inoff cool northlight, 65 similartonorthskydaylight,

colour emphasises blues: for
matching blending with daylightbut
. give 'cold' effectexcept at
general illumination : high illuminance
artificial 5 complies withBS 950 pt 1:
critical colourmatching
daylight

B high efficacylamps

warm warm white 100 blue distorted, red

subdued,yellow &green
emphasised: forfactories
........ intermediate white 100 similar toabove but less
'warm'
intermediate daylight 90 red subdued,yellow&
2 Artificiallight
greenemphasised: blends
acceptably withdaylight

Notes
1 othertypes of lamp are madeforspecial purposes, eg decorative

DEFINITIONS colours:forreprography, horticulture, aquaria, ultravioletradiation;

2circuitefficacyof'white' lamp (ieincludingballast) canbe45—65lmIW
dependingonwattage; 3propertiesof lamps change inconsequence
Luminousflux: lumen ofdevelopmentsby manufacturers who should alwaysbeasked for
Radiant poweremitted fromsource evaluatedin terms ofitsvisual effect up-to-dateinformation
is called luminous flux and measured in lumens. Effectiveness in con-
verting input power (measured in watts) to lumens iscalled the efficacy
and expressed in lumen/W. —(3) shows relative efficacy and some 3 Propertiesoffluorescentlamps givingsubstantially white light
differentlamp types.
Illuminance:lux
Amount of luminous flux falling on unit area of surface is called illumi-
nance, measured in lux (1 lumen/m2) (symbolE). Illuminancecannotbe ceilings 0.8 white emulsion paint on plainplastersurface
directlyappreciated byeye, which seeseffect ofilluminance in making 0.7 white emulsion paint on acoustic tile
surface ofobject more or less bright according to magnitude of illumi- 0.6 white emulsion painton no-finesconcrete
nance and reflecting power ofsurface, 0.5 white emulsion paint on wood-woolslab

Reflectance walls 0.8 white emulsion painton plain plastersurface; white

Reflecting power expressed as reflectance (symbol p), on a scale on glazed tiles
which 1 is max value achieved by perfect reflector, 0 value of perfect 0.4 white asbestos cementsheet;concrete,lightgrey;
Portlandcement,smooth
absorber and 0.2 reflectance of medium grey. Reflectanceof coloured 0.3 bricks,fletton
surface related to visual effect of light reflected. For reflectances of 0.25 concrete,lightgrey;Portlandcement,rough (asboard
sometypical surfaces—(4). marked)
timberpanelling: lightoak,mahogany, gaboon
Some surfaces reflect lightdiffusely, eg blotting paper, some with very 0.2 timberpanelling: teak, afromosia, medium oak
little spread(specularly), eg mirror. Most decorated rm surfaces reflect 0.15 brick, blue engineering
nearly diffuselywith greater or less degree ofgloss, so that brightness
depends to some extent on relationship between angle of light and floors 0.35 timber:birch, beech, maple
angleofviewing. 0.25 timber: oak
0.2 timber: iroko, kerning
The higher the reflectances of surfaces in an interior the less the 0. t quarrytiles: red,heather brown
absorption oflight and thelowerthe powertoprovide agiven illuminance.
Lightcolouredcurtains drawnoverwindows at night reduce lossof light. 4 Approx reflectances of typicalbldgfinishes
26 Basic Data

Lighting
DEFINITIONS(cont)
Colour: Munsell system—*pl 7—18
Munsell system convenient and commonly used way of describing
colour of surface in terms of hue (position in colour circle), chroma
(paleness or fullness ofcolour) and value. Value correspondsto reflec-
tance, approx given by:

reflectance = value (value — 1)

100
(—Bib1 00)
Luminance:apostilbor candela/rn2
azi cos46 Mathematically physical brightness orluminance (symbol L)ofdiffusing
BZ2 cos3a surface isproduct of illuminanceand reflectance,sothat L = EP, and ifE
BZ3 cos2
BZ4 cos'5 is inlux Lisilluminance inapostilb.Alternative unitis candelapersquare
BZ5
BZ6
cos(
1+2cos6
metre(cd/m2) whichisSI unit—p2and equal to,rapostilb.
Bz7 2+cos)
BZ8 constant Note: calculation of luminance not needed in routine lighting
BZ9 i+sin5
BZ1O sinO
design asstandardmethods(—48ib383387) prescribeilluminance
andreflectanceseparately.
Maintenance factor (MF)
Maintenance factor is proportion (expressed as decimal) ofinitial illumi-
nance towhichilluminancefalls mid-way between cleaningand relamp-
ing periods. In design lighting design lumens are used for the lamp,
which is av light output through life. MF therefore refers to dirtying of
luminaires, rm surfaces and sources only:for interiors and installations
maintained in avstate ofcleanliness maybetaken as0.8. Forthosetobe
kept in specially clean condition take 0.9; for those which may be
allowed tobecome dirtier than avtake 0.7 —nilluminance below.

Utilisationfactor (UF)
UFis proportion (expressed asdecimal) ofluminousflux oflight sources
whichfalls on horizontal working plane in an interior: depends on shape
of lightdistribution fromluminaires, rm index —-nbelow and reflectances
of rm surfaces. Light distribution characterised by shape of intensity
distribution with respecttoangle invertical plane fromdownwardvertical.
These shapes commonly classified in UK by British Zonal System (BZ
1 Intensitydistributioncurveswith BritishZonal(BZ)classification no); the 10 shapes and their mathematical descriptions are shown
—*(1). Most manufacturers now tabulate UF in their catalogues.Failing
thistheycan beestimated byreference totables (—sBib449).
roomindex Roomindex(RI)
RI relates to dimensions of rm: length I, width w, with luminaire height
1.0—1.6 2.5 4.0 above working plane hm.

direct &semi-directlighting RI —
lxw
(BZ1—3,25% upward light) hm(l + w)
floorcavityreflectance 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3
E(h)1E8 2.8 2.4 2.1 2.6 2.3 2.05 2.5 2.2 2.0
general diffusedlighting
ILLUMINANCE—.p25
(BZ4—10, 50% upward light)
floorcavity reflectance 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3 Where specific visual task exists illuminance is that on plane of task,
E(h)/Ee 2.3 2.2 1.9 2.2 2.0 1.8 2.1 1.9 1.7 whether horizontal, vertical or inclined. In places such as foyers and
circulation areas 'scalar' illuminance is specified. This is a measure
2 Conversionof scalar illuminance to illuminance on horizontal planefor which is independent of direction and is related to illuminance on a
interiorwith light ceilings& walls horizontal plane inwaywhich takes into account notonly rm shape and
luminaire light distribution but, most important,floor reflectance—n(2).
Illuminance received fromgiven lighting installation falls during use
because there is gradual drop in light output of lamp during its life and
luminaire and rm surfaces getdirtier between cleaningperiods. (Shorter
these intervals more efficiently el energy is used but more expensive
maintenance costbecomes.) Recommendedilluminance (—nBib383) is
service' value ieavover period between cleaning; installed illuminance
is higher thanthis by the reciprocal ofthe MF.
Lighting furtherdetail—-np398—400
Daylighting —*p27—32; sunlight —sp33—7
 BasicData 27

Daylight
INTRODUCTION

Daylightfactor
Because of varying intensity of daylight in countries with humid and
temperate climates inpractice most useful tobase daylightingdesign on
concept ofdaylight factor (DF),defined insimple terms as ratio ofindoor
illuminance —p26 (formerly known as illurninance value) to outdoor
illuminance and given as percentage.(More exact definition—Bib124).

1 Relativeluminancedistribution of CIEstandardovercastskywithav
luminancetaken asunity:conventional valueatzenith togive 5000lux
illuminanceon horizontal plane—2050 cd/m2:illuminance —.p25 26
CIE standardovercastsky
To provide practical basisfor estimation and measurement of DF in
Britain and NW Europe has beenfound convenient to adopt standard
overcast sky with sun obscured bycloud. This sky generally known as
CIE standard overcast sky and assumed to have uniform luminance
—p26(ie physical measure ofbrightness), in azimuthwithzenith lumi-
nance about 3times that near horizon—+(1). Zenith luminancedepends
on angular elevation ofsun but conventional value of2050 cd/rn2 was
assumed originally, giving unobstructed illuminance of 5000 lux on
horizontal plane outdoors.

Variation in outdoorilluminance over year

Conventional value of 5000lux assumed foroutdoor illuminance from
overcast sky usefuldatum for initial calculationsfor daylight adequacy
being representative of av conditions over much of day in mid-winter
and significant periods in autumn and spring and wet days in summer.
Asthis value exceeded forabout 85% oftimegenerally taken ascritical
value below which resulting daylight indoors would be considered
inadequate. There are instances, however, where necessary to relate
indoorilluminance to variationinoutdoorilluminancevalues over speci-
fied period, especially in situations where it may be desirable to sup-
plement daylight with artificial light. DF concept particularvalue in this
context; for although outdoor illuminance will vary indoor illuminance
will change with itand forallpracticalpurposesDF will remainconsistent.
Seasonal and daily variations in daylight onhorizontal surface outdoors,
averaged foreach month —*(2)(3).
For indicationoftotal working hr/yrforwhich indoor illuminanceexceeds
specified values in lux for a range of OF and forpercentage of working
hourswhen daylight illuminancein lux exceeds specified values, again
fora range of DF,—(4)(5).
AverageDF
Recommendations for adequacy ofdaylight have usuallybeenmade in
terms of mm DF. Recent studies have suggested use of av OFas better
indication of adequacy of daylight over an interior. For side-lit rm,
however, av daylight value on itsown Only general guide and needs to
be associated withdiversity index.

3 Illuminanceinluxreceived fromskyonhorizontalsurfaceoutofdoors
averagedforeachmonth& plotted against time

2170

1400

1200

1000 0
0

iIIuminafl 100 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 luX

4 Workinghr/yrforwhich daylightilluminances onworkingplane(wp) 5 %ofworkinghrwhendaylightilluminanceonwpexceed specifiedvalues

exceedspecifiedvaluesat variousDF atvariousOF: graphsbasedon 5-dayworkingweek (0900—1700)giving
yearlytotal ofapprox2170 hr
28 Basác Data

Daylight
INTRODUCTION (cont)

Diversityofdaylight
20- Diversity of daylight illuminance across rm can be shown as graph on
15
cross section ofrm, slope ofcurve indicatingdegreeofdiversity. Typical
gradient of illuminance on centre line of window —s(1). In line with
10—
a
'5
ti 5- artificial lighting practice diversity ofilluminance can also be expressed
numerically asuniformity ratio,egas ratio ofmm toavDF. Thus
minDF
uniformity ratio = av DF

0.5 Thegreaterthe diversity, the lower the uniformity ratio.

03 For relatively simplewindow arrangements and for roof light systems
index has meritthat itcan showin general sense whether necessary to
supplement daylight with artificial light.With complex window arrange-
ments, however, may bepreferabletoexamine distribution ofdaylight in
1 Gradientofilluminance oncentreline of window somedetail.
Distributionof daylight
Further refinement in assessingadequacyof daylightin rmis to calculate

. illuminance for number of points on regular grid. Contours of equal DF

can then be drawn: distribution of daylight over working plane can be
.
1
036 16 1.01 062 045 checked andareas where daylight is deficient be identified. If required
av DF can be estimated by simply averaging values on reference grid.
Where reference grid is taken right up to boundaries of rm values on
boundary lines should be weighted, ie divide corner values by 4 and
1278
7..
447 1.52 0 72
T
047
remaining boundary line values by2before averagingall values—.(2)(3).
Comprehensive set of daylighting aids has beenproduced tor UK by
BRE; these give simple check between window size and proportional
. avOF 48/20 2.4% appox area of working plane within which specific values of DF equalled or
exceeded. Aids thus give broad indication of horizontal distribution of
1278 47 1.52
daylight in rm—.(4).
0.72 047

0.36 16
-.
FT1
I 01 0.62 045
CALCULATIONOF DF: GENERAL
Methods for predicting daylight Iluminance at design stage range from
simpleformulas to sophisticated computer techniques (—Bib076 107
-42mfJ 251 368381 397457).
Amount of design information required for predicting daylight factors in
rm depends on complexity of method of calculation. For initial calcu-
2 Distributionofdaylight over horizontalplane: forclearness intermediate lations, where window sizes not yet determined, useful if method of
calculation cangive areaofglassrequired to provide particularstandard
valueshave beenomitted
of daylight.

1.0
0.9 Ii 11
/ 2ETI
---
i- e
/
1.0% - smalrmsei
08 — - ,/ — -. — B

I,
07 .

-
/ / ---
obstruction
0.6 - - --f--
a wail ra8ect 4
0.5 — —

0.4 / OF %

0.3
,, —4 0%

0.2

0.1

00
j —4
n

3 DistributionofdaylightonhorizontalplaneshownbycontoursofequalDF 4 Typicaldaylightingaid
 BasicData 29

Daylight
CALCULATIONOF OF(cont)
Initial estimates: side-litrm
Netarea of glazing rough measureofamount ofdaylight admitted to rm.
As first approximation, assuming side-litrm of normal proportions with
no external obstructions and with surfaceshaving avreflectance 0.4, av
DF can be taken as equal about 1/2 of percentage ratio ofglass to floor
area. Thus windows on 1 side ofrm with total glass areaapprox 20% of
floor area will give av DF about 4%. Under same conditions mm DF will
be approx 1/2 av value, le2%. Conversely, to obtain av DE of6% in rm
with floorarea 12 rn2will require glazing areaof approx 6 x 12 x 5/100
m2or 3.6 m2.
a For closer estimate of mm DF in typical side-lit rm —n(1)(2). These
graphs give mm DF related to rm depths forvarious rm lengths (parallel
towindow wall) and window widths,with correctionsfor angle ofexternal
obstruction to mid-height ofwindow. Reflectancesof rm surfacestaken
as:ceiling 0.7, walls0.5, floor0.15. Mm DF assumed beon centre line of
window wall atpoint600fromrear wall. Window widths (strictly window
lengths) actual glassarea widths given as% rm length. Formore than 1
rmd—' window widths aggregatedand assumedwindows regularlyspaced along
(eepressed in mullipiesofwindowhaboveciiiievei) windowwall.(Further details, including bilateral lighting—oBib397.)
Av DFcalculations
Av DF over horizontal working plane can be calculatedusing formula put
1 CIE methodofdaylightcalculation: typicalgraphapplicableto side-litr1 forward —eBlb452
unilaterallightingwith noexternalobstructions
085W
C CR1+5ft
A(1—R)
where w isglassar
A is total arof rm surfaces (includingglass)
A1 is ar of floor & ofthosepartsofwatls below mid-height of window
(excluding window wall)
C is function ofdaylight incident onwindow &varies with sky luminance
& angleof external obstructions —.(3)
R is av reflectance ofall rm surfaces including windows, expressed as
decimal
0
R is av reflectance offloor & lower wallsbelow mid-height of window
0 (excluding window wall)
is av reflectance of ceiling & upper walls above mid-height of
0 window (excluding window wall)
Where window sizenot known glass area required givestipulated avDF
canbeworked out frombasic formula restatedas:

DFav
+ 5R
085 —--+°
A1 (A(1 —R)

rmd—.
(in muitipiesofwindow, aboveciii)
rml mid rmh window avDF
2 CIE method ofdaylightcalculation: correctionstoDF forangles of h window I/mi Iaspercentages
obstruction(tobereadwith—.1) (m) (m) (m) (m) 30% 60% 90%

angle ofobstruction coefficientC 3.3 3.3 2.4 1.3 1.6 2.8 4.0
measuredfromcentre 3.3 4.5 2.4 1.3 1.2 2.2 3.1
ofwindow (degrees 3.3 6.6 2.4 1.3 0.9 1.6 2.2
abovehorizontal)
4.5 3.3 2.4 1.5 1.8 3.3 5.2
4.5 4.5 2.4 1.5 1.4 2.6 4.0
No obstruction 39 4.5 6.6 2.4 1.5 1.0 1.9 2.9
100 35
20° 31 6.6 3.3 2.4 1.5 2.0 3.6 5.5
30° 25 6.6 4.5 2.4 1.5 1.5 2.8 4.3
40° 20 6.6 6.6 2.4 1.5 1.1 2.0 3.1
50° 14
9.9 4.5 2.7 1.8 2.2 4.3 6.1
60° 10
9.9 6.6 2.7 1.8 1.5 3.1 4.5
70° 7
9.9 9.9 2.7 1.8 1.0 2.2 3.1
80° 5
3 Variationof coefficientc with angle ofobstruction toberead withformula 4 Basic assumptions: floor reflectance=0.15,wallreflectance= 0.4,
forav OF—.above & IRCformula —.p30 ceiling reflectance=0.7, externalobstruction=20% atmid-hofwindow; no
allowancefor dirt on glass but25% correctionfor window frame for3300—
6600rm1&15%for9900rml
30 BasicData

Daylight
1 3componentsofDF: SC + ERC+ IRC= DF
ratio HID = hotwindowaboveworkingplane.distance Iron, wkldow
0.1 02040.6 0.8 1.0 12 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 22 2.4 6 as a.o as 42
01 0 01 0204060708091.0 10 1.1 1.1 11 1.1 1.2 12 1.2
02 01 0.2 0.5 0.8 1.1 14 1.6 18 1.9
20 2.1 22 22 23 23 24 24 24 25
0.301 0307 12 1721 242729 31 3.2 3.3 3.4 34 3.5 3.6 3.6 3.7 37
0401 04 10 16 22 ai 32 as 38 40 4.1 43 4.4 4.5 4.5 4.6 47 4.8 4.9
0.5 01 05 12 19 26 3.3 38 4.2 46
4.8 50 52 53 54 5.5 57 58 5.9 59
06 01 06 13 22 30 38 4.4 4.9 53
5.6 58 6.0 62 63 64 6.6 67 6.8 6.9
0.70207 152433424854 58 62 64 6.6 6.8 70 7.1 73 74 7.6 77
0.60207 16263645525.863 67 7.0 7.3 75 7.6 7.8 80 8.2 83 64
1.0 0.2 0.8 17273848566.267 7.1 7.4 77 79 81 82 6.5 87 8.8 5.0
12020818294050596571 75 7.9 8.1 64 86 8.7 90 92 94 9.6
1.402 09 1931 43 54 6.4 72 78 6.3 87 91 9.3 96 9810.1 10310510.7
68 1.6 a2 09 1.9 32 45 5.7 6.7 758.2 6.7 91 9.5 9.810010210.610911111.6
1.6 0.2 0920334659 70 7885 9.1 9610010.210510.711.1 114 11.7122
P 1.9 0.2 102433476.07281 88
2.002 1.02.033476.1 7.38290
2.5021.0 2.1 3.34.662 748492
9.5
9.7
100 104 10.8 11.1 11311.812.0123126
102 10.711.111.4117122124127130
0 9.9 10.511.011.411.712012612.9133137
CALCULATIONOF DF (cont)
Pointby point methods: verticalwindowsinside-lit rm
Basic assumption formost point bypoint methods ofdaylight calculatlon
adopted in UK is toconsider daylight reaching point in rm as consisting
of 3 components:
sky component (SC)
externally-reflected component (ERC)
internally-reflected component (IRC)
Howthese3 components operate isshown —v(1). Togive complete DF
the 3components are simply addedtogether. Correctionstorother than
clearglass, area otwindow obscured by framing and window bars and
effectofdirt on glass and rm surfacescanbemadeby applyingcorrection
factorsto final figure—vp31(4)(5).
SC & EAC
For preliminary calculations —v(2) (Bib076). In use table gives data for
effective widthofwindow torightor leh ofline (normaltowindow plane)
drawn to reference —.(3). SC atany other referencepoint, also effect of
5.0° external obstruction, can be found by adding or subtracting SC of
hypotheticalwindows so that actual window remains.To allowtor reduced
1.2 1.3 luminance of obstructions values of equivalent SC for obscured
sections ofwindow aremulitplied by0.8
Other methods of predicting SC and ERCinclude BRE DF protractors,
Pilkington dot method, grid methods such asWaldramdiagram.With all
theseaids ERCestimated byassuming that proportion of skyobscured
by obstruction (as seen trom reference point) has luminance which is
somefraction of sky obscured. Unless luminance ot obstruction known
usual practice to assume obstruction luminance 'Is av sky luminance.
IRC
For preliminary estimates mm IRC can beobtained from —.(4)itcertain
limitations on size ot rmand reflectancesof rmsurfaces accepted. More

3 3.0 0.21.02.13.44.86.275 85 9.3 10.010.711211712.012.412913.313.7142
0 4.0 0.2 1.0 2.1 3.4 4.9 63 75 86 9.4 10110.611311812.212.513213.514.014.6
a at
6.002 1.0 34 506376869.5 10210.911411912.312613213614.1 149
0.2 1.0 2.1 34 5.0 6.3 76 86 9.5 103 10.911.511912.312.713313.714.215.0
comprehensive coverage —vBibO76. Where relatively high accuracy
required IRC for side-lit rm can be calculatedusing BRE inter-retlection
formula:

0 1? 22 3V 394550 5458 6V 6$ 66 6$ 69' 7 72' 74' 76' 79' 80' IRC =

0.85W
A 1—A (CRi
—
5Rn,) /o
aegis oiobsiruckon
where
2 Sky componentstable (overcastsky) forverticalglazed windows: W isarofglassinwindow
shortenedversionderived—oBibO76
A istotal ar ofceiling walls& floorincluding arofglass
R isav reflectance of ceiling, walls including glass & floor, expressedas
fraction
Ri is av reflectance of floor & those parts ot walls above mid-h of
window(excluding window wall)
Rcw is av reflectance of ceiling & thoseparts of walls above mid-h of
window(excluding window wall)
C is coefficient with value dependent on angle of obstruction outside
window—vp29(3).
Mm AC can be obtained by applying conversion factors related to av
reflectance of rm surface:
av reflectance conversion factor
0.3 0.75
0.4 0.7
0.5 0.8
0.6 0.85

floor reflectance
windowar
as%ot 10% 20% 40%
offlooror
3 Exampleofsimplecase: avwafireflectance leociudingwindowl
SCforsectionofwindow(W,) is read —o(2) againstratiosHID
&WID; fromdrawingff
=
=j
=0.7; 0.6
=-=
SCread againstthese ratios 1.5; repeatsection (W2) &add SC,toSC2 to 2
20% 40% 60% 80%
— — 0.1 02
20% 40% 60% 80% 20% 40% 60% 80%

— 01 01 02 — 01 0.2 02
give SCforwholewindow 1.5+ 1.5=3.0; forobstructions treatobscured 5 0.1 01 0.2 04 01 02 03 05 0.10.2 0.4 0.6
sectionwindow & x 0.2tocorrectforlowerluminance;angleofobstruction on
7 0.1 02 0.3 0.5 01 02 04 06 0.20.3 0.6 05
10 0.1 02 0.4 07 02 03 06 09 0.30.5 0.8 12
table gives appropriateHIDforobscuredsection 15 0.2 04 0.6 1.0 02 05 08 13 0.40.7 1.1 17
20 0.2 05 0.8 1.4 03 06 1.1 1.7 0.50.0 1.5 23
25 0.3 06 1.0 1.7 04
08 13 20 0.61.1 1.8 28
wall toconvertto to convertto to convertto 30 0.3 07 12 2.0 05
00 15 24 05 1.3 21 33
reflectance floor arof 10m2 floor arof90m2 avIRC 35 0.4 08 14 2.3 05
10 18 28 09 1.5 24 38
40 0.509 162.6 06122031 10172742
45 0.5 10 18 2.9 07 13 22 34 12 1.9 30 46
20 0.6 1.4 1.8 50 0.6 1.1 19 3.1 08 14 2.3 37 1.3 at 32 4.9

40 0.7 1.2 1.4

60 0.8 1.0 13 4 Mm IRC(Bib076)basedon rmof40m2floorarwith htoceiling 3000&
80 0.9 0.9 1.2 windowon1 side;ceilingreflectanceof0.7assumed and20°angle ofexternal
obstruction;correctionscan bemadeforother rmsizes& to convertmm IAC
5 Conversionfactorstoapplyto —v(4) toavIRCbyfactorsin-.o(5)
 Basic Data 31

CALCULATIONOFOF (cont)
Roof lightsystems
Spacing, as well as size, of roof lights is important consideration for
adequate daylighting: in general DF easier topredict thanforside-litrm
but samevariables apply, eg area and position of glazing, shape and
size of space to be daylighted, reflectance of interior surfaces. Illumi-
nance on horizontal working plane from correctly spaced roof lights
nearerto distribution from overhead artificial lighting installations and
usuallysufficient to determine av DF.
CIE recommendations (—oBib397) include method forestimating av DF
forvarious rooflightsystems atearly stage in design, with graphs forflat
and low-pitchedroofs, sawtooth and monitor roofs, from which av DF
can beascertained. Typical curves forskylights inflat and 200pitchroofs
reproduced —(1)(2). By means ofassociatedtables corrections can be
made for various glass transmittances, for dirt on glass and for av
surfacereflectances differing from20% (0.2) reflectance assumed for
(3)(4)(5). For —+(1 )(2) av DF can be read directgiven glass ar/floor ar
ratios, length of bldg and height ofwallsaboveworking plane.
Useful formula below with associated tables developed by Pilkington
Brothers (Bib543) for prediction ofav DF for rooflightsin range of roof
types,including shed, sawtooth and monitors.
AvDFon horizontal plane: D= 100.c.M.B.G.(g/f)%
where
c iscoefficient ofutilisation —*(7)(8)
Daylight
M is correction factor fordirt or aging of glazing—*(3)
B iscorrection factor forwindow framing, glazing & internalobstructions,
eg overhead supports for machinery: where details of framing not
known typical value forBis0.75butfigurecould beless infactories with
overhead pipework, ducting & structural members1
G is correction factor fortype ofglass other than clear glass
g/f isratioof glazing artofloorar
Coefficient depends on roof light design, shape and size of interior
space and reflectances ofceiling, walls and floor.
1W
Rm indexas tabulated =
(l-w)h
where I = length of rm, w = widthof rmand h = height above working
plane to centre of glazing. To ensure fairlyeven spread of daylight
spacing/height ratios should be kept withinlimits shown —*(6).
Pointby point methods:roof lightsystems
Where necessary to calculate DF at selected reference points with
some precision, eg to test daylight distribution, SC and ERC can be
obtained byusing BRE protractors. IRCcanbeestimated by using BRE
nomogram Ill—+Bib076.
Note: correction factor 8' for largecontinuousinternalobstructions,such asducting,
can beworked outon cross section(byproiection)forselectedreferencepoints.

locality vertical roof lights reflectance

windows
sloping honzontal
ceiling 0.7 0.5 0.3 0
clean eg
0.9 0.8 0.7 walls 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1 03 0.1 0
countryar,
outer suburbs roomindex coefficient of utitisation
dirtyeg
built-upar, 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.6 .19 .16 .15 .19 .16 .14 .16 .14 .14
lightindustry 0.8 .25 .21 .2 .25 .21 .2 .21 .2 .18
verydirty eg 0.6—0.5 0.5—0.4 0.4—0.3
1.0 .3 .26 .25 .29 .26 .24 .25 .24 .21
heavy industry
3 Maintenancefactortobe applied tocalculated 1.25 .31 .3 .27 .31 .29 .26 .27 .26 .24

DF toallow fordirton glass 1.5 .34 .31 .3 .32 .31 .29 .3 .27 .26
2.0 .36 .35 .32 .36 .34 .32 .34 .32 .29
glazingmaterials vertical windows, slopEng& 2.5 .39 .38 .35 .38 .36 .34 .35 .32 .31
steeply sloping flatroof
roof fights fights 3.0 .4 .39 .38 .4 .35 .36 .36 .35 .32
4.0 .42 .41 .4 .41 .4 .39 .39 .38 .35
single double single
glazing glazing glazing 5.0 .44 .42 .41 .42 .41 .4 .4 .39 .36
1 CIE methodof daylightcalculation: typical mt .49 .42 .49 .48 .48 48 .45 .45 .42
graph applicableto skylightsinfiat roofs glass:
4—6clearor6 1.0 0.9 1.1
polished wired
7 Coefficientsofutilisationforsawtooth roofwith
skhtsin alied roots(20pitthl 6roughcast 0.95 0.85 1.05 slopingglazing
wiredcastorpatlemed 0.9 0.8 1.0
6selectively
heat-absorbing 0.85 0.7 0.95 reflectance
(palegreen)
6 body-tinted
heat-absorbing 0.55 0.5 0.6 ceiling 0.7 0.5 0.3 0
(bronze)
walls 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.1 0
corrugated resin-bonded glass fibre room index coefficient ofutilisation
reinforcedroofingsheets:
moderately diffusing 0.9 — 0.9 0.6 .15 .12 .09 .13 .12 .09 .11 .09 .09
heavily diffusing 0.75—0.9 — 0.75—0.9
0.8 .19 .16 .13 .19 .16 .13 .16 .13 .13
Correctionfactorstobeappliedto calculate for 1.0 .23 .2 .18 .22 .19 .18 .19 .18 .16
typicalglazing materials: forprecisedetailsof 1.25 .26 .23 .2 .24 .23 .2 .22 .2 .19
proprietarymaterialsconsultmanufacturers; for
doubleglazinginnerpaneof clear glassis 1.5 .27 .24 .22 .26 .24 .22 23 .22 .2
assumed 2.0 .3 .27 .24 .28 .26 .24 .26 .24 .24
2.5 .32 .3 .27 .31 .28 .27 .28 .27 .26
2 4 I e 10 12 14 16 1e%
avDF 3.0 .34 31 .3 .32 .31 .28 .3 .28 27
=1.5max 4.0 .35 .34 .32 .34 .32 .31 .32 .31 .3
2 CIE methodofdaylightcalculation:typical S
i
Hensweeven
graph applicableto skylightsinpitchedroofs 50 .35 .34 .34 .35 .34 .32 .34 .32 .31

dalight inf .4 .4 .4 .4 .4 .4 .39 .39 .38

av correction
reflectance factor 8 Coefficientsof utilisation for monitorswith
verticalplus slopingglazing
0.2 1.0
0.3 1.1 ClErecommendsthat H
monitorwahouldnotbe 5
0.4 1.2 lessthan S nor more
than¾S
4 Correctionfactortobeappliedto DF calculated
from—n(1)(2) toallowforavreflectances otherthan 6 Maxspacing of sawtoothrooflights& monitors
0.2assumedfortables asrecommendedfor—n(7)(8)
32 BasicData

Daylight
QUALITYOF DAYLIGHT: GLARE location av DF OF
mm positionof limiting
% % measurement daylight
DF is measure of daylight Illumination: subjective aspects also help to glare index
determine essential appearanceand character ofinterior, Ofsubjective
lightingphenomena glare isone ofmostimportant. 2 distinctiveaspects airport bldg &coach
of glare recognised: disability glare, which impairs ability of people to stations
receptionar 2 0.6 desks 24
see objects against glare source without necessarily causing visual Customs&
discomfort and discomfort glare, which causes visual discomfortwithout immigrationha 2 06 counters& desks 24
necessarily impairing ability of people to see—.p398. Circulationar, lounges 2 06 workingplane
assembly &concert ha
Typical example of disability glare: window at end of corridor or top of foyers, auditoria 06 workingplane 24
staircase makes it difficult to see person or object silhouetted against corr 2 06 floor
window. Such cases usually resolved by common sense; little to be stairs 2 06 treads
gained fromcalculation techniques. banks
counters,typing,
Degree ofdiscomfort glarecan beassessednumerically and expressed accounting,book ar 5 2 desks 23
as limiting glare index. (—oBib367 382). Main controlling parameter public ar 2 0.6 workingplane 24
luminance of skyasseen through window; above lowvalue of window/ churches
floor area ratio (l—2%)size of window not important. Recent studies body of church 5 workingplane 21
indicate, forexample, thatifoneassumessky luminanceof 8900cd/rn2 Idaylightglare index
to be calculated tor
(exceeded foronlyabout 15% ofworking year) predicted glare indexfor directionof viewof
rm not exceeding 4000 in height with av surface relectances of 0.4 congregation)
would be 26. Forsimilar rm with av reflectancesof0.6glareindex would pulpit &lectern ar,
be24. These figures apply toworst conditions, egsingle window facing chancel&choir 5 1.5 on desks 23
altar, communion table 5 2 on table 23
observer. Forprogressive reductions in sky luminance predictedglare
indices would be reduced; egwith sky luminance of 6400cd/m2 glare (level dependson
emphasisrequiredl
index would be reduced by 0.5 units and for sky luminance of 1 600
drawing off
cd/rn2 by as much as 4 units, bearing in mind that incidence of glare 5 25 on boards 21
general
would be increased because of higher proportion ofworking hours for
general bldg ar
assumed lower sky uminace. Conversely,forrm with higher ceilings (le entrance ha &
above 4000)glareindex maywell beincreased by 1—2 units. reception ar 2 06 working plane 24

As controlling factor is sky luminance, if values assumed for glare hospitals

reception &wr 2 06 workingplane 24
indices are greater than recommended values—.(2)someamelioration wards 5 Innermostbedhead 21
likely to be required. Practical ameliorative measures include use of 1mm value refersto

translucent curtains or blinds, louvred or slatted blinds, vertical or hori- Innermostbedheadl 21

zontal fins and high infernalsurfacereflectances—vp406. Othermeasures

include placing windows so that immediate surroundings have high pharmacies 5 3 workingplane 21-
luminance, use of windows on more than 1 wall and detailed design of libraries
windows and their immediate surrounds so as to reduce contrast with reading & referencerm 5 1.5 on tables 23
viewofbrightsky. ladditionalel lighting
will be required)
shelves (stacksl 1.5 verticalplane 23
museums &art
galleries
general 5 workingplane 21
off
general 5 2 desks 23
typing, business
machines,manually
operated computers 5 2.5 desks 23
schools &colleges
assembly ha 03 working plane 21
classr 5 2 desks 21
artrm 5 2 easels 21
lab 5 2 benches 21
staff rm, commonrm 5 1.5 working plane 23
sports ha
general 5 3.5 workingplane 21
surgeries (med & dental)
wr 2 0.6 workingplane 24
surgeries 5 2.5 workingplane 21
lab 5 2 benches 22
location DI% swimming pools
pool 5 2 pooi surface 23
(careshould be taken
liv (over V2 depthofrm butwith mm arof to minimiseglare &
distribution7m2) reflectionsfrom
1
watersurfacel
bedr (over¾depthof rm butwith mm arof
distribution5.5m2) surroundingar 0.5 workingplane 23
0.5
k(over 1/2 depthof rm butwith mm ar of telephone exchanges
distribution4.5m2) 2 (manual)
general workingplane 20
dualpurposerm, eg k/livtobe litto more exacting
(avoidspecular
requirements reflections:limit day-
lightoninternallylit
controlsl
followingreflectancesare assumed, walls0.4, floor 0 15,
ceiling0.7 (furtherdetail—.Bib202 380382 3831
1 Recommendedmn DF fordwellingsextracted—.Bib107 2 Scheduleof DF &glareindices

Daylightreferences.'
—'Bibliography entries 047 059 074 076 107 202 251 252 291 367368
375 380381 382 383 397 452 457 527 528 529 567
 BasicData 33

Sunlight
CRITERIA FORADMISSIONOF SUNLIGHT
Standards forUK
—BRE (Bib074)
—*(Bibl4l)
—*DoE Welsh Office (Bib251 252)

Standards for USA

—Ramsey & Sleeper (Bib549)
ForUSA latitudes—*p34—6

1 Altitudeofsunin relationtobldg orobserver (lat51.5°)

2 BlockwithmainaxisrunningN-Shas longshadowscasttosidesofbldg in 3 Blockwith mainaxisrunning NW-SEshadowpattemvaries between am&

earlymorning&lateafternooninMar&Sep:smallpermanently shadowed ar pm: relativelysmall permanently shadowedarinmidwinter
toNofblock in midwinter

soaraftftudeat12OO
inkjn
so'ar altitudeat1200
cmsssection H—
________________inMar& Sep
38.5° 151°
8hr lOhr l2hr 14hr l6hr

L[__X1lOhr -l2hr 14 hr

L- •N
4 Tallblock withmain axisrunningE-W (favoured wheremainrmfacingS 5 Where possibleavoidsiting high bldg withdeeprecesses facing Nas
are required)cangive seriousovershadowing ofgroundto NofbldginMar& comparativelylargearof groundreceivesnosunlightatallinmidwinter
Sep:comparativelylargearof site closetobldg receivesnosunlightin
midwinter

SITING,ORIENTATION&SPACING
S&N Nwindow OF BUILDING
Check orientation of facades and spacing of
bldg inrelation torequired standardof insolation
—4p34—6. Some compromise on ideal orien-
tation of facades will be unavoidable on con-
gested sitesorin areas ofmixed development.
—*Energyconservation houses—÷p79—81

6 E&Wwindowsreceive horizontalsunraysat
equinox;theirangleofincidence becomessteeper
towardssummersolstice; W = shortestdayofyr,
T = equinox,S = longestdayofyr
SE& SW
7 N windowsreceiveonly littledirectsunlight
round summersolstice; Swindowsreceive
sunrayswith lowanglesofincidenceinwinter &
steep insummer
NE& NW
INSOLATIONOFOUTDOORSPACES
Where possible site largebldg sothat extensive
and continuous shadowing of ground round
them avoided; otherwise growth ofvegetation
will be inhibited. Problemdynamicand seasonal
pattern of sunlight and shadow should be
examined. For indication of extent ofpossible
shadowing from tall bldg during summer and
autumn (lat London) —*(2)—(5).

8 9 NE& NWwindowsreceivenodirectsunlightin
SE & SWwindowsreceivefairamountof
sunshineboth summer&winterby lowdeeply-
penetratingsunrays
ORIENTATIONOF WINDOWS
Orientation, size and shape of individual
windows may require checking ondrawings by
reference to sun path diagrams to determine
sunlight penetration and effectiveness of
required sun controls. Forgeneral indicationof
effect of various orientations on sunlight
winter buteffectivesunlightinspring&autumn penetration at different times of year (UK)
—*(6)—(9).
34 BasicData

Sunlight
METHODSOF FINDINGSUN EXPOSURES OF
BUILDINGS
3ways ofcalculatingposition ofsun relativeto particularplaces,seasons,
times ofday:
useof models in conjunction with sundial allows visual observation but
usefulness limited byobvious practicallimitations;
calculations and tabular projections toafford high degree ofexactness;
summer but graphic projection preferred by most architects since it allows
solstice measurement of bothsun and shade.

SUN PATH DIAGRAM

1 () & angle of bearing
Diagramshowsaltitude
Sun's position at any date or hour may be determined from sun path
diagramwhichcorresponds to latitudeofobservationpoint—*(1 ) showing
(J3) altitude (a) and angle of bearing ($). Diagramsfor series of N latitudes
—(2)—(4) p35(1)—(5).
On each diagram altitude angles shown at 100 intervals by concentric
circles. Bearing angles shown at 100 intervals by equally spaced radii
graduated along outer periphery of diagram.
Elliptical curved lines in diagram represent horizontal projections of
sun's path, appropriate for 21st day of each month: months labelled in
Roman numerals; crossed grid of vertically curved lines, labelled in
arabic numerals, indicate hours.

Use ofsun path diagram

Example:
Columbus Ohio at latitude 40°N on 21 Feb at 1400—*p35(2). Find
elliptical curvedlines for Feb (ii) and markwhere itcrosses vertical line
of 1400 (2): thesetwo lines intersect as sun's position; read altitude
fromconcentric circle: 32°; read bearingangle fromouter circumference:
3503Q w
Example ofuse ofdiagram forapprox latitude London England—p36.

2 24°Nlatitude

3 28°Nlatitude 4 32°Nlatitude
 Basic Data 35

Sunlight
SUN PATH DIAGRAM(cont)
Further examples of sun path diagrams—.(1 )—(5). For method of using C/)
diagrams —*p34. C)
ci

1 36°Nlatitude

2 40°Nlatitude 3 44Nlatitude

4 48°Nlatitude 5 52N latitude

 36 BasicData

Sunlight
USE OF SUN PATH DIAGRAMWITH BUILDING PLAN
Diagram —(1) shows path of sun on shortest day of year at approx
latitude London England (51° 50'N); —(2) shows sun position atdeter-
C
) mining daysofyear;—*(3)—(7) showmethod of finding amounts of sun
and shadow on bldg.

insun from0345—1030
= 6/4 hr

5 Shortlyafter 1100atsummersolstice NEelevation in shade; shortly after

1300SE elevationalso inshade;otherelevationsatcorresponding timesin
sun

insun from
0954—1800
= 8¼ hr

1 Path ofsunshortestdayofyear (approx 21 Dec)lat510 SON

2 Sun positionatnoonat
determiningdaysofyr:distanceof insun from1435—1800
sunfromobserverequalsradius =3'/4 hr
ofsunpath diagramwith dotted
path ofsun in plan,which
represents planprojectionof 6 At equinoxNE elevation in shadeshortlyafter1000,SEelevation shortly
correspondinghofsun after 1500

insunfrom
0900—1545
N = 6/4hr

elevation

pn ofsun
insun from0815—0900
= 3/4 hr
3 4 To find amounts ofsun&shadowonbldgatcertaintimeofyear &day 7 Atwintersolstice NEelevationreceivessun forbarely1 hr,SEelevationin
(eg equInox1100) azimuthangle(19°)isplottedinplan fromcornerofbldgin shadeafter1500
question;this shows limitofshadowcast inplan;angleofaltitudeofsun
(37.1°)then plottedwherethis line intersects verticalplaneof bldgfurther
back; lengthx,found byintersecting line drawn at rightanglestolimit of
shadow in planwith plottedangle of altitude, determineshofshadowcast in
elevation;plottedtoelevationat distanceafrom internal corner&linkedwith
eaves of line ofbldg gives limitofshadowinelevation
 BasicData 37

Sunlight
CALCULATIONOF RADIATION
Design implications of sun's altitude and bearing affected by actual
amount of solar energyfalling on exposed surface of bldg. choice of
orientation and selection of appropriatetechnical orpassive devices for
shading bldg will require thisthird range ofdata.
Graphic calculator —(1) (—Bib549) originates in USA therefore uses
Btu/ft2/hrunits. Upper halfof diagramcharts energies falling horizontal
plane under clear skyconditions. Radiationlines at 25Btu/ft2/hr intervals.
Lowerhalfshows amount ofradiation falling on vertical surface.

For use calculator would be drawn to same scale and size as sun path
diagram —*p34—6. Superimposed on diagram with correct orientation
radiation values can be read directly.

PREDICTINGACTUALDURATION OF SUNLIGHT
Data on sunlightavailability for any geographical location or climate
should, in general, be sought from nearest meteorological station.
Probability of sunlight unobscured by cloud or mist can be read off
modified stereographic sunpath diagramknown as'sunlightavailability
protractor'—(2) (—Bib074). Total number available hours sunlight
obtained by adding small figures between hour lines and multiplying
total, inthis instance (latitude 51 .5°N) by 30.4
In example—*(3)bysuperimposing house planon protractortotal hours
sunlightlikelyin February seem tobe 1.5 x 30.4 = 45.

1 Radiationcalculator: can be usedat anylatitude & anyorientation; is in

same scale &projectionassunpath diagrams—p34—6;transfercalculator
diagramtotransparentoverlay&superimposeon sunpathdiagramin
desiredorientation:radiationvaluescan bereaddirectly
solaraltitudeindegrees
510 IS 2025 303 40455060708090
67 123 166 197 218 235 248 258 266 273 283 289 292 294
Btu/1t2/hr

magnitudeofsolar radiationdependsfirstof allon sun'saltitude:tabulated

valuesindicatedirect radiationenergiesreceived under clear
atmosphericconditionsatnormalincidence

o
Forcomputationof total yearly sunny hours,multiply summatedaveragefigures
fromtheprotractor by30.4 (averagedayspermonth)

2 Sunlightavailabilityprotractor 3 Applicationof sunlightavailibilityprotractor (—BibO74)

Sunlightreferences:
—Bibliography entries074 141 251 252
 38 Habitat

Design ofhouses
EXPRESSION OF PERIOD & CONVENTION
Access
-

1 Around1500houseor townwas
walled in& had heavy gates
Entrance
2 By 1700wall &gate wereonly 3 During 19th centurysecluded 4 In 20th centurythere is no
symbolsthroughwhich glimpsesof housewas built inopensurroundings enclosure (especially in USA)&
gardencouldbeobtained with low fences housestands unobtrusively in large
communalpark

5 Around1000log houseshad no 6 By 1500therewere heavy 7 Ataboutl700doorshad 8 In 20th centurycoveredway

windows,lowdoors& highthreshold doorswith door knocker&barred attractivebars,clear glass &a leadsfromcartoentrancedoor
(lightwas admittedthroughopening windowswith bullseyepanes bell pull (Georgianwiredtemperedplate
inroof) glass) whichelectroniceyeslides
sidewaysat same timeannouncing
visitor
Interior

slidingpartition
verticallysliding
window wall

9 Atabout 1500therewere low
heavydoors,cellswith sparse
daylighting&floors ofshort,wide
boards
Plans
10 Around1700widefoldingdoors
led intosuitesofrrnwith inlaid
flooring
11 By 1900sliding doorswere fitted
betweenrm, with linoleum, sliding
windows &draw curtain
12 In 20th centureymm are flexible,
with elworkedslidingwalls& low
unbarredwindowsofplateglass
(temperedinUSA):Venetianblinds
or rollershuttersprovideprotection
againstsun

wc &
moUntain privy street
side
cellar
j__sto
entrance ha ogg maid

serv
wc &
F! first washr
dr
ground
nT__.ey
bedr
floor

garden

13 Timber(Walser)houseofabout
1500was influencedbyenviron-
ment,methodofconstruction &way
ofliving (eg smallwindows)
14 ci
In stone houseof 500 walls
occupysamearasmisoas to give
protectionagainstenemies& cold
15 Houseof2000will havelight steelsupports&independent non-load
bearingcurtainwalling &partitionswhosecomposition providesprotection
againstbad weather&affordssound& heatinsulation: openplanning
probable,with nodoors between liv ar, drandha

Between 1500's and present time science, technology and industry
have transformed outlooks, forms and, not least, appearance of our
society. House nolongerfortress orcrude shelteragainstclimate; it is,
orshould be, abeautiful unobstructive framework forourlives—open to
nature but protected fromit.
Everyone has different concept; but the creative ability ofthe individual
dictates how far he is able to transfer his experience into reality and
express it through the material at his disposal. Some clients and their
architects are still in the 16th century but a few of each have already
arrived in the 20th; if the right centuries meet then a happy marriage
between clientand architect is assured.
 Habitat 39
House organisation
SUBDIVISIONOF SPACE, FROM1-ROOMDWELLING TO PALACE

maid
dr I
I
parlour
maid

IsEanthr = cook ma

Activities taking place in single rm—1-rm

dwellings become progressively subdivided in
largerhouses until in palace everyactivity has
separate rm specially adapted in shape &
position.
Lines ofsubdivision also indicatespatialrelation-
ship betweenindividualrm, which makesdiagram
helpful tool when establishing programme for
houses ofall kinds.
40 Habitat
Houses

N
favourable

7NE garage lake

—or river

2 Favourable& unfavourable sitesonhillsides

very good
N nosunshine
coldwinter winds
1 Favourablehousepositions even distributionof daylight

garage
workrm
sto
Ia
wine cellar
heating
utility

W afternoon Eearly morning

&evening sun heatgain in
sunmay have
heatgain & summer; may have
coldwinds in
glarein winter: double
summer: trees
desirable glazing advisable

3 Optimalorientationof individual rm

Sbest sideofhouse
high sun angle in summer
siteboundary yard deepsun penetrationinwinter I lineof
meansforshadingglass advisable
bldg

SE ter
optimal
position a
I

2 widest
E-W road
possible
tine ofbldg Z spacing

4 Favourablehouseorientation on E-Wroads 5 Favourablehouseorientation onN-Sroads:plotsonEside preferable

EXTERNALINFLUENCES ON HOUSE PLAN
Siting &orientation
Principles of positioning house on plot illustrated diagramatically—(1).
For detached house plot on south side of E-W road most favourable,
permitting entrance and services to be placed near roadwhile living rm
and bedr lieaway fromroad, face sunand have accessto garden.
Arrangements on E-W and N-S roads shown indetail —(3)(4). Houses
on hillsides should generally be placed towards higher parts of their
plots—*(2). Prevailingwinds foreachsitemust beconsideredin planning
forcold and heat protection. Wind effects —p7781. Nslopes —*p46.
Orientation also —p33—7
Rules for siting detached houses also apply to dwellings grouped in
pairs or in rows. Some of factors considered on following pages, eg
problems of access, which are most extreme in terrace (row) houses,
apply to an extent todetached houses because ofbenefits, in road and
servicecostsand depth ofgarden,which generallyaccrue fromkeeping
plotsnarrow.
Safeguarding against obstruction
Where neighbouring plotsalready built on, position and plan ofhouse
can be adapted to known surroundings; otherwise possibility of future
development must be taken into account. Architect has duty avoid
undue obstruction ofdaylight over adjoiningland likelytobe developed
forhousing —p33.

1 Residents'&visitor's parking within boundary ofproperty: noteservice
vehicleparkingar
2 Residents'parkingpartlywithinboundaryofproperty & partlycommunal
3 All parkingcommunal
4 Parkingaroffcoveredaccess belowpedestrian deck
Habitat 41
ACCESS
Accesstodwelling
Houses
I
C-
5 basic systems can be distinguished; '-4
Houses and footpaths along road with no segregation of vehicular and
'-4
pedestrian traffic: implies nothrough traffic, no on-street parking—*(1).
Road and footpath on opposite sidesof house: implies house design
permitting access either side without loss ofprivacy; requires children's
play area other than road—*(2).
Vehicular access stopped shortof houses: limited by access distance
(46 m for most services: 61 m in USA); requires particularly well
designed and maintained parking and garaging—(3).
Vertical segregation of vehicles and pedestrians: expensive, suits high
densityofsteeplysloping sites —(4).
Primarily pedestrian access to small groups of houses shared with
private cars and light delivery vehicles: requires careful design to en-
forcelow speeds and restrict useto legitimate access—*(5).
Accessroads
Access roads tohouses can besubdivided into 2 groups —p42.
General access roads: accommodate service vehicles, cars and, de-
pending onlayoutsystem, frontage accessoroccasionalvisitor parking.
Design to limit speed atjunction with local distributor road.
Minor access roads: designed to allow slowspeed vehicle penetration
of pedestrian priority area, serveup to 25 houses, speeds kept low by
width, alignment, surface textureand visibility provision, possibly hump
or chicane at entrance. May be cul-de-sac with turning at end, short
loop, or lead to restricted vehicle/pedestrian mixed courtyard.
Garaging the car
3methodsofgaraging orparking carmust also beconsidered; withinor
partlywithinhouse, adjoining house, separate from it. First 2 of these
will affect house plan—*plOO—1 (—*Bib225).
Design standards
National and local standards for zoning and subdivision reg should
guide planner. Road widths and construction, footpaths, frontages,
density, housing types usually established by codes and/orlocal reg.
5 Accessarsharedbypedestrians&vehicles
42 Habitat

Houses
ACCESS

local distributor road

general access road

minoraccess road

Roadhierarchywithinhousingar:examplemakes useof sharedpedestrian/vehicle courtsasminoraccessroads

 Habitat 43

Houses
ACCESS I
a-
Primaryaccess
Footpaths should run asdirectly as possibletomajorattractions(schools,
shops, bus stops) away from heavy traffic roads. Should be well lit and
overlooked (for security), sheltered and avoid steep gradients. Use
ramps rather than steps, or ramps as alternative routes where steps
necessary. Critical design widthshould allow prams and wheelchairs to
accessto passand clear obstructions. Mm 1 800, but on pedestrian traffic routes
singlehouse generally allow 2400 on open ground, 3000between bldg and fences.
Footpaths between road or pedestrian traffic route and small groups of
A houses can be 1 800, 1200for2 houses (USAmm 1 220), 900 forsingle
house —(1 )(2). Max distance from road todoor ofhouse, 46 m.
path reducedto single w to
1200 avoid occasionalobstructions
'3000long12mapart Secondary access
Additional footways to serve garden side of houses, garage courts etc
canbe 900—1 000 between fences,600 inopen ground—p47(6) 106(22).
Plan todiscourage use asthrough routes.

SERVICES
Statutory utilities(eggas, water, el, telephone) should besupplied with
footpath between details of any proposed housing development at early stage in order to
solid obstructions
agreeserviceroutes between different interests and avoid later adjust-
ment, which can be both time consuming and costly. In UK they will
generally prefer to lay their services within public road, as this gives
them certain automatic statutory rights of access; but in segregated
2400 layouts or those designed with narrow road widths this may prove
inconvenient or uneconomic and alternative routes may need to be
agreed. Perhapspreferable:rear-of-blockservicestrips, easilyaccessible
obstructionononesideonly, and surfaced with materialswhich may readily be removedandreinstated.
open ground on other
Television
Master aerials for television signal boosting often require licence or
1 800
permit.Television cables below ground should bekept mm of300from
el supply or lighting cables and well away from telephone cables.
Recommended depth forlaying television cables: 450.
1 Pedestrianaccess&trafficroutes
ACCESS FORDISABLED
1000 Housing fordisabled —p85—7;internal access —+p86. Spaces needed
p 4a forwheelchairs —.(3).

endparkingoverhang
a. b
50

sideparkingoverhang

500 '—mm 914—'

safetybarrier
C 1525
min1525 d —mm
914__

signposts, traffic signals etc

walls, copings, parkingmeters etc

tamp posts should be sitedat heeloffootpath

beyond recommendedclear width

a=minclearw

3 Mm clear w: aforsinglewheelchairbfor2wheelchairsc1525dia
2 Footpaths:mm clear w space dT-shapedspacefor1800 turn
44 Habitat

Houses
STANDARDS& REGULATIONS
a
Controllingdimensions
space1 mm arft2 least Recommendations forhorizontal and vertical controlling dimensions for
luwith luwith luwith luwith luwith
dimension
housing have beendeveloped in orderto make use of dimensionally
coordinated standard components. (Application in UK public sector
Obr lbr 2br 3br 4br
housing —÷Bib228.)
Ir na 160 160 170 180 116''
dr na 100 100 110 120 84" Horizontal controlling dimensions should be, in descending order of
br(primary)2 na 120 120 120 120 94" preference, asfollows:
br(secondary) na na 80 80 80 80" first: multiples of300
multiples of 100
total arbr na 120 200 280 280 second:
ohr na 80 80 80 80 80" third: multiples of50 upto 300
For house planning tothesedimensions a 300 grid is used.
Vertical controlling dimensions more closely defined. Heights of door
b
openings and between floorsdiffer over relatively small ranges. For
combined minarft2 least dimensions forhousing, with preferences for public sector in UK—.(3).
space luwith luwith luwith luwith luwith dimension Mm rm sizes USA—.(1). Bedrsizes —.70(1 7).
Obr lbr 2br 3br 4br
210 230 250 see Ceiling heights
Ir-da na 210
note 3 In USA FHA says ceiling heights must be such as not to create an
Ir-da-sI 250 na na na na
lr-da-k na 270 270 300 330 unpleasantsensationand nottorestrictphysicallymovementofoccupants
Ir-sI 210 na na na na and furnishings. Ceiling heights clear under beamsorother obstructions
k-da 100 120 120 140 160 -*(2).
k. Ir
abbreviations: br bedr da diningar dr:diving rm kitchen hying rrnr iu:liningunit
fbi
na: apphcable 0br iu with no separate bedr ohr otherhabiiable rm 51 sleepingar BUILDINGREGULATIONS
primarybedrshaH haveatleast1 uninterrupted wailspaceofatleast 10
3mmdimensionsofcombinedrmshall besumofdimensions ofindividualsinglerminvolved Distinct differences in legal intention result in different degrees of
exceptforoverlaporcombineduse ofspace
controloverhousing design indifferent countries: eg reg in Englandand
Wales limited to securing health and safety of occupants and other
users; in Scotland designed to secure health, safety and convenience
USA mm misizes aforseparate rm bforcombinedspaces ofoccupants and public atlarge, imposing mm space andeqpstandards
(—nBib233); in USAFHA, HUD reg and state and local codes apply.
ft in
habitablerm 7 6 Most houses built for sale in UK by private builders conform to stan-
ha, bathr 7 0 dards set by National House-Building Council (—vBib5l2); in USA
luminous ceiling 7 0
sloping ceilings 7 6at leastfor½ rmwith noportion generally conform to FHA standard mm sizes and construction as may
less than 5' 0'' be required byfinancing: alsoconsult state and local codes.
basementswithout habitable
spaces 6 8 Fireescape
In houses of more than 2 storeys fire escape must be considered
2 USA mm ceilingheights (consult codes).
Essentially single stairway in suchhouse should be separated fromall
rmbyfr construction and self-closing frdoors and leadto hallorpassage
giving access tooutside air at ground level. This has effect ofprohibiting
open planning on ground or intermediate storeys unless alternative
escape routes, eg by balcony to adjoining house, provided fromrm on
upperstoreys.

ROOFZONE __________
nohntiton thidrness
but lowerbotifiary
lobeplacedtogive
sa,nefloortoceiiing
heightason lower

WINDOWHEADLEVELS 1Stpret
DOORHEADLEVEL 2nd
2—
2100

I LEVEL Pref}J_ __

1ipa
1000
WiNDOWciLLLEVELS
lstprefenence250
2ndpreference200 i

I
I—

C
oc300
FLOORLEVEL—n_ [ 0—
200

I
w

OOR LEVEL (2
dimensionslobe 3,,,ivn
takenfromFFL

3 UK verticalcontrollingdimensions
 Habitat 45

RELATIONSHIPTO OTHERBUILDINGS
Daylight& sunlight—*p27—37
Consult relevant reg and codesfor daylighting standards in habitable
ml; thesealso provide for protection of residential bldg and undevel-
oped sites from obstruction of daylight by new development. These
provisions normally adopted in England&Walesbyplanningauthority in
development control (to some extent mandatoryinScotland).Proposed
bldg can betested forboth distancefrom itsown boundary and distance
fromother bldg by using permissible height indicators(—Bib251). USA
—FHAand city bldg codes.
So far as possible rm should receive sunlight at some part of day
throughout most of year but this not generally enforced by reg or
development control. Angles and direction of sunlight can be estab-
lished hourly foranytime ofyear at anylatitude:examplesfor at 5105Q N
—.p36.Further orientation factors—.p34—6 4046.
Visualprivacy
Manyplanning authorities seekto prevent overlooking of houses from
neighbouring houses oracross road (controlledbybldg reg in Scotland).
Rule of thumb distance of 18 m often stated but is restrictive and
ineffective sincevisibility affected by types of windows involved and
Houses
their respective levels and incidence to one another. As with other
environmental factors privacy must be considered in relation to com-
I0
peting benefits and in high densitydevelopments it is matter forcareful
consideration indesign and layout.
Use ofblindside orsingle-aspect house designs willhelp, egon sloping
sites or where footpaths passclose to houses; effective screening of
private gardens alsoimpomtant—.(1 )(2). However,privacy should notbe
achieved at cost of isolation: ideally degree of screening for visual
privacyshould bewithincontrol of residents.
Privacy from noise
Houses built near distributor roads, or main highways best protected
from noise nuisance by embankments or other land formation —.(3).
Privacy can, however, be improved by use of suitable house plans with
rm facing awayfromnoise source (—.Bib240254).
Spread offire
Bldg reg generally restrict distances between houses built of com-
bustible materials, such astimber, shingles orthatch,and their ownplot
boundaries; where non-combustible materials used extent of window
and door openings in walls close to boundary might be restricted to
prevent spread offire to adloiningproperty by radiation.

75dB(A)
\
8OdB(A)

8Sdb(A) '/
I /
68dB(A)

unprotectedsite
75dB(A)
BOdB(A) \ 68dB(A)
85dB(A)
% I — // f.__?

siteprotected bysimple solid barrier

75dB(A)
BOdB(A)
'
68dB(A)
85dB(A) \ //
/I

siteprotectedbyplacing road incutting

1 Privacysecuredbyuseofsingleaspecthouses 3 Noise attenuation: shadedarwillbesuitable

fordevelopmentwith conventional housetypes

privategarden

road
t road
publicpath public path

In
JL
2 Privacysecuredbyuseof reverse aspect houses: best orientation E-W
46 Habitat
Houses
SITE TOPOGRAPHY
Effect of gradient
Where slopes moderate, choice of plan affected little by gradient; on
steeperslopessomeforms of plan can be used to greater advantage
than others.Where houses run parallelto contours use of wider front-
age houses minimises needfor underbuilding or excavation. Savings
thus made can counterbalance usuallyadverse equation between wide
frontage and greaterservicing and development costs.Verysteep sites
can, however, present opportunities for imaginative use of split-level
plans or entryto upper floors—(1). Houses running across contours,
especially in terraces (rows), should employ narrow frontage plans,
stepping at each house or pair ofhouses.
Northslopes
1 Split level Northslopes aggravate problems ofmaintainingdensity while providing
adequate sunlight to each house and garden. Simple solution: reverse
usual ruleand place each house at lower endof itsplot, with accesson
north side but on severe slopes spacing required might be excessive.
Solutionthen might be to employ upside-down' section,'placing living
rm on upperfloors where they can enjoysun fromsouthand views in
each direction —(2). Houses running across contours canbe particularly
i4 advantageous on north slopes, sinceno garden needbe immediately
overshadowed by houses and all rmwill get sunlight.

2 'Upsidedown'
Aspect
In considering orientation —p4U,access, privacy and effectof gradient
there has recurred the concept of aspect, an important characteristic
relating house plan toconditions ofits site.
4modelscan bedistinguished —(3);
Dual aspect: rm lookout inbothdirections, toaccess and garden sides
Single, blind-side, or controlled aspect: rm other than kitchen and
servicemi lookout in 1 direction only—usually garden side
Reverse aspect: rm on ground storey and upper storeys look out in
opposite directions
Open aspect: ideal detached or semi-detached condition where rm
can look out in3 or 4 directions withoutconstraint.

-1
3a Dual aspect

3b Singleaspect 3d Reverseaspect

1'
3c Controlledaspect 3e Open aspect
 Habitat 47

Houses
HOUSE PLAN: INTERNAL INFLUENCES
+
I
Determining factors
Main internal factors affecting selection of house plan:
mode of horizontal circulationwithin house,
user requirements,
appropriate standards & regulations
siteorientation & climate —p334046

HOUSE PLAN:CIRCULATION
Circulation within house determined primarily by type of access
appropriate toexternal conditionsand layout—.(1):5 modesofhorizontal
circulation can bedistinguished;
2 Circulationthroughha 3 Circulationthroughha&sb
Throughcirculation
This —(2) provides circulation fromentry to garden side by-passing all
living and working areas. Nosecondary accessto garden side needed.
Through circulation suitable for all forms of entry and particularly
appropriate where entrypossible fromonlyoneside.

Through-storagecirculation
In smallterrace (row) houses through circulationthough desirable can
require excessive proportion ofwhole ground-storey area. Modification
permitscirculation from entryto garden sidethrough hall and sto —(3).
This arrangement suitable forall forms ofentry.

Through-kitchen circulation
Provides circulation fromentry to garden side through hall and kitchen
—+(4). Appropriate inlayouts which provide secondaryaccesstogarden
side;but can beusedwhere thereis none. I
Singlecirculation 4 Circulation throughha& k 5 Circulationthroughha &liv
From point of entrygarden can be reached only by passing through
living rm —(5). This type plan should only be used in layouts which
provide secondaryaccesstogardenside.Secondaryaccesswill normally
be necessary only in mid-terrace houses but layout situationscan arise
when sitingof other bldg imposessimilar conditions on end-of-terrace,
ri4
detached and semi-detached houses.

By-passcirculation
Garden side can be reachedoutside house but within property limits eg
house
by path orthroughgarage—.(6).
Throughatrium circulation—*(7)

6 By passcirculation

1 Accesstoproperty afrom bothsides bfromoneside only 7 'Throughatrium'circulationseenin USAsinglefamilydetached house

48 Habitat
Houses
HOUSE PLAN: STANDARDS& REGULATIONS
User requirements entrances 1 is protection fromweatherprovided at entrances?
Where house not designed for known client, user 2 istherespace in haforreceiving visitors?
3 isthereconvenient sto foroutdoorclothing pram?
requirements can most brieflybe summarised in state- 4 can metersbe read withoutentering living ar? (NBoutside inUSA)
mentof number of rm (not counting kitchen, bathretc) in
house and number of people intended to accommodate. 5 is there space for required furniture in sensible arrangement?
living ar
From normative standard of 1P/rm higher standards 6 is there sufficient space toseatguests in dining
characterised bygreater degree of specialisation—.p39. 7 doesliv faceprivate garden?
Such specialisation hasin past time reachedastonishing
lengths — one English Victorian country house said to kitchen 8 is there directaccess, on same level, fromk to diningar?
have contained rm for ironing newspapers: nowadays 9 isworksurface adequate, freefrominterruption &
10 is'work triangle' (sink—cooker—trig/larder)compact from
degree ofsub-division associatedwith palace unlikely to cross-circulation?
be reached. What does happen isthat houses designed 11 has possible useof k byelderly or disabled people been
or adapted to meet special needs, whether, eg for considered?
musician, orchid enthusiast or disabled housewife, are 12 isthere space foradditional eqp, orlarger items, likelyto be
morespecialised, either by planningor by higher level of used in furniture?
servicing, in 1 direction This form of specialisation 13 has kviewofoutside world—for callers, toddlers' play etc?
secured by adaptation: will not generally affect process
bedr 14 istherespacefor required furniture in sensible arrangements —
of plan selection setout here. consider use of singlebeds?
Userrequirementcheck Iist—*(1) 15 can bedr beusedforchild'shomework, entertaining friends
In absence ofknown clientplans should betested by list & hobbies?
of questions about house that might beasked byuser. In bathr 16 isbathr convenient for bathing baby?
any suchanalysisall planswill not meetall requirements 17 hasuseof bathr byelderlypeople, orinvalids, been
satisfactorily; it must be for designer to judge which considered?
priorities should be achieved (—Bib234). 18 is therespace forappropriate bathreqp, hanging
towelsetc?
Housing standards
Consult reg. Standards for dwellings in public sector in sf0& 19 are refusebin &fuel sto accessible, conveniently placed
Britain —.(2) based on Parker Morris Committee's report accessibility forcollection & delivery?
(—.Bib233). Mandatory only for new bldg by local 20 can bicyclesbetaken outside, pram put garden, & garden
refuseremoved, withoutpassing throughliving
authorities and housing associations these in practice
provide qualityplatform against which new housing can
be udged. Although mm floor areas stated for various 1 Userrequirementchecklist
household sizes emphasis functional rather than
quantitive. Am layouts and house plansshould be shown
to be able to accommodate furniture and domestic N =netspace1 numberof persons(tebed-spaces) per dwelling
activities that theycan beexpected to contain. S = generalstospace2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
For USA standards consult reg (—.FHA HUD) and state
houses m2
and local codes; mm rm sizes —p44(1). 1 storey N 30 44.5 57 67 75.5 84
S 3 4 4 4.5 4.5 4.5
2 storey N 72 82 92 5 108
(semior end) S 4.5 4.5 4.5 6.5

(mid-terrace) N 74.5 85 92.5 108

S 4.5 4.5 4.5 6.5

3storey N 94 98 112
S 4.5 4.5 6.5
flats N 30 44.5 57 70 79 86.5
S 2.5 3 3 3.5 3.5 3.5
maisonettes N 72 82 92.5 108
S 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
(67 if balcaccess)

Net space is ar01 aM fioors in dweiiing measured
tounfinished faces, inciudesarof eachfioortaken up
bystairways, bypartitions & byanychimney breasts,
fiues&heating apphances& arofany externai wc;
exciudes floorarofgenerai stospace (SI, dustbinsto,
gar, baic, anypart of rmlessthan 1500 high because
ofsiopingceilings& anyporch orcoveredwayopen
to air; in singieaccess house—.p47 any space
withinsto required forpassage from1 sideofhouse
to other, taken as 700wide, shaM beprovided in
addition toarintable.
Generai stospace lobeprovided exciusive of
anydustbinsto,fuelstoorpramspacewithin stoar,&
risingleaccess house, space within sto requiredfor
passage from1 sideofhousetoother; inhouses
somestospace may beon upperfioor, separatefrom
anylinenstoolWa. but atleast 2.5 ni' shaii be at
ground ievei; infiatsandmaisonettes up to 1.5rn'
maybe provided outsidedwefing; in some circum-
stances part of garintegral withoradjoiningdwelling
cancounttowards generai stospace
—.Bib479 (also gives schedules offurniture to be
accommodatedi

2 Mm arfordwellingstoaccommodate varioushouseholdsizes(UKstandards: USA—.p44)

 Habitat 49
Houses
SELECTINGPLANS I
Classificationofplans C
From external and internal determining factors set out in previous
pages, basic characteristics ofhouse plan can bestated under following
heads:
levels: 1, 2, 3 storeys orsplit-level
aspect: dual, single, reverse or open—*p46
horizontal circulation: through, through-sto, through-kitchen orsingle,
core circulation through atrium —p47
numberofrm and size ofhousehold: stated as eg (4 rm, 5person).
Thesecharacteristics provide basisforclassification ofall house plans.
To themisadded vertical circulationwhen housesofmore than 1 storey
considered.

Plandevelopment
Planselection not initially affected byhousehold size orspecialised user
requirements. First three heads of classification (levels, aspect and
circulation) narrow choice to number ofplan arrangements at this stage
expressed in simplest possible terms —+(1). This example shows how
1-storey house plans basically similar developed to accommodate
different household sizes.

ONE-STOREYHOUSES
1-storey house givesgreatest planning freedom, only planning deter-
minants being aspect and horizontal circulation. Consequently
both simplest and most luxurious houses often planned on 1 storey
? —(1)(2)(3)(4)p5O--1.
Relationshipbetween kitchen and bathrhorizontal:economies in placing
1 HousesatDundeeScotland:variationsinsimplebasicplan Arch Baxter them together but savings in cost may not be great when weighed
Clark &Paul against userconvenience —*p51 (6).

1:r
ih1±
2 'Arcon' prefabricatedhouse ArchArcon 3 Old person'sbungalow

4 Largeprivatehouse ArchBiecker
50 Habitat
Houses
PLANS: CLASSIFICATION

1 Houseat WhipsnadeEngland ArchLubetkin&Tecton 2 Singlefamilydetachedhousebuilt round atriumClevelandOhioUSA

Arch HirumABlunden

J.
20 30m
10

32
' 64 96

3 HouseinBeverlyHills USA Arch ANeutra

 Habitat 51

Houses
PLANS:CLASSIFICATION I
C-

(
I 8 lOm
6 1218243011

1 Houseforanartist Arch Rogers 2 Bungalowwith self-containedflat forhouse-keeperorchauffeur Arch Neufert

iIv
3 L-shapedhousewith day& night wings ArchKossler& Peter 4 HouseinCaliforniaUSAwithterfacings& bathrbetween bedr
Arch Donald

0
I
2
II
4 6 8 lOm
I I I I
d*j
-
er
'-4-, 'Iv L1IeirJ

6 8 1Pm
jT
[LF
6 12 18 24 308
6 12 18 24 306

5 Houseforcouplewithoutch: goodrelationship ofter, k &liv 6 Housetosleep6 Arch LHilberseimer

Arch Erchmannsdorfer&Kindler

7 American2-storeyhousewith upperfloor entrance (siteis notflat) ArchE H& M KHunter

52 Habitat
Houses
1 Dog-legstair hasgreatplanningadvantages&
much used intraditionalEnglishhouse;noteinter
house how accesstosmall rm& servicescanbe
provided at half-landingsaVictorianterhouse
b Georgianterhouse cGeorgiandetachedhouse
3 Very simple& economicaldesignofterhouse
with 'farmhouse'k &bathrongroundfloor
45 Economyachievedby placing bath over k
Ibedri
edr
C Balance of ground & upper storey
____________________
III
2 Straightflight at rightanglestohorizontal
circulationoftenattractiveinsavingcirculation
spacebutdividesplanrigidly:insomeinstances
not disadvantage,particularly inblind-side
planning acentralstair throughhouse,single
aspectplan b centralstairthroughhouse,
dualaspectplan Ccentralstairacrosshouse, dual
aspectplan
MORE THAN ONE STOREY
Newplanning determinants introduced: verti-
cal circulation, relationship between kitchen
and bathr, which becomes vertical as well as
horizontal, and balancing of ground and upper
storeyaccn.
Verticalcirculation:thestair
In all houses of more than 1 storey plan is
influenced by position and design of stair. Stair
and its location affectconstructional system to
be employed: in repetitive house design most
important single standardising component.
Stairs differin design (straightflightordog-leg)
and in position. These, incombination, impose
different planning effects. To provide best
circulation aim istoarrive onfirststorey as near
as possible to middle of house; best choice of
position and typeof stair toachieve this related
to plan shape—a(1).
Kitchen& bathr
These comprise most heavily serviced part of
house;economy in plumbing and water supply
systems and problem ofaccommodating bulky
soil and waste stack at lower level eased by
placingone above the other—.(4)(5).
accn
''1 In some house types, designed for both small
and large households, total area required for
bedr and related accn does not balance living,
kitchen and other areas usually placed on
groundstorey: this because space allotted for
commonuse does not increase proportionally
to family size, asdo number and sizes ofbedr.
Economic design forsmall houses, sayfor3 or
4 persons, employs 1 V4-storey arrangement,
basically of 1-storey construction with open
roof truss to enable roof space to be used for
bedr. Such roof on 1-storey house can also
facilitate future extension of small house.
—np78.
Opposite problem occurs in 2-storey houses
designed formore than 6persons, where house
plans can be adapted by providing bedr over
pends, linking houses across pedestrian routes
groundstorey upperstorey
path under
pondusedtoturncorner
6 7 Bedrover pendsmeansofprovidingextra
rm
 Habitat 53

Houses
MORETHAN ONE STOREY I0

1 2 2 'throughha' typeplanswithsolidfuel heating&chimney: note

—.(2) how widerfrontagewith straightflightstairon perimeter leadsto long
uppersto circulation Arch National Building Agency (UK)

4 HouseatHallandSussexEngland Arch Chermayeff

b
3 HousesatMoultonYorkshireEngland: bedrinsulated tromoneanotherby
cpd& staircase; note influence ofstairtypeon upperstoreyplan
Arch Butterworth

ground upper
floor floor

5 SmallSwedishtypewithshonext 6 Largertype with drnextto k& 7 TerhousesinKlampenborgDenmark: appearance of

to kon groundtloor Arch Swedish centrestair Arch W Kraatz detachedhousesachieved by staggering ArchAJacoben
ArchitectsCooperative
54 Habitat

Houses
HOUSE PLANS
Plan ranges
bathr By classifications of type outhned—.p47—9, many agencies providing
bedr houses,in both public and private sectors, havecompiled sets of related
house designs called plan ranges. Designs comprising plan range have
basic constructional features in common, such as staircase type and
location, kitchen/bathr relationshipand upperfloor construction. House
designs in such range can be varied to meet differing requirements
bedr2
while retaining useful degree of standardisation (1).
bedr3 First storey plan of 3-bedr wide frontage house has been changed to
allow house to be used where controlled aspect —p46required. This
possible because critical elements unchanged:ie, inthiscase,plumbing,
heating, stair. Use ofsame firststorey plan asofnarrow frontage house,
possible, would impose dual aspect conditions on its use in layout.
Combined rooms: natural lighting& ventilation
Unlessseparately lighted and ventilated required area should be based
ontotalareaofcombinedspacesprovideddegreeofopenness,relationship
and planning of adjacent space allow adequate natural lighting (—.
Bib187).
In row-house (ter) plan —.(2)shaded areashould beused in calculating
required amounts of natural light and ventilation forcombination dining
and living space. Assuming total floor areadining and living rm 41.8m2
mm amount glazed area required would be 41.8 x lO% or 4.18 m2 in
living rm exposed wall. Vent sashshould be locatedto providecirculation
of air throughout area. Becauseof excessive distance dining areafrom
sourceof natural light height ofglazing should be great as possible.

J
bedri
bedr2
bedr3

r2
bathr

1 Rangeofhousetypesfor 4& 5
personwide & narrowfrontage
houses Arch NBA (Scotland)

2 Combinedrm: naturallighting &

ventilation
 Habitat 55
Houses
KITCHENS I
ci)
Kitchens best placed towards NE or NW of house and in small houses
should ideally overlook entrance, front door and children's play area.
Kitchen relates horizontally to front door (or tradesmen's entrance, if
separate), diningrm ormeal space, food sto,scullery and laundry areas,
refuse sto or disposal, and outside clothes drying and toddlers' play
washing
penling
rexck-up
unwrapping

addingwater
weighing
measuring
mining
baking
holing
hying
keeping lood
hot,
dishing-ap
stacking
washing
drying
grilling disposal
spaces. It relates vertically to bathr, wc and other areas requiringwater
supply and drainage. In large houses functions of kitchen 1 Sequenceofactivities
can be spread over several rm (eg laundry, utility, pantry, scullery)
combined in household wing separated from rest of house to prevent
spreadofnoiseand cooking smells —np49(4).
Main activities for which kitchen designed: preparation, cooking and
serving of meals and cleaning up afterwards. Ancillary activities can
include clothes washing, general household mending and cleaning,
eating, children's play, studying, hobbies, entertaining and general
recreation.

WORKINGSEQUENCE
Sequence of activities —o(1) relatesto sequence of fitments, worktop —
cooker —worktop—sink—worktop, which is basis ofmodern domestic
kitchen planning —.(2): should never be broken byfull-height fitments,
doors or passageways.

Worktriangle
Distance user has to walk between sink, cooker and refrigerator or
larder critical in kitchen planning. Lines Joiningthese 3 elements form
what is known as worktriangle' —o(3). For normal family house com-
bined length of sides of triangle should be between 5500and 6000.
Distance between sink and cooker should not exceed 1800; should
never becrossedby through circulation.

Sinks
Sinks require goodnatural light: best placed underwindow; should not 2 Sequenceoffitments
normally be more than 2300 from waste stack or external drain. Sinks
should be kept away fromcorners —e(4) and there should be plenty of
room tostandin front of draining side, though insmall kitchens washing 00
bowl of double sink may be placed towardscorner-.(5). I I

Cookers& work tops—*alsop56—8

Cooker should never be placed in front of window but should, where
possible, be provided with ventilating hood —e(6). It should not be
placed below wall cupboards and gas cooker should be away from
doors where draughts might blow out burners. Worktop should be
provided on each side; where cooker adjoins corner fitting return of at
least400 should be allowed for easy standing and access space. Low
level cooker requires space of at least 1200 in front for access —n(6).
3 Work triangle(sk —ck — Irig) 4 Singlesk
Adjacent worktops should be at same level as cooker top; ifchange of
level required should beatpoint at least 400 fromcooker—o(7).

Split level cookers with separatehob and wall oven increasinglypopular.

May be 1 or 2 (stacked) aboveworktop height. No perfect location:if in
continuous worktop interrupt workflow; it outside worktriangle extra
travel. Opendoor may bedanger tochildren.

Space forcasual meals to betaken should beallowed at worktop height

in working kitchen, and ideally in working partofdining-kitchen.

Refrigerator
Most difficult of kitchen eqp toplace. Important component of work
triangle; should adjacent worktop space. Frig door should open away
from work area for food access; should not block passageway or hit 5 Doublesk 6 Low-leveloven needsadequate
another doorwhen opening. space infront: noteextractorhood
over ck
Also—p58—9

hardwood pull-out cutting

DINING-KITCHENS—p57 board (drawer below)

Kitchen may be associated with separate but related dining space to

become dining-kitchen. Separation can be achieved by arranging it-
ments toprovide degree ofscreening or bychange inlevel offloor finish
f I
850
1
(undesirable). Dining area should be planned in same way as small
diningrm.
Kitchen may also beenlarged tocontain dining table and chairs, without
separation, toform'farmhouse kitchen': more economical in spacethan
either separate kitchen and dining rm ordining-kitchen butoffers less 7 Changein level 8 Provideplaceforworking
seated,preferablywith pull-out
flexibility in use.
worktophavingdrawer&cutting
board above
56 Habitat

Houses
workcentre noof bedr KITCHENS
0 1 2 3 4
Fixtures& work tops
USA standards require kitchen area which provides for efficient food
mm frontages
preparation, serving and sto, aswell as utensil sto and cleaning up after
sk' 475 610 610 813 813 meals. Provision of fixtures and workfops —s(1); worktops approx 610
worktop,eachside 381 457 533 610 762 deepand 914 high. Clearance between base cpdfronts in food prepara-
tion area mm 1 020
cooker&hobspace236 533 533 610 762 762
worktop 1 side4 381 457 533 610 762 Required worktops may be combined when placed between 2 fixtures:
cooker,frlg, sink. Such worktop shall have mm frontage equal to that of
frigspace5 762 762 914 914 914 largerofworktops being combined. Kitchen sto —up75.
work top1 side1 381 381 381 381 457
—+(2) givesrecommended kitchen sto shelfarea; mm 1/3 required area
mixingworktop 533 762 914 914 1067 to be located in base orwall cpd; mm 60% required area to beenclosed
Notes. when dishwasher provded610skacceptable where built-in wall oven
by cpd doors.
installed provide 457w worktop alongside cookershall not be located under nor
within305ofwindow;wherecpdprovidedabove cooker 762 clearanceshall be
Kitchenlayouts
providedtobottomofunprotected cpd or61010 bottom ofprotected cpd provide at —v(3)—(7) showvarious kitchen plans.
least229fromedge ofcooker toadlacentcorner cpd and381fromsideollrig toadjacent
cornercpd
trig space may be 533whenlug provided & door opens withinownw when cooker
not provided 762space shall be provided
1 Standardsforfixtures&worktops

numberofbedr
0 1 2 3 4
m°
minshelfar1234 2.23 2.79 3.53 4.09 4.65
mm drawer ar5 0.37 0.56 0.74 0.93 2.04
Notes: dishwasher may be counted as037 m2 ofbasecpdsb wall cpdoverfrig
shelfar shelf arabove 1880shall be counted as
shall not be counted asrequired
required ar inside corner cpdshall be counted as50% ofshelfar,eacepl where
revolving shelves usedactualshelfarmaybe counted drawer arm excess ofrequired
armay be counted as shelfarifdrawer atleast 152d

Lshapek

6
oo
StraightwaIIplan k
0 0
LIN 'N n ..iED -
'N /
A
,

'N
N,' n
I
0 uT °e0
\ I
L

0
8F li

,,/-

4 Corr plan k 7 Squareplan kwithdining ar

 Habitat 57

KITCHENS:EXAMPLES
Houses
I
7163

HH __

1
I 7J r- H6

kwith sewingar & homeoff 1 ptr 2sewing 3cpd 4familydiningoroff 2 Farmk 1 sk 2dishwasher 3waste 4cuttingboard 5hob 6oven 7cpd
5hob 6sk 7 freezer 8homeofffiles ArchJohn RPeterson over Bfamilydining 9frig/freezer lOdrystoshelves 11 hotwater l2drop
downironingboard 13 14dryer-washer 15sk 16 17freezers 18cleaning
cpd 19 ventilated food sto 20preserves, coatcpd ArchE H& M K Hunter

3 Gourmetcook's k 1 ptr 2walkintrig 3metal shelves 4choppingblock 4 Efficientsmall kopensto or closes offfromdr&ter 1 sk 2 dishwasher
5 marbleslab 6sk 7dishwasher S hob 9wallovens 10serving 3 ck 4 carrouselcpd 5wallcpd 6trig 7chinacpd 82-way fireplace

T rrr
11 warmingtray 12desk 13 hoodover 14dr Arch Cliff May Arch E H & M K Hunter

r 4115
dr
1524
-
--- 2642
liv garden
entry
r21 ()
H (0

[21

c'J
Ill 5

12

liv
[iii
service
entry

1 110 ——
5 Combination k/uty withgreenhouse 1 sk
2hob 3ovens 4bakingcentre 5trig 6chest
freezer 7deskwith booksover 9cpd 10 sewing
11 ironing 12stowall 13lau sk 14washer
15dryer 16greenhousewith sliding glass
Arch E H&MK Hunter
6 Homecentre k Lifemagazine house 1 folding 7 ksharesfireplacewith liv 1 trig 2 sk
doors 2trig 3ovens 4hob 5sk 6dishwasher 3dishwasher 4ck 5k herb garden 6curtain
7child's trig 8freezer 9washer-dryer 10liftup 7fireplace Scpd Arch EH &M KHunter
mixer 11 rotating sto bin 12cpdover 13skylight
14motorisedwoodslat blinds,lowerfromceilingto
worktoplevel ArchM K Hunter
58 Habitat

Houses
KITCHENS:EQUIPMENT

—
1 400

I Correcttoespace 2
,.. _
Good &bad lighting 3 Hatchbetweenkor ptr&dining 4 Space neededforbottomshelf
arorrm with 2-waysto cpdabove

5 Where noverticalshaft planned,hood&ducttoexternalwall

advantageous

6 Outsidewallexhaustfan 7 Self-ventingcooker

T'j
1 270

__J

9 Standardcooker762wwith low 10 Range 1016w with lowoven 11 Doublewalloven

ovens oven

12 Singlewalloven 13 Smallcooker533w with low 14 Microwaveoven 15 Grill toaster

oven

T
.787h914-_,t

1676

17 Frigwith 0.65 m3 refrigeration & 1.17 m3 freezer

 Habitat 59

Houses
KITCHENS:EQUIPMENT

bhl --

1 Frigwith 0.59 m3 refrigeration & 2 Frig0.25—0.34 m3

L 3 Chestfreezer0.14—0.7 m3
0.2m3freezer

7 1-

I
300

6 Metal & plastics platerack 7 El slicer

5 Mincers(meatgrinders) a hand
4 Uprightfreezer0.31—0.7 m3 bel
—13O—
120

!T
T

C—

360 -1
F—180—-1

8 Mixer 9 Blender 10 Juice extractor 11 Foodmill

13 Crockpot 14 Wastemill 15 Pedal-operatedwastebin

h 0

TJc\,
flute 200 95

-
whitewine 160 75
.7
//
/reclwino

ff
150 70
.7 //sheny 130 50 moat
I/cocktail 120 80
300 hqueur 100 30
-8001
I-I-l-l-.
I- 1000
-360-I

12 Coffeemakers Th
15001
-j-H-I-]-l EH
1- 1000 l-500H

16 Glasses 17 Glass orplasticsfood drawers 18 Boards

200 350
260
300
'
400
460
A
wallscale

L022o
IH
420 620
480 700

___

19 Woodtrays 21 kscales
60 Habitat
Houses
LAUNDRYSPACES
Clothes washing may be done in kitchen, utility rm, bathr (notpopular),
b— 1000 -+ back porch, garage or, incombination with wc, in downstairs cloakrm.

Laundry area needs space for washing machine and drier, for storing
cleaning materials and, possibly, for storing dirty washing; may also
have to accommodate ironing board or ironing machine and working
surface for sorting. Although mobile washing machines available most
models, automaticmachinesinparticular,bestplumbed inwith permanent
connexions towatersupplyand suitablytrapped waste. Where washing
machine not used, orin large houses where much hand washing done,
sink 500 x 350 x 250deeprequired and second bowl ortub desirable.
Tumbler drier —(12) best placed against outside wall to allow direct
2 extraction of water vapour: removablelinttrap required bysome models.
1 Hingedironingboard Space neededforironingseated
Even where tumbler drier provided rack or line needed for drip-dry
clothes. In small houses orflats this can befixedabove bath orshower;
otherwise should be in ventilated drying cupboard or over trapped
draining tray. Open-air dryingpreferred by many and makes nodemands
onenergyresources. Open-airdrying space should be easilyaccessible
1 400 fromlaundry area and preferably in viewfromkitchen —p77.

3 Elironingmachine 4 Howthingsused to be

1 690690

0
V
1 0

-I
5 Twintubwashingmachine(not 6 Automaticwashingmachine 7 Drier stackedonwasher:right 8 Toploadedautomaticwashing
availableinUSA) handconnexions machine

457
710 860

9 Combination frontloadwashing
machine/drier:backconnexions
E
10 Watersoftener
±
c0
r-
(0

11
1100

Spindrier (notused in USA) 12 Tumbledrier(musthavespace

atrear forventilation)
(pullout)

= }
j.

13 Eliron 24 Ironingboard 15 Sleeveboard 16 Sewingmachine

 Habitat 61

Houses
BATHROOMS—p62—5 Best daylight orientation forbathr SE—NW; for ease of installation(gas
and waterservices) should be related to other rm requiring services
(above or backing on to wc, kitchen, utility rm etc, —.p52: will also
minimise noise frompipes); forconvenience should becloseto bedr.
Internal wc and bathr fairlycommon: may be unavoidablewhere econ-
omical use floor area important,especiallyin narrowfrontagehousesor in
pointblocks. Ventilation essential and must accord with appropriatereg.
Showeruses less water than bathtub; often considered more efficient
because of its continuous flow; provides convenient alternative to full
length where space limited —*p63.
2 Mm clearancebetweenb &wall
Shower outlet may be fitted over bath where suitable wall or partition
available at tap end for fixing, orcombined bath tap and shower fitting
with flexible hose may be used. For either bath activity space —.(1)
legs
shouldbe at tap end unless permanent shower screens fitted.
8 45G- \withoutlegs
letinto Showers in wall recesses have shower trays ot enamelled cast iron,
glazed fireclay or plastics with waterproof tiled walls or waterproof
fioor rendering and steamproof paint upto2000: prefabricated shower units
in enamelled sheetsteel, aluminium or plastics also available—.p64 65.
Fixed showerarmsshould be mounted at 1 900: otherwise adjustable,
hand showerwith flexible hose should be used.
1 Recommended clearances 3 Space requirements for
movement(hfrom floor) For ease of access, bathtubs sometimes partially sunkinto floor with
access to trap fromrm below. Where bathtub parallel to wall distance
1-600 fromcentre of bath to face ofwallmust be450.
-r Where possible space should be available for at least 1 item of bathr

4;; furniture, suchas stool or laundry box. Fittings such as towelrails and
toiletroll holders should not obstruct activity spaces. Heated towel rails
best fixed 750 above floor level, above height of small child's head.
§ 2O0' Medicine cabinets should be out of reach of children and fitted with
safety lock. Exposed pipes should be fixed to allow sufficient wall
clearance forcleaning.
5 wc withflushingvalve orh-level
cistern Windows above baths can be difficult to open or to clean without
standing in bath, common cause ofaccidents: may also limit privacy and
• 700 . cause draughts unless well insulated.Windows behind wash basinscan
600
I- 900 -j also be difficult to reach; wall abovewash basin best used for mirror or
medicine cabinet.

J1O 1-500—-I
UK practice does not allow el sockets in bathr other than specially
designed shaverpoint, which should be out of reach ofbath; enclosed
light fittingswith cord-operated switch preferred. USA practice: no el
700
convenience outlets nearwater source; safest locationaspartofsealed
light fixture over mirror with remote switching neardoorway.
4 wc underslopingrooforstairway 6 Single basin

swingrail

__.47Q

.450

900-1000

900 700 11 12 Heatedtowel rail

700 600 enclosedsho

400

iiii' open sho

/
7 Bidet—ap63(9) 8 Sho 13 14 Multi-pointfitting (hb,b& sho)

length_projection length

5(10 80
2
250 90 1000

\ 300

9 Grabrails 10 15
62 Habitat

Houses
BATHROOMS
Equipment
Movable baths of zinc or enameled mild steel suitable only for in-
frequently used baths, children's bath —p63(2), hip baths —np63(3) and
use withoutmain services.
Fixedbaths—'p63(4)—(8) usuallyenameled cast iron, pressed steelor
plastics with various qualities ofenamel (fullgloss, acid resistantetc) or
fireclay.
Free-standing baths —p63(5) usually have taps at toot end: sometimes
loined towall along 1 sideto avoid water splashing behind bath.
Built-inbaths—op63(6) with extended rim attachedto surroundingwalls
& overlapping front: access panel necessary in UK.
Avon bathsfor use as built-in units p63(4) have integral front panel;
1 Gas water heaterfittedtohot 2 Elstoheaterforkorbathr drain & overflow carried tooutside instandpipe ortrapped waste (USA).
water cylinder Space-saving baths p63(7)(8) installedwhere space restricted butdo
not necessarily savewater; corner baths —.p63(7).
Fireclay baths glazed inside and out beautiful and expensive but un-
economic as slowtowarm up; pleasantfor leisurely bathing, however.
Footbaths p63(1O) movable or fixed, usually installed in larger public
baths; may be fireclay, earthenwareor enamelledcastiron.
cOqrleni5. 10, i3i Showers —op63(11)(12)base may be cast iron or fireclay (terrazo);
0—410
230—300'
should preferably be sunk into floor & provided with tile or enameled
sheet steelsurround —also p64.
190—270
Polyban baths —op63(8) Spanish patent: can be used as hip baths,
conient 5, 10. footbaths, bidets or shower (With flexible shower arm); require little
space & savewater(not used in USA).
Bidet—op63(9)earthenware orfireclay, many variationsindesign; mixer
with anti-scalding device —also p61(7).
Basins with back skirting for plastered walls —np63(13); for washable
3 Gas water heaterforchimneyor 4 Gaswater heat forhb walls—.p63(14) many shapes & sizes, sometimes with separatemouth-
outsidewall washbasin oras double basin —.p63(15)(16);mixers for washing with
running water, butwasteful.
Squat wc —(8) hygienic but uncomfortable; has either flushing cistern
i-'11O-j orflushing valve.
Wc —n(5)—(7) siphonic more efficient butextravagant inwater &prohibited
by some water bye-laws. Low level cisterns flush with little noise;
flushing valves more noisy—.(5)(6)but use approx halfasmuch water.
Water heaters (gas or el) —.(1)—(4). El sf0 heaters —.(2) use cheap
night-time el & can be set toheat up at any time during day.

5 Wall toiletwith low levelcistern 6 Toilet withbuilt-in cistern

I
\ioo /
120
Ii I
170 ,aper T

F,)

L corkmat
-h
x
670
I
plan

7 Eqpforwc 8 Squatwc
960

SW clothes
hght
0 hook

760o
=!=
— II towel
510 I'
1

recess r—l
609
1
grab
grab
bar soap L_Jf
recess I
soap .J ,—

eieva5onA
ill er
eievation B

9 Bathrwallcpd 10 Lockable medicine cpd 11 Bathr eqp &fittings aplan b elevations

 Habitat 63
Houses
BATHROOMS
I
Equipment r-4

1500
780_82O50 1875
700 700
1600
& 420

1700
800

1800 I
1 Standardmetric bath sizes 2 Children'sbath 3 Hipbath 4 Enamelledcast ironbath

castiron
12V
5 Parallel-sidedcast iron bath 6 Bath for incorporation as built-in 7 EconomyAmericancorner bath 8 Polybanunit
unit (enameledcast iron)
Shorterbathsrequiremorewater

2
——1004 1250 - 1500 1700 I 1875

Shower requiresapprox301 water

—900-

1-.
350—
400
610-680

350-420

recessfor castiron, steel.fireclay,

soap& brush earthenware,terrazzo,plastics

9 Bidet 10 Footbath(maybeincorporated 11 Sho b torincorporation as 12 Shotray forincorporation as

as built-in unit) built-in unit built-in unit

a500—700 a500—700
b400—600 b400—600

+a —F-— b H a b

13 Hbwith back skirting 14 Hbwithout backskirtingbut 15 Hbwith separate mouth- 16 Doublehb

incorporatingmixer fitting wash bowl
64 Habitat
Houses
BATHROOMS
Wc &washrooms
Wc with low-level cisterns under
high-level windows —(1 )—(3); wc
-700 i 1850 -

I- 1200 -4
750j * KD with high level cisterns —(4)—(6):
where cistern placed against
exteriorwall insulate againstfrost.
Bathrooms: smallest typeofbath
may be recessed into bedr wall
2 3 —*(7)with shower end screened
off with glass partition and
remainder curtained.

COL
1400
In general doors should be mm

' 2200
460wide,should openfull90°and
open inwards except in accn for
elderly, when should open out-
wards.
4 5 Shortb 6 Hip-b (loosebowlinfold-up steel
frame)

-,
Bathrooms

1
0
+

1.
I- 1400 -4

7 binbedr,glass sectionat sho

end 8 As (7)with dryingspace 9

4- 1720 -
91
c1]i
11 12

14
j°i
4— 2630 —4

15
-
çciiip
jo —
OL
1720 5004700-4

/
16

1jdre hbQ
hbi) " bedr , TI -. hb - ter
bed
4—

I L 6400 -4

Wa b j
II_I
I— 7315
I
—4

17 Divided bathr&dre 18 Doubleusebathr 19 Deluxe bathrldre 20 Dividedbathr&dre between

bedr
Showers

D
900 4 4- 900 -, 4- 1000 4-800 -4
4- 4- 900 -

cii
21 22 23 Withfold-up hb 24

t1
H 3657 -4
4- 1600 -,
- 2300 -1 I— 2540 —I T
highwindow 1219sq
thagortalb

E1 T:
25 26 27 StandardAmericanb 28 Americansquaretubbathr
 Habitat 65

I wcplumbingelements
Houses
PREFABRICATEDSANITARY UNITS
Standard layand bathr fittings mostly fairlycostly and taketime to install.
As requirements more or less uniform prefabrication preferable: in
particular forterrace houses, maisonette housesand large scale blocks
of flats, also for modernisation schemes and prefabricated housing.
Prefabricateditemscomprise complete plumbing units—.(1)(3), plumb-
ingwalls—(2), complete elementsstoreyorrm high, with pipe mountings
and el leads, also items with accessories, flooring and, usually, ceiling
—+(4)—(9)(available without ceiling for old housing). Compact elements
of fixed dimensions —(1 Q)(11). Also individual elements with variable
ground plan design—*(5)—(9).
Construction: mainly sandwichwith wood skeleton and chlpboard,glass
2 Plumbing wall aluminium, aluminium, stainless steel, glass fibre reinforced polyester,
reinforced concrete floor slabs —n(1O)(11) or new types of plastics.

fl\ plumbingunit F—1070—H

Fittingsand accessories similar materials.Basic essentials: anti-scratch
surfacefinish and long service life (no material fatigue). Prefabricated
plumbing units mostly for use internally in bldg —.(13)—(16); proper
through ventilation therefore necessary: possibly forced ventilation.

U/.
Suitable forhotels—(14), hospitals,old people's homes—.(13).
Connexion to 1 -storey central heating system hasproved successful.

I 2100—1
3 Plumbingunitonwall 4 Self-containedwcelements&
fittings

75
e—600
75
+— 1250 —a 50

I— 1435—.1

1
I k
S
I 1

p—1800— I
I 2050 ——-----—i

5 Self-containedwcelement& 6 She elementwith plumbingshaft 11 As 10butwith shoatside 12 Large unitcomprisingk,

fittings washr, heater

2285—-

I
I I

2240 I 2110 I

7 Smallbathrunit 8 Bathr unit 13 wcelement in hospital 14 Sho elementinhotel

—...Qt_ r—..1_——— 1400-i

I
U1 /1 I
2875 I 1530 —
9 Bathr unitwithwashing 10 Compactunit 15 Sho elementinsmall dwelling 16 Prefabricatedbathrwith k
machine partitionwall
66 Habitat
Houses
PUBLICROOMS

1-450*—900—4
Dining rooms
•F550+4504
Position: breakfast area facing E —.(1 1), dining area facing W —v(1 2)
(13)(1 5)(l6); directaccess from hall or corridor not necessary but from
kitchenor pantry essential.
Space requirement: formerly largest rm dining rm has shrunk to bare
essentials: very often utilises corner —v(6), kitchen recess —vp55—7
ante-rm or area in living rm —*(4)—(7). Even in large houses dining rm
keptmodest—v(8)(9),sometimes with provisionto combine itwith living
rm for special occasions —v(10). Doors in rm corners convenient.
1 Mm clearancefromwall depends
onmethodofserving (withorwithout
2 Space requiredbetweenheadof
table &sideboard
Size ofdr . . . 6 to
Table w. . . 550 to 1100
24 P

servant) Seating w/P 550to 700

At head oftableadd . . . 100 to 200
P— 1700 4

Diaof round table =

x
seat w number ofP
3.14

IF1LII
- .- 600
eg600wand6P=
0.60x 6 = 1040

Outside dining spaces (verandas, terraces): should lie on wind-

tii
F 1800 —1
protected sunnyside of house in front of dining or living rm (ie in W
Europe with prevailing SW windsshould face E or SE). Since E sun
shines at low angle roof can project quite prominently. Mm widthwith
:I11UEB bench seatalong 1 wall3000: roof projection 2000sufficient.
- 600 —

3 Sideboardwith drawersathead 4 5 Mm table spaceinrailway

oftable dining carwithtip-up seats4; little
morespace requiredindiningrecess
with loosechairs5

ri
1— 3000 H b 3300 —1 33
r
iLJLP T flIfl9.
DftJij
0

6 Space-savingarrangementof
table withfixed cornerseat&
(possibly)small sideboards
breakia1I :
7 Formore than 5 Paccesstoall 11 In Americadiningspaceneark
seats mustbeallowedfor withamplesto cpd&sideboardclose
at handoftenconsideredadequate
12 Diningrecess inliv (withor
without curtain)with accesstok,
intermediatestage toseparate dr
Arch Byrne

I— 3200 H F- 3300 - -4000 -4

3300-

Trverk

8 Smallestpossibledrfor6P 9 Smallest possibledrfor6Pwith 13 Separatedr between k&liv 14 Drbetweenter& liv (sliding

withoutsideboard; doorin corner roundtable & cornercpd (double Arch Schwarderer foldingdoors allowcombination)
preferable swingdoor to k)

:::....: .•.•.
ter
1 550 —
1 500

-
—F-— 3900 —4— covering
I
sard I ci
UQOUG
],7t-
7450
un
dr
ser

10 Drfor 12 Pwith sideboard&spaceforservants: maybe enlarged into 15 Dr &livboth openingontoter, 16 Relationshipofdrto other mi
living rm with space-saving arrangement of sliding foldingdoors ensuringgooddaylight
 Habitat 67

Houses
PUBLICROOMS Guest& children'srooms
I
Livingrooms
h=1100

I- 750
TJ1
—4

T
4-600-1
-Uk1øgoo

900
j&h=600
I— 4000 —1 4— 4500

750 250
1900 -H Narrow rm forguestsor2
1—
11 12 Similarrmtoll withfold-up
teenagechildren,with joint work beds &built-in cpd butwider:can
1 Comfortablelow easychairs 2 Table in frontoffireplaceoff table, separateWa, fold-up beds beseparateworktablesoneither
besidetable orstandardlamp centreto allowaccesstofire side ofwindow

4— 4750 —I
teatrofley

10001
§

3100 - 4-- 3500 -

4— 3500 +1000

3 Easychairs350 h &table600 h 4 Seatinggroup withsettee:easy 13 Shortrmwithcpdl500h& 14 Large rmwith bunk bedsin

fortaking tea inalcove chair 380 h, table 600 h fixed beds,primarilyguest rm recess,largefreear, & hb& coat
hooks neardoor
Sewin9 machine 800/450
2000 -J activity furnitureandeqp specialised combined
I 4—
rm rm

I
__ 1 sitting settee,lowtable,easy
chairs salon
1 600 2 tea teatrolley, sto ofcrockery
etc,seating ladies rm
F— 3100 —4 4— 3400 —4
3 aperitifs, etc sto ofglasses, sideboard,
liqueurtrolley bar
4 smoking smokers'table, pipe cpd, liv
tobacco sf0, smokers'
5 Seatinggroupwith settee& 6 Seatingarrangementin liv (may
chairs: chair420 h, table 650h also beused forbreakfast): chair requirements smokingrm
440 h, table700 h 5 conversation fire place, comfortable
easychairs, small
tables lounge
Musicrooms 6 dancing parquet orlinoleum
dance floor, 2.5—3.5
m2 per couple ballrm
7 playing children'sfurniture,
carpeted floor, toy sto children'srm
8 sewing table, sewingmachine,
linencpd, baskets utilityrm
9 breakfast breakfast artowards E
withter, or between
bedr breakfast rm
dr
10 eating dining ar,sideboard dr
11 writing desk,chairs, filing,
waste-paper basket stu
12 reading shelvesorcpd,easy
chairs with headrest lib stu
7 Incorrectgrand pianooften 8 Grandpiano incorrectly placed: 13 music piano, cpdforother
drawnbyarchitects: long(bass)side openingtowardswallinsteadof rm instruments, musiclib musicrm
isonleft 14 indoorsport table tennis, billiard table,
punchball etc games rm

internalwall 15 Livingrm uses

Living rm usually multi-purpose; layout and furnishing vary widelywith

9 Grandpiano wellpositioned in
relationtoseatinggroup, wall&
circulation,butwindow,heating&
externaldoor wouldbeadverse
factors
10 Grandpianoagainstinternal
wall,away fromwindow&heating,
wellrelatedtoseatinggroup&rm;
daylightcomingfrombehindplayer
different uses entailing wide range of possible space requirements
—*(15). Therefore necessary define functions in detail before shape,
space for furnishing and movement of users can be planned. For liv
tables—(5) allow 650 space per person, for easychairs —*(2)(3)866
and
-
diafor roundtables personsx866
3 14
68 Habitat
Houses
PUBLICROOMS
Seating nearwindows
1400/8cc
0 r

2350-

1 Work tablescloselyrelatedto 2 Avoid seatingpeoplewith backs 3 Diagonalarrangementpre- 4 On built-in setteebelowwide

window towindow ferable to 2&requireslessspace window,however, severalpeople
can sitquitecomfortably

Seating away fromwindows

5 Bench seatalso satisfactory 7 Seatingagainstinteriorwallwith viewthrough picturewindow very 8 Seatingin middleusually

between2windowsin lightcoloured relaxing,speciallyinfront offrenchdoors uncomfortablefrom lackof
corner with suitablecarpet relationshipwith rest ofmi

Seating roundfireplace
.400
draught

I.

§
1000
2000

V
9 Ingle-nook Arch Leusinger 10 Seatingarrangedtoavoid 11 Chairswithhigh backs& ears' 12 Largergroupsshould follow
draughtfromdoortofireplace also protectagainstdraught patternof heatradiation

Seating round workdesks

13 Colleaguesworkingclosely
togethershouldfaceeachother; with
largewindows&light-coloured
walls,daylightfromright istolerable
forwriting
700

14 Visitorsusuallysitin lightatend
ofdesk,face of interviewer being in
shade
15 Assistantsmaywork
970

temporarilyonflapat endofdesk
a
16 Conferencetable unnecessary
ifdesktop extensible

Correct arrangement of seating greatly enhances comfort of users.

Relationship of daylight and artificial lighting important —(1)—(8). Give
careful consideration togoodcombination of furniture elements, choice
of independent heights and colours, well planned free area, correctly
hung doors, kind of floor (direction of boarding) —+(7), carpets 17 In small rmvisitorsmaybe 18 As alternativeto17visitormay
—(5)(6)(8)(1 2), treatment ofwallsincluding pictures and sitingofwin- seatedagainstinternall wall; small beseatedbehindhost,who turnson
dows, radiators, fireplace and piano —+p67. Seating area, however, will table shouldbeprovided revolving chair:door should bein
remain focal point ofrm: everythingelse should be subordinatedto it. frontofdesk
 Habitat 69

Houses
PUBLIC ROOMS
I— 6900 —1 Living rm usedfor general daytime activities; serves mainly asfocus of
social activities of family round fireplace, tea or coffee table and for
evening leisure activities.Orientation best between E, S and W.
Windows —np404

Reception rm (salon): in larger houses often used as music rm or

consult/waiting rm near entrance.
entrance
Conservatory (wintergarden): usuallyfacing S accessible from living
ordiningrm.
L.—' seatingar ress Music room: nexttoliving rm; dimensionsdeterminedbysizeofaudience
and type and number of instruments; soft lighting from back or side of
players. For acoustical reasons rm shape usually square with wood
panelling; position ofpiano —ep67. In largerm sound reflecting surfaces
1 1-rmdwellingfor2persons,with 2 Squareliv with seatingarnear round players with absorbent surfaces behind audience.
differentactivitieswellseparated window& fold-upbeds
Study: frequently serves asoffice or workrm. Near entrance and living
rm with W or E aspect; fitted with desk, bookshelves, filing system,
seating area (deepeasychairs, lowtable, cocktail cabinet).
— 7000
books Library: N orientation. 1 000 shelftakes approx 30—40 books. Height
between shelves250—300,shelfdepth 220—320.Forapprox, 120—150
books1 m2 of wall. Larger volumes, maps, folders etc in lower, deeper
shelves. Height oftop shelfapprox 1 700 from floor—+pl 46.
Children's rm: away from living rm but easy supervision essential
(from household rm) and preferably with access to garden or safe
balcony; on sloping sites may be on lower ground to give garden
access. Orientation E-W, low cill (guard rails outside), furniture to chil-
sidoboard dren'ssizes.Washable wallfinish(such aslinoleum orplastics-covered
panelling) toheight ofabout 1 500.

3 Mur& liv,with needleworktable, 4 Liv/dr cum murwith built-in

fireplace,book-shelves furniture,suitablefor 10—12persons
Arch Neufert Arch Neufert

munc cxJ
underwindow
4500
I—.
H- 6800 H H900-t
reading
desk I— 3000 —
1
'O T
stu 8

bode
-I- trolley

5 Smallmurwith grand& baby 6 Murforquartets,trios or2grand 9 Booksto inlong narrowrmwith 10 Smallworkrmwith writingdesk
grand pianos& seatingar: avoid pianos &audienceof 12(daylight amplewallspace: reading desk nearwindow,bookshelves&seating
placing pianoclose toheatingunitor from behindpianists) underwindow,small booktrolley ar
in directsun near door

- 3000 -4 4—. 6500 —1 '°°° -1

T

-I-

7 Smallstuwith bookshelves, desk 8 Largestu withbookshelves, 11 Work rmwithwholewallfor

&seatingar seatingarinfront of writingdesk bookshelves,sewingmachine
(underbookshelves),writingdesk,
seatingar, chestofdrawers
70 Habitat

Houses
BEDROOMS
Positionof bed
Bedmaking requires clear space of at least 400, preferably 700 (USA
mm), beside bed. In most small houses, therefore, choice of bed
positions restricted by shape and size of bedr; to free as much floor
space as possible single beds usuallyplaced along walls and double or
twin bedsplaced headto wall. Nevertheless,relation of bed towalls and
to rm as a whole can also be important in contributing to feeling of
security. While stable, self-reliant person may prefer free-standing bed
—(4)lessself-reliantperson mayprefer—.(1)(2)(5) regardlessofamount
of space available.
Impression of restfulness depends on wall covering and colour, shape
of bed, orientation (head towards N), relation to daylight (looking away
from window) and relation to door (looking towards door). Relative
position of 2 beds also important because where 2 people sleep in 1 rm
differentarrangementsmay bedesirable,especiallywhere headpositions
concerned, according to relationship between people —(9)—(12) (16).
Also differentarrangementsforcouples,depending on personal preference
—(13)—(15).Withseparate beds change of direction may be preferable
—.(12)(15)(16). Separate beds for couples now common. Current
fashion may also favour water bed, though well to bear inmind that, fully
loaded, thismay impose floorload of up to2oreven 3 t.

—
>p

1 Alongwall 2 Headagainstwall 3 Headnearwall 4 lncentreofrm

5 Cornerofrm 6 Rear wall 7 Recess 8 Alcove

9 Friends 10 Sisters 11 Brothers 12 Guests

1.5 -

13 Doublebed (single mattress) 14 Twinbeds (2mattresses) 15 Separatebeds 16 Bunk beds

17 USA bedrsizes(mainbedrmin11.15m2 leastdimension 2845,secondary bedrmm 7.43m leastdimension2438) a&bsingle C double d twin; USAbed
sizes —.p71
 Habitat 71

Houses

Th
BEDROOMS
Today's reduced flat and house sizes call for most economical use of
floor spaceand make built-in cupboards desirable. Best arrangement
based uponenclosed wall recesseswith flooring running intocupboard,
walls papered or oil painted, and moth-proof doors. Ideal solution:
complete cupboard walls between rm—U(7)(11 )(12): sliding, accordion
or openout hinged doors.
Cupboards on exterior walls must be well insulated and ventilated to
avoid condensation —Up74(2); walk-in cupboards/dressing rm also
require ventilation —U(13). Cupboards can be located between bedr to
reduce sound transmission.

0?
a, 762
c 914
U'
1
bed I in UK vary according to manufacturer; 1 905 is
69 commonsize; othersizes 1880,1981and2133
U) 2 Modernbedr fitmentcombining bedhead, bedsidetables, fitted wa & sto
1524 spaceabove
00 1829

child'scotsize usually 1 219 long, 610 wide

USA mattresssizes

king ao queen 3-quarter twin -1

I 1828 1828 2032 1905 1905
w 1981
J 2500 -Iii0001
1981 1524 1371 990
note:add 76toeachdimension forframe 9 10 Double-depthcpd(withdouble
Double-depthcpd,single&
doubledoors(opened) doors) & cornercpd formedsimply
USA water bed sizes bydoors;walls& floor of rm
continuous
king queen single

I 2133 2133 2133

w 1828 1524 1219

Bed, divan& mattresssizes

-I 1— 1500 -IF-1500-11750-4 2000 -II- 2000 H

F- 3260

11 Cpd wallwith walk-incpd 12 Cpd wallwith walk-incpd &

between2bedr: linencpdopeningto washrwith sho between 2 bedrthat
corr;wall thicknesses varyfrom30 to are about4000deep
100 dependingonmaterialsused
3 Elevationofdoublebunk-bed 4 Elevation& sectiontoplan 5
recess&built-in cpd showingeconomicaluse of space

60

F— 3600 —I :r
I— 3600 —.i
500

,"mirror
13 Walk-in cpdbigenough to 14 Americanexampleofwindow
serve as dre wall withcpd
5 Bed recessformedby built-in 6 Cpd acrossfullrmw, with
cpd window (above) &mirroronsliding
door (below)

F- 3600 —l

F- 3600 - 11 2001
bedr

15 As14butwith deepcpdonboth 16 Loweredceiling &curtainwill

7 Built-in cpdrelatedtopositionof 8 Linencpd atend of corr,door sides angledatfrontto avoid combinecpd of 14& 15toformdre
beds frame serving2doors obstructingdaylight
72 Habitat
Houses
BEDROOMS
Rm sizes determined by bed sizes: beds and wardrobes often built in
—*(1)(4)(6)(1 1) and sizes of small rm accord with standard bed sizes.
Window preferably parallel to bed (for reading and view) so that with
9— 4000 -4 desirable E orientation bed will stand N—S —.(2)(5)(8)(9)(13)(15) etc.
— 3000 —.
Doors should open without encroaching on sleeping area —4(2)(8)(9)
(12)(14)(16)(18) etc. Comfortable access to whole rm of of paramount
1 Singlebedr 9 importance —4(5)(7)(1 1).
USA bedr sizes —.p44(1)70
Stu/bedralso —p140(1 )—(5)

4— 4000 —4 I— 5000 —I

2 10

IDL_Ji
T °1 7
I— 4000 —1 4— 5000 —i I— 4000 — 1— 4000 —..

3 11 Doublebedrwithdouble- 17 Main bedr 23 Main bedrwith pull-outbed

depth cpd

I- 4500 —9 5000 —i — 4000 —4 9— 6000 —i

4 Bed-sittingmi 12 18 Main bedrwith doublebed 24 Main bedrwith dre ar

i__ 4000 —-
-r
T
§ 8

I— 4000 —l — 5000 —9
I I
5 13 19 25

I
8
1100
F 5000 —
a--...--Vi_V]1
— —I —
I
6000 4500 —4

6 Bed-sittingrrnwithdouble-depth 14 Doublebedrwithsleeping 20
cpd recess

7 Bed-sittingrm
5000 —1

21
ed
I— 7000

27 Separatebedrfor husband &

wife
—4

8
4— 5000

Bed-sittingrm withfold-upbed
—.4
—T
6
4—

16 Stu-bedrwithsleepingrecess
I
22 Main bedr-sittingrm
— 7000

28 Separatebedrwith walk-
—i

throughcpd
 Habitat 73

Houses
STORAGEIN HOUSES& FLATS
I
c)
Shape and position of sto space as important as its size. Sto should be
provided within easy reach of activities to which related and shape
should allow max useofwallareaforshelving —s(1). Stogenerally more
useful atground level than on upper storeys. Familyhouse willrequire at
least5m2ofgeneral sto, ofwhich at leasthalfshould be on ground floor
(USA mm 1.23 m2).
General storage
Sto rm require ventilation and those providing part of passageway
through house should also permitnaturallighting.In suchcasesallowance
mustbe madeforloss ofusablespace tocirculationrequirements.—a(2).
1 Entrance on longside of sto 2 Allowspaceforpassagewayin Garden tools, bicycles etc usually best inexternal stoor,ifwithin house
allowsmax useofshelving through' sto itself,in stowith direct access from outside —*(3).
Hats & coats
Space required in or off entrance hall for hanging hats and coats and
storing outdoorfootwear, preferably in wardrobe or with racks to take
hangers —+(3). Additional space may be needed for storing working
clothes and eqp —(1 1 )(1 2).
Thepram
In family houses space required for pram —sp74(4): should be easyto
manoeuvre pram indoorssothat itcanbeused ascot(crib) during dayif
required.
Meters
25
_____
biding
doors
Credit metersshould be capable of being read withoutentering living
area of house. Arrangements which can be read by inspector from
outside —p74(3) available. Prepayment meters should be easy to
reach fromfloor level butgasmeters, especially, should beout ofreach
3 Inlinewa 4 Walk-in wa
of small children. Space forgasmeters —*p386.
q Linen
130 Separate sto space should be provided for linen and bedding. At least
0120
0.6 m3 required, fitted with slatted shelves. Must be dry and therefore
I bI
________ not entered from bathr or kitchen or sited against outside wall (unless
510 80 35 insulated). May be combined with suitably ventilated hot water cylinder
cupboard (heater closet) but not with 'combination' water unit as
400 Iao
400 40
condensation might occur.

5 Hat&coat rack
Wardrobes
Forclothing in particular,ease ofaccess more important than sf0space.
Effective depth of built-in cupboard forclotheshanging 600 but deeper
6 Umbrellastand cupboards can be more fully utilised byattaching accessories to backs
of doors—s(7). As loads not great normal blackboard doors on strong
hinges adequate; shelves can be supported by adjustable ladders and
brackets. Walk-in cupboards —*p71 (11) take uplittle wallspace, as door
of 550 (USA mm 610 preferred 660) will suffice for cupboard of any
length; but floor space less efficiently used because of necessary
access area. Walk-in cupboards must be ventilated and lighted and

r
1 may be entered from, and used as access or escape routes between,
adjacent rm.

'
fd8flselTflO8
Is! ftLLEh. I —

7 Clothes& linencpdwith doors 8 Dressingchairwith backrestin

puttoadditionaluse (fordimensions coat hangershape(copyright:
Neufert)

600
11 Internal stoaccessible fromgardenwithoutpassingthroughliving arof
house

house house

a b

secbone-t

sectiona-b Section c-d

9Wa 10 Built-inwa 12 Gar sto aside b rear

74 Habitat
Houses
STORAGE

1. 4 USAel meteronbrickwall
1000 I— 600 * 550 +350-i
Section
Sechon
I— 1500,-".
4 700 P4700
,=.==tJ';=
8
I,6

1 Built-in doublewa (cheap& 2 Walk-in wabetweenbedr 3 Externalel metercpd 5 Pram

space-saving) —.also p71

hangers 240
I /
1 320

men's hats
200
Ac.
350 280

1
150
7
320
— -260

women's hats
350
'0
200

6terrytowels900h 3pairheavy
3pairpyjamas
stockings

'
10shirts '—'2z./ men'ssocics
handkerctefs 120 3 bath towels lBOh x80 x 35
6

x1,x70 120

/
480
500 1 20,
12women's
handkerchiefs
110 x 80 x 30
/5o -i
200.,,
300
6 handtowels40h
A
80,

6 Dimensions ofclothes
 Habitat 75

Houses

1 Sectionthroughworktop& sto
3 Cloths &towels
600
Kitchenstorage
Space required in or nextto kitchen for storing food and cooking eqp.
I
"1° Stoalso needed forgeneral cleaningand laundering eqp and materials.
Dry goods should be enclosed and readily accessible from cooker and
sink positions. ci)
Floor cabinets best used forstoring heavy or infrequently used articles.
Wall cabinets economical in space and provide convenient sto for
smaller and frequently used items: should be shallow enough to allow
full useof worktops below —(i).
Larderventilated to outsideairand protectedby flyproof screendesirable
even when space for refrigerator and freezer provided: should not
contain heating orhotwaterpipes norreceive direct sunlight. Should be
provided with well fitting door, preferably with threshold, to discourage
vermin.
Freezer need not necessarily be near kitchen: ifplaced inoutside stooi
garage must be locked against theft. Should be served by el power
outleton independent circuit.
Wine
Wine cellars should be clean, dark, dry, well ventilated (but avoid cold
draughts) and in quietposition free from vibration and away fromdirect
heat. Whitewines best kept at constant tempbetween 6°—8° C and red
4 Space-savingverticalsto of winesat between 10°—i 2°C. Bottle sto may be in racks or in unglazed
dishes
clay drainpipes —*(11).
Fuel storage
Solidfuel requires volume of not less than 1.13 m3forfuel sto. Should
beaccessible fromwithin house orfromporch orother shelter. To avoid
spread of dust arrange that bags can be tipped from outside without
entering house.
-500-1
LH-I- In makingprovisionforoilstowellbegenerous—*p386—7.Fuel tanksupto
4-
ETh
1000

1-500-4
II1
-4

5 Dish cpdwith drawers
-1000 -4 H500-
2000I can generally be located adlacent to houseswithout restriction;if
enclosed should beseparated from remainderofbldg and provided with
catch pit. Fuel inlet point should be positioned within 30 m of place
where delivery tanker can conveniently stop. USA: oil tanks often
6 Glass orplasticscontainers buried if 21001 orover.

Refuse
Refuse sf0 should be outside house, easily accessible from kitchen
door. Simple, easily cleaned, covered stand required. Carrydistanceto
collection vehicle access should notbe more than 46m and ideally less

8 Q0c than 25 m.

7 Eggrack for 100eggs

(500 x 500)
8 Slattedrackforfruit (800 x 420) hi
13 Lazytongs'rackingtofitavailablecpdspaces(80x BOx 80)

200130 180 I /
220130 /
180
270x 150 /
180
210 /
Carpei
30017O .'

sweeperf
Mop
4
iloor 1
9 Potatorack 10 Bottlesstored sardinefashion' pohsher 420 ,
indeep shelves
300
Q
;/o
depth300
120

7
4400
40

11
boffles/ri?)
oo
Bottles storedin drainpipes(64 12 Bottlesstored in overlapping
pyramids
16 Vacuumcleaners
320
76 Habitat
Houses
SECURITY
External security best served by good lighting and visibility. Access
routes and entrances should never be dark or concealed, however
romantic thismightappear, and should ifpossible allow sufficient space
toavoid unwanted encounter.
Avoid dense planting round entrances and ground floor windows (or
use prickly shrubs!). In small blocks offlats entrance may becontrolled
by entryphones —.(1)(2) but this may be inconvenient where many
smallchildren. For single people or working couples someprovision
needed fordaytime deliveries.
Forthievesease ofexitas important asease of entry. Professionalmay
be willing to break window to secure access but will be unwilling to rely
on thisas his means ofexit Allexternal doors should therefore be fitted
with deadlocks and openable windows, ifpossible, befitted with window
locks.
Free detailed advice, based on expert local knowledge, available from
all UK police forces through their crime prevention officers.
1 Bell-push& doormicrophone 2 Typicaldimensionsofdoor
mustbe in reachof children transmitterwith light button& bells
for5floors
3 Semi-privateentrancezoneforflats a perspective b plan
PRIVACY:PUBLIC& PRIVATE SPACES
Amongmostdifficult problems in housing layout: striking right balance
between need for privacy and need to avoid social isolation. Balance
obviously varies according to individual character, temperament and
age so no perfectsolution possible but good layout will at leastallow
somedegree of individual choice. Designs which opt strongly for either
social' or 'private'approach unlikely to satisfy majorityofoccupants.
Dwellings opening directly on to busypublic spaces and access decks
designed to encourage social contact and neighbourliness may also
suffer intolerable intrusion, while screening desgned to provide
'defensible space' may result in roads and footpaths bounded byblank
wallsand fences. Eitherapproach likely to lead to feelings of insecurity
and dissatisfaction amongst residents.
In high density layouts, in particular, user satisfaction likelyto be en-
hanced, and incidence of vandalism to be reduced, by sub-divison of
large anonymous public areas intosmaller spaces related to identifiable
groupsofdwellings.
For flats,transition between entirely public zone of street and entirely
private zone of individual fIat may be by way of both semi-public zone
sharedbyall flats inblock (elevator and staircase hall etc, possiblywithsome
formof supervised access) and semi-private zone share by 2 or 3 flats
withaccess undercontrol ofoccupants —.(3).
For houses, public access road may lead to mixed use pedestrian!
vehicle court .-.p42, with psychologically restricted entry, related to
groupof 20 or so houses and further transition zone provided by front
garden toeach individual house.
—.alsop77
Gardens—.p103-—14
k Iiv/dr
1bedr
:rL fl1dr
,jL
tcr==ir=i_[I
bedr bedr
r-I.b1 down±ffh±[
bedr
flfl
baI
0 5m
15tt
4 HawaiiHousingAuthority;2-storeyunitsover flats,solves 3-storeypublic
stair requiredfor3 floor flats agroundlevel bsecond level cthird level
Arch Akiyama!Kekoolani
 Habitat 77

Houses
PRIVATEOPEN SPACE I0
All family houses require somekind of related open space — whether
garden, patio —n(7) or balc—np88 —which is sunny and sheltered from
wind. Should ideally be large enough to allow space for clothes drying ci)
I,
—s(5)(6), toddler's play,out-door hobbiesand sittingout. Factors affecting
location outdoorliving areas—*(3).

Gardens —p1 03—14

1 Nface ofhousein shade& immediate foreground overshadowed but
longerprospecton to sunlit garden&wallformingsuntrap
air20°C; wind 16kph
Enclosed garden enhances privacy. Walls,hedges and, to lesser extent,
trees can providenatural protection fromnoise, wind and dust. Advan-
tage if private garden can open out of liv, providing out-doorextension
oflivingspace: but not necessarilybest placed (UK) onSsideof house
sinceenclosed garden toN can provide sunlit view, though will need be
deepto be effective because ofovershadowingbyhouse itself—n(1).
Gardenstructures—pll1
Tents and sheds in gardens do not usually rate as bldg in UK: not
considered permanent living access when occupied only bydayand not
used for trade or business. Distance fromsite boundary orother bldg
should not be less than 1 800. Forframes and greenhouses —spi 11.

___________________ you feel

20°C

a
air 20°C; wind 16kph

60steel rods a b
spaced 32apart
x
6 25steel flat barlj" 019pipe woodseat F- 9t4

dia
weldedcap-
76 inside

7
I
brick laid
dryon25
sand
benchnut° x ii
hand bevelie

0
I
air20°C;wind 16kph angleiron
:- :
- cement
compacIeo1OdirodS
sub-soil
4 Built-inbarbecues aadjustablegrill canberaisedto305abovebrazieron
masonrybase bbarbecuefirepitcombination continuous unitwithgarden
seat &patio paving:hard-burnedfirebrick liner; ironpins adjusthof

yoeefeel 24°C grill Design aAKTobin bCMasonWhitney R Burton LittonJrRobertJ

Tetlow

Windeffects
greatestspan 2400
h 1900
c 425
weight 15kg
cord horn

5 Washinglines 6 'Whirligig' clothesdrier

3 Factorsaffectingoutdoorliving arlocations: consultlocalreg 7 Patio& deckonwater's edge ArchLawrenceHalprin

78 Habitat

Houses

45, ADAPTABLEHOUSES
Two recent developments in house planning in Britain are intended to

r
10 ---—-f——lU8'—4-——l0' 8"——---10B"—- extendflexibility in meeting user requirements.

N WalterSegal'shouses

-:Th Architect Walter Segal has designed houses using sheet materials in
standard panel sizes assembled in timber supporting construction.
Column centres 3000—3600 apart give great planning flexibility with
acceptable beam depths and accommodate most rm sizes. Bldg are
raised above ground, with columns based on concrete pads. Planning
'liv readily adaptable and materialscanbe reused —(1)(2).
Extendiblehouse
Extendible houses intended to permit first-home owners to enlarge

hILI their houses as family size increases. Examples illustrated represent

2 approaches, extension of 1-storey house to form patio —(3), and
construction of rm in roof—(4).

I Self-containedextensiontoexisting houseinSussexEngland 1970:

externalwallpanelswhite glazedasbestos sheetoutside, 50woodwool slab
core,plasterboard&laminateinside:flatroofoverhangs at eaves; imperial
dimensionsretainedtoshow howsizesrelatetosheetmaterials, 2' 0' panel V
w + 2" joint &tolerance ArchW Segal

elevahon

before afterextension
extension

8
21' 6" 6"8'6'8'64 4 Inthis Scottishdesignhouseisextendedupwards:nonewfoundations
brickworkneeded Arch NationalBuildingAgency Edinburgh
or

2 This largerhouseon slopingsite at Ballycummisk Ireland shows great

flexibilityofsystem Arch W Segal

3 These 1-storey 1-bedrhousesat ChathamEnglandcanbe extended to 5 Americandesignforlowcost plywood panelhouse; roofpanels&wallsare

provideupto3bedrbutspacerequired maymeanhigh initialsitecosts Arch built inflat position& hoisted ortippedupintoplace agroundfloor bfirst
WCook BoroughArchitect floor Arch E H&M KHunter
 Habitat 79

Undergroundhouses
I
ato dr
entrance
ha hv
Growing concern with safeguardinglandscapefromill effects ofintrusive
development engenders greater interest in underground building for
housing. Application to domestic house of techniques of construction
devised for civil engineering or military proiects: costs involved cut by
recentrefinements in bldg technology.
Energy conservation further factor tending to favour building under-
ground, ifonly in part. Soil provides good insulation layer, keeping heat
in during winter, out insummer —ep8O.
Underground housing still experimental. Designers must base predic-
tionsfor such details as number of air changes/hr needed to keep up
ventilation levelsfor preventing build-up ofcondensation on empirical
calculations: not enough built examples see how different forms of
excavated construction behave in practice.
In UK bId reg framed before underground housing became likely
prospect; official approval thereforedependentonindividual negotiation.

a sectionA F

12 18 ii

sieepingpiaiforrn

k ter
entrance

b
1 Hill tophouseFloridaUSA:sitedforpanoramic viewsbutpartlysunkin
groundtoreduceinterferencewith naturalcontours;turfedroofshelprest
blendin:upperlevelformssinglespace observatory asection bplan Arch
WilliamMorgan

3 HolidayhomeJutlandDenmark: partly underground soasinvisiblefrom

landwardsidewith viewsseawardthrough2largeglassdomes;underground
componentconcreteshell absections c plan ArchClausBonderup

1 2 3m
98

2 HouseinPenninesEngland:toavoidintrusion inaesthetically sensitive

areapartly underground,partlyhidden behindearthmounds asection b
plan Arch ArthurQuarmby
4 Twin beachhouses FloridaUSA: underground soas notto interfere with
views ofhouseson landside;built inpairsfromshellscast inGunite, cement
mixtureusuallyused forswimming pools; lowerhalvescast firstinto
excavatedsand then 100thick rootshellbuilt up oversteelreinforcing rods;
claimed costs approx1/2 thoseofequivalent conventional structure thanksto
layerofearth mm 560 asection bplan ArchWilliam Morgan
80 Habitat
Houses
ENERGYSAVINGBY PLANSHAPE
Minimumperimeter house
Reducing exterior wallarea can save energy. In theory dome or sphere
ideal configurationbut haveobvious drawbacks:circularplan has smallest
perimeterfor given floor area —.(1), Next best alternative: perfectly
square plan of 1-storey house; minimises wall and window area and
therefore energyIoss—.(2).
Entry locks
Enclosed entries, either within perimeter ofhouse—.(3a)oras append-
age —(3b),can reduce energy consumption. Size ofentryshould allow
access doorsto openindependently.
Atriums
Windows responsible for 1530Yo total heatingenergy loss from house.
Strategic placing reduces loss and maximisessolar gain inwinter. When
windows face on toatrium this acts as passive solar collector —.p81 (1).
Sun planning
In many climates significant energy saving can be obtained by meansof
S-facing windows provided with overhangs,computedtorestrictsummer
sun, and Nwallsbuffered bysto areas.Sun trap with wind buffers canbe
very effective in cold climates —.p81 (2).
ENERGYSAVING: EARTH
—alsop79
Check list:
gentle S slopesidealfor underground structures: can build into hill &
still have benefits of southern exposures
avoid low-lying depressions: heavy, cold airwillsettle inthem; increased
danger fromfrost & damp
make sure no drain or leak into sitearea from surrounding construction
suchas parking lots &septic systems
identifyground water levels & seasonal variations in level before de-
ciding location of bldg & excavationdepth
assure adequate soil percolation for sunken courtyards & atrium areas;
consider installing overflow drains
anystructural system can beused, providing designed forproper loads;
general rule: 290 kg/rn2 (150 lb/ft2) for grass-covered roofs & 1950
kg/m2 (400 bItt2) where small trees are to be supported; snow &
pedestrian loads must be added
wall design generally same as anybelow grade (ground level) construc-
tion; but insulation needed between earth & exterior wall of structure,
allowing ittostoreheat, avoidingcontinuous loss toearth; best currently
available material styrofoam (because of closed cell construction); in-
sulation can be reduced in thickness as depth below grade (ground
level) increases
when banking (berming) earth against existing walls advisable add
cement plaster on metal lath between earth & insulation to prevent
roots, insects & rodents from reaching existing walls
butyl sheeting good material for waterproofing; also serves as vapour
barrier
to control dampness inside use dehumidificationorcirculating air
earth pipes (ducts buried in earth) may be used for cooling or for
pre-warming outside cold air forwinterfreshairsupply
examine all local bldg codes, especially in relation to fireexits&ventila-
tion; increased aircirculation eqp may affect energyuse
studylighting carefully: important for undergroundstructures determine
howthis affects interiorcomfort &energy use

-
1 Circularfloor plan 2 1-storeysquarefloor plan

a b
II

o
iiii
3 Entry lock: awithin baddedto(USA) standard practicehouse
 Habitat 81

Houses
ENERGYSAVING: VENTILATION
Effective passive approach to cooling: capture prevailing breezes and
ventilate house naturally —(3). Ideal orientation for this places face
throughwhichbreezes are to enter at oblique angle of 200_700 to wind
—(4). Instead of allowing wind pass straight through house this creates
turbulence which makes for betterventilation. When wind velocity low
internal velocity can beincreased by useof wing walls next towindow to
create 'mini pressure zones' there. Casement windows or adiustable
shutters can achieve same effect. Place windows where ventilation
required with cillsat desired cooling height: egin bedr at mattress level.
Window heights also—p4O4.
Plant evergreens on Nand Wsidesof house to block coldwinterwinds
(2).
Use ground shape and any nearby ponds or lakes to improve natural
ventilation. On slopingsites (particularlyfacing S) breezes move up hill
duringday, down at night. Near bodies of water cooling breezes move
fromwaterto land during day, fromland to water at night —.(5).
These guidelines may run counter to effective use of orientation to
maximise solar gain —p8O. Therefore for any design brief specify
whethersolargain ornatural ventilation should have priority.
fn general consult local weather bureau foraccurate informafion on solar
radiation, solar altitude and bearing, cloud cover, rain and snowfall,
direction and strength of prevailing winds.

1 Squareplan with atrium:windowsfaceinwards;atriumcoveredby

skylight

2OO

2 I-louseplannedtodealwith climaticconditionsof NW USA: suntrapwith

wind buffers Arch FrankLloydWright

rnrnrn

4 Orientationfornaturalventilation

3 Bldg sitedto accept prevailing breezesdraws airquicklythroughportal,

ventilatingcourt&drawingcoolingmoisturefrompoolintoair; massing
reduces heatgain & providesevening warmth 5 Influencesofgroundshape&bodiesof wateron naturalventilation
82 Habitat

Housing: old people

Strong trend against putting old people in homes unless in need of
special care and attention; —÷old people's preferences below. Limiting
factor can be land values. In USA most low income housing forelderly
has been high rise to allow use of expensive land near shops and
recreation possibilities.
UK standards envisage 2types housing:
self-contained for 1 or2 more active old people—(2)
grouped flatlets for less active with some communal amenities and
services—(1 )(3)p84(2)
a
Old people'spreferences
Check listofwhatold people want, based on USAexperience:
viewfromliving rmwith 1 window lowenough to see outwhen seated
exteriorpersonal territory' leoutdoor area forsitting and social contacts
(porches, gardens)
closeto shops
4m informal home-like scale
9 1 ?
Ô 2ff community outdoorarea within easy walk
frequentresting places alongwalks
b
securityand fire alarm systems
adequate sto
kitchen worktopslowerthan usual
separate bedr rather than efficiency design
choice ofdining inorin community dining rm

Communal amenities
Common rm provided for self-contained dwellings may include sitting
rm, tvrm, hobbies rmorworkshop. Mm floorspace/P 0.95 m2. Provide
near common rm 1 wc and hand basin, tea kitchen or pantry with sink
andhot waterheater, space for hatsand coats, cleaningcpdand sto 2
m2.

Forgrouped flatlets providewarden's quarters, emergency alarmsystem

—(1) connecting each dwelling with warden's, common rm with 1.9
m2/P and ancillary amenities as for self-contained above, laundry rm,
telephone for tenants with adjacent seat, cpd for communal cleaning
materials 1 m3. Provide access between all accn by enclosed and
heated circulation areas and fordirect goods delivery fromdoor todoor;
delivery hatches orgrouped lockers acceptable.

1 Housingforelderly at CumbemauldScotland has31 cottages, warden's

house&commonrm, each cottagehaving wardencallsystemwithtalk-back;
meals providedatdaycentre asite layout b2-personcottage ccommon
rm/day centrelayout plan Arch RobertWhiteAssociates

2 Privateretirementhousewith adjoining unitforvisitingchildrenUSA 3 Low budgethousingforelderly FloridaUSA a typical 1-bedrdwelling

Arch EH & M KHunter bsite layout plan Arch C Randolph Wedding
 Habitat 83

Housing:old people
1730
Planningfactors
I

r r
shalt
reachmax reachmax
mar
1370 1585 Access: if involves climbing more than 1 storey provide elevator: 2
1 435
elevators if more than 4storeys high;access stairs should be enclosed.
Stairs —*p86(5)408; ramps—*p87407. Alldwellings should have hail or
0,
it lobbywithspace forhanging outdoor clothes.
in
iO
Doors —*p401 —2. Doorsto wc and bathr must open outwards and be
fittedwith special locks which can beopened fromoutside.
E
ita, 11 Kitchen; worksequence —ep55. Provide working surfaces both sides
sinkand cooker. Max height working surfaces 850; max height shelves
1520 —*(1)(2).Cookers specially adapted for safe use by old people.
1 Max reachover worktopto shelf Mm size trig 0.7 m3 (NB do not site underneath worktop). Mm sto
&cpd 2 Max reachtounobstructed wall capacity 1.7 m3. Safety precautions—*p84.
reachtoiward cpd
on 850worktop Heating: space heating living areas capable maintainingmm 21°C; for
sd=59 circulation areas in grouped flatlets mm 15.6°C when outside temp
—1°C.
370
WO4(top
sink topmax
max850— El socket outlets: generous provisionof el socket outlets atconvenient
positions and levels important; mm (UK) kitchen 4, living area3, bedr 2,
table700
hh hailorlobby 1 bed sitting rm 5.
Livingspaces: important provide adequatespace formovement round
L. furniture; consider use of buiit-in units (specially cpd, wa) but take
w'I h+ account also of furniture which can afford hand holds when moving
E+ about rm. Remember indesigning stospace oldpeopletendaccumulate
3 hof worktop workingsurface& 4 h& thigh clearancefortable& treasured possessions.
reachforwardtofittings sittingworktop
Guest rm: preferable provide rmforvisitsfromfamily in self-contained
dwellings. For grouped flatlets guest rm may be provided; should be
placed closeto communal lay.
bath nm

Bedrinself-contained dwellings follow standarddesign butnote import-

1)
-
timberhandrail
40-50

panelface(itused)
mountedunder __________
anceof room tomoveround; built-in wardrobe desirable. Bed sitting rm
sometimes ingrouped flatlets, usual in old people's homes —*(10)(1 1).

rail 30mm Safetyprecautionsfor old people —*p84

6 Section of brimadaptedforeasy

7-
gripping
rim orwat-
mountedhandles
hingeabner

T SefH
255
560
-
* thoI-
ourta"-
/
—II verticalpote

'\T
4
900 450 p oorannei
40-Sodia dram
verticalpole grating L
I

T seat__
5 Aids forgettingin &outofbwith
maxhrimfromfloor 7 Mountingofinclinedrailforwc 8 Bathr plansshowinghandingto
WOhhandspray

suit Pwith disabilityofright orleft leg

&positionofpolegrip 9 Sho mi plan

— --

I 4000
I_—

hb
IPd

3600 3600
24OO

T
3000

I.
10 Doublermdimensions&data 11 Singlermdimensions&data
84 Habitat

Housing: old people

service entrance Safetyprecautions
Check listof safety precautions based on USA practice:
heating system should be designed to avoid burn injury
hotwatersystem should hold watertempat43°C orbelow
air conditioning should be designed to avoid draughts in sitting or
sleepingareas
radiant floor heating plus airsystem preferred
door bells and alarms should have low pitch: high tones perception
deficientin many old people
automatic shut-off forall gaseqpto prevent inhalationorexplosion
place fire sensor over cooker
el cooking preferred forsafety ofoldpeople
generousoverall lighting: avoid glareorshadowed areas
avoid rough wall surfaces
avoid slippery floors; no 'scatter' rugs; wall to wall low pile carpets
safest, especially in bedr, butNB strain on heart when vacuum cleaning
carpet
nothresholds between rm
Bathroom,lavatory
Bathr large enough for undressing and dressing, if necessary with
helper(especially in homes).
Handholds: atleast 1 forgetting in and outofbath —ep83(5); atleast 1 at
side of wc pedestal —ep83(7). Consider use of pole —vp83(5). Bath rim
Relationshipsof elements inplanforhomeforold P should beadapted foreasygripping —vp83(6).
—

Bath: low-sided, flat bottom; length limited so that user cannot be

completely immersed: max 1 550. Consider seat atrim height for sitting
a towashlegsand feet.
Hand basin: rim between 800 and 850high.
Shower —*p83(9): compartment well heated with pegs for clothes on
dry side, divided from wet side by shower curtain. Floor non-slip and
free fromhazards; if smooth with fall todrain, 1:40traywith upstand to
step over, not necessary. Provide secure handhold and wall-mounted
seat. Water supply thermostatically controlled to give between 35° and
49°C (UK requirement but—lJSAsafety precautionsabove). Adjustable
spray outlet on flexible hose which can be clipped on in different
positions.
Taps: must be usable by arthritic fingers; tops boldly colour-coded;
keep hotandcold in same relationshipthroughout bldg.
Wc: seat height 380—p83(7). In 1-P grouped flatlets hand basinshould
be provided.
OLD PEOPLE'SHOMES
Main areas
•

15 30 45 tt
10 15 20m
residents' rm with related bathr and lay
communal rm: egdining, sitting, tv, handicrafts
kitchen, service, sto
2
_______________
9 m admin, matron, med
12 ft staff accn, resident and day

2 AmenityhousingforelderlyatSQueensferryScotland: 15cottages
arrangedround commongardenshaveexternalalarmbellsbut nowarden
service asite layout bhouseplans Arch Marshall, MorisonAssociates
Relationships —*(1)
4-storey Iayout—v(3)
Bedrooms: usually bed sitting rm. Typical layouts single p83(11),
double—*p83(10).
Furniture
Table heights: dining 700; gap between chair seat and underside of
tabletop mm 190 —p83(1 1); occasionaltables in common rm not lower
than chairseat height.
Easy chairs: not too low for getting out; low enough to keep feet on
floor: 400—430; footstools forthose with short legs; seat depth 410—
470; arm rests 230 above seat. Back high enough to support head
(consideradjustable pad) angled at28°to vertical. Gap between under
seat and floor for heels to draw backwhen getting up. NB too soft seat
padding can put strain on tissues

3 Layoutplansof homeforelderlyDorset England a ground plan b 1St &2ndfloors C3rd floor

 Habitat 85

Housing: disabled
Housing forphysically disabledtraditionally in institutionalcentres. Now
accepted as preferable provide accn in which disabled can live as
Parking for wheelchair users should preferably be under cover and
linked to house. Car port particularly convenient: allows unimpeded
I0
members ot general community, with theirfamilies oralone. access. Cross beam should be supplied to take stirrup grip or hoist. If
Particularrequirements tobeborne in mind when designingfor physically garage provided should preferably be integral with house and give
disabled divide into those for direct access. In this case floor should be laid to fall of at least 1:100
away fromhouse; inUK relaxationfrom bldg reg requirements necessary
ambulant disabled to provideflushthreshold.
wheelchair users
Houses designed for ambulant disabled need not differgreatly from
thosedesigned forgeneral use; detail and fittings principalconcerns.
For wheelchair users particular attention needed to requirements of
wheelchair circulation —(1) and to accessibility of fittings from seated
position —p86(8). At initial planning stage allow approx 10% more floor
area than forsimilar accn in general needs housing —.p87(l)(3)—(5).
*1:1525
Choiceofhousetype
Wheelchair users should preferablybeaccommodatedin 1-storey houses
orgroundfloorflats,though upper storey flatmay besuitable on sloping
site where level or ramped exit to place of safety can be provided.
2-storey house acceptable if bathr and at least 1 bedr on ground storey
but this arrangement not ideal, particularly where disabled member of
I Turningarrequiredforwheelchair
familyis housewife.
Ambulant disabled may be housed in suitable upper floor flats of
2-storey houses; but seriously disabled, even if ambulant, should not
be housed above third storey, max height for normal UK fire service
rescue ladders.
In bldg more than 1 storey whichhouses disabledelevator location and
design of critical importance. Lift doors must have 800 clear opening
i
width. In USAcab must be mm 524 x 1 524 with easyto push controls
1 220or less fromfloor and with raised or indented letters beside them
—p412.
Escape stairs must have treads not less than 250 and risers not more 2 Kerbrampsshouldwheneverpossiblemakenaturalextension of
than 175. Provide space within stairway enclosure on each floor for alignmentoffootpath
thosewith limited mobility towait for help.
In 2-storeyhouses:1 ground floor rm should be available as bedr and
wcshould beprovided atgroundstorey level. Straightflightstairdesirable.
.1 x
Siting & access
Housesfor disabled needto be withinreach of shops, children's play
spaces, church, pub,surgery. Access by level or rampedapproach, mm
width 1200, max slope 1:12,preferably 1:20. Gradients greater than
1:12 needrest areas 1 200long at9000intervals(inUSArest areasalso
if ramp turns); thosein excess of 1:20 at 18 m intervals—p87(l1)407.
In USAplatforms at doorways as for footpaths—below. 3 Slottedgratingsshould belaid at rightanglestowheelchairtraffic

Kerbs should be lowered at crossings and driveways to not more than

25 above roadway; USA practice prefers kerb ramps —.(2). Camber
shoufd not exceed 1:100. Slotted gratings should always be laid with
barsat right angles todirection of wheelchair traffic —.(3).

Footpaths —p1 9 43: where gradients exceed 1:20, or where dropto

side more than 600, handrails required 950 high extending mm 300
beyondbeginning and end of ramp or ridge. Railswith smooth surface
required for all ramps in USA on at least 1 side, 813 above ramp surface
and extending 300 beyond beginning and end, with 1830 straight
clearanceatbottom. Avoid loose gravel,cobblesorsells, though materials
with distinctive texturecan be helpfuf, particularly to blind or partially
sighted, in signalling approach toobstruction orchange in level. Provide 300 mm
continuing common surface not interrupted by steps or suddenchanges 4 Openingwindow hazard 5 Footpathwforwheelchair
in level.Blend with levels ofotherpaths orparkingarea laneswhich may passing
cross. At doorways level platform at least 1 524 x 1 524 ifdoorswings
out or915 x 1 524 ifdoor swings in, stretching at least 300 each side of
doorway (USA requirement).
Main access path to house should be at least1 200 wide and anygarden
paths mm 900. Access from front to back garden should preferably
by-passhouse —.p47(6), be kept clear of opening windows and similar
hazards —*(4) and, in wheelchair housing, provide turning space for
chair—(1 )p43(3). Widthneeded for wheelchair passing —.(5).
Hazards:where suchhazards as open manholes and access panels of
openexcavations occurprotectby barrier mm 2400fromdanger point
and markwith sound and sightwarning devices.
Car parking: provide near houseaspossible, preferablywithin boundary
of property. Ambulant disabled driver requires parkingspace mm 4800
x 2700, wheelchair user mm 4800 x 3000; USA requirement mm
3660extra on each side. In general car park handicapped should be 6 Gar spaceforwheelchairuser
nearest bldgand clearly marked.Disabled should not needtravel behind (2800wadequateforambulant
disabled)
parkedcars. Garage space needed forwheelchair user—.(6).
86 Habitat

Housing: disabled
Common accessareas
In flats builtto accommodatedisabled and in other bldg likelytobe used
by them in any numbers at least 1 main entrance and any door giving
access to emergency exit orexternal space likely to be used bydisabled
occupants must have:
level or ramped approach
____ 1800 flushthreshold
clearwidthmm 775
1 Withdoubleleafdoorsdesignsothat only 1 needopen Elevator mustbe accessible to such entrance.
Double leaf doors should be designed so that only 1 leaf need be
300 opened —(1). Automatic sliding doors operated bypressure pad most
360 convenient but expensive. Where revolving doors used normal side
hungdoorof suitable widthshould also beprovided.
=1300 Internalplanning
maIbask4t...Ij Forambulantdisabled 900 wide enough forentrancehalls and passages;
r1' 1500
500
will also allow enough space foroccasionaluse by wheelchairs.

2 Clearspacebeside doorforease 3 Deliveriesboxbesidefront door,

For wheelchair users entrance hail mm i 200 wide for depth 1 800,
ofaccesstokeyhole;shelfforparcels insideboxdoorlockable preferably 1 200 throughout. Lobby between 2 sets of doors will need
be 1 500 x 1500 clear of obstructions to allow freedom to manoeuvre
mm 240
chair.USA: floor level insidc and outside for 1 524 fromdoorindirection
900 doorswings.
775
J Clearspace mm 300 should be provided alongside leadingedgeoffront
doorforease ofaccessto keyhole and handle.—x(2):USA 300 each side
Stairs
mix 280 of door. Shelf 300 x 300 useful both inside and outside to take parcels
preferred370 when opening orclosing door—s(2). Door closures should be suitable
maxi for disabled users. Nosharp inclines or abrupt changes oflevel atdoor
preferredmax 145 ciii. If deliveries box provided —*(3) inner door should be lockable. Mat
externalsteps wellsshould be fully recessed —s(2).
4 Doorsforwheelchairusers 5 Stairsforambulantdisabled& All internal doors should have mm opening 775. Thresholds should be
shouldbehungwith hingestowards elderly people flush. For wheelchair usersdoors should be hung with hinges toward
corner corner—*(4) or, insmallrm, open out. Lowhanging doorclosures must
not obtrude into traffic ways. Floor should be non-slip. Each storey
should be on 1 level orconnected by ramp iflevel changes.
Stairs & steps —s(5). Avoid abrupt nosing. Handrails813 fromtread

y1dr at face of riser, 1 extending mm 460 beyond top and bottom step (USA
requirement). Ensure adequate lighting without confusing shadows.
Withlow hangingceiling lights orsignsallowfree-standingstairclearances

sj
2133fromfloor.

IYM -'n
3600
casual
diningar
2400
6 Standardklayoutforambulant 7 Similar k—s(6)alteredto suit
disabled wheelchairuser: 0oven, H hob,
TStrolley sf0unit B broom cpd,
WM washingmachine, A frig,
AS rotatingsto unit, Ssk
8 a b k worktops&sheMngshouldbeadjustableinh
Controls & switches for light, heat, ventilation, windows, curtains, fire
alarms and others ofessential use should bewithin reach ofwheelchair
user.Identification of switches important, specially for blindor partially
sighted. Provideraisedorrecessedlettersornumbersfor rm identification
at side of door at suitable height. Knurled handle or knob on doors
leading to areas dangerous for blind person.
Living areas: additional space needed in wheelchair housing to
manoeuvre chair inliving rm, kitchen—s(6)(7), bath—.p87(1 )and atleast
1 bedr—p87(4)(5). Living rm windows should bedesigned allow seated
person seeout withoutdifficulty. Baywindow very suitable,especially in
wheelchairhousing —ep87(6).
Kitchen worktops and shelving adjustable in height —s(8). Knee space
beneath fitments particularly important in wheelchair housing —s(8).
Cooker should preferably have separate oven and hob. Deep sinks
difficultfor mostdisabled people: max depth 150.
Bathr & wc should be equipped with basic support and grab rails
—*p87(7); seat 400 wide should be provided at head of bath. Hand
basins bestset into worktops cantilevered from wall; preferred height
for use by ambulant disabled 850, by wheelchair users 750. Mirror,
towel rails and shelves 1 016 above floor.
Wheelchair usersneedenough space round wc pedestalto permit both
frontal and lateral approach, with space for assistance if necessary
—ap87(8);doorshould swing out. Dispenser and disposal unitsatside of
wcnot directlyabove. Bathr ceiling should besoconstructed toallow for
fixing hoistortrack ifnecessary. If bathr planned opendirectly offbedr
track can be fitted provide directroute between bed, bath and wc.
Soundwarningsignals should beduplicated byvisual for deaf.
 Habitat 87

Housing: disabled
Internalplanning

I—

Li 2700 2 Withoutwardopeningdoor ambulantdisabled 3 Forwheelchairuser wccompartmentarmust

1 Standardbathrenlargedtoprovidespacefor can usenormalwccompartment bebigger
wheelchairuser

4 Single bedrlargeenoughforwheelchairuser
1600—1700 400

I position
L ' 5 Doublebedr forwheelchairuser 6 Baywindow in liv cangive pleasureto
wheelchairuser
I ofceiling External detail
hoo
possible 45O
posihon 35
ofpole

- possible line
ofhoist

p possiblepositions
ofpole& hoist

H
9 Publictelephonesuitableforhandicapped & 10 Drinkingfountainforwheelchairuser;should
children;goodlightingimportant; instructionsin beoperatedbyhandlever;pavedarroundfountain
braille & pushbuttondials forblind;volume control toprevent mud & puddles
onheadset
LIJJE __________ plantmaterialsshouldbe located
sothatshadowsdo not preventsun
slot forfeetofmobilehoist ortrolley(cart) frommeltingsnow& iceon ramp
surfaces
Spaces&fittingsforbathrforwheelchairuser
providemm asof54 lightat
atallramp&stair locations
—750—t---l°°—i
rampwvary accordingtodesign
-situations,preferredmm
1-way—9l4minw
2-way—lS3Ominw

hoistoreye-hook

possiblepositionofhoist —I
oreye-hookforstirrupgripetcj

shouldextendmm 460
&
beyondtop bottomoframp
T1524mm clearspaceatboth top

8
300
____
Spaces &fittingsforlayforwheelchairuser
-1fr
11
maograthenl8.33%

Outdoorrampdata:maxgradient1:12—sp407
& bottomoframp
provideitOhkerbatedgeoframpsurface
foruse bysmailwheeledvefridesor
wheek*tairsasemergencywheelstops
88 Habitat

Houses
BALCONIES Balcony desirable extension of living rm, especially forflats.
Corner balconies that cannot be overlooked and are protected from
wind —e(1) more comfortable than freely projecting balconies which
have to beshielded on wind and weather side —n(2). Grouped balconies
should be suitably dividedforprivacy. —u(3) orseparated—a(4). Loggias
less economic as they createmore exterior wallsurface—u(5). Balconies
staggered vertically more difficult to protect fromwind and from being
overlooked —n(6); balconiesstaggered in plan well protected and private
—.(7)(8).
Important considerations include orientation to sun, view, position of
neighbouring flatsand bldg and relationshipof living rm, studio, kitchen
and (sometimes)bedr. Other factors:appropriatesize, privacy,protection
fromstreet noise, shielding from excessive sun, windand rain. Suitable
1 Cornerbalc Wind-protectedprojectingbalc materials forparapets: frosted glass, plastics, asbestoscement, timber
slats and steel sheets fixed to supporting structure of solid or tubular
steelsections firmly attached to bldg; steel verticals (horizontal can be
climbed by children) do not give protection against wind or being
overlooked.

Draughts created between balcony floors and solid parapets —.(9):

betterplace parapet in front of floor—.(1O)or usesolidparapet (nottoo
high if 'bath tub' feeling to be avoided) with steelrail at byelaw height,
possible room forflowerboxes —.(1 1).
Access balconies _-np9O 9697

3 Groupedbalc with projecting 4 Groupedbalc withseparating sto

partitions forfurniture

5 Loggia 6 Staggeredbaic 7 BaIcsfaggeredin plan&set at 8 Staggeredbaic

angle

70
I

100
lii //4,4;

0 round 0 square Q rectanguiar

9 Parapetabovebalc 10 Parapetin frontof 11 Solidparapet 12 Prefabricated balc designed to 13 Apartmentblocks at Cross
floorlevel balc floor be pluggedontoapartmentbldgto Creek VillagePlayadel ReyUSA
define&enhanceexteriorspace have round, square&rectangular
Arch Kamriitzer balc placedtomodulateopenspace
betweenbldg Arch Kamnitzer

___________ vo
-
a open(summer) partialiyenciosed iotaiiyenclosed (winier)
roofgarden
I _____________
a

i_ I ______
b b slopedtodeflect intermediate sioped toadmit
sun (summer) Sun (Winter)

14 a largetop-floorapartments atLosAngeles USAhavesimilarbalc to 15 a Flexiblebaic created byusingframe of slidingglass doorsset on

those ofsmallerunits bat apartmentsinHollywood USApenthouse liv perpendicularrunners bhingedglass createsbalc adaptableto seasons
includesbalc ar&roofgardenmezzanine Arch Kamnitzer Arch Kamnitzer
 Habitat 89

Flats & apartments

BUILDINGTYPES
Thissectiondiscusses bldg divided horizontallytoprovide separateand
I
cr
self-contained dwellings which need not necessarilybeon 1 flooronly.
Types can bedistinguished asfollows.
Low-riseor high-rise
In UK accepted max height of entrance door to dwelling normally
reached by ramp or stairs 4 storeys from ground level or from main
entrance to bldg. Beyond that limit elevator access must be provided:
bldg containing such flats called high-rise. In practice low-rise flatted
bldg often provided with elevators; in public sector housing these
required where more than 2 storeys have to beclimbed to any private
entrance door. Such bldg, from3to5storeys, oftencalledmedium-rise.

Pointblock or slab block

In point blockall dwellings share single vertical access system —*(1).
Vertical access mustalways include stairway; according to height and
layout bldg mightalso have 1 ormore elevators and secondaryescape
stairs. Slab blockcontinuous bldg in which dwellings reached by 2 or
more separate vertical accesssystems —(2).

Maisonettes
dwelling in low or high-rise blocks
Separate having rm arranged on
more than 1 storey known as maisonettes: have been built in UK in
4-storeyblocks —(3), in slab blocks and in combinationwith flats —u(4).
Such arrangements can show savingsoverflatsofsimilar accnbecause
1 Upperfloor plan of12-storey pointblockat Battersea London England common access space less. In USA similar 'skip floor' design halves
designed1963:balc provide escaperoutes between flats ArchGeorge Trew elevator stops in high rise.
& Dunn

pñvatebale
uppertloorplan

2 Slabblock:9-storeyflatswith balcaccess built1953atPimlico London; in-situ rcconstruction: noteuseofsto

toinsulate bedrfromstairwell Arch Powell &Moya

rt a
sedoo

3rdfloor
ri

2ndfloor
gar 2 3 4

3 Maisonettesin4-storeyblocksinhigh-densitydevelopment in London
England;levelsonsite permitaccess atsecond-storey h& demand single
aspecthouseplan:notescreening ofstair &escape balcatbedrstorey inupper
maisonette Arch YorkeRosenberg Mardall
floor plans
b
4 Housingat RuncomCheshireEnglandon5storeys: sectioncomprises
2 x 2-storeymaisonettes, lowerenteredfromgroundlevel&upperfrom
second-storeywalkway,&top-storey flat approached bystairsfromgroundor
walkway,connectedby ramps&bridgetomainshopping aroftowncentre
Arch J Stirling
90 Habitat
Flats & apartments: access
TYPESOFACCESS
Accesscan beclassified asstairway, balcony orcorridor.

Stairwayaccess
Stairway access, with 2, 3 or 4 flats per landing allows grouping of
services and can provide high degree of privacy: standard solution in
point blocks. Inslabblocks, however, disadvantageswhere more than 2
flats servedfromeach landing: usually involves back-to-back planning
andconsequently some form ofartificial ventilation—(1).

Balcony& corridor access

Balcony and internal corridor access, usuallyemployed in slab blocks,
permitsavings in common access space. Exposureto weather obvious
disadvantage ofbalconies, particularlyin high rise, and internal planning
constrained by potential lackof privacy on balcony side;window design
can modify this constraint.Internal corridorsescapeweatherbutintroduce
new problems of sound insulation, lighting and ventilation and require
higherstandards of management inuse. Open corridors orroof-streets
_____ I
avoid most of these difficulties. In medium rise development open a
corridors and sheltered balconiesgivingaccesstosmall flats overlarger
dwellings can accommodate wide variety of household sizes at high
densities. —(2). Balcony and corridor access have been much used in
conjunction with split-level flats and maisonettes. Such arrangements
—*p9697.

Bridgeaccess
Forsiteswithsteeporvaried slopes bridge access—÷(3)offers flats with
1 storey at bridge level with 1 or 2 down and up. Stairs and landings
covered but notenclosed in all butseverest climates: ifclosed possible
byorientation usethemaspassive solar trap. 4

1rm/1P

bedr

2 hi
1
L 4rm/5P

1 3 x 2-rm flats/landingachievegooddaylighting&cross-ventilation but garden

extralengthofwall hasto beweighedagainst economyof circulation
Arch EGutkind b ground

roofstreet

+U
dr 4...1
brid1 I I-n-I
first
ground
a 1
cc
C

2 Medium-risehousingat highdensity(618 B-space/ha)at LillingtonStreet

London England:each familyhouseenteredatgroundlevelthroughprivate
garden;smaller maisonettes & flatshaveaccess fromopencorror roof
streets' which bridgebetween blocks &areservedbyelevators a siteplan
3 Bridgeaccess asection bplan bfloorplans ctypicalsection Arch Darbourne & Darke
 Habitat 91

Flats & apartments: access

FIRE PRECAUTIONS: PLANNING conditions traveldistanceiron,
layout
CRITERIA privateentrancedoor
to storeyexit
Horizontalescape routes
Everystorey containing entrance door to flat or flats & maisonettes
maisonette should be planned to ensure that enteredfromcorr: no
fire in any 1 dwelling will notobstruct escape of alternativeescape route
other occupants frombldg. Problem related to from each dwelling;
type ofaccess. Permissible travel distances in a with smoke dispersal corrhassmoke outletsat each i escape in 1 direction
relation to access and plan arrangement given iewherecorris end, &at intervals not only: notmorethan 15m
as designer'sguide ie planning criteria not ventilated direct to exceeding 60m ii escape in 2 directions:
openair notmorethan 40 m
code/legal information —(1). b withoutdirectvent- storeyhas 1 exitonly with,
In USA national, state and local codes apply; lationto openairto i everyentrance doornot notmorethan 4500
securesmoke more than4500 tromstairway
inspections and approvals usuallyadministered
dispersal approach lob,or
by localauthorityin cooperation withstatedepart- ii everyentrance dooropen- notmorethan 15 m
ments: designers should seekearly review of ing intoventilated lob & not
their proposals. more than4500fromself-
closing frdoortocorr leading
Protectionof stairways directlyto storeyexit
Every stairway serving flat or maisonnettemore
than 2 storeys above ground level should be flats &maisonettes everyprivate entrance door i escape in 1 direction
enclosed and separated from remainderofbldg enteredfrom corr:each opens intocorr withsmoke only:notmorethan 40 m
dwelling hasalternative outlets ii escape in 2directions:
byfr wallsand self-closing frdoors. No dwelling escape route
notmorethan 50m
should open directly from such stairway but
should be reached through intervening lobby, flats enteredfromlob in 1 notmorethan 4fIats per notmorethan4500
access balcony orcorridor. Enclosure require- bldg upto 4storeyswith storey,&netfloorarof flats
mentdoesnot apply tosubsidiary accessstair- 1 stairway only above1st storeynotmore
than 380ni
ways serving small groups of dwellings from 2 notmore than 4flats per not more than 15m
opencorridors oraccess balconies,subjectto
conditons stated in (1)and in p93(l). storey, & netfloor arof flats
above 1st storey notmore
than 720m2, &noprivate
entrance doormore than
than 4500 fromstoreyexit
orfromself-closing frdoor
across lob, &everysection
lob ventilated to openair
flats & maisonettes floorofaccess balc not more than 50m
enteredfromopen constructed ascompartment
accessbaic floor
flats and maisonettes each flat &maisonette has notmore than 5Gm
enteredindirectlyfrom independent alternative
openaccess balc by sub- escape route,or
sidiaryaccessstairway subsidiary stairway does not
extendmore than 1 storey
above orbelowopenaccess
balc,&subsidiary stairway
servesnoflat at accessbalc
level & notmorethan3flats
at higherorlowerlevel,&each
1 Traveldistancesinstoreyscontaining flat entered& whollycon-
flats&maisonettes:table hasnolegal tainedwithin 1 level, & noflat
authority but isdesigner'sguideto escape entrance door more than
requirementswithin bldgmorethan 2storeys 5000fromhead orfootofsub-
hwhich containflats or maisonettes, based sidiarystairway, &subsidiary
onvariouscodes&reg currentlyapplied inUK stairway opento accessbalc
(1979);itgives maxtravel distancetostorey &permanently ventilated
exit which musteitherbedooropeningdirect atits head
to openairatgroundlevelordoortoprotected
stairwayasdescribed—.p931.
92 Habitat

Flats & apartments: internal planning

European development
Development of flats in Europebetween 1919 and 1939 largely domi-
nated byconcept of mm dwelling. In extremehousingshortagedwellings cooking breakiast
sql
of small floor area and few internal amenities were used to provide
high-density housing in inner-city areas —v(1)(2)(3)(4)(5). More
generously planned flats used in surburban situations and for middle-
ThHi. Ii
classoccupation —v(6)(7)(8)(9).
Standardsforflats & maisonettes
Modern flats not regarded as 'second-best' but should provide accn
similar to houses forequivalent householdsize. Indeed space standards
J
for flats in public sector in UKslightlymore generous than for houses, 5 Convertibleflat inday& night use 6 5-bedrflat insystembldgStora
recognisingdifficulties ofproviding for internalcirculationand fireescape with fold-awaybeds&screens;ar44) Tuna Sweden ArchYJohnsson
—p91 93. m2 Arch C Finger

k
•h
iii_:,

4'
7 4&3-mi low-riseflatsatNeubuhlZUrich Switzerland 1931 Arch M E
recess Haefelieta!

N Igar85e

IN

J
1 Viennese2-rmflatofl92Os;4 2 SmallGermanflatwithwcon
fiats/landing Arch F Schuster innerwall;living ar28 m' 8 ClassicalGermansuburban flat;4&3-miS aspect flats withgenerous
Arch MãrkischeWohnungsbau livingar& privatebalc Arch LHilberseirner

bedr bedr

—1
JE
3 More generous3-mi fiatwithwc 4 Dutch3-mi flat with intemal 9 Moretightlyplannedflats forE-W 10 5-miflatatHighgate London

&sho bathr: compactplanwith separated
service Arch H Leppla
aspect Arch LHilberseimer
I
Englandwith bedropeningfrom
internal lob (1936):this arrangement
wouldnow needsecondaryescape
frombedr Arch B Lubetkin

PL
1 lift
2 staircase
3 liv
4 loggia
5k
6rm
7 bathr
8 heating &water tank
-'H
rITL
11 Flatsin high-riseblockBalomockScotland Arch SBunton&Associates 12 Apartment-sizefloor inblockofflats
RouenFrance Arch LodsDepondt
BeauclairAlexandre

layout conditkns
allrmon samelevelas 1 bedr doors open into
entrance door entrance ha: no bedr door
morethan7SOOfrom
entrance door
2 any othercase
allrm on level above 1 bedr doors open into
entrance door passage athead ofstair: no
bedr door morethan
7500fromhead ofprivate
stair toentrance door
2 anyother case
allrmon level below anycase
entrance door
bedrnot opening bectropenfrominnerlob
fromentrance ha or withfrconstruction&self-
landing passage fr
closing doorsasrequiredfor
private entrance ha
bedron levelabove
privatestairwayseparated
liv &k;entrance door at fromupperlobbyIrscreen with
liv level self-closing frdoor
bedron levelabove privatestairwayseparated
k
liv & entrance door at Ir
fromentrance ha by screen
bedrlevel with self-closingfrdoor
bedron levelbelow privatestairwayseparated
liv&k;entrance door at fromlowerlobbyfrscreen with
liv level self-closing frdoor
bedron levelbelow no bedr door morethan
liv&k;entrance door at 7500fromentrance door
bedrlevel
alternative private stair- liv & kseparated frombedr
wayleadsup ordownto byself-closing frdoor
alternative escape route
open plan maisonette 1 with privateentrance ha &
stairwayseparatedfrom
otherstoreybyfrwall or
screen & self-closing fr
door
2 withprivateentrance ha, but
stairwaynot separatedas in
condition 1
anyothertypeof layout
1 Escaperoutesfrom flats&maisonettes: as—.p91(1)thisalso has nolegal
authoritybutisdesigner'sguidetoescape requirements relatedtointernal
planning,baseduponvariouscodes&reg currentlyapplied inUK (1979):
wherelocaldifferencesexistthey mightbelessonerous, buttableshould
alwaysprovideguidetosafe planning
2 Conventionalsmallflat plan,mostsafelyarranged withliv &kfurthestfrom
entrancedoor
Habitat 93
Flats & apartments: internalplanning
number ofescape
routes
DETERMININGFACTORS
I
Privacy and fire escape principal determinants of internal planning of
1 flats and maisonettes. Otheruser requirements summarised in Parker
Morris standards—*p4448 Bib233.
1 plusalternativeescape Privacy—*alsop769698
roatefromeverybedr Privacy bestsecured bystairway access where onlyentrance door and
withdoor more than
7500fromentrance door possiblydelivery hatch opento landing. In balcony access, bathr, wc
andkitchencanbe placed onaccessside,but note difficulty in providing
natural light where high windows are below balcony.
1
Sound insulation presents greater difficulties in flats than inhouses,and
privacy best secured by planning. Avoid long separating walls to bedr,
and avoid bedrbeneath access balconiesor adjoiningelevators, stairs
1 plusalternativeescape
routefromeverybedr or refuse chutes. Where possible usecupboards (closets) to increase
withdoor more than sound insulation of separatingwalls.
7500fromhead of
private stair Fireescape
1 plusalternativeescape
Bedrdoors opening into private entrancehall should wherever possible
route fromeverybedr be nearer toentrance door than living rmorkitchen. Alldoorsother than
an alternativeescape bathrand wcshould beself-closing and fr;wallsenclosing entrancehall
route fromeverybedr should have ½hr fr. In most other conditions planforalternativeescape
opening frominner lob routes from bedr above 2storeys. Recommendationsgenerally based
on current codes of practice summarised in —n(1) and illustrated —
(2)(3)(4). Butnote:always consult appropriatecode.
1 plusalternative escape
route fromupper level
Services—p383—97
1 plusalternative escape Attention should be paid to grouping of services and provision of
route fromlower level adequate service ducts, especially where bldg incorporate variety of
dwelling sizes and plans not repetitive. Standard location and arrange-
1 plusalternativeescape ment of bath, wc and kitchen fittings facilitates design of ducts and
routefromlower level service stacks. Internal bathr and wc require mechventilation, either
individually or by common ducting. Sharedventilation systems require
1 plusalternativeescape smoke-stopping byfiredampersand stand-by fanstoensure continuous
routefromupper level
operation.
1 plusalternativeescape Checklist forservices in flats
route fromlevel whichis water
not entrance level el
1 plusalternative escape drainage (+ rain water drainage)
route fromeveryen- gas(not in high-rise)
closed rmatentrance mech ventilation
level not opening into
privateentrance ha, & TV/FM radio aerials
alternativeescape route TV/radio relay
fromstorey which is not
entrance level telephones
main entrance phone & control
1 plusalternativeescape
routefrom every en-
closed rrnatentrance
level not opening into
privateentrance ha, &
alternative escape route
fromeveryrmon atorey
which isnot entrance
level
1 plusalternativeescape
routefromeverybedr
&fromeverylevel which
isnotentrance level
3 In largerflatsdistancebetween furthest bedr& entrance doorsshould not
exceed7500unlessalternative escape route provided
EPt ec
ienot morethan 1
bedr1
Jindowof
4 Flatwith innerlob,above2storeys, alwaysrequires alternative escape
provision
94 Habitat

Flats & apartments

POINT BLOCKS
Byingenious planning upto 10flats served by 1 vertical access system
in some continentaldesigns. Fireescapereg make suchsolutions difficult
in Britain, unless flats very small or unless access balconies used,
reducing convenience of point blockarrangement.
Some point blocks built in Britain —(1)(2)(3)(4).
American and continental examples —p95

upper floor plan

1 Point blockatThamesmeadEngland: 12-storey system-built structure

provides4 flats on eachstorey ArchGLCArchitectsDept 1 21/2

layout plan

a b

3 Vblockshavebeendevelopedinseveral countries, particularlyinlow-rise

water tanks formswheretheycan bejoinedtogetherwithoutovershadowing: this
carriedonliftshaft example,built in1957atCumbemauldScotland, hasarmsat unequalangles,
giving greatervarietyoflayoutarrangements &avoidingclosedcourts
atypicalupperfloorplan b layout plan ArchCumbernauld Development
Corporation
—
flatson
17 storeys

2elevatorsstop
alternate storey

Tir tJF caTnymain entrance level

2 Point Royal BracknellEngland: one offew Britishpointblockswithmore 4 Low pointblocks or stubblocks',withelevators, canprovidesuitable
than 4flats/storey;Split hexagonal plan logicallyaccommodates 6flats & housingforeldertypeople, asinthis London England 3-storeyblockof
minimisescirculationspace &escapedistances;carspace foreach flatunder shelteredhousing—.p82 Arch YorkeRosenberg Mardall
circularpodium aupperfloor plan bsection Arch ArupAssociates
 Habitat 95

Flats & apartments

POINT BLOCKS
I
liv (bedrl
Some American and continental examples, most of whichwould not cr
meetBritish reg.
Flats in point blocks generally small, with kitchen and bathr planned as
standard unit and often with artificial lighting and ventilation.
Point blocks can be planned as 2 blocks of flats connected by vertical
access core.This twin plan arrangement improves daylight and sunlight
to larger number offlats —(4).

1 Americanapartments; smallserviceflats surrounding 16-storey

circulationcore Arch R C Reamer

0 4 8 12 16m
I
I I 0 4 8 12 l6rn
12 24 36 4811 I
I I
12 24 36 4811
2 Swedishpointblock:fire precautions relyon containing fire inflat whereit
originates& preventing smoke penetration bydoubledoorsat flatentrance;
escapehatches provided in balcfloors: accepted thatstairway &access 4 Twin plan: 10flats/floor,escapestairwellprotected buttraveldistances
landingsmightnotbeusablewhilefire being fought wouldbetoogreatfor UKreg ArchMUller-Rehm, Siegmann

0 4 8 12 16m
I
I
12 24 36 4811

0 4 8 12 16m
I
I I
12 24 36 4811

3 5flats/landingBerlinGermany: flats haveno corrbutlargeloggias: liv acts 5 Yblockon Siemenshousing estateMunich Germany Arch Freymuth
ascirculationar Arch AAalto
96 Habitat

Flats & apartments

DUPLEX& TRIPLEXSECTIONS
Designs for split level flats and rnaisonettes,
with access balcony, deck or corridor every
second (duplex) or third (triplex) storey, have
beendeveloped over many years. While some
design problems solved, egvisualprivacy,cross
ventilation, others increased, such as sound
insulation.

plan at corr level —.alsop97(l)t4)

1 Duplex:Russian type verysmallflat with limitedsleepingarbutmore spacious liv:

accessbalcserves2storeys; wcoftentrance lob ArchM IGinsberg

,1

2 Tnplex: earlyFrenchtype; lob opensfromaccess baicwithstairsupor

down Arch Pingusson C:
access
balc),)
access balc

k!kkkk 5ra = 5rm,liv above

4rb = 4rm,liv below

___
I
I iiv4rb
j liv 5th bedr be1r iiv5rb

3 Split levelflats withbalcaccess: entrance, dining ar&kat entrance level, liv

1/2 storey up,bedr ½ down Arch Hirsch

escape balc

b
—
luggage
sto, etc

ffloset 'above'

'deck level'

below' escape
balc
section

section

4 Triplex:Mareschal system, withaccessbalceverythirdstorey, Cambridge 5 Wide accessbaic or deck' housing RobinHoodLaneLondon England: 1/2
USA;separateentranceswith private Stairstorlargerflats:allflatshavecross baypartitionscanbearranged to permitwidevariation ofdwellingsizes: Stairs
ventilation Arch Koch-Kennedy &blacked-inwallsmustberegarded aspermanent structure; noteescape balc
at bedrlevels Arch A &P Smithson
 Habitat 97

Flats & apartments

INTERNALACCESS

bedr

F 1je. 9
baic

- JkI;1: 1 tS'lilc

sectionthroughstaircase

planotconleseia—b planandercorrc—d planone,cone—i

1 Split levelflats servedfrorn internal correvery thirdstorey: allflats have cross-ventilation —'also p96 Arch Neufert

2 Accessbycentrestairway;each landing serves2 flats:again allflats cross-ventilated Arch Neufert

rwa5
EIIIL1 ?•
k -
I<jc1kI — t N -
plans sections

3 Narrow-frontage flats Marseilles France through extendedthrough verydeepblockwith pnvate balcon each facade:
doubleh liv allowsun &daylight penetration,access bywide internal coneverythirdstorey Arch LeCorbusier

section

4 Centrecorrshortwell lit& ventilated, givingaccess to 1-rrn flatsatcorrlevel& 3-rrnflats by shortstairwaysup or

down Arch vanden Broek
98 Habitat

Stepped housing
Steep slopesinvite stepped form of construc-
tion. Rake (storeyheight toterrace depth) must
relateto slope: canbe80_400. Mm terracedepth
of 3200 facing S will secure privacy while
providing full sunlight and view. Gardentroughs
at front ofterrace provide someadvantagesof
private garden and prevent overlooking —(1).
Other arrangements giving increased privacy

Advantages of stepped housing, with privacy

and viewat high densities, leadto use in special
1 Gardentroughspreventoverlooking ofter:necessary trough depthx = a(ha— ht) conditions,even on level sites in bldg oftriangular
hc
a=depth ofter ha = eyeh hc= storeyh hI =troughh or slopingsection: can be in combination with
different bldg use —(9) or in single aspect
situation, to enjoy sea view or exclude motor-
wayor railway noise—(8).

2 Teroverhangforextraprivacy 3 In 2-storeyunits upperfloor 4 Staggeredfloor plans 5 L-shapedflats with protected

overhangs patios

6 Hillsidehousing ArchStucky& MenIi

7 Steppedhouseson levelsite ArchFreySchrdderSchmidt

4p
maisonette

2P flat

2Pflat

8 Housingat AlexandraRoadLondon England: alldwellingsenjoysaspect 9 Section throughconference centre Designed byEGisel

&railwaynoiseexcluded ArchBoroughArchitect London Borough of
Camden
 Habitat 99

Shared housing
Needs of 1-person households normally very much like those of 2-
person. In certain circumstances, however, single people may prefer
I0
large singleflat share. May be provided in formof flats orhouses, usuallyforbetween 4
and 8people, containing 1-bed/sitting rm, bathrand farmhousekitchen
orseparate living/dining rm and working kitchen.
mediumsingle flat
Houses or flats used for sharing require more parking space than
normal housing (at least 1 space/bedspace). Large private garden
unlikely to be required though some out-door sitting out space should
be provided. Generous provision should be made for sto of bulky
objects, sporting gear etc.
small singleflat
Particularly advantageous if meters can be read fromoutside —*p74(3)
and ifsomeformof external delivery boxcanbe provided for use when
occupants out atwork—(5).

1 HousingforsinglepeopleLeicesterEngland: typicalfloorplan ArchDoE

firstfloor

2 Variantofpartof—(1) whichprovideslargesharedflat for4people

insteadoflarge,medium&small singleflats

groundfloor

4 2Victorianterhousesadapted forsharing ArchYork (England)

UniversityDesignUnit

1\e4 280 .
-v

C,)

siteplan
3 Bed-sittingaccnwith kcommon rminsmall4 personhouses: notewc
separatefrombathr Arch ManningClamp& Partners
5 Externaldeliverybox
Housing references:
—*Bibliographyreferences 037 038 044047 092 179 227228 233234
235236237238240242245246247248263264299300302363
372458464467511 512519521548558573574624631637650
100 Habitat
Houses
PRIVATEGARAGES
Size
Avoid under-dimensioning garages. Clearance between car and side
walls should be mm 200—300 with margin in front mm 500. For getting
out allow at least door width between carand wall or between cars and
never less than 700. For car cleaning,wallsor other cars should be mm
1 200 away.

Siting garages
Garage should becloseto houseentrance, though not necessarilyfront
0.5 1;0 1.5 2;0 2.5
0
3;0354.04;55;055m
100,5 o 3 6 9 12 15 l door, with easy access; actual distance from house will vary with size
and number of vehicles. On steep slopes with houses above road,
Typicalvehicleelevations garage can be sitedatstreet level (maxdriveway gradient6%) butmust
be protected against ground water —.(6). Where house is close to
boundary garagecan be setatangle orcombined with next-doorgarage

Access driveway should either beconsolidated over its whole width or

rt__
DJH have concrete wheel-runs —o(9). An apron infrontof garageshould be
concreted full-width, 5000—6000 long and drained forcarwashing and
to provide occasional off-street parking for another car. Garage floor
should be raised 30—50 above washing areaand slope towards it.
L 2.0 Integral garage—eplOl(1)(2)
2.5

2 Planviews of typicalvehicles

dimensions
no L B H Tentrance
T lb h
1 3.0 2.0 16
1
T
2
3
4
40
50
6.0
2.5
3.0
3.0
2J
2,2T2.4

2.4125 2.4
2.4

5 70 3.5 3.0128 3.0

I 6 80
USAsizes
40 p]j8 F
30

67 4.2 2.2124 20

a I O 6.1

o=regular
34
y=
I23
compact
20

7
I— L H -1
— —I H - H

2 3 4 5 6

J_

J- 5 Usualsiting 6 Houseonslope,garageon road

I below
I
b 1

3 Standardgarages ainelevation bplansizesfor: 1 motor cyclewith

side-car2—4 cars5&6vans&trucks; usualmaterials forthesedismountable
garagesasbestoscementorsteelsheets,flat orcorrugated, &timber

7 Boundaryin close proximityto 8 Combinedgarageswhere

house,sogarageat angle distancefromboundarynot
stipulated

I— 1000—1500 I— 2000

J
—4 —1

I— - I— -4 4— 600 —4 4— 600 -
__________ __________

4 Garage in plan—.(3) 9 Accessdrivewaywheelruns

 Habitat 101

Houses
PRIVATEGARAGES Incorporatedwithin house
Garages have been placed in basement,sometimes under conservatory
I
orsimilarannex to house —(1). Should be avoided if possible; should
not be used in areas whichhave freezing weather: access slope not
morethan20% —(4). 'I
Driving up steepramp with motor stillcoldshortens engine life, is noisy
and can be difficult. Garage therefore better placed at ground level,
driveway having slightfalltowards road. On sloping sites groundflooror
terrace may be raised sufficiently to allow basement garage at road
level.
Direct access to garage fromentrance hall or lobby via self-closing fr
door usually permissible: threshold must be 100 mm above garage
floor. Otherwise access to garage can be provided under common
canopy with entrance door to house.
Garage should beaway fromliving rmand bedr, accessiblefromkitchen
and side or service entrance. Car washing and driveway should be

I9 4115H
screened by shrubs and bushes, which will also muffle noise.
Carports —.pl 02(6)

Doors—*pl02(7)—(10)
Up-and-over doorsor rollershutters now usual: can be operated by el
motors with remote control switch or by electronic devices, provide
—I
additional head-room for motorcaravans and similar vehicles. Sliding-
folding doors require additional width. Hinged doors opening outwards
1 Garage in basement, various arrangements: wofgarage doors& ramp = can be blocked by snow. When used should have provisionforfastening
car -4- 1000;garagedimensions 2800 x 5500—3500x6500 in openposition.
Folding doors also —*p402
Windows and el lightshould be near carengine, with switches atgarage
doorand any other entrance; spark protected socket outlet, well clear of
floor, desirable. Heating best situated in front of or under engine,
keeping garage above 5°C.
2ndstorey
Water tap with hose attachment should be near door, in easy reach of
washing area, with hose-reel mounted nearby. Garage should be venti-
lated near floorlevel.

Internalfinishes
Walls can be fair-faced brick or blockwork, painted, or tiled. Floors
1ststorey usually cement screed, but oil stains hard to remove. Asphalt tiles
dissolved byoil; best flooring material oil-proof ceramic tiles. Fortyres,
standing on hardwood timber inserts orwoodblock isbest ifcan be kept
free from oil. Garage should have floor gulley, and floor should be
150—200 above ground level outside.

groundstorey

2 3-storeyhousewith integral gar:canbesiteddirectlybehind pavementas

gar & centralporchprovideprivacy; access togardenthroughuty

I In basementgar,whereunavoidable, slopenotmore than20%

3 2-storeyterhousewith attachedgarinfront, screeningsemi-private entrancecourt:generallymoreeconomical

(&attractive)than 3-storeyhouse withintegralgarage—.(2) but implies lowerdensity'
102 Habitat

Houses
PRIVATEGARAGES:BUILDINGREGULATIONS
Small garages
Fordomestic garages in EnglandWales—uBib65O
Small garage definedasonewhich hasfloorarea not more than 40 m2.
Such bldg subjecttospecial rules (El5)
Where small garage combined with small open carport rules of E19
mustalsobe studied.
Detached bldg consisting of small garage,orsmall open carportorboth
should be regarded as PG 1 bldg for purposesof Part E (E18).
Detached small garagewhichis 2000ormore away from anyboundary
must have roof covering complying with El5 (roofs) but need not
conform toany other reg in Part E (E16).
Detached smallgarage within 2000 of boundary must have roof com-
Sing'egar(for a b—spi 00(3)) 2 Doublegar
plying with E17 and any part of external wall within 2000 of boundary
must be externally non-combustible. All its internal wall surfaces must
measurements —.p100 0
beclass spread of flame (El8).
250
'
petrtrap Detached small garagewithin 2000ofhouse musthave roofcomplying
with E17 and any part of external wall within 2000 of house must be
externally non-combustible. All internalwallsurfaces ofgaragemustbe
class 0 spread of flame. However, if house wall is itself externally
i_I__i_I
J•:
non-combustible and has 1/2 hr frand no unprotected areas within the
1U-f 2000 distance greater than 0.1 m2or nearerto oneanother than 1 500

10004— C —•I 400

—
1_1.1_1 I__I I_I.!.!
F_ requirements on non-combustibility and flame spread do not apply to
garage walls(E18).
0
Requirements on class flame spread in E18 (3)(4) do not apply to
±— a —H
I— 5000—6000 —I exposed surface of frame member forming partofwall.
Small garage attached toorforming partof housemust have rooftoEl7.
3 Gar with work bench, 1 car, 4 Gar with washingar If there isfloor overgarage floor must have fr ofat least 1/2 hr. Any wall
motor cyclewith sidecar&bicycles between house and garage must have at least 1/2 hr fr. Any opening in
thatwall between house and garage must have threshold at least 100
above level ofgaragefloorand befitted with self-closing frdoor(1/2 hrfr)
to El 1. In all other respects suchgarage must comply with relevant
requirements of Part E (El8).
Garage references.-
—eBibliographyentries 225 276 348 435 636 650

7 Overheaddoor(flyover) 8 Overheaddoor (foldaway)

5 Doublegarusedtoextend1-storeyhousetoscreen patio; lowdensity

solution

=
a b
orr
acn

6 Examplesof Americancarports wellrelatedtoentrance a Arch-team 9 Overheaddoor,sectional 10 Rollershutter

Gropius bArch HSeidler (flyovertrader)
 Habitat 103

Gardens
ENCLOSURES

1 Simplechain-linkfencing:iron 12 Battengate (from inside)

postswith wire mesh

1 x 75

mt
square hexagonal

1 250

100x 19 boards
125x 100setin concrete
J. expanded undulating

3 Wire nettinggatewith bracing 4 Wire netting:usualsize40—55 13 115brickwall (half brick)with 14 Close-boardedfence

supportingpiers

\ 600-800

uptx2h00

groned
concreteorstone

,-.

5 Wrought-ironrailing rectangular 6 Angle-ironrailing 15 Framed,lodged,braced& 16 Hedge with link-mesh infill

section boardedgates

•ø10
1800 —
1
1120 100x100
Design offence and materialsused
.1. 125 x 19 railsnailed in itsconstruction should harmon-
aftemativelytoboth ise with surroundings. Showbest
sidesofpost
side (fair face) of boundary fence
outwards with posts visible from
within site. On sloping ground
7 Wrought-ironrailingof 10—15 8 17 Horizontalboarded(ranch- fence should follow contours.
Wrought-irongate between
sections& bars concreteorstone posts Extend protective fences against
type)fence
animals 100—200 below ground,
especially where hedge planted
-1 —(16).Hedges —ep104.
x
150 75 mainpost
4270 Most timbers used for fencing
87 1< 38 require some form of protective
treatment. Particularly important
timberposts treatedagainst decay
below ground and at least 200
above ground. Concrete plinth
x
helps prolong life of most timber
I 87 38 prickpost
pointedfordriving
Lt fences.
Where termites present inground
very desirable use pressure-
9 Timberpost& rail (4rail) 10 Fenceofforestbattens(topof 18 Wire-boundwoodfencing treated or termite resistant wood
battensweathered) availableinrolls egcedar.
104 Habitat
Gardens
protection fromnoise&
SITING& LAYOUT
dust: NE(winter)

pStreet
espaliertrait Siting

NIw
was
ter fl
protection twall •i
from wind lawn
(insummer) shadyar
boundarywall
positionofsun
1 Suitableplantingforhousewalls 2 Suitablelayout forsmallgarden
according to orientation protectedfrornwind with
vegetablesnearkentrance
manure strawberries
Aspect of ground and its angle of slope —v(6)plOS have important
_Q,2lJuo
bearing on amount ofsun radiation it receives at different seasons:
S slopeswarmest during May and Sept
SW slopeswarmest Oct—Apr
SE slopes warmest Jun —Oct
Dec Orientation —ap40 7781
-
Layout
Plan landscape simultaneously with design of house so that levels of
drives, terracesand entrances are coordinated. Where space permits
provide turningarea forvehicles and rrtechanisedeqp.
Study position ofsunand prevailingwinds andavoid frostpockets when
siting planting areas —n(6). Plant treesand hedges to give protection
fromcold N and E winds.

car
teiII,eS_r - entr
side waterbasin
N Vegetable production: allow 55—75 rn2/Pon best soil available.

Soil
wash
9W
sand-
pit
ter — fruittrees
fruitbushes
Humus or sandy loam better than heavier loam, clay or loose sand.
Conserve topsoil excavated from areas of paving or building for use
swwig • elsewhere —api05.
water
grass
•N garden
Enclosuresforgardens
Walls: brick or stone (use type which blends with materials used to
construct house).
3 Layoutforsmall sitetogive largest 4 Orientation& relation Fences: wood or metal (match surroundings)—api 03.
ofrm&tertogarden

!
possiblevegetablegarden Hedges —a(7)(10): clipped foliage (formal) orflowering (informal). Allow
sufficient space for ultimatewidth ofhedge when established, 450—1 200.
crop plaidpoorneattosbdue To producethickhedgestagger plants thus:
toshade& rootcompetition

*— shelter -
I relatively

J.
belt
Windbreaks
Planting of shelter belts has marked effect on soil temp, giving
considerable increase in crop production—(5).
increasedcropyield

5 Effectofshelterbeltoncrop production

coldairbufids
op invalley&

—
createsfrost
plantlower-growingplants
on higher partofslope

good bad good

7 Hedgeh
B Effect ofslope &exposureonestablishment of plants

§ stonesbuiltup in
diminishingomjrses
Jc hawthornhedge

-1- L600—
eon
6OO-12t thin sodsplaced
betweenindivdsarl grasseventually
stones growsoverStones
giving appearance
ofturfhedge

8 Hedge innorthernGermany 9 Stoneusedinconstructionofturf hedge 10 Turf hedge

 il
Habitat 105

SOIL PREPARATION
Gardens
I
Jf. waler channel

underground
Topsoil
Top layer of soil must be preserved: provides growing medium for
plants.
On bldg sites storetopsoil in temporary spoil heaps —e(1). Keep free
from weeds. If stored over long period use green manuring. Turn over
heapat least onceayear.
___________________________
Topsoilspoilheap Fill on gentleslopes Spread topsoilafter completion ofearth moving. Allow 600—1 000depth
I

for planting trees, 500 for climbers and wall plants, 300 for shrub beds,
150 forgrassed areas.

lopsoil Soil compaction

7
malerial
unlenor malenal
Soil used as fill for hard landscapedareas should be spread in layers
300—400 deepand well compacted—e(3) (notall soilssuitable forthis).

5OO Materials of different character should be deposited and compacted

separately.
Banks
Buildingup inlayers 4 Cohesivematerialin corewith To prevent soil movement fill along slopes should be placed in layers.
slight stepping Form cuts in existingground surface to create serrated profile to retain
fill material —u(2). On higher banks ground profile should be stepped to
prevent sliding of fill material —(4).
Angle of slope should beconsideredin relationto maintenanceoperations
required and topand bottomofbank gently rounded off. Providedrainage
at bothtop and bottom of bank sothatsoilonly receivesmoisture falling
on its surface. Max gradient for mowing grass 1:3, forplanting 1:2 (or
1: 1 where no maintenance required). Turf laid on banks should be
secured with wooden pegs —*(5). On slopes steeper than 1: 1 turfs
T/.177777' should bethickerand laid stepped—(6).
Use wattle for steep banks where difficult establish plant growth.
Distinguish between dead wattle —+(7) and live —e(8). In using live
Binding withsteppedturt subsequent planting ofshrubs necessary aswillow actsonlyas pioneer.
On very steep slopes useretainingwalls—epi06(19)—(20). Crib structures
—.(9)and grass-concrete construction—+(10) may also be used.

7 Deadwattle 8 Live wattle

selplantsbetweenbeams
atlopofwall sothaIthey soiltype weight angle of repose
cascadeoverface (degrees)
he
kg/rn3
slopeof
ernbankrnienl beanis

earth loose &dry 1400 35—40

loose& naturally moist 1 600 45
loose& saturated withwater 1 800 27—30
consolidated &dry 1 700 42
consolidated & naturally moist 1 900 37
groundlevel loose& dry (av forlight soil) 1 500
loam 40—45
loose& naturally moist 1 550 45
loose& saturated with water (av formedsoil) 2000 20—25
consolidated &dry 1 800 40
Cribstructure consolidated & naturally moist 1 850 70
mediumcoarse&dry 800
1 30—45
g ravel mediumcoarse& wet 2000 25—30
dry 1 800 35—40
fine& dry 1600 30—35
sand
fine,naturally moist 1 800 40
fine &saturated withwater 2000 25
coarse&dry 1900—2000 35

brokenstone,wet . 2000—2200 30—40

loose& dry 1 600 40—50
cia
loose& verymoist 2000 20—25
solid & naturally moist(heavier soil) 2500 70
1400 35
drysand & rubble

11 Weights&anglesofreposefor different kindsofsoil

106 Habitat

Gardens
PERGOLAS,PATHS,STEPS& RETAINING WALLS
Retaining walls
Concrete construction cheaper than stone walling. Good form work
detailing essential obtain pleasingappearance.Dry stone wallingsuitable
for retaining earth up to 2000high. Brickbacking necessary for higher
walls-(1 9)(20).
Paths
Widthof ramped paths 1 220—1350;length 6000—9000.
1: 12 gradient necessary foreasy negotiation bywheelchairs. For short
pedestrian ramps 1:7 acceptable—vp85. Ifstepped, max height ofstep
is 125—e(11)—(13).
Paths also—*p1943

Steps
Tread width not less than 300. Risers 90—150 high —e(1 4)(15)(17)(18).
Detailof finish to end of steps important, especially where set in grass
1 Climbersupport Insulationoftimberagainstrot bank.

monolithoi
graniteor

I basait

16 Walkingmore comfortable ifpath longitudinally concave:

agood, riseofstepsconcave bbad, rise convex

3 Pergolaonbrickpier 4 Pergolaofmonolithstone
(commonin Italy &Ticino)

17 Steps withflagstones
Tt:
18 Stepsof naturalorworked
stone

70-80
flY
6 Cobbles:expensive
,; •.. hli,ng
but durable —soil

brokenstone
drainage

•• 625 -t.e2 :1
19 Concreteretainingwall 20 Drywalling (specialdrainage
(w base 1/3 h) notnecessary)

8 Pavedpath bedded
& raised(easier
keep clean)
9 Pavedpath flush
(preventsobstruction
oflawn mower)
10 Spacing
= lengthofstride:
thickness 30
of slabs

=8386
Th sideview
114

19

end view

21 Turf &concretepayersfordrives, fire route round bldg, bank

iIli
p3004
path
eoo
wheelbarrow
j!l 9OO—1

access
2004
orgarden
1,004400I 3004
doubieflagstone
path
path path

14 Stepswith post supports 15 Stepswith flagstone&support 22 Dimensions of paths

blocks
 107 Habitat

350 x400 03000

Gardens: equipment
I
290 x490
410 x700
300 x800
2500
1800
1500 1200
700
r
400—,

200
1150T 01000-1150

-5501
3 Gardenchair&table(iffolding:
top600x 1000, l00thickwhen
800I
J
tOIded80th(
85o)
i
tolded1B5th
610

1 Metal foot scraper 2 Sunshade folded) 4 Gardenchairs

2000

5 Deckchair 6 Hammock 8 Charcoal&gas portable

barbecue

9 Gardencarts &wheelbarrow

11 Seedspreader 12 Lawntnmmer 13 Walkingsprinkler 14 Lawnsprinklers

Ii'°j
15
18 Reelmower
Riding tractor 16 Leafcollector

19 Garden tools 20 Sprayer 21 Hose reels 22 Motortiller

)
1000-1100
2

(240)

'420
2 1800—2000

23 Tennisracket 24 Toboggan,skis 25 Tricycle 26 Bicycle

108 Habitat

Gardens
TREES,SHRUBS

Trainedfruit

1200
-1
300-500

P wire
I
canes

T 2250
600

•eseaber

1 Pipe espalierframe 2 Framefordoubleespalier 3 Woodespalierfence 4 Wall espalier

I-41 T
T

ffrff[;
1-5004-500- 1-600-1

5 Uprightcordon 6 Doublecordon 7 Palmettecordon6& 8branch 8 Chandeliercordon

Tree planting —espaherwire

4
1270strap& 400
spacersecuredtotop ot
stake&tree stem
tree securedwith wire
threadedthrough
n43ber hoseto protect
-ì
prevailing wind
5000 —I

9 Horizontalcordon

twit, treeshape, stock enclosedsite inhouse garden &small-

crowned varieties

planting plant/ha planting plant/ha

interval

standard apple 10 x 10 100 8v 8 156

6x 6 x
appleon strong EMstock
''
bait 277—400 400—625
5x5 4x4
10 Heavystandard 11 On exposedsite 12 Normalsituation appleon weak EMstock Sx 400—816
x 625—1120
3.5x3.5 3*3
standard pear 8*5 156 7*7 204
prevailingw*id bush pear on pear stock 6x6 277 5x5
—8 bush pear on quince 4.5*4.5 494
pear spindleon quince 4*4 625—1120 1120*1600
3x3 2.5*2.5
atandardcherry 10*10 100 8*8 156
1/2 standard cherry on
Pmahaleb 6*6 277 5*5
standard bitter cherry 6x6 277 5 x5 400
1/2 standard cherry on
Pmahaleb 5*5 400 4 v4
standard & bushplum 7x7 204—400 5x5 400
5*5
peachbush 5*5 400 4*4 625
standard apricot 7
13 Onexposed 14 Toformclose 15 Fruitbushes 6*6 204—277 5 400
hillside group bush apricot 6x 6 277—400 4x 4 625
standard walnut 12*12 70—100 Sx 8
hazelnutbush 4*4 625 3*3 1120
Shrubplanting gooseberry, red & white 2x 2.5 2x2
2000—2500 2* 1.5 2500—3333
currant 2v 2
black currant 2.5 x 2.5 1600 2 *2.5 2000
replaceescavatedsoil clay lodredintotop spreadout * 1.5 * 1.5 6666
gooseberry & currant 1.5 4444 1
with town:25% 80-150 rootsaway cordon
fromwall
maId, raspberry & upright 2*0.5 10000 2 *05 10000

2 *4
blackberry
1250 2 >i 4
500 rambling blackberry
annual strawberry *
0.25 0.25 160000— *
0.25 0.25 160000—
cultivation 0.3*0.3 111 111 0.3* 0.3 111111
perennial strawberry 0.5 *0.3 66666— 05 * 03 66666—
cultivation 0.8 *0.3 41666 0.6* 0.3 41666
removeanyrubble
breakup sod: toensuretree
incorporatepeat & grit ircoryodeecompost drainage 19 Plantingdistances:affectedbysoil&moistureconditions, manuring,
strengthofstock,variety& pruning, consequently greateror lessvariation
16 inpoorsoil 17 Insandysoil 18 Against wall from 'coefficients'possible;EM = EMailing
 Habitat 109

Gardens

rotaryspnnklerwith
diaup to 12.0
WATERSUPPLY
Water essential for plant growth.
I
sprinklingcircles
sprinklerforbeds musi overtap If no mains (municipal) supply
(arcovereddepends available trial holes should bedug
on pressure(
reservoirfor
handoperation
to ascertain presence of water in
soil.
•
Shallowwells
hand 0 Sunk directly into water-bearing

u4
strata. Yieldlikelyto fall off in dry
weather.
Topreventcontaminationriskwell
should be at least 10 m (15 m
well
USA) fromanyseptictank orsewer
main and constructed with water-
1 Hand-operatedpumpdrawsup 2 El-operatedpumpfeedswaterto 3 Perrot' typesunkensprinkler:
to7000d,pumpsupto 30m h; pressurevesseluntil switchcuts out tight lining(steining).
dug intolawn &centrallyoperated;
output/mm 40—801: forgreaterd atapprox4atm; aftersome lossof coverage8000—10000 at 1.5—3.5 Wells may be operated by hand
largerpumpsneededwith suitably water pumpstarts upagain at 2atm
built deep-seatedsuctionvalves
atm; capacity/hr0.5—1.0 m3/valve —*(1)orelpump—v(2).Well house
mustbe insulated, protected from
frost and adequately ventilated if
Reservoirs below ground. Recommended
size: 2100 x 1500approx. Switch
foamor flowerpot
and fuse box sited above ground
clay ofclayoroak level.

4 Waterproofing withclay, for 5 Inexpensive gardenreservoir,
wateringonly (notsuitablefor incorporatingfelt, sheetingor
paddlingpools):thickclay covered continuoussealingwith 3—4layers
with layers of soil &gravel ofhessianstuck withbitumen;in
caseofimpermeablesub-soil pan
should bewateredtodiminish
pressureonseal
rendenng15thick
•.J
rentorc
6 Reservoirwithclay asseal,lined
withstones:suitableforflowerponds
Reservoirs
Small pools may be constructed
invariety ofways, depending upon
site conditions and economics —v
(4)—(8).
Overflowshould be incorporated
—(1O)—(12); make provision for
emptying by either submersible el
pump orsiphoning —a(1 2). Bottom
of poolshould be sloped tooutlet
ifemptying tobe complete.
Pool edges need concealing.
Paving flags or coping more suit-
able for formal shaped pools —
(7)—(12), and grass—v(4)(5), marsh

\.:.3iayers,,? L •te plants orrocks forinformallayouts,

accordingto ultimateeffect desired.
consolclatedfoam
Paddlingpools
Recommended depth for children
7 Reservoirwith brickbuilt banks 8 Swimmingp001ofreinforced 9 Marsh&water plant reservoir, 200—400,800—1000 foradults; for
concretewithdamp-proofrendering showingvariedcombinationof
ormembrane;poolshould be differentplants: notsuitableforhard swimming pools —api 14.
emptiedinwintertoavoidfrost water;also—npl 13
damage;also —vpl14 Waterlily &fishpools
—p113
Emptying Irrigation
vent Simplest form consists of series
opening removable of channels flooded with water
it air —a(13). Drains needed to remove
::::: overflow surpluswater—a(13)—(16). Over-
head watering bymeans of line or
:::::. outlet
rotary sprinklers more efficient.
Rate at which water delivered
should be sufficient for soil
absorption withoutforming puddles
on surface.
10 Overflow&outletwith plugs 11 Overflow&outlet pipe 12 Floatingel pump;further
combined emptyingbysimplesiphoning

Drainage

::
contour
— — — lines

drain

--
1n conuiexion ofirrigation
pipewith thannel 13 Drainageplan 14 Open ditchwith
fascine

15 Coveredwattle 16 Coveredditchwith
wattle ditchwith sand bottom flagstones&rubble
110 Habitat

Gardens
Gardensfordisabled
Heightof raised bed suitable forwheelchair user 600 (must have knee
space underneath —v(3)); for ambulant disabled approx 860 —v(4):
varies according to individual heightand physicalstate. Forsome elderly
and handicapped outdoor gardening difficult; indoor garden can be
designedsuit special needs—v(2)p112.
Restrict widthof beds to 1200sothat workeasily carried outfromeither
side to cover whole area; comfortable total reach forward 750—965.
Surround bed with hard paving—v(1).
Important provide convenient supplies (eg water), sb and controls
whichmake lifting and stooping unnecessary; rolling cart ortrolleycan
eliminate muchlifting and carrying.
Roofgardensalso —p112
Provide background of screens, walls etcto protect plants fromeffects
ofhighwinds.
Tofacilitate drainagefinished surfaceofsupporting roofstructureshould
be laid tofalls—v(5).
Rockgardens
Undulating site with SE or SWaspect ideal. Simulate life-size outcrop
(not mountain range in miniature) linked by irregular-shaped areas of
stonechippings, alpine lawn orgrass.
When placing rocks first select 1 or2 specimens, mm 500 kg, for key
positions. Build up nucleus of rocks 250—500 kg round them. Place
smallerrocks 150—200 kg towards perimeter—v(6)(7).
Floodlit landscape features
To highlight foliage floodlights mounted on lower branchesof tree and
lightbeam projected upwards through foliage —v(9).
Iflight-source canbeconcealed floodlights maybepositioned atbase of
tree and beam projected verticallytoilluminatefull heightoftree—v(8b).
Light source placed somedistance away fromtree where foliage used
as illuminated background and details unseen —u(8a).
Sculpture may require only singlefloodlight butisenhancedbysubdued
lightingin surrounding areato give impression of reflected light.

individualrockslaid lifting
singhtiybackwardsto aiiowrainwater
totnckla overplants
rocksgroupedtogethermust
havetheirstratarunningin stratamusttoiiow that
direction&observe occurnngin quarrybed
sarne
naturalmarkings
1 Raisedgardenfordisabledgardener—+(3)

[
2590 'I
a
1220
-- —
rocksliabletotopple
vent window 51 584 itsettooshallow

stainless drawers
roll-outbini 6 Positioningofrocks& method ofbedding

[
stainlesssteel
r1[5t°JJ planttos
—
t3 —
I spread25 dia
drippingsalter no manureortertiliserlobe
planting incorporatedintopsoil

b coarseshingle
-
4..

—50—ltodna
formationlevellaidtofails
7 .
Construction of bed totacilrtatedrainage
ofrockgarden

a wheretheretsan
2 Stand-upgardenplan a &elevation bwith water, supplies,eqp closeat obstruction,eg stream.
hand,roll-out bin forfetchingsupplies —.. ffoodftghtpositionedsome
'Uistariceaway
-. —
——
b

8 afloodlit landscape feature blightsourcebelowtree

b
positionedat
oos
lowerbranchestoproject
on .
.
pointwherecascadestnkes
water &hewn projected
beamoflightupwards upwardssothatftcatches
eachdropletofwater

3 Raisedplantingbed for 4 Stand-upgardensection

wheelchairuser 9 alightsourcelocatedwithintree bfloodlighting waterfall
trees
____________ a •. b

t light
shrubs
1= glassftbrequill / . beaniof light
•1 positionedparallel
todirectionofwater submerged
600 topsOit grass ifI .
projected jet —— beamdirected
hilydownwards
.t ________ io
peatLi1
peat toosoni into pooi

25 _______________
gravel
t 150
254 Pest1
gravel 1 gravel
jet

5 Roofgardenconstruction 10 afloodlitfountain bunderwater floodlighting

 Habitat 111

Gardens

:
1200-1800.
T
ii

1 Smalltent in 2sections 2 Largertent in8sectionswith2 3 Housetent

end sheets

4 aFree-standingworkcentreasdecorativescreen bworkcentreattached 5 Open shed 6 Open shed withroof &toolsto

togarorhousewall, closedwith hingedglazed panel; sto bins underpotting containingprivy
bench

___sc--dOor for
weather-.
r. protection

"S —
/\canopy

onokung
3750
3750 5000 GARDEN STRUCTURES
7 Similar to 6butwithsolid Enclosedshedtosleep 1 9 Enclosedshed to sleep3,with Tents & sheds
separatetoolsto & parapetsto separatecookingspace Not usually rated as bldg or con-
providespace sidered as permanent living accn
unless continually occupied or
fflhing used for business purposes.

N a'
Should not be sited nearer than
1 800 to site boundary or bldg on
same site, unless boat-house
structure and waterway boundary.
USA:check setback requirements
in local zoning ordnance.
Barbecues —p77 107(8)
l50
300- '- 1000 1500
Glasshouses & frames
Specifyglasshouses according to
1000 2000
80/80
type and width.

10 Peat privy(dry) 11 12 Frame

Lengthadapted tosuit conditions.
Compost sto
RoofridgesitedN-S.Framesface
S.
Dutch-light—÷(1 4)built fromground
level and often transferred to
another plot aftercropping. Other
typesmay be seton dwarf wall.
Glass usually680g. Heavierweight
906gorplastics sometimes used.
Temp ofunheatedglasshousesand
frames 5—7°C, heated 12—15°C.
Ventilation essential. Specify
adequate numberofvents. Hot or
cold bed frame lights—*(12) may
be setonsliding tracks, completely
13 Smallgreenhouse 14 Dutchlights 15 Hothouse againstwall removable orraisedforventilation.
112 Habitat

Gardens
INDOORGARDENS
Indoor gardens lend adjacent rm spacious feeling: plants freshen air,
add hum, provide hobby, educate children. Ideal orientation in most
climates for most plants StoSE. Nto NEdaylight should beaugmented
by special plant lights. W sun difficult control. Plan artifical lighting not
only for plants' welfare but in relation adjoining rm. Studies showcool
whitefluorescents provide many characteristicsneeded byplants: also
availablespecialised plant lights with greater rangebenefits. Idealheating
and coolingforplants verylowvelocity airsystem: othersystems can be
adapted.

ROOFGARDENS-p88
Consider shade from nearby bldg, wind and smog when choosing
location and plantsfor roof garden. Weight ofsoil factor in roof garden
design (0.03 m3av soil equals 36kg).Ifquestion of structuralstrengthof
roofconsider hydroponic gardening using lightweightholding medium
suchasperlite orvermiculite. Desirablesetplants inplanters orhanging
baskets ratherthanbedsforease ofplant replacementaswellasweight
considerations. Planters may beofwood, pottery or reinforced plastics.
Shade tolerantplants could include fuchsias, begonias, hardy ferns,
impatiens, azaleas.Smog tolerant plants include ivy, oleander, azaleas,
ginkgo, camellia, privet. Wind tolerant plants: holly, ivy, boxwood,
euonymus (should be started as small plants tobuildup resistance).

1 Corr gardenplan
13 type
38sawedwoodcap sect,00s
condensationgutter withstaved5Qx lOOsides
/window stool 1152c/c (L. I \

if
gardenconstructed gods
glassH radiation

?t:z
1—SlOradius—--f

cill
slatefloor
asbestos board _J9re c3r"
28ã :
50
topsoil
50

groundlevel
150stepOsrrs
brokenbrick
50

concrete wall
20 plywood
914 \
vermiculite& gravel \ galvan isedwashtub
5 Entrygardensection hold,,,g mediums asphaltcoaledins,de
305clay potwith fitting
stainlessfood strainer
forpeastone

8 Methodofcontainerisedhydroponicgardening

2 Sectionthroughcorrgarden

Li
flnr fixed
glass

p I..-grill
slate
So
Icopper 6 Entry gardenplan
step
carpet liv infloor
overradr
3 Add-ongardenplan
fixed glass liv

.
•
- framing
insulati 50 x 150 CIII
7 Roofdeckoutdoorrm; roof
•

\ p
100 concretesIab,, 255 concrete
100 gravel
50 concreteblock
wall
compactedearth
surfaceprotectedfrom foot damage
bypreservativestreatedwood floor;
design usestypicalapartmenthouse
penthouseaspartofplan ArchEH
4 Add-ongardensection &M KHunter
 Habitat 113

Gardens
WATER LILY, FISHPOOLS
Can be formal or natural in shape. Pre-fabricated pools usually glass
I
fibre or other plastics. Built-inpools reinforced concrete, using rather
dry concrete mix 127—152 thick, placed in wooden form or shaped
excavation in firm soil linedwith vinylplastics before pouring concrete.
1 liiterplate
2 liitertray
-. ,-.,_h,
—-— — Pools must be sitedfor max sun, high enough ensure ground water not
36pipefittings 7
enterpool in heavy rain, near watersupply ifnoautomatic supply. Depth
4 pumpfittings 8- waternot less than 355 sothatwaterlilies may be planted in boxes for
5 underwaterpump . water lev 355
6 6ppefltfings ease of removal. Provide overflow pipe, removable fordraining.
7 hosetowaterlajl
8 cablewith groundwire
, 0
3 H
6
2
H hoseconnexiontopump 1
G fiitermat&gravel

I Filtersysteminstalledin pre-fabricated glassfibre pool

II ovens
111)'ImII
tog sir
I
dEan
wa

4 Natural' poolwith waterfall

5 Smallpool &outdoordiningar
next k Arch Stedman&Williams

chemical characteristics

2 Garden arlargelydevotedto fish & lily pool chlorine gas sterilisingagent: formof chlorinewhich canbefed into
lowers pH waterin continuousdoses, inexpensivebut highlyacid
&toxic: needs specialhandling,automaticfeeder.
constantalkalineadjustment

sodium hypochlorite sterilisingagent: popularchlorineformwith high chlorine

raises pH content; dispersesquickly when addedto waterwith no
residueto makewater harder;inexpensivebut needs
carefulhandlingavoid splash,damageto clothes;tends
deterioratestoredtoolong; needsfrequentpH
adjustment;dispersesfast in sunlight
calcium hypochlorite sterilisingagent: effectivealgaekiller, speciallyfor
raises pH treatingclinging algae;inexpensive;storeswell;but
dissolves slowly,leavingresidueunlessplacedin
basket orbag inwater; can causecloudiness& builds
uphardnessinwater
iso-cyanurates sterilisingagents: dissolvecompletely,giving
noeffect onpH consistent, highresidual; need less acidcompensation
than other forms; easy to use but costmorebecause
mustbeusedwith conditioner;needspecial kitfor
periodic check of conditionlevel

todeck
boiteo.t
spilipan _i bromine lowers pH sterilisingagent: canbeused insemi-automatic
distributionsystem but is expensive,corrosive,toxic,
'13flow iine difficult handle;less effectivethan chlorine
frompump
iodine lowerspH sterilisingagent: stable,odour-freebutless activethan

%4 d13m
bromine;does not causepHfluctuation;easyto use but
expensive;can turnwater green;difficult test for
residual; lesseffectivethan chlorine
wiremost, sodium bicarbonate
- _____________________________ correctsalkalinity: recommendedformakingextensive
.1 .-.• '.. -:.. l9drainiine'< - ' •. - raises pH adjustmentsin alkalinity;long lasting;easyuse;
inexpensivebut slower actingthan sodium carbonate
sodium carbonate correctspH: effective,quick acting, storeswell;
(soda ash) inexpensivebuthas relativelyshort life inwater;must
raises pH bepre-mixed

sodium bisulphate correctsPH: generallyconsideredbest ofdryacids;

lowers pH easier store than liquids; good forsmallpools needing
small quanfitiesbut has to be pre-mixedand needs
careful handling
muriatic acid regulatespH&alkalinity:readilyavailable;mostpopular
lowers pH pHadjuster;stores well;needsnopre-mixing but canbe
very damagingto pool ifnot used properly;needs
careful handlingprevent splashon user; smallamounts
can cause significantpHchange
3 Plumbing& pumpingsystems 6 Guidetocommonpoolchemicals
114 Habitat

Gardenswimmingpools
Siting
Protected from wind, close to rest rm (for use
on cool days), withinviewof kitchen (children
in sight) and living rm (foroperationofautomatic
gate) ie within field of vision. No deciduous
treesorshrubs bypool to avoid leavesdropping:
provide means of preventing grass etc from
falling intowater; possibly raisedcoping (design
2250(
smallest1 .bnepool
(2swimmingstrokes, decision).
1/1.2P( —4250—I
medium-sizepool(3-4 strokes. Size
2/4-5P). smallestsize Width 2250. Length ofswimming strokeapprox
1 500plusbody lengtn: 4strokes = 8000length.
permittingstartdivehornend

Depth of water to chin height, of mother not

2 Poolsizes 3 Depth ofwater children. Difference between height of pool
1 Layoutdiagram
and water level —v(3) depends on skimming
method adopted.

Shape
Simple as possible for reasons of cost and
water circulation (—abelow: maintenance).
Rectangular but with ladder or steps in corner.
Circular pool shapealso economicalwith welded
steelplateconstruction.

Constructionmethods
Foil pool basin (foil = sealed outersurface) on
supporting structure of masonry, concrete or
steel (including above ground) or in excavated
pit.
Layoutoftechnical
installationsforfullyequipped Basinsmade of polyesterorglassfibre reinforced
swimmingpool 6 Deckatlevel of pavingconcealsfiltereqp &heaterbelow plastics, rarely erected on site, normally pre-
DesignArmstrong&Sharfman fabricated; in general not self-supporting,
backfilling of lean concrete necessary.
exhaust Waterproof concrete basins (on-site concrete
prpes
skimmer
double shells, cement-gun concrete single
sluice prevailing
wind
shells, prefabricated concrete components).
Surface liningof pool usually ceramic mosaic,
less often coated (chlorinated rubber or dyed
-- cement)or cemented plastics sheeting.
auxiliaryfloor
S1JCbOfl
pump/outflow Pool maintenance
feed:nozzles Usually kept clean by means of recirculation
abovepipes system —*(4): surface circulation —v(5), with
below
surface water kept clean by effective surface
skimmersor preferably sluices. Types offilter:
gravel or sand (bottom filters, some with
5 Simple longitudinalflow
scavenger blower), diatomaceousearth (surface
with suctionpipes
filter), plastics foam.
Additional algae control by means ofchemicals
7 Perimeterfenceatpropertylineprovides safety&background for (chlorine, chlorine-free alginic agents, copper
plant materials,shelter sulphate). Common pool chemicals —spi 13(6).
Water cleaning also—vp337
concretedeck Heating
By counter-current device or continuous-flow
heater in boilerorsolarcollecting system. This
prolongs bathing seasonfor moderateadditional
plantingbed
50 deepscupper outlay. In some places system using thermal
heateconomical.
8 Scupperkeepschlorinatedwater outof 9 Section showingwater dfor6100 x 12.2 Safetymeasures forchildren
plantingbeds poolwith springboard Preferably not onlythrough fencing off pool but
by providing pool coverorself-operating alarm
suIt-priming signal system (triggered offbywave formation).
returnline punlp&rrloto-
va&iurn pump&matOr Protectionagainstfreezing
unit on slab
lioej With rigid pools by insertion of edge beams,
vacuum deependfitting
heating or anti-frost outflow system. Do not
titting ____________
mainsuction
line
frnertine) emptyinwinter.

flfler
inlets
maindrain,
5fli IIconcreteslab/
hlter/ valve__________________
1vacUUm Open air pools also —vp333
steps heatrn returnline
heater

10 Plumbingsystemfor sand orpressure 11 With skimfilter all linesdrainintoskimmer;

diatomaceousearthfilter with linesfrommain water filteredthen drawnintopumpforreturn
drain, skimmer&vacuumconvergingon1 point topool: pump& motorusuallyplaced within 15.0of
(notevalves)before entering pump&filter pool
 Habitat 115
Private indoor pools

reiativeair hum
Standard
Watertemp26—27°, airtemp30—31 °/60—70% relativehum;maxairflow
I
water 0.25mIs; waterevaporation 16gIm3hr(stateofrest)tomax 204 g/m3hr
70—j- I I
reiativeairh temp %t 60% I 70%
inuse 2WCI26Cair2RC
temp with pool inuse. Main problem airhum: water evaporates from pool until
a
R 3Ci 28'C
-•- Ii evaporation limit reached —+(1)(2). In state of rest evaporation stops
cD
50

R M 2191 193 143

R itiö4
M 2941269 218 1631 143
—,
2
67
0
even in low temp range, as saturated 'boundary layer' of water vapour
remains overpool: pool should therefore not be 'blown at'with ventilation

R iti
20_LI 66 311 36 air. Expensive dehumidify pool house byventilation (though essential,
M 378' 353 2471 227
below); with hum at level ofup to70°even small thermal bridge can
302

10-b0+10+20
—10
air &watertemp
1 Evaporationlimitincoveredpool;
topline: Poolinoperation,bottom
line: instate of rest; example:
water tempto = 27°C,evaporation
limit: in use36mbar (=30°C184%
hum), resting28 mbar(=30°C/65%
hum)
+30+40
M
123
395 3391 320
811 89
cause structural damage inveryshorttime.
temp difference.4Kwater/airnottobe
maintainedtorany lengthoftime Construction
Most common formfully insulated hanger-type bldg suitable for winter
2 Specificvolumeofevaporation in use (Km max 0.73); less frequent form, uninsulated 'summer' pool
covered pool(g/m3h)instateof rest house (can also be ofkindwhichcan be dismantled). Semi-retractable
(A) &with max use(M) roof and othersliding parts make possible openpool house during fine
weather, so can be used as open-air pool (all weather pool); however,
this causes problems overthermal bridges.
Mm size—+(4); as part ofpool house, in annexes if necessary: wc, sho,
spacefor mm 2 deckchairs. Width of pool surround depends on wall
i—2 —l 500 surfacearea (heightofsplashing—u(6)); accessiblepassage round pool
belowfloor level control leaks,full provision forleads and air ducts.
Location
Incorrelation with: agarden (ideal 'covered pool'open-air)and shallow
feet-washing troughs: b master bedr (withpabathr perhaps to beused
for showering); cliving rm: allocate 10 m2 ofplant rmfor boiler.

___I
6counter-current system
Auxiliary areas forrest, galley, bar, massage,keep-fitapparatus,sauna
—epi 17, hot whirlpool (massageat40°C).

Equipment
Mech eqp and installations: water treatment with filter plant, steriliser
4 Smallestsize pool dosing system, splash water trap (approx 3 m3), water softner(from)
waterhardness 7°dH), athlete's foot spray (particularly iffloorcarpeted
round pool); ventilation system with either fresh air or secondary air
surround
400 1250 —*(7) with ducts in ceiling and in floor, or simple ventilation box and
I- t5O extractor (air flow not too fast, otherwise risk of draught); heating by
§ radiators, convector heaters or warm-air heating, combined with air-
conditioning, possibly solar collector system. Underfloor heating as
§ extracomfort: only practicable with floor insulation k greater than 0.7
heavysplashing and surfacetempless than 29°C.

torwindowcleaning Energy saving bymeans ofheat pump (cost depends onthat ofcurrent)

1+— 8000 ——-4

625
or heat recovery heat-exchangerinair-conditioningplant, or bycovering
pool (rollerblindor covering stage), or by raising airtemp in between
use (temp regulation byaquastat). Effective saving of30% total heating
1000 2000 requirement.

5 Standarddimensionsofcovered 6 Distancefrompoint of origin Other installation and eqp: starting block, underwater light (as safety
pool element), reverse current installation, chute, solarium; diving boards
require appropriate pool depth, and height of pool house. Sound pro-
tection (sound-absorbent roof, noise-dampingwith air-conditioningplant
circulatingair (white sound), protection against structure-borne sound in pool basin
itself).

suspended
1 2 3 pool 4 Technical specifications
In principle only corrosion-proof materials: pot-galvanised (hot dip)
ceihng
:u5t
steel, corrosion-proof aluminium, no plaster, timber open-pore glazed.
I Heatinsulation km, max 0.73 kcal/m2hr k.
mixing reguiator
pump
—l 1 mixingchamber 2 airintake
3 heat exchanger 4 aireutractor

7 Bottom-topventilationwith mech 8 Layoutforheatingplant

plant forwindowheating

rçr
circulatingair standard standardi hal
hash Iexhaust w mm max centre
air Ilair 122 12.2 550 61
177 177 800 88
244 244 1100 100
323 323 1450 122
330 330 1620 12.2
427 33.0 2620 15.2
topool 533 1280 2620 20.0
regulator

condenser
water 10 Airstructurewithaircompressor, pliantmulti-layeredcanopy&airlock
I3 mixing chamber 2 airintake
4 airextractor
1 stress-reliefdesign 2cablesystem 3skylight topviewshowing doublecable
heat exchanger system 4anchorsystem 5lightingsystem 6 HVACsystems 7 inflation
systems 8airlock 9revolving doors 10emergency doors 11 transparent
9 plasticswindows
Layoutofventilationplant
116 Habitat
Private indoor pools
Poolbasinsmainly reinforced concrete, in separatelayers. Expansion
iointsnot necessary with lengths under12 m. Important: ground-water
equalising valveessential to prevent damagetobasin. Lining: ceramic,
glass mosaic orpaint onsingle layer ofwaterproofconcrete orpolyester,
pvc film mm 1.5 thick assealing. Include in design skimmer orpreferably
overflowgully,bottominlet, counter-current system, underwater flood-
light, and build in with sealing flanges. Plastics pool basins, because
of below level floor access surround, only possible in exceptional
circumstances orwithspecial structural reinforcement.
Floorlining:ceramic material orstone (must slope forwatertorun oft):
recently also water permeablecarpet(so savingneedfor sound-absorbent
covering). Provide forkeeping outwaterfromunderneath liningand for
sprays against athlete's foot. Floor heating pleasant addition but not
essential.
Walls: surface lining material must be damp-resistant and unaffected
bysplashing.
Airconditioning essential.
Hotelswimming pools: basinof60m2normally sufficient.Exceptions:
irregular periodsof use, wintersports hotels. Important: generous rest
area, deck chairs, holiday atmosphere, bar, keep-fit apparatus,sauna,
direct communication between hotel rm and pool bldg (elevator or
separate staircase); not many changing cubicles needed but clothes
lockerswith samelocks ashotelbedr.
Bath attendant usually required. Extension of use throughout summer
bymeans ofadditionalopen-air pooland connectingchannelforswimmers
(sun bathing lawns).
1 Poolrooted over with alurniniurn framedacrylic plastIcs dome Indoor pools also —p329—32;changing rm —÷p335—6

mm recommend arratio

25
mardeckar(ratio) ir (arofpool)
2.0
0

15

10

0.5 I

0 93 1á6 279 372 465 558 6O 73 86 99 ld2t) 1 15

arofpool in')
4 Ratio ofdeckspacetopoolarea forindoor&outdoorpools

2 Woodframedpool enclosure with hatcentrefordiving

5 Layoutforcovered pool

3 asupportingframeworkofdoublemetal archesspans18—36 m risingto

7.4—12.3 m; pliantmulti-layeredcanopyprovidestension-stressed structure
b squaredomed structurewithsupportingframework of4 metal1/2-arch
sections arranged6.0—25.0 rn/side;canopyoftension-stressed pliantmutti-
layeredmembrane

1300
1 Saunawith lobby1,changingrrn2,bathr3,benches 4—op338(4—7),water
tank 5, bathstove 6
2 Saunawith lobbybetweenbathr1—6,& changing mi7
3 Largersaunawithlobby1,changingmi2, bathrplatform3, withstove4,&
massagemiwithwater boiler5 massagebench6, water basin7
_______________________________________________________
4 Saunawith bathr 1, massage&washr2, changingrrn3, veranda 4, wood
sto 5, cpd 6, bath stove 7, waterboiler8, &watersupply9
Habitat 117
Saunas
Sauna more than body bath: formany also method ofmental cleansing.
In Finland 1 sauna/6 P; used 1/week.
Bathing process: alternate applicationof hot and coldair, sweating in Z
dry hot air, hot clean gusts of water vapour at 5—7 minute intervals by
pouring on 1/4 Iwater. Can besupplementedwfth intermediateapplication
of cold water, followed by massageand rest.
Construction: usually blocks ortimber: good heat insulationnecessary
for enclosingwalls since heat difference between inside and outside
canoftenbe more than 1000in winter.
Bathing area small as possible, 16 m2 2500 high. Dark wooden
liningtoreduceheatradiation onceiling and walls orsolid woodenwalls
of softwood,except forstove area. Plankbeds of lattice (air circulation)
atvarious heights forcomfortable sitting and lying, topbed approx 1 000
below ceiling. Plank beds demountable forcleaning, floors of gripping
material, no wood frames.
Smokesauna: layeredstones heated tohigh tempbywood fire, smoke
beingsparingly drawn offthrough opendoor. When stones glowing fire
removed, remaining smoke driven off by waterand door closed. After
short time sauna 'ripe' for bathing. Good smell of smoked wood and
reliable vapour quality. 50% traditional Finnishsaunasbuiltthisway.
Fumigating sauna:after heating with smoke removal, 'heated inwards'
when stove bricks heated to about 500°C. Combustible gases burn out
completely withoutcausing soot. Stove doors then closed even if still
flames ingrate. Temp quickly risesby 10—20°C. Lastcarbon fogremoved
before bathing by quickly opening door etcand ladle ofwatersplashed
over stones.
Chimney sauna: brickstove clad in jacket of stone ortin sheet which
guides smoke and gases to chimney. Heating by tire door to bathr or
lobby. When stones hotfiredoor closed and upperairflap instove jacket
openedwhen required to let out hotairor pour water on stones.
City sauna: with special el heater; heat regulation ofel heated stones
with pressbutton.
Tenip: at ceiling 95°Cdropping by 60°Cdown tofloor.
Relativehumidity: 5% or10% at90°or80°C: 100—120°C also possible
ifsufficiently low airhum.Sweat thenevaporates immediately.
Shower orwaterrm: where possible separated forinitial washing and
watercooling, 11/2—twice sizeof sauna area, withoutwood if possible.
Hip bath worthwhile 1000x 1000, 1100deep.
Air bath: for breathing in cool freshair to balance hot air, cooling of
body. Protect against peeping. Shower, spray and cold water basin
desirable. If noopenairbath possible, then wellventilated area.
Changing: openrm orcabins, twice as many asvisitors at peak times
(public sauna) —p338.
Rest rm: rest benches for half guests in sauna area, remote from
functional area.
Massagerm: allow for30 persons, 2 massagepoints (public sauna).
Detailsconstruction & eqp public sauna—+p338
Garden references:
.—oBibliography entries 002 021 032066 087 155 161166167 171 263
264320376410411 430 431 466482550562 563
118 Community
Schools
PRINCIPLES
——
Since each countryhas its own tradition of school provision, governed
byeducationaland economiccircumstances,notpossiblegive universally
4frotectiorr water applicable data forschool design. Informationgiven largely derived from
experience in England and Wales, but presented so faras possible in
climbing
steps
seats terms ofwidelyapplicable principles. These apply both to new schools
and toadaptationofexisting ones, to industrialand totraditionalmethods
ofconstruction.
protection In last generation school planning hasevolved in response tochanging
teaching methods and school organisation. Curricula have become
increasingly diversified to meet needs of individual pupils; whole
educational process more active and interrelated between its many
aspects. Classrm and independent special subject rm no longer sole
ingredients school design, particularly for younger and middle age
ranges.
Ageranges forwhich schoolsdesigned vary widely indifferentcountries:
compulsory schooling may start at5,6or7years,and end at12upto 16
years, with correspondingly different interpretations of pre-school, pri-
maryand secondary stages. These can usefully be studied in 3 age
ranges: younger, approx 3—8years; middle, approx 8—13 years; older,
approx13—18 years.
Regulations
For UK DES reg (—vBib2l3) lay down mm standardsfor playing fields,
Planningingredients: underfives sites, sanitaryfittings and prescribeprovisionofsuitableaccnforchanging
I

rm, do, lavatories, meals, med, staff. Reg are supplemented byadvisory
1 tablework:eq usingmateiisls& ob$ctanotmakingmuchmess
2 ring:eqbaneplay,camping,shops, hospitals publications. In USA referto state and local codes.
3 music:eqeaploringsoundsindledusty,singing&dancingtogether
4 messy:eq usingclay,water,sand Schoolfurniture—vpl 19130—3
5 quietwork:eq lookingatbooks, writing,resting.storyteting
6
7
moving:eq climbing,swinging,p.inpng, rolling
construction:eq buildingwithblocks,small& largescale, undertakings
such as Boarding schools—+pl 27—8
engines,boats,houses

YOUNGERAGE RANGE: NURSERYLEVEL

5 quiet
unila0 screen: [F5I eq benchseats
easycltair
For pupils of pre-school age, in nursery schools and kindergartens,
learning process combines work and play. For main ingredients ot
itablework
eqtableslorsitling'
andstandinground
le
eaplsy[J.
tr
frolleYtey -'
lowdisplayshelves
lowcpd planning, bothforindoorsand outdoors (which should beconnected by
traycart booktroeey covered areas to provide shade and shelter) —v(1).
localsto&display
- - v?s bed
n
2
:t fJscmen

'
acting benchshe8 n—
eq screens boaea 6 movingclimbing
local 'properties'clothestrolley eq clearspace
hieght
3 music
eq display
localsto
genemL-,.10
service
rostra
benchC suspensionfront
ceiling
L., 1r iF
— 8

large trolls'1'

to
indhoduals
&smellgroups tables
- ct5jlow
nO rostm cpd 7 construction
7

'
eqlocallowsto
e'Ling work bin
°bo rostra&cubes 3 -t
wcekaurtscea-'
fightbenches
sk 48
b1 ri Cfl\ stacking trolleys
sand/cubes
waler
0 bldgblocks

easels bert, trolley

local sto
sand/watertrolley toveranda

2 Activityzones: youngerchildren

lose t6 boat 31 20P 44 shed

2 sandpit 17 coveredar 32 raisedarsto 45 piano
3 high 18 roses under 46 milk
4 low 19 up 33 paints 47 coats
5 ladder 20 cotoneaster 34 send 48 display
6 house 21 tltorn 35 tolding 49 hatch
7 stO 22 radioetc house 50
8 cupressus 23sk 36 send St sty
9 mound 24 tym 37 tlaps 52 med
10 swing 25 pets 38 20P 53 music
11 shoe 26 roses 39 books 54 tOPhandicapped
12 frame 27 tlaps 40 rootlight 55 my
13 weepingash 28 waler 41 staff 56 willow
14 pots 29 screen 42 torsythia 57 birds
15 roses 30 logs 43 mbbish

3 Nurseryunitonsite ofassociatedprimaryschool,built in 1972for60th

from3—5years with2qualifiedteachers&3assistants: 30fulltime, 30
morningsonly,30aftemoons(iegoonroll);play ar,carpeted/tiled, opento
verandaleadingtowalled playcourtwithviewsoutbutenclosed forsafety
 Community 119

j
Schools
NURSERYLEVEL
ingredientsof sharedar Workandplayofveryyoung children can be divided roughly intoabout 7
localcentres outdoors
categories —(2). Indoors definition of zones mainly byarrangement of
furniture, but appropriate surfaces important eg for messy work (clay,
schoolsite
water etc) and for quiet work. Height also important for moving and
climbing. Pre-school accnmay be found as unit of school —e(3) or as
i
separate nursery school —t.(4).
L schoolbldg
horsebase schoolneighbourhood
EARLYSCHOOL
In earliest years of compulsory school definition of spaces probably
reliesmoreon architecturalplanning: can beconsidered in3categories:
F 00000 ingredients of localcentres, shared areasindoors,sharedareasoutdoors.
L—
Design ofoutside as place forworkand play continues important —+(1).

7'i1
parhcularbays garden
Working groupsvary considerablyin size and may change fromhour to
hour as pattern ofworkchanges.
[_c:?
Ingredients of 'local centres' can beassembled into centres ofvarying
I
general work ar grass y ar
sizes and types according size and age range of school —e(2): home-
base, space forallpupils forwhom 1 teacher responsibletobetogether,
not necessarily attables and chairs; enclosed rmforquietconcentration
or noisyactivitysuchas music-making; particular bays where special
B
enclosed
LJ
hardplayar
eqp, egsink or cooker, can be installed and independent projects can
be pursued with continuity bysmall groups; general workarea, uncom-
mitted space in which furniture can be arranged respond different
—
EE
I
needs; covered workarea, toextend rangeofworkbyprovidingsheltered
transition between inside and outside.
- Ohht& Change fromstandard classr planning to planning in terms of centres
coveredwork ar adventure&discovery can be seen in adaptationofolderschool —e(3)(4) and onedesigned on
new principles —api20(1 ab).

Youngerage rangear01work

E
IHiI
[H
1

ULEJT r1JflLEJflLfl

II
UL;1!
FE1 L[1I1
Hj
rEl
HjII1 2 Diagrammaticexamplesoflocal
centreseach for2teachersworking
incollaboration:Hhomebase,
P particularbay,Ggeneralwork,
Eenclosedrm, Vcoveredworkar

orginplan1931
45678
classr

23boys
girls

0 5 10 15 20 m
0 5m
168 16 32, 48 64 ft

1 homebase 1 12 sto 23 pe store 32 pampasgrass

2
smallgroup rm 13 vinylfloor
14 trays
24 displayon 33 displayof
bottlesetc
3 Conversionin 1976of 1931 schoolbuilt tostandard classrplanning; as
reorganisedthere are 3centresfor60P&teachers,with corrfurnishedas
Sb corrugated
3 cot 15 rostra 25 plants 34 climbingIrarne
4 bin 16 SI 26 displayshelves 35 displayof additionalwork,reference&displayspace; ha&drshownhatchedareshared
5 blocks t7 homebase2. 27 picture gardentools&
6 up smallgrouprm 28 models plants
byall,nursery unitadded
7 costs 18 shelves 29 rug 36 piano
8 plants 19 ck 30 recordplayer& 37 drums
9 cpd 20 sand cabinet 38 xylophone
10 books 2t birisunder 31 recordplxyer& 39 4 Detailof centreBfrom (3); furniture&fixtureshavebeenarranged give
11 racks 22 bookdisplay speaker 40 screen
adaptedbldg greaterflexiblity
120 Community
Schools
RURALSCHOOLS in primary schooldesign —*(2):inclusion of nursery unitas integral part
of design yetwith degree ofindependence; contribution of money (and
therefore space) fromsources outside education service (here about 1/3
Modemisationofruralschools hasreceivedwidespreadattentionbecause of total cost) so as to offer wider social service, both forschool and for
manyofsmallest have fallen behind standards oftheirnewer suburban adultcommunity, than could be provided independently.
counterparts, being economically hard to sustain. For2 general trends —'Bib2l5

AREAS
NET 8560Cm2
5—7yr 3.56m2/Pat24OP
4.53rn2/Pat189P
3—Syr 163.62rn2
2.73m2fPat60 p
WORKING 612.66m2(72%otnet area)
5—7yr 2.55rn2/Pat24OP
324rn2/Pat189P
3—Syr 140.0Cm2
230rn2/Pat6CR

key
1 centre C analysisofar
2 mc
3 cia teathrig 72.3% —.. Ia2.55 m2/Pat240P
4 base2
5 stO teacttingsto 1.9
6 k
7 ha Psto&aan 5.7
8 base3 10
9 basel k 7.4 F
301t
it
10 head
books amiki 6.9
key 5 sk 11 k
12 stall 5 sb 12 head
13 cafe ersetc 16 1 aeranda 7 do 13 books
14 centreB circulation 42 2 practical 8 grouprm 14 cate
15 narsery 3 wc 9 court lb stall
16
17
LIlY
centreA totalar 100.0% is3.56rn2/Pat24OP a 4 base 10 ha 16 sty lo

I a Diagram b planofinfants & nursery schoolopenedin 1979for240 P

5—7years with nurseryunitfor60; 3 centres, A& Beachforupto70 Pwith2
teachers,Cforupto 100 Pwith3teachers; hatchedarsharedby allPof5—7

9
t
9

7
3015
sb
torn

16 birchtrees
key
8 sk 17 homebase2
9 sharedrm 18 homebase1
1 mc& cia 10 cleresiory 19 ptr
2 homebase3 11 toplayground 20 meetingrm
2 In aWelshcountrydisrict5schoolswithinradiusabout2.51cm,withtotal 3 harnebase4 12 ramp 2t parm
newschoolforl2ochof3—11years,with 4 ha 13 bins 22 toplaygarden
enrolment99P,replacedl9l6byl 5 aerasda 14 k 23 cherrytrees
2local centreseachforupto50 P&2teachers&nurseryunit; outside: 6 tanksseer sb 15 med 24 las & sho
pre-schoolgarden,play ar,footballpitch& illuminated hard-surfaced games
arforyouthclubs &adults
 Community 121

Schools
MIDDLEAGERANGE
In middle age range, as curriculum becomes more diversified, workin
local centres increasinglysupplemented byworkinofher spacesshared
teaching
teachingsIn
64.6% re2.63m2/Pet400P
keyplan
centred
'ii tlP3Pm
326496ft

Palo&san
by everyone, indoors and outdoors, where scopeof workcan develop centre
and deepen—v(1). c
admun
hollersetc
Designs forsuchdivision ofworkshown by2 schools —*(2)(3)(4),each Es red.
circulation
of which has centres grouped round common areas (hatched). by
total ares 100.0% 1e4.07m'/Pat400P Lcentmj
flahared A
sharedar sharedar by4centrea
local centre

'It
indoors outdoors
0 24 6
1
8m
.,i court
6.

..,. achoolsite _6 l2,l8 24 ft

cj
I .c

'In

-
1

L 5OOlb1d [ U] paved
,j1'arsharedby
centresA&B
I
jfickn14j
. nh

i r'
JIJt
supplementary
crafts& science schoolnieghbourttood

tA
•! planotcenste
17574rn2 1 79m2/Pat loop bane3 baae2
ba

[
Middleage rangeschoolwith4centres& arofcommonuse (hafched);
,graaaplayar
P H more detailedplan of centrearisshown
H i supplementary
drama&pe
v
H H teaching

HI P teachingsIn
10
dining
Palo& san
H/E fllV"I HH4 hardplayar admin
FJJ circulation

t 1[Jfl
totalar
sapplementary ,
manic analysisofar
ar/P(at420P)
H homebsae 5.8n91
P particolarbay
[
0 generalworkar
E oaedmt
v coveredwodran //
<
rurelscience
.

ODC)C'
atm2

netar-j worldngar
totalar
2438 n,2(
b5OW1is t3tOm2
shared year 1
netar . workingar cettr
badstudies
I s— studioworlrehop
I Diagramofarofworkrormiddleage range schools

3 4 Diagramoforganisation&furnishedplan of
schoolfor420 Pof9—13yearsopenedwith 4
centresforapprox105P, supervised by3teachers
(otherteachersbeing also involvedintheir work)
122 Community
Schools
MIDDLEAGE RANGE
blockplan
extensionforlowerschool
Local centresnotalways planned asdetined spaces. Another practiceis
toprovideflexibility bymeans ofuniform spacesub-divisible byscreens
and panels, rather than variety of spaces fordifferent kinds ofworkand
grouping of pupils. These 2 approaches, to flexibility and to variety,
represent2 distinct trends in current school planning. —e(i) shows
shared working areas designed intermsofrmforspecific subiects (as in
conventional secondary school) and therefore do not imply integrated
curriculum as implied in shared areas described —xp121(3)(4). —n(2)
shows middle range associated with olderrange schooling insecondary
school enlarged to comprehensive —eblock plan. 'Lowerschool' and
'upper school' share some areas such as pe, large scale music and
drama, and dining.

0 30 60 9Gm
98 187 2955

analysis star
ar/P(of360P(
762m2
0 10 20 3Cm /'t'/ shared
wow
32 66 986
shared
4.18w2 work
5315% oftotal ar

tolalar workingar

totalar
2972 In2

159Gm2
42—43% shared
241 m2med—

j
&dental
totalar workingar

0 6
19
12m
3911
)-?.
26

Lj27
_
23

fi-t
h5_
IfLa_J _l
t—--''?(
-

—
. '- -
i_i-c
23

N
E : 28

books
resources
1 plant 11 do & wc11—13 year 22 mssic r — — /— —
2 stageupperpart
3 gymspperpart
12 centre 120P9—11 year
28058 m2. 2.34 m'/P
23
24
mum entrance
med
L 1k30 29 29
32
4 centre 120p7—9year 13 do & wc7—9year 2b dental
282.12m2,235 m2/P, 14 26 admin
20P6—7year434t -n2. lb clo&wc6—7year
clo&wcg—llyear 27 wsrkrm
2.17 m2/P 16 changing& shu 28 staff
5 hlms 17 stage 29 head
6 studentcoanol rm tO gym 30 secretary
7 510 19 k 31 off
8 lib 20 humecralts 32 meetingrm 0 3 6 9 12w
9 sIx 21 wuod/metal/cluy 33 sb & uheltnr
10 panels 9 19 29 39h

1 science it12 dr 22 boys

1 Norwegianschoolwith3localcentressub-dividedfordifferentacttvities by 2 crafts swimmingpool 23 projectsincentre
screens& panels 3 centre 120P2ndyear 13 sk 24 greenhouse
4 centre9oP2ndyear 14 ck 28 court
fttope, dining& upper lb homecrahs 26 staff
school 16 workshcrpcrahu 27 ueranda
e med 17 projects 28 lrsiieysIcarlul
2 Existing secondaryschool In NottlnghamshlreEngland extended in 1971 to 7 head 18 prep 29 sb bays
becomecomprehensivebyadding'lowerschool'(block plan)designedwith4 8 qsietrm 19 sb 30 bookcases
9 centrel2oPlstyear 20
centres(key plan)&sharedworkar; dining, pe & other arge school activities ID cenlrn9oPlstyear 21
biology 31 qsietrm
32 audio-xisaalaids
gids
sharedwith 'upperschool'

OLDER AGE RANGE
Designing for older age range more complex and less certain: edu-
cational policies at thisstage increasinglyaffected by political attitudes,
exam policies and demands ot higher education and of adult society
generally. Because of large numbers in schools and diversity and
choices within curriculum, social organisation has to be considered
more specifically within complicated pattern of time-tabling and accn.
—n(1) attempts bring into focus 3 essential elements: numbers, work
and socialorganisation, taking asexample 1 specific enrolment of 1 035
pupils aged 11—18 years, with annual entry of 180 pupils and 135
students of 16—18 staying on after mm school leaving age.
Characteristic principle affecfing planning ot schools for this olderage
range: work areas likely to be shared byall or most pupils, who move
from 1 partof school to anofher according to their particularcourses of
work. Number of subjects and relative provision madeforeach depend
Community 123
Schools
on objectives of individual schools: some have predominance of
academic provision, othersof provision for scientific and engineering
work, and so on. But many schools hope achieve certain balance, with
wide range ofchoices—.x(2): usually common curriculum in loweryears;
preparation for examinations in middle years; diversification into many
differentcourses inlast few.
—x(3) presents organisation of3schools, with 7years age span horizon-
tally, and numbers, work and social organisation vertically. Different
stages also reflected in social organisation:in examples 1 and 3 some
accn for workand forsocial bases exclusively forfirst and second year
pupils; someplanned mainly for third toseventh yearpupils; and some
(eg library)tobeshared by wholeschool. In example2 (largest enrolment)
organisation, and consequently planning, divides school into3separate
entities, except for workshop crafts and pe for whichaccnshared by
everyone.

workar examples:grouping
shared by all ofworkar
associationxl cioselyreiatedsubjects
religiouseducation
history maths art&crafts
hornecralts
sciences
geography workshopcrafts

diversilying lib
curricuia
languages engiish drama
reiigious music
homecrafts education
religious
ianguages education
sociuistudies
music

drama

english 1 530P11—l8yrs

workshopcrafts
subiectsgroupedin centresotmixedinterest
sciences
science
maths art& crafts sports
homecrafts gym
arts &crafts books& study theatre

science drama
pa art&crafts enghnll
maths music
books& study art& crafts
subjects grouped
& modified in many socialstudies
economics
engiish
ianguages
differentways reiigious booksS study
educatrsr
commerce
books&study 1 400P 11—lByr

1 Older age range: schoolorganisation 2 Olderage: rangeofchoices

years years
IJ 2 i__-L4
years
ll 617

=- 1 567 1

-
= = - -J
480P 720P 240P
360P MOP lOOP 720P 720P 560P numbers
numbers numbers 11—13yr 13—lSyr 16—l8yr
ti—l3yr 13—16yr 16—18yr 11—l3yr 13—l5yr 15—.lByr
-J

=
I I
I
Ssociaibases commonSn sociai base sociaibase
I

sociaibase socialbasel 5socialbases dub

sorsal

=
-
1 ining 1 dining snacks
-J sociai
dining dining dining
F
social
-J dining
I I
reieduc history
II
study rei educ mleduc
maths
—J— history
geography history ii—
reteduc reteduc history geography ii geography
history

Sb geography study iariguages enghsh

history engiish lib iariguages 21 languages
draTia
' 211

homecrafts music drama

art& crafts repeat repeal art&crafts
geography homecratts
WI
music
drama wc
english enghsh
wCrk
sciences workshop crafts
maths
english sciences
4 english
maths
study
'
sciences maths 1
Ill
sciences
workshopcrafts maths hornecrafts
maths 5 arilcrafts articralt study sciences artJcraftu
I
music I
drama workshop crafts lib& pubhC Sb
pie ye PC
1 OOP11—l8yr 2000P 11—l8yi 1440P11—l8yr
example1 example2 example3

3 Older range: examples ofschoolorgartisation

124 Community
Schools
OLDER AGE RANGE
—.(1 )(2) illustrate diagrammaticgrouping ofsubjects in centres ofmixed interests —p123(2)(3).

15-18 yrclub(1st)
k,Sr. youth (ground)
english&
- languages
drama,music )grcund)
english
art& craft humanites

hb & admun(ground)
adminstaff,
csf' (1st)
ha &pe
teachers centre(1

science
5t)i11
homeeconorniuca
art& craft
tawerschool
)11—l3yr) [] Li
physics,
maths&
WdmShO)
crafts

0 2040 60 80 m

(1 3 6 9 m 61126 ft
9 1 27 ft

1 MixedcentreforhumanitiesinBerkshireEnglandcomprehensive schoolfor2l2Pof13—18years,designedto
provideworkingarfor allPinthis groupforhistory, geography, religion &philosophy, economic&socialsciences;
alsoprovisionforsome to workonEnglish,mathematics & commercial subjects

orchestrami
mur
mur
6practicerm
sf0 13.0
sharedlistening 13.37
0 3 6 9
stu 327
18 2'7

2 CentreinsameBerkshireEngland schoolformusic,drama, art&lightcrafts, needlework &associated studiesin

English,with practicerm,listeningbooths&otherarforindividual work;designed forabout158Pto workthereat1
time &for80of16—18years to have social basethere
 Community 125
Schools
OLDER AGE RANGE may retain sense ofidentityin largecommunity. —(i)(2) showsolution
to this problem with school in 8 independent blocks, 7 of which (Ic
excluding largest, namely sports hall) planned as street community'.
1 aim in design of most schoolsforolderage range mitigate institutional These, with 1 and 2 floors, linked byagated wall and by sharing similar
influences of size by finding ways in whichindividual and small group bldg materials but retain independence byshape, size and detail.

1\ I

4%J
cIass/'5g

/ .c'bUs\
parking

k
geog$
-ra
' visual •
,Iaudio/ tib
7I
hardplayc.
pitch sportsha
hardplay
pitch

0 30 60 90 120 m
90180270360 ft
social -

I '?% c;/
- tSetTDndart
.
/ 'ami

fZ7
fi1/
spodsha

teaching 65.2%
teachingsto 5.8
dining
k

admin
heating
23
34
Psto&san 7.5
6.2
1.3
circulation 6.3
analysisofar
ie7.2m/pal6OOP

totalar 100.0%

chemistry

thology
sem'tutor
-mar

languages

ssocia)/
classr
social do
void

maths

jd

/ I /
9 16
27
36 m
30 f0 90 1205
1 &2 High schoolinLancashire
Englandopened1978for600 Pfrom
11—16years: designedbygrouping
subjectstolessenpressureofsize
on individual& smallgroup
126 Community

Schools
SYSTEMBUILDING
analysisofar
Industrialsystems used buildmany schools: best offer sufficientflexibility
teaching 63.0%
teing sf0 2.9 in both plan and section meeteducational needsalltypesschools, with
airing
k
33
27 qualitythat rates them first class permanent bldg. —s(1)(2) show school
Psto&san 7.1 huilt using such system (CLASP), also used —upl2O(1)(2).Financial
athrin 6.1 contribution from non-educational sources made possible extended
circufation 12.9
totalar 1000% or 9_ 120 provision forsportavailable both toschool andtocommunity —epi 20(2).
ie7.9 ma/Patggp ft —xBib200

REGIONALINSTITUTIONS
—13

Increasing diversity educational needs in 16—19 year age range

I22 4- design/scienCe
11 encourages development separateinstitutions serve several schools in
'—' region.Some sited in association with 11—16 yearschool; somewith
tower school
540P
11—l3yr
30 —
28
J 2 college of further education —.y(3); some independent. At St Austell
England —v(3) provision ofpeavailable in nearby borough sports centre.
1 6th form college and nearby college of further education share some
teaching accn for linked courses. Generous provision for individual
I
85
JI .,,,,,,,,,
l39 37
study both in library and elsewhere; this, together with small rm for
seminars and tutorial work, of considerable importance for this age
group.

TTs
L_.musichal5balwo 0 5 1015m
I_-._l
01530458 .
J
j38

key
1 sports,pe 11 sto 25 k 39 optics 55 technical
school& 12 activities 26 off 40 preparation drawing
community space 27 pottery 41 seminar 56 med
2 theatre 13 up 28 wood 42 lectures 57 mothercare
3 admin 14 squash 29 engineenng 43 stu 58 textiles
4 fib 15 sportsha 30 crafts 44 classr 59 painting drcutafion
5 design! 16 gyro, 31 kiln 45 history 60 printing adenn 12.2% kdchen
science badminton 32 head 46 practical 61 languages 05%
10.6%
6 liberal 17 meters 33 scalpture 47 lounge 62 english
studies 18 el 34 prolects 48 gallery 63 houserrn P

234
7 music 19 lau 35 forge 49 dr 64 do less,coats,-.
school 20 fuel 36 metal 50 needlework 65 staff
8 lowerschool 21 boilers 37 advanced 51 fabrics 66 careers
9 warden 22 foyer science 52 social 67 libwork rm
10 teachers
centre
23 changing
24 yard
38 general
science
53 void
54 homecrafts
68 geography

ajEn°ar
ng
n 8 1415

21 28 21 30

9 6 12m
20 40ff
3 St AustellEngland6thformcollege,opened 1973for460 P 16—19years,
hasdept forhumanities(including drama),music,science& mathematics,
socialstudies,&art&designcentre,allrelatedto ha,dramastudio, lib&social
centre

key
privatestu 13 prolection 25 wc 39 tutorials 50 lecturerm
gallery 14 privatestu 26 computer 40 humanities 51 ha
lib 15 religious 27 divisionrm 41 languages 52 drarnastudio
3 careers education 28 preparation 42 seminars& 53 optics
4 seminar 16 ha 29 chemistry headsof 54 science
5 social 17 off 30 mathematics dept preparation
studies 18 head 31 boilers 43 forge 55 biology
1 2 In this NottinghamshireEnglandschoolbuiltonanindustrial system 6 geography 19 headseminar 32 designoff 44 studio 56 physics
lowerschool(blockplanonly) isfor540Pof11—13years,mainschoolopened 7 geology dept 33 timber 45 wOod 57 students
1973for990 Pof13—18years;centralcoreforadmin,dining, theatre, libleads 8 history 20 balance rm 34 art&design 46 textiles socialar
9 control 21 lab 35 do 47 metal 58 music
to3main 2-floor blocks; arts, crafts&sciences (design/science separate 10 restrm 22 work rio 36 el 48 pottery 59 tutor
1-floor bldg) 11 deputyhead 23 staff common 37 seminaroff 49 science 60 k
12 gallery 24 tel rm 38 english prolects
 Community 127

Size varies from50 to over 1 000 boarding pupils. Proportionof day to
boarding pupilsalso varies; many schools take only boarders.Few new
boarding schools built recently but many extended, with new uses
found forexistingbldg.Asschool will be home' for two-thirds year aim
for homely and relaxing ambience, allowing pupils develop own per-
sonalities and community spirit.
SITE LAYOUT
Requirementsdiffer according to various factors: size of school, age
groups to be provided for, integration or separation of living quarters
fromother school bldg, location,climate,inclusionof day pupils,education
programme to beprovided.
Design easy, quickaccess between bldg (in hostile climates protected);
living, dining, recreationalareasclose together. In larger schoolsseparate
living quarters preferred, with communal dining. Integratedaccn more
suited to small schoolswith niulti-use rm. Urban sites generally call for
higher densities and multi-storey bldg, sharing amenities with com-
munity and using town services. On ruralsite school usually has to be
self-sufficient, onlyclassr and living quarters being multi-storey.
Boarding schoolswith many daypupils have living quarters integrated
with other bldg. Larger schools require and canafford more and better
provision for recreation, hobbies and cultural pursuits.
Boarding schools
Separatebedroom 6m2, preferably9m2; USA mm 8.4 m2,preferred
10.2 m2.
Beds should not be arranged in tiers. Sto for each pupil's personal
belongings and clothes beside each bed. Spaces to be adequately
ventilated. Stu/bedr—*p140.
Sanitary
To bedispersed throughout bldg, accessible fromsleeping quarters.
1 sho orbuGP(50%baths)
1 hb/3 Pup to 60pupils then 1 hb/4 Pfornext 40 and 1 hb/each further
5: space 1 m2/P
1 wc/5 P
Ifday pupils'lay nearby requirements may be reduced.
USA:fordetails referapplicable codes and standards.
Sick rooms
In small schoolsplaced near matron next togeneral sleeping quarters.
In large schools can be in separate bldg with doctors and nurses
quarters and dental suite. Provide separately forboysand girls.1 sick
rm/20 P. Allow 7.4 ma/bed with 1 800 between any 2 beds. Provide
adequate rm ventilation. Provide adequate separate sanitary accn for
sick rm; separate isolation rm where pupils exceed 40; sufficient accn
for nursing staff.
USA: for details refer applicablecodes and standards.

ACCOMMODATION Staff
Degree of supervision of pupils by staff depends on system adopted.
Many schools divide pupils into houses, each with resident house
Sleeping master (often married), junior teacher(s) and matron; ancillary staff
Preferable face E; separate rm for each sex over age 8; preferred same
sometimes also accommodated.Some staff live inseparate quarters.
age groupto each dormitory.
Married teachers need living rm and bedr each 18 m2, 3—4 smaller rm
Open dormitory more usual in preparatory and juniorschools (not in and kitchen each 11 m2, larder, wc, bathr, sto. Total each approx 80 m2.
USA), uncommon in senior. 5 m for first 2 beds, 4.2 m2 each
additional bed; 900 between beds. 6—12 beds normal but up to20 can Larger areas normal in USA.
be accepted. Junior teachers needstudy 12 m2 neartodayrmspace, bedr 10m2near
topupils' sleeping accn, preferably bathr and sto.
Dormitory cubicles each to have window 5 m.

a 894 b

el staff
I
hockeypitch hockey
C)jl
c)
c
(81
0.1
____
,—-----
_____
-

9
9 120m N
iàooooo it

I CarmelCollegeWallingfordEngland:120pupilsaged13—18,integrated accnagroundfloor plan, bsite plan Arch HancockHawkes

128 Community

Boarding schools
ACCOMMODATION(cont)
9 2,5 50 7,5100
8 160240 320 Day room
Provide than 2.3 m2/P, preferably 4.5 m2. Should consist of common
rm, library—spi29, hobbies rm, quiet rm, games rm, radioand tv rm.

Dining
Centralised dining normal: 1, 2 or 3 sittings, depending on school
policy. Space can be sub-divided to be more intimate and to Identify
groups of pupils. In small schools spacecan be used forschoolassembly,
concerts, drama productions.
Allow 1 m2/P and adequate airspace.

Kitchen
Allow0.5 m2/P withcafeteria servery, unitserveries forgroupsofpupils
b or mobile serveries totables.

Ancillary
Adequate sto for pupils' luggage, bedding, clothes and eqp; laundry,
ironing rm, airing rm, sewing rm.
Recreation
Depends on size of school and nearnessto sports grounds, baths etc.
Provide access to grassed areas for ball games, swimming pool,
gymnasium, running track etc; suitable space and eqp for drama, art,
music, films,lectures, crafts, religious worship.
Services
Provide adequate and suitable air space and heat orcool and ventilate
according to climate. Services may be centralised or individual to bldg
—vp383—97.

a
4;
.j servorboarding
'--
RiverThames

b stu
I domiitOry
matron stu
bedr bedr bedr

m
ft
1/ ! dr stu'
bedr
head
I H
I
prefect stu
Stu
bedr I dormitory

C
junior boarders senerrboarders
r-'-1
UULI
E
J]IU1I11ffl
HEJ
_________________ servery
k
LstodrylJ
_i_
meati
&hshl
_L
sto

J J—
goods
1 CharterhouseSchoolGodalming England: separateaccnfor462
pupilsin7houseseachwith house master& familylivingin asite IJiliLJJEI peparason

plan bdining block (7drround centralk) Chouseground &firstfloor

plans d housesection; 1 dr 2wash-up 3k 4lob 5lay 6off 7gas
meters 8bins 9 refrigeration 10saladpreparation 11 lift 12 potwash iiiiIOJt--' 1m men

]fltuckshop l
staff
l3staffdr l4sto l5pooI l6towerblock l7house7 l8house6
19 housemaster'sk 20housemaster'sdr 21 housemaster'sliv
Jfl1
I4
boys staff
staffrm

22 housemaster'sstu 23lift 24 servicear 25stairwell 26commonrm
27 monitors'common rm 28 entrance ha 29hobbies rm 30bedr
31 bathr 32 liv 33k 34bedr 35tearm 36 bootrm 37gamesrm
38gar 39boys' lay 40 hobbiesrm 41 ter 42 day nursery 43 bedr
44stu/bedr 45bedr 46 press 47elevator 48stairwell 49flat roof
50washr 51 washr Arch SirGilesScottSon & Partner
itchenstaffI
coveredway
2 StPaulsSchool London England: 700pupils,60junior& 122senior
boardingpupilsin separateaccn aaxonometricview bseniorboarding
housefirstfloor plan cdining/kblock plan: 500seatsserve 1200
2-courselunchesin3-queuecafeteriasystem Arch Fielden &Mawson
 Community 129
Schools
MEDIA CENTRES
= Growth in useof instructional materialsotherthan thoseoftraditional lib

{1
industrial -I =
sociIr I -r
F
—•
Lb 1 at -[arts l—sciene coupledwith new emphasis on individual study has promoted concept
of media or resource centre. Such aids as microfilm, audio cassettes
r]rno7LI 1
I==/'
0011
•ii:i::Jti
I
and film needviewing rm and study carrels wired for special technical
eqp.Addedto libservicespace needs become larger; staffing and work
areas needed give effective support forclassr teaching needs. Student
I zjooo
I—
___ use suggests variety working and study options. Mutli-purpose spaces
• ,J1_, equippedwith movable or stacking chairs.
Such centres include many of following:
chairsof several types, including cushions or carpet risers
tables
carrels, manywired foreqp—.p177(3)
staffdesks &chairs
special furniture: circulationdesk, files, stocabinets,display, photocopy
reading, browsing, listening, viewing
openaccess materials & stacks
smallgroup listening & viewing
conference areas
groupworkprojects & instruction
admin &workspace
eqpsto
maintenance & repair
dark rm
professional collection forteaching staff
magazine & newspaper sto including microfilm
In larger schoolsystems radioand tvstudios and computerisedlearning
resources may be included in centre. In some systems material may be
distributed toseveral schools from 1 audio-visual sto centre.
N
Sincesuchcentres designed inresponse studentinput, localcommunity
1 Middle schoolWestfieldUSAwith mediacentre Arch McGuire &Shook needs and state guidelines variety of solutions found. Typical plan
Corp relationships toteaching areas indicated—(1 )—(3).

T P I : T' I servlce

cJU
I

.
i
. ii
____r 1 I I l1rl11

-1
.

E
.
.1 L]
=
chdd
.

1
T1
multi-purpose

r
. . .

-I iangJa
dr . speech
1

kindergarten

]
I
.
L I . . .

activity
. TEE

min— media
0 6 12m
§. . centre
20 40ft
I 4 # k I FH*
ElementaryschoolTampaFloridaUSA:mediacentrenearlanguagedept Arch Rowe HolmesAssociates

3 Elementaryschoolon2floorsNeolaIowaUSAhasresourcecentreateachlevel ArchDanaLarsonRoubal& Associates

130 Community
Schools
somefeatureswhichlimit useoftables
FURNITURE
proportionoftop
preventsneat
grouping Generalfactors
railpresents Furniture governed bytype otteaching torwhich provided and bysize ot
sdtingplace —
rç
bevellededges pupils. In recentyears learning and teaching involved greater variety ot
atendoftable preventflatbutt
group sizes and wider range ot activities. More mobility in schools and
5t0& legframe
restrictsflsrigto
closerassociation ot book workand practicalwork; both theseattect
1sideoftable spacingoflegs
lessdianw design and distribution ot turniture. —*(1) shows common features
ofchair whichinhibit flexible useoftables and featureswhich encourageefficient
sanefeatureswfticfiallow maxuse oftables grouping and versatile use. Where tables required strictly for formal
reading and writing work—v(2) gives relevant data; but increasingly
these proportions giving way to double square shown for grouping
purposes —v(1).
Modern UK furniture range will consist of sitting and standing height
working surfaces in closeassociation and of many forms of mobile sto
2chaim —n
clearance
for

betweenlegs
II
II
ü tchair
'\,,clearancefor
and display. (—nBlbl97207 208).
betweenlegs In USAtypical worksurface heights foreducational usevary from560—
sane eaarnples oftablegroups 790, although lower tables used for very young. Recommended work
depth variesfrom330 for youngest children to 460 for 15 year olds or
e older. Width ofwork area varies from530 for youngest children to 760
for 15 yearoldsorolder—e(3).
Sto underworksurface not recommended unless atsideofknee space

1rrD 3basicshapes
dimensionedto
groupfor
generalwork
trapezoidal
orworksurface increased indepth. Toespace mm 610 torolderchildren,
who needvarying work heights depending on task: typing tables 670,
work tables 735, sewing tables 790. Work height for handicapped in
wheelchairs mustbe adaptedtotheir needs—up86.
Standing worksurfaces for school age children should vary from520—
n 915atage 15. Older childrenmayfind range 860—965 desirabledepending
on height and task to be done. Sinks set lower, high counters higher
\2iY Ihil EJEIJ (1015—1120).

desirable conddionsintioingtrials
J
rectangular squaretable
55: 'ff0' tables
*514
sodc 100% 100%
trapezoidal
610

1Th4 t I 14
1067 15241530
single double
esercise 610 610*610* 1220
120 % satisfied book hail
762 ii 1524
260—520 sizet round
table
'60 120 tablefr 560.565,610,635,660, 675,740& 762
availablewith adlustable legsrange 56010762in 25 increments

100% tOO%
single double
" a of: mean
3 USAtable sizes
stature shoulder
% subiects

"7
300 satished size m
yr
300/520 size2 'jj
2 7 6 1280

dc
'65'

100%
cingle
130

100%
double
' 3 10 L L2. ...JfIt......J

480 %satished
340—580 size 3

$erf
'65' 130

D
100% 100%
single double

b
620 % satistied
380-640 size 4

r70 140 -

100% 100%
single double
620— % satisfied
420—700 bze 5

2 UKtable plansizes 4 USAchairs &desks astacker bdoubleentrystudy ctabletarmchair

dliftlidtable &chair eclassrunit fdeskwith chair gclassrtypingtable
Iidesk jstudy carrels
 Community 131

Schools
FURNITURE
Staturedata & distribution offurniture
sizes
Mobilityofpupilsin schools and high degree to
whichworkingaccn shared make increasingly
impracticalassign chair and table tosingle pupil.
Furnitureshared bymany:each chairand related A shod feetflat onfloor
tablesize must therefore be designed suitmax B clearancebetween backoflegs&
front edge of seat
stature range rather than for individual pupils.
This in principle means simultaneous satisfac- C nopress at frontofseat between
seating surface & thighs
tion of 7 fitting criteria shown —'(1), with D clearancebetween thigh &under-
clearance between top ofchair seat and under- sideof table forfreedom of
side of table top. movement
E elbows approxlevel withtabletop
G
Though stodecreasinglyprovidedatwork place, whenupperarmvertical
if sited at any sifting working plane adequate F firmsupportforbackinlumber
leg room can only be ensuredifzonesindicated region &below shoulderblades
for ISOsizes 1—5—s(2) free fromobstruction. 3 adequateclearance betweenback
UK view is that distribution of furniture should rest&seat to ensurefree
movement of buttocks A
be basedon pupils' stature ratherthan onpupils'
ages—'(3). Conversion ofstature to agefor UK P adoptmanysitting posturesbutassessmentofgood fitis simultaneoussatisfactionof above 7criteria
school population in 1971 —'Bib207. Revised
British standard specifications forpupils' chairs 1 Fitof Pto chair &table: UKdata
and tables (—'Bib134) comply with ISO stan-
dards (—'Bib407),sizes ofwhich havetherefore size 1 size2
beenshown.
ISO standards do notapply in USA: viewheld
thatstudentsizesvary somuch1 rm may need
more than 1 chair/table height. Dimensions
IT I
based on USA research (—vBibS49)—v(4).
cv

II-
ages ldgh tow reach legh reach eye
reach reach dist- reach radite level
A a anceco E - F
2085 815 735 1440 660 1215
HS 15 1915 730 685 1374 610 1160
1765 665 635 1313 570 1108 sizes
Jr. 1880 705 665 1320 600 1100
HS 12 1705 630 620 1250 555 1040 size 3
1545 560 565 1185 510 890
1645 605 600 1175 535 975
4th 9 1510 555 550 1120 495 925
1345 510 485 1040 435 880
1505 545 550 1080 500 890
2nd 7 1370 510 495 1015 445 850
1245 485 445 960 395 815
1330 500 480 970 430 815
KOG 5 1210 485 435 915 385 770
1085 425 390 865 345 720

upto hat hb work work table seat

ages ahe9 hH topJ dK hL IM 300
hO
15 1675 760 915 480 550 370 400
12 1485 685 795 420 590 340
9 1320 635 695 380 525 300 2 Mm leg clearancezones:UKdata
7 1220 585 635 355 480 275
5 1090 485 570 330 445 250

ages seat h seatto into armrestseatw basic

N back- back- spacing A tablew
restO resthP 0 5
15 405 150 175 445 380 760
12 370 145 160 420 370 710
9 325 135 140 355 330 610
7 290 130 130 330 305 610
5 265 120 125 305 280 535

mm armrest

3 StaturesofUKschoolpopulation

4 USAdimensionsrelevanttoschooltumiture;HS=high school KDA = Kindergarten

132 Community

Schools
3—5 yr max reach(for96%ofagerange)
FURNITURE
Dimensional data: sizesof pupils &
stature
eye
teve 1155
furniture
sittinghi Dimensional data derived fromanthropometric
eye lend 885 1825
survey of UK school age populatIon in 1971 by
\ 68O
()j77s 780

iso size I 610

155o—fI
Furniture Industry Research Association—n(1)
Sittingplanes those proposed in ISO Standard
(—rBib4O7). Figures refer to ISO stzes 1—5.
165
so 145 standing
1245 working
size
poptiteus
taneJ

I UK dimensionsforpupils'furniture

10—t2yr max reach(for96%ofagerange)

etbowS
5-8yr max reach((or96%ofagerange) iso
size

ethowS
180
an 150
size
2

8—10 yr manreach(for96% ofagerange)

elbow h

s
iso195
155

9—11 yr maxreach)for96% ofagerange)

stature
eyeievet—, t
ii
I
525
425---*1 440
I
eye tenet -isittingh 11 135 Ii 14511245
't005
1025
so size 3
1850_
elbowI
210
750J
l60
mze_
an
l- 410±
poptiteus
standing
wing
plane

—
 Community 133

Schools
FURNITURE
Storageofpupils' belongings
Inschoolsforyounger children with less move-
ment about school trays and individual con-
tainers at workplace suitable. Coats and small
bags can be hungon pegslocally.
But greatermovement of pupils in middle and
olderage ranges encourages widespread use
ofvarious kindsof bags in which books can be
carried from1 place ofworkto another.Central
provision of lockers therefore of decreasing
value sincetheir dimensions and their location
likelyto beinconvenient. Provisionofpegs and
racks forbags associatedwitheach workspace
becoming more convenient and more secure.
Forthisdimensionaldata given—(1)(2) relevant.
Data prepared by Furniture Industry Research
Association as part of survey of sto of pupils'
personal belongings.
In USA lockers —*(3) still standard for older
children, ifonlyfor security. In-rm stoprovided
for children up to 12 years old. Basket racks
also used —n(4).

Schools references
—+Bibliography entries134 191192193194195
196197198199200201 202203204205207
208209210211 212213214215265267275
314446451 476 484 526530 575581 607652

1 1—l6yeazs

150
w

_ weigft(kg) distitution
otbagtype

II II

li
230—610 230or305 305—460

20, 250 34,.350450450 50 150.20, 250 20,250 350 40,450

h w weight(kg)
16—18yealx

1 Size,weight&distributionofpupils'bags

3 USA lockers a1-tier b3-tier c6-tier

dcombinationunits

max 1605 = 5 305baskets

x
max14806 x230baskets
min965=3x305baskets
m1n740= 3x23obasketj

23000
330 305

ioderbasket

mld calllengthcoats basketrack

(forcoats hungfromhoodsallowance only5%ofcoatswill be
of200-300 shouldbe made) longerthan shown
4 Basketrack;canbesinglerow(d305—335) or
2 Lengthsofpupils' coats back-to-back
134 Community

Colleges
LECTURE ROOMS& THEATRES
I2
key
concourse
cocr
Utilisaflon oflecturerm and theatres traditionally lowin relationtospace
3 courtyard requirements and capital cost; therefore consider designing flexibility to
4 lecturetheatre 1 accommodate various functions. Such spaces could suit lectures, stage
5 projectionrm
6 plantrm productions, demonstrations and cinema. Large theatre could be divi-
7 etevator sible toaccommodatedifferent audience sizes; similarly,with retractable
8 lecturetheatre2
9 soundproduction& seating system —spi 35, largelecture rm can be convertedintoassembly
vision hall orgymnasium.Number andextentofsuchactivitieswillalso determine
10 upperstudio
11 lecturetheatre3 needforadjoining ancillary spaces suchas preparationrm, proiector rm,
12 lecturetheatre4 workshops, changing rm, studios and sto.
Ifpolicytohirelecture theatre tooutside organisations during vacations
consider improved space standards and environmental conditions to
satisfy more sophisticated requirements of business world.
I Lecture hacomplexpre-clinicalsciences bldg Southampton University
England Arch John SBonningtonPartnership Mm ar/P: 0.46 m2 (based on moveable seats, armless 450 centre to
centre)
0.6 m2 (fixed seats witharmsat500 centre to centre)
Basic shape
Shape of lecture theatre becomes more important as size and volume
increase. Square flexible but fan shape preferred for larger theatres
whereplan formrelates to adequate sightlines foraudio-visual presen-
tations, cinema etc —vp136. Consider rear projection —v(3); tv data
pl36(l)—(3). Small capacity lecture rm up to approx 80 persons quite
satisfactory with flat floor: larger halls require either rampedfloor (max
1: 10) orstepped floor,dependent uponachievingadequate sightlines.
Uniform change of eye level should beachieved ateach seat row, mm
being60and median 125.
Theatre auditorium —vp35O

;c:::- g.
L
b
2 Physicslecturetheatrewithdoublewallingtoreducesound&vibration
TechnicalUniversityDarmstadt Germany aplan bsection

3 Rearprojectionofimages forlectureha: notsoclearasfrontprojectionforlargehabutmoreconvenientfor

lecturer &allowshigherlight level inhafornote-taking
 Community 135

Colleges
LECTUREROOMS: SEATING SEATINGARRANGEMENTS
Seating types Relate to function of hail ortheatre:
Categories:
individual chairs capable of being linked together in rows, stacked and Lecture: audience should be able to see and hear lecturer. Where
stored away, with or without arms,with orwithout writing tablets chalkboard or screens needed desirable viewing requirements affect
fixedseating ofvarious degrees ofcomfort with orwithout tip-up seats, seating plan. Increasing trend towards audience participation: implies
with orwithoutarms—(1)—(3) students should be close as possible to lecturer. Can be achieved by
retractableseating systems capableoffolding down onto tiered staging U-shaped seating arrangementwhich reduces numberofrowsrequired
and also givesaving in total area.
(which usually includes aisles), whole arrangement being retractable
and storedin relatively small area flat auditorium floor capableof being Cinema: criteria forgoodviewing:
used for otherpurposes —*(4).
max horizontal viewing angle 30°
Flexible seating —p351 max vertical viewing angle 35°
critical angle of projector 12°
Seating mm dimensions max viewing distance 6 x wof screen
Backto backdistance between rows ofseats mm viewing distance 2 x wofscreen
(withtip-up seats) 750 Demonstration:will usually require steeply raked floortoensure good
Width ofseats, linked, without arms 460 viewing totop ofdemonstration benches. Relativecos ofsuch auditoria
Width ofseats with arms 500 with heavily serviced demonstration benches, preparation rm and like
Unobstructed vertical space between seats 300 should be compared with costs of normal lecture rm equipped with
closedcircuit tv—*p136(1)—(3).
Seating canbe set round demonstration area insemi-circular formation
ifno requirement for chalkboardsorscreens, as with anatomydemon-
stration theatres.

Sightlines —*pl36349
Cinemas —p354—8

840 min—f

In
25Oi1
5 Sectionthroughorthodox lecture theatre

hof screen
2 Fixed seatingwithtip-up seats& writing shelf

6w

6 Preferredviewingdistancesforcinemaprojection

3 Fixedseatingwith tip-upseats& retractable shelving

4 Basicprincipleofrectractable seating 7 Lecturetheatrewithdemonstration table (surgical clinic)

136 Community

Colleges
LECTURE ROOMS: FIREREGULATIONS
a mm max max number of 500
Design of lecture rm ortheatre must conform tosafety reg, in particular seatway distanceof wide seats/row
fire and means ofescape. Number ofseats permissible inanyrow—.(4) (measured seat from
dependent uponcleardistance apart of rows (back to backdimension between gangway gangway gangway
perpendiculars) (500seats) both sides 1 side
A), resultantclearsection (dimensionEmeasuredbetweenperpendiculars) E F
anddistance ofseats fromgangway (0 = w ofseat).
300 3000 14 7
In turn clearwidthof gangwaysand number within hall must be related 330 3500 16 8
to numberof persons to be accommodated. 360 4000 18 9
390 4500 20 10
420 5000 22 11
ACOUSTICS—*pl 8395—7
Just as Important hear distinctly as see clearly; lecture hall must be
acoustically isolated from other noise sources. tE
No internal acoustic treatment should benecessary forrmless than300
m2 butas size and volume increasesshapeof hallbecomes increasingly
important.
Design of ceiling as reflector of sound from original source important
factor in achieving even distribution throughout hall. Design of wall
surfaces and finishes alsoimportant consideration ineitherreflecting or
absorbing sound according to theirrelationship to stage ordais.

sizeof seat row spacing

tvtube
900 1 300 1 550

425 650 425 350

475 675 450 375
520 850 562 462
570 875 575 475
595 962 620 520

1 hoftv imagein relationtosizeoftube &seat rowspacing

size of seatrow spacing

Ivtube
900 1 300 1 550

425 1650 1250 1125

475 1700 1300 1150
520 2125 1625 1459
570 2150 1650 1475
595 2400 1825 1625
d
2 Mm viewing distancefromtvtube

4 a distanceofseatsfromgangways bplanofseating withoutarms

Cseatingwith backs& arms dpartofauditorium

/,
,,
—
/,
,/
I
I
I

\ \
——

t
—
S.
,..

—— —
av24m2
numberofP
accommodatedon
each tierorfloor

1
200
300
400
500
750
1000
mm

2
2
2
2
3
4
number
ofexits1
mm

10502
1200
1350
1500
1500
1500
w

plus 1 additional exit of not lessthan 1 500 for

each extra250 P orpartthereof 2wouldnot
normallyapplyto exit corrorstaircases serving
auditoriumof theatre

' 5 Exit requirements

3 Shape& squarefrontageofviewing arfor520 receiver

 Community 137

Colleges
SCHOOLSOFART, DESIGN, DRAMA& MUSIC
Scope and intensity ofstudy in specialistart, design and drama subjects
vary from college to college. Facultieslikely include selection of:
drawing &painting: fine art
ceramics
key
1 scuplture
sculpture
2 artgaflery industrial design: engineering
3 groupmusic furniture & interiordesign
4 pool theatre & television design
5 office
6 toye
7 painting graphics & related visual arts including photography
8&9 music silver&jewelry
10 worlshop textile design both print &weave
11 greenrrn
12513 chorus stained glass
14 stagelift drama
15 dressingrm
16 sculpturestudio music
17 switchm,
18 bars Schedule ofaccn foreachwillgenerally include design studio, workand
19 do
20&21 toilets practice rm, technical workshops and admin off. Communal lecture
22 storear theatre or assembly hall usable also as exhibition centre oftenrequired
but display areas for both 2 and 3 dimensional work should also be
provided throughout college.

1 GardnerCentreforthe ArtsUniversityofSussex England ArchJohn S
BonningtonPartnership, formerly SirBasilSpenceBonnington&Collins
Designstudios
Should be next to appropriateworkrorworkshop; consider exclusion of
noiseand dust. Stospace forplan sheets,wardrobes orclotheslockers,
referencebooksand models should be included together with eqp for
copying drawings and documents, although suchmay be certtralised.
Goodlightingessential, both naturaland artificial.
Drawing studios —p139

Fine art studios

Studiosfor painting and sculpture require largeareas; must have good
passage assistance natural daylight with high level windows, equal to at least 25—33%Of
floor area, with N orE aspect.
Rooflights may provide ancillary light; all windows should be fitted with
someform ofdaylight control. All surfaces should bedurable and easy
to clean.
Workshops
Siting will depend on type of work being done. Light workallied with
I— 4000—5000 —i graphics, silverand jewelry, photography and fashion may beplaced on
higherfloor;metal,woodand plastics workshops where largemachines
2 Tiersinlifestudio:seat ar/student0.65 m2 maybe installed best sitedon ground orbasement level.
Good workshop layout must conformtoworkflow and safety-+p1 38(1 )(2).
Provideamplespace round machinesandforgangwaystoallownecessary
movement without incursion on work space. Non-slip floor finishes
1•
should bespecified; workshop technician should beable survey whole
area frompartially glazed off.
If each studentprovided with sets of toolsspace for individual lockers
I— needed in workshop area.
Workshop eqp spaces —*p288

Practicerooms
900—1200 1000—1300 May be for individual study or group practice. Should be well insulated
against passage ofsound fromone to another.
Stores
Methods of storing wide range of goods and materials needed support
each activity should be closely studied, asshould areas required house
completed works before exhibition ordisposal.
All sto should be sited next to appropriate workshop; consider proper
conditions of heat and humidity where these may be detrimental to
materials being stored if not held within reasonable limits, eg timber,
clay, plaster.
Special racking needed for paintings and large canvasses; timberand
timber-based board materials, plastics sheets, metal sections, rolls of
textiles,glassand paper.
Allsuchsto will require element of control and security.
Ancillary accommodation
Will include offforteaching staff, common rm, lay andpossibly showers.

5 Sequenceofoperations: claymodelling &pottery

138 Community

Colleges
SCHOOLSOF ART,DESIGN, DRAMA& MUSIC

brazinghearth cpd + fromdrawing rm

'wall sk
bench L ELi
[5 soldering bench
n122n I [ LI metallathe

1370P] 41220111
forge
grinder
drill
:'ifl U {J fools
circular saw
-a #jj-j [1 ['.
915— sb I-Fit1 U woodlathe

-y 1220 eqp

chalkboard&display

bench
______ benchl
1830
4 9 19
32
2pm
64ft
1 370
4 Layoutforcombinedwood&metalshop
eqp _________

1 Clearancesforlayoutof metalshops

metalwork translucentrootedar woodwork

0 3 6 9 12m

rindstone lafhefftfl

arleft blank

o ggcm2
£ operating position
41-run out

2 Workingspacesround woodwork machinery

Fi 3

I
2134 /

painting studio drawing rm

3 Variousforms of sto racking 5 Arts centrelayoutforcollege

 Community 139

DRAWINGSTUDIOS
Space requirements related totype of drawing and allied work, itany, to
be undertaken —(1).
Work station sizes in part conditioned by eqp needed to accommodate
drawing format to be adopted. Except in USA most offices committedto
'A' series of international paper sizes: smaller formats obtained by
halving larger dimensions in each instance—*p3—5. For most industrial,
engineering and design consultants drawing requirements can be
accommodated by AD format; drawing boards and drafting machines
sizedaccordingly.
Simplest form of work station: drawing board, eqp trolley (cart) and
draughtsman's stool; where dratting workrequiresreterence contained
on other drawings either reference tables or vertical screens may be
used carry this information. Screens have advantage of keeping floor
area needed tomm butat expense ofcontrolled supervision. Reterence
tables, which may also provide plan chest drawing sf0 below work
surface, either to side ofdraughstmanin parallelwith drawingboard orat
right angles to it. Further possibility available with 'back reference'
where reference table also support for drawing board behind. Where
drafting function only part ofjob requirement and adminworkalso to be
done reference area may double as off deskor, if space allows, desk
may formadditional element within workstation.
Colleges
Reterence may not be confined to intormation contained on drawings;
ottenneedhave comprehensive set reference books or manualsclose
at hand for draughtsman: may be housed communally or at each work
station.
Further category of drawing studio that allied to workshops where
tull-sized setting-out drawings (USAshop drawings) (or workshop'rods')
prepared. Usually allied to construction industry, in particular joinery
shops; such drawings prepared on rolls of paper set down at long
benches. Draughtsmen workstanding up at drafting surtace which is
horizontal and 900 fromFFL. Original drawingsstored in roll form rather
than sheet asin other studios, torwhich housing maybeeither horizontal
(plan chests with drawers) orvertical (plan file cabinets).
Layout ofany studio therefore conditioned bytypeofworkbeing under-
taken and type ofsupervision required.
In all studios good lighting essential,both daylight and artiticial;windows
should have N to Easpect. Ifthis notpossible windows should be fitted
with blinds to screen directsunlight and prevent glare.
Ancillary areas may include printing and reprographiceqp; this may be
housed in studio or, it sophisticated or large scale, sited in separate
area. Archive sf0 tor original drawings which may have to be kept tor
indefinite period should be properly conditioned tor sf0 of paper and
housings must be fire and flood proot. Present trend increased use of
computerprocesses tor production of working drawings; use at such
eqp may influence spatial requirements offuturedrawing studios.

920

1300
t. 920 1 —-.
300
-t

utilisation6.03m2/P
460k
1
,92O 300÷

_______ i---

utiiiisation5.01 m2/P
90 1300 1300 1300

F
utihsation4.2 m2/P
F

I13001300 1300

920V
utilisation5.01 m2/P ¶ ¶ screenwith
utihsation6.03 m2/P pin board

L - — ji*atLofl42m/P
1300 ———'———— j__ ——J

9
)300300q1300
920
1 300 920
920

I utilisation5
-1 300
______
---.
1 m2/P

...
reference table
18 utilisation
4.23 m2/P
920

90__________
under drawing
90 .: board utiisation 5.9 m2/P

trolley

drawingboard
-
utiiisation
3.45rn/P LI reference table

chair

1 Variousplanningarrangements

I
210

1 750

2 Drawingsbestkept intrcabinets 3 Steelchest forplans 4 Drawingtable: standardsizes 5 Typicalsmall photocopying

1000 x 1500&1250x 2000;h machineused in drawingofffor
2050(USA941 x 1092—1067x reproducingplans
2390; h 940)
140 Community
Colleges
STUDENT HOSTELS: PLANNING FACTORS
L_Ii
I Singlestu/bedrwithhb: 10m2
4 2700 4
3 Single stu/bedrwithouthb
5 Doublestu/bedr 1 divanB
2curtain 3deskwith drawerunit
4easychair 5 heatingconvector
6book shelfover 7table with
ji
bookshelves8built-in wa
liR'
dOue
stu/bedr siu/bedr hb
7 Typicalcompositeaccess(corr
accesssimilarbutcontinuous
betweenstaircase):noteposition
ofdr/kar& sharedwashr&toilet
Hostel (USA dormitories) bldg usuallyfinanced by universityorcollege
fromown funds, government grants orloans,openmarket loans: annual
income raised has to cover interest, amortisation, running and main-
tenance costs. Some governments make grants to subsidise annual
income. This canbe supplementedbylettingforconferences,educational
courses, holidayvisitors.In somecountries educationalestablishments
and studentunions have formed businesses provide off bldg for letting
sothat income can subsidise hostels. Size ofhostel rmand amenities to
be provided therefore depend on usesbldg can be puttoand on annual
income obtained.
2 Single students generally need accn for 30—33 week/year. Married
Singlestu/bedr: longershape
usually for 50—52 weeks. Accnshould caterfor children outside play
providesmore economicaluse of
space spaceand be placed near shopping and social services and amenities.
Trend to house students in range of accn for all categories; many
students prefer small independent units sharing some variety ofaccnto
institutional residential communities. Forsocial and admin reasons first
year students usually placed in halls of residence with staff rm, area
kitchen, laundry and ironing rm, toilets, sto etc, meals being taken in
dining centre.
Dining rm—.p142
Halls with shared diningand social services normally planned as large
number of study bedr with central bathr and small kitchen: may also be
rm orflatforstaff member provide supervision. In recent residential bldg
provision made forstudents prepare and take allmeals independently in
ownsocial groups. Smallgroupsupto4 students needbeself-selected;
4 2-studentunit, also usedfor
groupof6—8socially largeenough divide intosub-groups without being
too big share cooking eqp successfully; 12ormore donotformcohesive
group: shared kitchen with dining rm used forother activities could lead
conferences 1 B 2desk 3wa4 toproblems.
bathr
Conference use requires mm washbasin in each rm with goodaccess
car parking, lecture and dining rm: alternative accn forfew students in
residence during vacations and sto for possessions needed.
Independent housing or hostel units favoured by final year and post-
graduate; can be in purpose-built groups, located in urban community
orconverted houses.
Shared accn also —p99
ACCOMMODATIONREQUIREMENTS
1-bed/studyspace 9—15 m2; 2-bed/study space 13—19 m2 (unpopular
with UK students; liked in USA); self-catering unittotal area 16—20 m2:
areas may be slightly reduced in family' flats to allow more room for
6 Typicalstaircaseaccess amenity space.
Rm to befurnished with bed/divan, deskand chair, shelves and hanging
for clothes 0.8—1 m2, open adlustable shelving and pin board, easy
chair, small table, bedside table, mirror, bin, rm lightand desk/bed lamp,
2 power points, rm heater, carpet, dense curtains/blinds. If wash basin
included providetowel rail, mirror, cupboard or shelf, shaver point. Rm
stul Stu/ SIU/ stui Stu/Stu/
showersand wc sometimes included on individual orshared basis.
rbedrbedr
FtL?rrT
Irr-' dJ '
s,o wcCpd skrbedrbjbedr
________
stu/
bedr
stul
Some rm should be larger toprovide forentertainingand meetings.
Provide proportion of rmsuitable forphysically handicapped.
ty Married student accn should comply with normal housing space
lI1-ILll bedr
sho WCW sk standards —p4448: somewill have families
JfstuI stu/Istu/ siu/sStU/ Provide background heating supplemented by rm heater controlled by
ebedrbedbedr drbedbedr occupant.
Ensure goodsound insulation, especially round service pipes.
8 Corr access round service Shared accn —.p99
core;e = elevator
Sanitary
wc/6 students; 1 bath/6students, or 1 shower/12 students (prefer-
1
ably 50% baths); 1 washbasin/3 students if not provided in rm.
Space standard 1.2—1.6 m2
USA:checkapplicable codesand standardsforthese details.
Prefabricated sanitary units—.p65
Hot waterheating local or centralised.
r i -r
10 Typicalamenityar
 Community 141

Colleges
STUDENTHOSTELS:ACCOMMODATION (cont)
Amenityspace
Dining kitchens not intended forCull meal service with utility space allow
1.2—1.6 m2/student.WithCull meal service allow 1.7—2 m2/student (less
for more than 6 students).
Where hostel close to other university bldg and communal service
used, dining kitchen may be only shared social space. Cooking and
dining areas should be separated with dining rm located where all
students pass it.
Newaccnmore likely provide self-catering. Eqpself-catering shared by
6: cooker and refrigerator, single bowl double-drainer sink, 2000—
3000 worktop with cupboards under and over (include individual food
lockers), refuse with capacity 1 day's use. Provide eqp for washing,
drying and ironing for each groupof rm.
NB: above not normal practice in USA.
Residences on campus use communal amenities; where accn some
distance fromother university bldg allow withinhostel m2/student:
large common rm 0.9—1.2
lib/reading rm 0.4—1.8
indoorgames 0.2—0.4
hobby rm 0.2—0.4

Within theseareas also coffee bar/shop, ante-rm/coffee lounge, place

for debates and society meetings, television, music practice, lay for
visitors asappropriate in accordancewith local reg.

Offices
Large residences away from campus need some off with approx areas
(m2): warden/supervisor 20, secretary/archives 20, management
committee/consult mi 30, housekeeper* 9, cleaner's changing rm* 9
porter* (next toentrance) 9, students' union 20.
* also needed when residence on campus.

Staff
Design tosuitsingle, married and marriedwith familycategories. Some
03 6m accnwithin residence provides supervision. Separateaccnin housesor
9 18 ft flats most economical. Wardenneeds (m2)67—93; single academicstaff
and housekeeper each 56—67; single supervisory staff 46—56; single
I StudentresidenceGuildford England asecond,first&groundfloor domestic staff asfor students.
plansoftypical unit bsectionsAA&BB croofplanofcourt Arch
RobertMaguire& Keith Murray Ancillary
__________________________________________________________ Allow baggage sto 0.3 m2/student. Provide adequate central sto for
household and cleaning eqp, linen, furniture and refuse; on each floor
sto for cleaners and eqp with sink and watersupply. Provide laundry
chuteif appropriate.
Circulation areas and ducts account for 2—5.7 m2/student. Ensure
passages adequate for trolleys (carts) and carrying suitcases. Provide
entrance hall supervised by porter with space for notices, telephone
kiosks and milk and mail delivery. Bell system orloudspeaker willserve
to transmit messages inconjunction with sometelephone points.
Finishes
Materials should be durable, hard and needlittle maintenance.

Layout&building form
Single row arrangement: widthof bldg 5500, rm 3500, corridor 1500;
doublerow arrangement: width 10 m, 2 rm each 3500, corridor 2000;
triple row arrangement: width14000,2rm each 3500,2 corridors each
1 500 with artificially lit and ventilated centre blockforwashr etc.Typeof
access available: bystairs to rm, by stairs and shortcorridors, bystairs
to central corridors. Adequate means ofescape in case of fire must be
provided —*p44 91. With 4 floorsand more elevators required: more
036m economical build up to3storeys.
9 18 ft
Car parking: mm ratio 1 space/3 students; sto for bicycles and motor
2 HaIlofresidencenextcampus Southampton England typicalfloor cyclesalso.
plan ArchJ SBonningtonPartnership Site footpaths away fromground floor windows and maintainprivacy.

a 2
WJ_LLJL'.U
IFTTrTTTTrf.-4 3 QuincyHouseHarvardUniversityUSAprovidesintegrated
communalservices asecondfloorplan 1 singlebedr 24-man duplex
b suiteliv, bedraboveorbelow 3tutorliv 4stu 5bedr b firstfloorplan
1 k 2servery 3dr 4janitor 54-bedrsuites 6liv 7bedr 8listening rm
9workr 10 3-bedrunit 11 reading nn cground floorplan 1 lowerlob
2grillrrn 3seniorcommons4juniorcommons 5tutorialcentre
010,
______Om 6superintendent 7service&gar 8entrance lob 9 house off 10tutor
326496 ft
__________________________________________________________ suite 11 guest suite ArchShepleyBulfinchRichardson &Abbot
142 Community

Colleges
REFECTORIES/DININGHALLS
Can be provided in separate bldg within hostel (dormitory), within
community activities bldg or as separate bldg. Space requirements
depend on type ofservice(self-service fromcounter, self-service from
disheson table,waiter service) and seating arrangement but generally
allow 1.2 m2/student, allowing for number ofsittings. Longtables with
benches —(1) preferable (not USA) to small with chairs: cheaper,
durable, space-saving, easyclean and clear. Width ofseat 600; width
oftable600—(preferably)700.
Space for cross passages: (500 x 1050/3 seats = 0.18 m2); add
extraspace forside passagesand space in front of servery (service) and
entrance. Benches should stand 80—100away fromthis table;need be
only300 wide and 400—450high (easy tostepover). Benches nearwall
400 wide, including 120 distancefromwalltogive access.More convenient
enterfrom side but thismeans 4 students on wall bench.
For more elaborate furnishing —(2); where chairs and more comfort-
able tablesdesireddimensions are: widthofseat 650; widthoftable
700—800.Space required (access frombehind —hatched portion):
650 x 1150 = 0.75 m2. Share of cross passages (550 x 1150)/3 =
0.21 m2. Floor area/student with appropriate extra space as above:
1.1—1.2m2.
Ifspacealongwallbehind chairs used asmain passagewidthincreased
to 800.
Tables with seats at either end —(3) uneconomical, spoil communal
feeling and equality among students. Space needed fortables in corners
(—hatching): 5900 x 2550)/12 = 1.25 m2. Space/student required
4501
________
?It'
40O1
ILl
L______J
30)1
I [TT
________
3600 2400—f
;ood
1 Longtableswith freestandingbenches
with allpassages and appropriate extraspace asabove: 1.2—1 .3 m2.
Seating also —p202—4; snack bars —p205 206
Circulation ofdiners should be1-wayonly: can beachieved bycorrect
disposition oftablesand sitingof columns atcorners oftables toavoid
waste ofseating space —*(4).
Kitchen, servery(service) and stoarea between 40—50%of refectory;
food preparation 20% ofkitchen. Servery areaforcafeteria service upto
20% kitchen area. Desirable design on 1 level with convenient stores
delivery:avoid staircases and elevators if possible.
Kitchen should be big enough for work in uninterrupted sequence
withoutopposing traffic flows fromstotoservery. Stoatstart of circulation
followed by food preparation tables, sinks and eqp including area for
pastry making, thence to cookers, ovens and boilers, then to warm
cupboards and servery. Provide pot-wash nearto cooking area. Off for
chief chef should be positioned to provide supervision of stores and
deliverypoints and alsowhole kitchen area. Crockery should bestored
in serveryarea and after use go by trolleys (carts), dishwashers and
drying cabinets backtoservery.
Good ventilating system required to draw air from dining areas and
kitchen and avoiding flow ofairfromkitchen to dining area.
Restaurant kitchens —'p213--.Bib217
Sanitary (USA: check applicable codesand standards):depending on
location and proximity to other bldg should be provided next to dining
rm; if alreadyavailable nearby suggested provision: 1 wc/100 males,
plus 1/250 males, 1 urinal/25 males; 2 wc/100female plus 1/100; 1
washbasin/50P.
Finishes: materials should be durable and require little maintenance.
Colleges references;
—Bibliographyentries039040041 063096097113114147168176
200217226261 377413437441 446472476485526556569581
612629630652

500

12300 -
l5ool

u5
2 Longtableswith chairs

450 450
3650
150—200,. •.. ,-..___t

Jo[
50200o70
.1

3 Tablewith chairsatend

goodarrangement of supportswithout loss

of space fordining halls 4400—4600
4 Space savingarrangementof supports 5 Integratedrefectory services St Catherine CollegeCambridgeEngland ArchArrte Jacobsen
 Community 143
Youth hostels
Oftenconversions ofexisting bldg both because ofshortage ofmoney
and because often in aesthetically sensitive surroundings; therefore place arm2 Comment
Youth Hostels Association (YHA) reluctant lay down definitive plans for entrance hall 14 with bench & shoe rack
typical hostels. Nevertheless specifications and requirements particular off/reception/shop 11 hatchto entranceha, reasonablyclose
and detailed, specially sincetightening offire reg —a(1). In UK DES has to warden'sk
also requirements for hostels forwhich itprovides funds: more onerous drying rm 14 preferablyaccessiblefromentranceha
on questions ofspace. withoutpassingthrough principalrm:
with racks orhangersheated
Bed spaces luggage rm 14 ifcombinedwith drying rm, laundries&
wc 14—1 8.5 m2 each
3.1 m2 floor ar/Pin dormitories common rm 18.5—23
1 wc/1O bed spaces dining rm 46.5 or0.7—0.9 m2/P
1 hb/6 bed spaces member's k 16 with directaccess aspossibleto dr
warden's k 16—23 ifpossible with hatch&door combined
1 b orsho/20bedspaces
fordirect serviceto dr: skinkpreferred
For purpose ofcomputing floorarea DES disallows any partoffloorover to separatesd; accessto dustbtns
Ia 9.3 each
whichceilings less than 2100high. 11 with 1 or2 sk; tablespace fordirty
Wash-up
YHA has lower standards, depending on grade of hostel: simple or crockery; easy accessfromdr; if
possiblereasonableaccess to
standard. Simple (need not have resident warden) mm 2.04 m2/bed warden's kforreturn of crockery
space; standard (must have resident warden living within curtilage of wardenssitr 14
hostel at all times when open to members) for dormitories mm 2.32 bedr layout ofthese will depend usually upon
Warden,s balanceof convenience,privacy,
m2/bed space, recommended 2.78m2.Asdouble bunksnormally used wardens2nd bedr as ect
warden's 3rd bedr 7.5
thismeans6.31 m2/bunk if DES standardsto be met. wardens bathr 3.25
dormitories 158—167 ,e3.16/P
Dormitories wc forhosfellersnotlessthan 5,forwarden1
YHA, ruling body for hostels in England and Wales (Scottish YHA has washing accn foreach sex 1 washrmwith b(separated
similarstandards), lays down allhostels must haveseparatedormitories bypartitions)orsho, 1 footbath,basins
formenandwomen, with separate access. Layoutofdormitories should to DES standards
airing cpd 1 forwarden's use
be suchthatcan beusedbyeither sexasbookings demand: meansthat blanket sto 3.75 warmed
either sex must be able to reach appropriate lavatory. Most compact cycle sto 28 forabout30cycles, preferablyin racks:
solution blockof intercommunicating rm with appropriate door locked 1 machine/305
between sexes. YHAaimstoswitch to arrangementin many continental
note: floor arintendedasrtiin desirablebutinalterationsmuchwill depend
hostels with4-beddormitories,with sanitaryaccnreachedfrom common on existing bldg
corridor, motel style. DES pressing for degree of privacy in washing
arrangements for women, satisfied by arranging washbasins in own 1 YHA scheduleofaccnfor50-B hostel
cubicle with curtain at entrance.

Hosteller'samenities
As hostels closed during day arriving members need luggage rm to lightingplant gar&
leave gear withouthaving access to rest of hostel; may be combined
dustbins solidtuel cycles it . & tuei worishop
with drying rm, where hostellers take off outer clothing before booking
in at reception desk. r wardens dryingrm
'
mess
blanket Imen s I waslrn,
Toallowto cookown meals members' kitchen provided inall hostels, in bathr Sb Ihotwater entranceha
dOnniitorylleSl I
boilerl
addition to kitchen of wardenwhowill also cookforhostellers. Members' L
11

kitchens have combined double cooking rings and burners and grill .1 , I
common/
units, fuelled bypropane gaswhere mains services notavailable.Locker wadens a reception -
bedr drysto ofl&shop dui, dormitoryliesi doflTiitorylieS)
space also required, and also washing up space, in addition to that , ,

intended forthosehostellers whotake warden's meals who are required

towashup.
Warden'squarters
wardens
I
- wardens k ro' '

membersk
womens
I wash-up
J

Hostels with more than 40beds usuallyadministeredbymarriedcouples,

possibly with children whowill needliving quarters. Largest hostels will 2 Schematiclayoutfor 1-storeyyouth hostel
have assistant wardens, provided with own sitting rm, staff dining rm,
kitchens and recreation rm.
In larger hostels chief warden's quarters should be in form of self-
contained house orflat, with 3 bedr, bathr, kitchen, dining rm and sitting
rm. In these circumstances hostellers' accn should never be over or
underwarden's.
Fire safety
YHA increasingly concerned with applicationofmore stringent standards
of fire safetyto both new and existing hostels. Sources of danger have
beenidentified asprimarily: interference with stoves orheaters,particu-
larly indrying rm; el orgas faults; smoking; misuse ofcooking stoves in
members' kitchens. Provisionof meansofescape inoldbldg difficult. Fr
required for protected staircases difficult provide in bldg with timber
floors. In smaller hostels, akin to domestic houses, distancestravelled
on fire escape routes not normally long enough to contravene reg.
Generally 18 m traveldistancetoplace ofsafety considered max where
floors timber, or 30 m where non-combustible. Mm of 2 staircases
normally required, in such positions that no person on anyfloor has to
go furtherthan max travel distance to reach staircasesorotherpoint of
accessto place ofsafety.

3 YouthhostelconvertedfromexistinghousebyYHA: a ground floor

b 1st floor
144 Community

Youth hostels
GERMANSTANDARDS
Small hostelwithdormitory 30—50 beds
Standard size40—i 00beds
Large 100—250beds
Very large 250—600beds
a Optimum 120—180 beds,with 400 upper limit. Relate number ot beds to
av numbervisitors; design sleeping lager to cope with peak holiday
demand.
Siting: open, sheltered from wind, main rm facing SE,S.
Spacerequirement: forstandard hostel: indormitory 2.2—2.8 m2/bed;
d for 2-tier bunks 1 8—2.0 m2; 1—2 large rm with 20—30 beds, orsmaller
with 4—12 beds; 8-bedrm much valued. Also rm forsick and accidents
1—2 beds.

Av occupation approx 40% girls 6O% boys; sexes either on separate

floorsor segregated by partitions: some rm arrangedto meetdifferent
balance upto 50/50.Av rm height 2800, not less than 2500.
Dormitoryfloorarea 1.5 m2/bed.
Plankbeds: single tier 1.2—1.5 m2/bed, 2-tier 1.1 m2/bed.
Common rm 1.0—i.5 m2/bed. Meeting/discussion rm sound-proofed
and located away fromotherday rm.
Wallspreferred wood lined, with rucksack stands and tip-up benches.
Kitchens: Both visitors' and warden's kitchens nearentrance,preferably
with light from2 sides.
Visitors' kitchen fitted for self-catering; in smaller hostels can be in
8600 common rm, otherwise separated, also apart from warden's kitchen.
— 3800 3800 — Generous provision of cooking eqp; 100-I boiler and sk.
—f- -——t Rambler's kitchen big enough for group eat and also sit in winter.
T __________ r..s—..-.
__________ \v Warden's kitchen: glass door or window allows supervision of coming
______
______ ______
______ ot
C,
o.
0
and going; food hatch tocommon rm. Equippeddouble sk, lowslop sk,
________ 10 600 deep dresser under windows, lockable draw for money, power
pointsfor kitchen appliances; if gas-fitted, low rings for large pans. Sk
I and crockery cupboards next food hatch and apart frommain kitchen:
crockery washed by users
— 4750 —I
F— 5000 —H Larder next kitchen, long narrow and cool
Warden's quarters: mm 3 rm each approx 16 m2 including kitchen,
whichmay beon same floor or separate, in which case onground floor
nextto reception and with sitting rm, upstairs being 1—2bedr next girls'
sectionand bathr.
0
C, J Assistants 7 m2/P
Entrance sheltered from wind or with porch; convenient approach,
f00
00 0 sheltercanopy, easyforwarden watch over. Focusofhostel hall and day
U,
rm, divided into noisy (workrm, table tennis, games, dancing), normal
(common rm, dining rm), quiet (writing, reading, discussion, office,
sleeping):noise control by separation ondifferent floors.
— 2800 Washrooms: area 0.35—0.4 m2/bed; 1 washbasin/4—6beds; 1 foot-
—4
bath/15 beds, 1 shower/20—40beds. Showers can be in basement,
betternext bedr. Ground floorwashr for arrivals.
2 Typicalsleepingrm; mm ar between skirtings,4-bed 16 m2 (1 bed 4m'),
8-bed 16m2(1 bed 2 m2), 10-bed30m2 (1 bed3m2), 20-bed30m2 (1 bed Lavatories: 0.3—0.35 m2/bed; 1 wc/i urinal/8—iO boys; 1 wc/6—8
1.5m2);inlargedormitories32 beds32.7m'(1 bed 1.02m2) girls: lower proportion in larger hostels
Laundry ifpossible related bathr, showers and heating; in large hostels
machines and spin driers.
Ancillaryrooms: sto for packs, bicycles, sports gear; drying rm; shoe
cleaning; utility rmforhostel eqp, first-aid box; dark rm in larger hostels;
warden'sworkshop.
Construction: suiting environment; resistant rough treatment; stone
and timbermainly, mm plaster.

3 Large hostel inGermany ArchLauterbach

 Community 145

Libraries
INTRODUCTION allocation percentageof total ar
Essential that close rapport be established between librarian and adultlending 27 (up to 40 in small units)
architect; for largest schemes libraryconsultant should beemployed. reference 20
children 13 (maxar 150m2)
Types
Community: primarily lending books to adults and children and with
circulation/ 40 (about halfforstaff rm) in small librarieschildren's
services!
general reference section. Current trend in UK towards larger central % arshould increase &
libraries with branch satellites; rural areasoftenserved by mobile units. ancillaries reference decrease

Specialised: primarily used for reference,with small loan section. Adult lending
Nationaluniversity: used forreferenceand research;continuallygrowing
collections. population served total vol floorarin m2
See alsoschoolmedia centres —*pl29, hospital libraries—*pl77. 3000 4000 100
Increasing literacy and leisure timeplus information explosion' make it 5000 4000 100
important to plan for max flexibility and for future expansion. New 10000 6000 100 open access accn; 15 m2/
techniques arechanging methods ofcontrol/indexing/retrieval. 20000 12000 180 l000vol(butminar 100
40000 24000 360 m2);includes local
60000 24000 360 circulation, catalogues,staff
PATTERN 60000 36000 540 counters, informalseats tor
browsing at 1/1000
80000 44000 660 population,some
3 main elements, materials, readers, staff, are related in varying ways 100000 50000 750 display eqp
depending on organisation policy: eg community, school and hospital
libraries require predominantly 'open access', ie readers have direct
access to books; catalogue a necessaryadjunct.At times largenumbers
Children
Floor ar 75—100 m2 for populations up to 10000, and 100—105 m2 for
of people circulate among spread-out shelving unitsand are attractedto 10000to 20000people. Basis as for adults (seeabove); but does not
browse. include space for study/talks/storyhours'. Separate entrance some-
Larger libraries including universities and colleges concentrate sto in timesprovided:but control becomes difficult.
'open stack' and put readingspacesnearbyratherthan amongstshelving.
Formal arrangement ofthisoften used in USA. Reference
Allow 10 m2!1000 vol as less need for generous circulation. 1 study
Alternative 'closed acess'allows no contactbetween readersand books space of2.32 m2/1000population,with somedegree ofprivacytoavoid
except through staff via catalogue. This method used for major sto in distraction; these figures willcoveranystaff desks required.
national, largecity and county referencecollections, forrare and valuable
booksand as 'back-up'sto in any library: 'closed stack'. None of the adult, children or reference figures include provision for
periodicals, sf0 ofaudio-visual materials.
Specialised/large libraries may have separate subject dept each with
enquiryservice; catalogue should remain centralised unless computer
based. Reference and loan section catalogues may bedivided.

SPACE STANDARDS
Appreciable differences to be found among national and international
authorities. Following generally basedon IFLA standards:

Communitylibraries
population served allowance per 1 000 population

'10000 to 20000 42 m2total floorar Figuresbasedonsurveys,

20000to 35000 39 butcan beuseful check;
35000to 65000 35 include all general but not
indirect services (meeting
65000to 100000 31
rrn, lecture&exhibition
over 100000 28 spacesl

2 Smallbranch lib,WorcesterEngland, 98m2

1 Relationships 5500 vol ArchTLewis
146 Community
Libraries
ENTRANCE returned out
P4,,
Community libraries should clearly declare bldg function, and be wel-
coming. Lobby should reduce entryof noise/draughts. Provide visual
stimulation here. Adequate control needed to prevent high losses of 'I
booksetc throughexit: some have had to use turnstiles or electronic
detectors. Remember needs of disabled people (ramps/elevator! <'1'I
escalator —.p85—7 407 408 412). Should lead to control/guide area
,,'
—*below, with display en route.

CONTROLAREA
TuII I I

Close to or within sightof bldg entrance, and with space to absorb 1'ir,
congestion at peak hours, but located toallow max visibility for super-
vision. Function: to register new readers, issue and receive loan books, 1 Small lib, staffof1; snag: cross 2 Islandcontrol,1 staff at off-peak;
deal with reservations and fines. In small librariesalsohandles reader's circulation snag: separationfromotherstaffar
enquiries—(1 )—(3).
returned I out
boOks
GUIDE AREA I

Card index/book sheaves/computerprint-out books, located near control

orenquiry, en route toalldeptserved, also closetocatalogueworkarea.
If card index, allow say 12 m2 covering 36000vol.
//
)1r1
II I I
I
'
ENQUIRYDESK
TJ (i__i
Near catalogue guide and bibliographies.Can help to share supervision
with control.

MATERIALS 3 Large lib,canadjoinotherstaff

work ar; snag: mm 2staff alltimes
Books are, and will continue to be, primary material.Space may also be
required for: newspapersand periodicals,discs, tapes and musicscores,
microfilms, maps and pictures; there may be more to add in future:
flexibility of layout necessary.

Shelvingunits
Most widely usedtype is metal shelving, individually adjustable, single
sided (along walls) and double sided (island). Unit height 2000 (loan
area), 1 500 (children's area), 2300 (bookstack areas). Shelf depth
200—300 (children's books), 200 (fiction, literature, history, politics,
economics, law), 300 (scientific, technical,med). Width of unit generally
900 in UK and USA. Main routes in open access' areas 1 800 clear
width, and minorroutes 1 200.
Bookstacks
Optimum length ofshelving 6 units(5400) to max 8 units(7200) but 4
units(3600)whereaccessible onlyfrom1 end.
Centres ofislands where openstack' are 1 280—1 520 (gives about 164
vol/rn2); where 'closed stack' centres are 1 060—1 280 (gives 200—215
vol/rn2). Choice between these limits depends on selection of shelf
depthsand aisle widths.
Derivations from stack centre figures will give choice of economic
structural grid dimensions atcentres of5400,6000,6850,7310,7620,
7750and 8350. Sub-divisions ofthesefigures will relate-windows,roof
lights, fixedelements, ventilation and lighting. Optimum column sizes
should be contained within 450 x 450 less finishes and tolerances,
clear ceiling height approx 2400.
Load-bearing stackunits nolonger favoured. Multi-floor 'closed stacks'
inhibit flexibility and require book hoistwith staff captive on each floor. 4 MetropolitanTorontolib, largestpublicinCanada,housesover 1.25
million books, one thirdondisplay; spaceforover800readersto studymostly
Large area stackmore flexible; max horizontal distancefrombookshelf
toexit or book elevator approx 33m: may need mech conveyors. in arwith some naturallight
key
1 information 2gailery 3 synthesis 4eritendedhoursreading 5metroinformation services
Variation for 'closed stack' sto: compact moveable shelving, of which 6newspapers7snacics 8rneeflng 9sto 10 audiovisualservices 11 generalreference& information
most common is 'right angle roller' type. Saves 5O% of floor space centre l2circuiation 13 himstack l4graphics lsbibhographicaicentre16 senidEng&receiving

compared with static unitsbut expensiveand creates extrafloorloading.

Space saving of 40% if aisles in static shelving were reduced from900
to 550 wide.
Consider dividing into fr compartments of about 450 m2. Use tempor
smoke detectors, not sprinkler system (causesmore damagethan fire).
3.0m2 ormore screened on 4 sides (enclosed carrel).Aimgivesufficient
privacy for mental concentration yet open enough to know if space
occupied and not misused. Lockable cupboardswhere books reserved
there for periods.

Reading/study In community librariestrend away from formal reading rmtowards small

Work table of 900 x 600/reader who should sit facing low screen scattered alcoves and nooks. In university libraries either large reading
possiblywith built-in light. Student should have 2.32 m2 (which includes rm separated from books stacks or, more commonly in UK, reading
circulation space), screened on 3 sides(open carrel); research worker areas round perimeter of stack areas, with further seatingwithin stacks.
 Community 147

Libraries
WORKAREAS Junioractivityareas, groupprojects, story telling
Cloakrooms
Unpacking and despatch, accessions and cataloguing, binding and Lavatories (locate toavoid use by general public)
repairs, photocopying and typing Telephones
Offices
Staff rest rm, lockers, lavatories
Mobile lending service: weather protected off loading,vehicle garaging, FLEXIBILITY
sto for book stock
Larger the library greater the need for freedom of futurechange with
interchangeability of major stack areas, reading areas, staffareas. Fixed
ANCILLARIES elements (lavatories,staircases,major services etc) should begrouped.
Best if floors can carry stack loadinganywhere. Consider future expan-
Studyrmfor reference materials sion and possible effect on primary bldg. Partitionsshould beremovable.
Typing/photocpy rm In medium and small community libraries some flexibility desirable
Projection for slides, cine film, microfilm (avoid built-in' fittings); but designer should beware lack of acoustic
Exhibition space, chairsf0, rm forgroup meetings
separation and loss of identify forareas of different function and mood.
Theatre (film, lecture, music) Consider changes oflevel.

FINISHES& SERVICES

Carpet general floor areas except stack and work areas; carpet or
resilient flooring staff side of control; carpet all steps and stairs in quiet
areas; sound absorbent ceilings toallareas. Palecolour floor in stack to
reflectlight tobookson lowest shelves. Book spines highly decorative:
forwallsand columns consider naturalwood/fabric/quiet paint colours.
Underfloor coil orducted warm air heating; at least3airchanges/hr. For
older books and manuscripts hum controlled to 55%. In reading areas
give temp of 20—22°C,USA: 18°C winter 26°C summer; but lending
dept can belowerasmost people wear outdoor clothes (add local heat
in controland otherworkareas).
In larger bldg provide air conditioning at outset; or at least plan for
futureinstallation, especiallyforrare orvaluable collections (contents of
libraries often cost more than bldg itself). Air conditioning standard in
USA.Avoidentryofdirectsunlight; minimise solar heatgain (unlesscan
be used for heating).
Lighting by fluorescent tubesgenerally butadditional tungsten lighting
to indicate changes of function/environment and to add sparkle and
interest. Emergency lighting also required —Bib1 12.
Artificial lighting en lux—°p225: control/enquiry600lx, reading tables400
Ix in lending, but 600 lx in reference, book stacks 100 Ix on vertical
surfaces, cataloguing and workrrn 400 Ix.
Shelfunitsin lending areas needspecial measures:consider illuminated
canopy projecting about 500 from top of unit with sockets served by
underfloor ductdistribution.
Mm DF—p1 727—9 10% with reflectanceof 80% (wallsand ceilings)and

30% (floors and furniture).

1 Citybranchlib, DurhamEngland,496 m2 17000vol ArchA W Gelson

2 Universitylib en USA Arch Curtis& Davis

148 Community

Libraries
EXAMPLES

r
key
1 entrance
2 cIa
3 wc
4 elevator
5 photocopy p. ft,,
6 catalogue
7 issuedesk if ct
=
8 carrels 4+4P
9 seminars
10 reference inquiries
11 courtyard
12 cataloguing
I
13 subject inquiries
14 off
15 librarian
==
16 deputy librsrian
17 despatch
18 machine rrn
19 stsffrm
20 bookstacks
21 escape fromfloor
above
22 escape stair
23void

ite

—42
1sLllhI1LJ ...HTr\.l
13

jfl
0 10 20 30 m
do ro don

2 PolytechniclibPortsmouth England provides sto formorethan

320000 volumes&3000currentjournalsonopenaccesswith reading
accnfor500 students asecond floor bfirstfloor cgroundfloor Arch
AhrendsBurton & Koralek

1 NathanMarshPuseylibCambridgeMassachusetts USA, an
undergroundsub-dMsionwhichaddsover8000m2 to HarvardCollege
lib, appearsfromoutsideasslantinggrass-covered embankment; lawn, Libraries references
trees, shrubsgrowinstone-rimmedearthplatform whichformsroof
alevel 1 blevel 2 clevel3 ArchHughStubbins &Associates —*Bibliographyentries 065 073314 323 353 399 437 455471 472 474
476622625641 652
 Community 149

Hospitals
HEALTH SERVICESSTRUCTURE
Role and relationship to clientof architect in designing for health care In USA broad range of material, less organised, available. Sources:
services affected by nationaldifferences in healthcare structure: wholly Robert Wood Johnson Foundation(Princeton NJ), sponsors studies on
state organised, provided by private resources or organisations or ambulatory care; Assistant Secretary for Health, Dept of Health &
community, or mixed. Human Services (WashingtonDC) for enquiries on all aspects ofhealth
In UK, though some hospitals, homes and clinics services planning; Kellog Foundation (Battle Creek Mich); American
(and local family
practice) still private, by far greater part, forming bulk of medico- Hospital Association (Chicago Ill) has extensive reference services;
National Technical Information Services (Springfield Va).
architectural practice, now crown property administered by National
Health Service (NHS). Under direction Dept ofHealth & Social Service
(DHSS) or Scottish Home & Health Deptservice organised into 3tiers; PLANNING& DESIGN
regional, area and healthdistricts. Broad planning,design and construc-
tion new bldg falls to regional authorities (RHA: in Scotland area health Hospitals an amalgam of components, some simple, some extremely
complex: each has time scale whichcovers useful design life, iebefore
boards) while health districts (HD) serving 100000—500000population
have immediate control individual hospitals, clinics and health centres it needs eithermajor alterationsorreplacement. Bycarefulplanning and
(HC). NHS in England to be restructured 1982to only 2 tiers: existing design components with similar characteristicscan begrouped together
RHAs and new DistrictHealth Authorities (DHA). so as to be adjacent to both thosethey serveand thosewith similar
structural and service characteristicsand lifespans.
Traditionally in USA health care industry much more varied with health
services provided by private, educationaland religious sources, com- Largeor medium hospital complex includes not only patient accnand
medical/technical installations but large admin section —p179—80,
munity, state and federal bodies. More recently position modified by electro-mech plant and engineeringservices, laboratoriesand pharmacy
National Health Planning & Resources Development Act 1974 which
—p1 76 177, library p177, industrial installations for food services and
greatly increased influence of federal agencies, providing for national laundry—p180, supply, service and disposal (sometimes in separate
guidelines for health planning and for setting up in each state Health complex), lecturehalls, staff hostels and restaurants,carparks.
Service Areas and Health System Agencies: asresult architects's client
more likelybe state agency than individualinstitution. Hospital essentiallydivided into2 main units: inpatientcare and outpatient
care; further essential units; diagnosis and treatment, admin; frequent
Despitethesedifferences, and with variations of emphasis, structure of additional unit: education and research. In early planning relationship
health services inindustrialcountries essentiallysimilar. Majorelements: between thesesignificant; diagnosis and treatment appearsas linking
Ambulant patient care: exemplified by group practice or medical function—(1)(2). Ideally these would all occuron 1 plane; however
officebldg, local orcommunity clinics, health centres (HC), forming first muchsite and other organisational factors impose multi-storey design
contact between medical care and patient. easeof lateral movement remains prime consideration.
Small hospitals: range from10—15 beds (UK 'cottage hospitals') upto Before designer puts pen to paperbrief must be prepared explaining
100beds,offering basic inpatient services. In UKmost private hospitals operational policies ofhospital, with description ofactivities tobecarried
fall within this class. out and resources required to do this efficiently. Successful design
relies on effective and detailed brief: preparation must be joint venture
Community hospitals (UK District General Hospitals(DGH)): medium- between hospital usersand architect with hisdesign team.
sizedto largewith 200—600 inpatientbeds and most orallmajordiagnostic
and treatment specialties. Also provide some teaching for med,
nursingand para-medstaff.Also providespecialistsupport forHC—4p181.
Tertiary or teaching hospitals: usually have 600—1 000 beds, house
not only all basic services but sophisticated specialties. Most provide
teaching formed students, nursingand para-medstaffand post-graduate
training and research.
Longstay: for elderly, chronically sick, children, psychiatric patients
and some otherspecial purposes p158 162—3 164.
In relation to all these, continuing change of emphasis; general trend
now shorter stay in hospitals, increase in specialist dept and services,
greaterstress on outpatienttreatmentandambulantcare,anddevelopment
ofsuchlocal services as health centres and clinics.
In manydeveloping countries pattern and orderofpriority different, with
greater stress on provisionoflocal unitsforessentialpreventivemedicine
campaigns and techniques.

Building regulations
Whereas in UK nationalbldg reg apply tonewand upgraded healthbldg
inUSAfederal, state and local codesand standardsmust beconsulted. 1 Hospitalsectors: diagram of relationships

INFORMATIONSOURCES
In UK DHSS provides design information on specific areas, services
and eqp: published as DesignGuides; BuildingNotes (HBN), Equipment
Notes (HEN) and Technical Memoranda (HTM); tendency now to pro-
vide more comprehensive and detailed information on Activity Data
Sheets (ADB). Known as 'Red Pack', as yet incomplete, ADB sheets
contained in 8 volumes divided into categories: 'A' describe activity
space and list eqp required, together with appropriate physical and
environmental standards; 'B' contain diagrams of individual pieces of
eqp. 'A' sheets offer choice: decision rests with planningteam. Sheets
not computerised, have tobe collated manually.
Other material is available fromsuch sources as King EdwardVII Fund
for Hospitals in London, Nuffield Foundation, and SHHD and Central
Services Agency (CSA); former Scottish Hospital Centre (SHC)
produced small practical information sheets based on full-sized mock-
ups of hospital rm. RHA, Welsh Technical Service and DHSS(NI) also 2 Hospitalsectorsdiagramimposed onoutlineofNewYorkUSA Hospital:
produce guidance material. d&t = diagnosis&treatment
150 Community

Hospita/s
MODULARDESIGN
•SS... Both in USA and UK pressure to contain costs encourages use of
modular systems design —(1 )—(4). DHHS in UK sponsored range of
standard designs for whole hospital:

1 Typical harness'developmentplanforDGH
'Harness'method
Range of dept based on common design module of 15 m selected as
required to meetoperational needs and grouped in correctfunctional
relationship to Harnesszone'of communicationsand services.
'Nucleus'
Evolved from Harness, Nucleus provides initial 300-bed serviced unit
withinphased development.
'Best buy'
Standard hospital design providing complete packagefor600-bed DGH.

TIME SCALES FORHOSPITALPLANNING

Multi-professional project teams make lengthy briefing, feasibility and

sketchdesign stages inevitable; inception of project tocommissioning
can take 10—20 years: as resultmany new hospitals considered by
users outdated. To shorten pre-contract stage as much as possible
architect should produce carefully preparedtime-scale networks and
have theseagreed byteam before workstarted.

Once bldg handed over users should be given complete commission-

ing manual containing description of how bldg intended be used.
Instructions should be given for use and maintenance; where possible
full manufacturers' information should be included. Manual should be
compiled asworkproceeds; this cando much toaccelerateprogramme
and reducecriticisms made by users.

2 a& bTypicalDGH:York England DistrictHospital 800-B

Arch Uewellyn-DaviesWeeksForestier-Walker &Bor +YRHA

El
rn
LJJJ
ground floor
1 754

16 6
phase 1
(nucleus)

3 Typical'nucleus' DGH:MaidstoneEnglandDistrictHospital 4 aDiagramof 16modularunitswithairducts&el/mechserviceshafts for

Arch Powell,Moya &partners+ SETRHA ArmstrongHospital Kittaning PaUSA b 1 modular unitwith el/rnechservice
shaft
Key to 1 2 3: 1 main entrance 2 industrial
3 A & E 4 pharmacy5 non-
residentstaff 6geriatricdayP 7 physical med 8psychiatric dayP
9mortuary 10k 11 residences12 parking l3wards l4acbi,in 15x-ray
16outpatients 17operatingtheatres 18isolation
 Community 151

Hospitals

exit
6 sub-compartments

I
ff1
I 750m2 750m2 I
Ii 750m2
1
exit
MEANS OF ESCAPE, FIRE PROTECTION, HAZARDOUS
MATERIALS

Most bldg reg contain clauses on mm allowable distances between

adjacent bldg and type ofconstruction acceptable to resist fire for given
periodsoftime; some statedistances andconditions forescaperoutes.
I 0 II I 0 II I Up to 2 hours needed evacuate 600 patients from 2-storey, 4 hours
from 11-storey bldg: exhausting exercise for rescuers. All health bldg
whichcontain high proportionof bedfast,disabledand confused patients
should below rise, preferably withpatients restrictedto ground and first
2 compartments
floors. High rise bldg should be confined to sites where no other
solution possible. Because of theirspecial problems health bldg in UK
Compartments&sub-compartments nowhave own more stringent fire safety measuresbasedonfrcompart-
1

ments; system makes possiblemovepatientsshortdistances,ifnecessary

in beds,to section sealed offbyfire door from smoke orfire in adjoining
section.

- f 32m
protected route
32m 1
= —
Design guidance on size offire compartments and sub-compartments,
togetherwith max acceptable lengthsofescaperoutes in wards, operat-
ingtheatres, lab etc,canbefound inofficial literature(—Bib216218219).

' ,-= =-, As general guidefollowing apply:

dual single
0
direction direction Are compartments—.(1)(2)(3)(4)
s—
in UK reg (USA —p152):
1-storey bldg must notexceed 3000 m2

d Multi-storey bldg mustnot exceed 2000m2

Horizontal distance toalternative routes must notexceed 64 m
Horizontal distance in single direction to exit must not exceed 15 m
m
L64
—— Travel distance within escape stairway must not exceed 45 m along
Pposition going
Firesub-compartments (patient areas)
Floor area must not exceed 750m2
2 Traveldistancesforwards Horizontal distance toalternative routes must notexceed 32 m
Horizontal distance tosingle directional exit must notexceed 15 m
Max occupancy 40patients
wards 3 m

handrail
I
T
others 1 m Hazardous materials
doors to openin Some eqp and substances used in examining, diagnosing and treating
patients radioactive, explosive or highly inflammable.Take everycare
checkthatwhere thesesubstances used design,construction, detailing
and service installationscomply with specific statutes and reg.

Onfiresafelyandhazardousmaterialsconsult official publications

andhealth authority concernedbefore makingany decisions.

3
l j
950mm1

Escapestair dimensions
'1 95omin'T'
j
protectedlo
tostoreys
above18m

45m max travel

2 m clear
-
'
.</iistancealong
726
800
forO—25P
for26—60P
-- 1 too Lfor61_2o0P
- --

i
sao Jfor2oi+P&
perlOOP Tdoloors
—
4 Verticaltravel distanceon 5 Size ofescapedoors
escapestairs

u
Belevators
dl:fordouble carbanks
•Ild2:forsinglecarbank
dl = 5/2—3 x liftcardepth
jI
Pelevators
!
d2=3/2 x lift car depth d3 =determinedbytrafficpeak I
2670 I
'I' 1'
dlord2
cardeptti
6 Bed elevators&P elevators 7 Bedelevator:detail
152 Community
Hospita/s
MEANS OF ESCAPE (cont)
Typical USA requirements given —(1)—(4). For each design project
necessary consult details of relevant state and local codes.

1 Traveldistancetoexits
*these distancesorarmayvary indifferentbldg codes &canfrequentlybe
lengthenedin bldgequippedwithautomaticfireextinguishingsystems

2 Corrwalls:corrshall beseparatedfromallotherarbypartitionswhich 4 Subdivisionoffloors:floorsusedforsleepingortreatmentofmorethan50

shall extendfull Ii fromfloortounderside ofrooforfloor slab above;vision
panels incorrwallspermittedwithwire glass:sizeofpanels limited unless
wholebldg protectedbyautomaticextinguishingsystem; interiorstud
partitionsmust befirestoppedtopreventfirespreadboth horizontally &
vertically
—corrmust provide
access to at least
2 exits
patientsmust besub-dMdedbysmokepartitions andshall bedividedinto
compartmentsnotmorethan2090m2 inar;maxIorwofcompartments 45.7
m*; corr doorsinsmokepartititions shallbeoppositeswinging pair;doorsshall
havewire glass vision panels; ductswhich penetrate smokebarriersshall
mustbefirestoppedto preventfirespreadbothhorizontally&vertically
have
*these
dampers
distancesorarmayvary indifferent bldg codes; traveldistancescan
frequentlybelengthened in bldgequippedwithautomaticfireextinguishing
systems

largerrm
morethan 92m2*
require 2exits

notmore
than
9000*

3 Arrangementofexits:allpatientsleepingrmshallhaveexit doorleading 5 Typesoffire detectorsaphotoelectricrespond tovisiblesmoke,workon

directlytoexit corrwhich shallbeat least2440 win hospitals;rmlargerthan obstructionprinciple(risingsmoke tendsobscurelightbeam&soundsalarm)
m
93 shall haveat least2remoteexits; exitcorrshall leadtoatleast2 bthermalrespond toheat energy cinfra-redrespond toflame dionisation
*approved exits;deadend corrshall notexceed9000 respondtoinvisiblecombustion products
these distancesorarmayvary indifferentbldgcodes; traveldistancescan
frequentlybelengthenedinbldg equippedwithautomaticfire extinguishing
systems
 Community 153

Hospitals
DESIGN/BUILDINGCONFIGURATIONS
-. heating&cooling
Ideal hospital design combines clear and simple traffic configuration

ii;) ;7
with ability expand bed units and service base in future, growth and
change withinhospital structure being continuous. Beds do not always
increase in same ratio as service programmes but each must contain
masterplan ofdirection. Bldg donotoccupymajorpart hospitalgrounds;
parking (1 I/2_2car/B)and multiple entrycreate larger land use.
Broadlyhospital bldg made up of2parts: base and bedconfigurations.
Baseconcepts
Base services fall into 2 categories: ancillary services orientated to
patient care and service dept suchas sto, laundry,dietary, housekeeping.
These 2elements canbecombined in 1 basestructureorbeindependent.
Different fire-rated enclosures may determine approach.

Bed concepts
Design should meet nursing concept of optimum organisation and
staffing. B/staffing team usually 20—30 patients. Mix of private and
semi-private rm also contributes to bed design. Mm USA Health Dept
standards alsohave controlling effect. Specialty and intensive care units
datprncessirig have lower bed ratio; long term may containmore than 30 beds. Modular
.i nature of bed design may conflict with structure of base. Concept of
auxiiiary
personneil "'-'J LI \J (I.. using long span trusses as mech-el route between hospital floorshas
developed. Question of additional initial cost as against life of bldg
N
0 100 200ft
30 6o m
nursingunits
diagnostic& treatmentservices
[J
[j admit,& pubiican
supportservices
flexibility mustbe considered foreach project.
(includingciincs,etc) By USA standards correct ratio beds to base for community hospital
approx37—46m2/B fornursing unitsand 46—56 m2/B forbase. Teaching
1 Relationshipsbetweenmajordept at proposedmedicalcentreTucson hospital may range up to 140 m2/B, with university programmes and
USA Arch Perkins& Will children'shospitals high as 185 m2/B.

0 7 14 21 28m
25 50 75 lOOft 2 Master planTempleUniversityHospital
PhiladelphiaUSA Arch Perkins&Will

3 Relationshipsbetweenpatientcare &support
services&betweenbldg &site
154 Community

Hospitals
WARD DESIGN: GENERAL
Outlooks on ward sizes subjectrapid change. Main recent trend away
fromclassical ward types(eg 'Nightingale': 12-Bopenward withnurses
desk at 1 end; 'Rigs': 24-B with nursing rm outside ward, beds set in
clusters); preference nowfor2—4 B. Despite this strong preference still
controversial: very small wards giveprivacy and in theory more personal
attention but can also be lonely, less often visited; ie society and staff
supervision possibly better in larger ward. Patients need audio and
visual privacy during med visits. Background noise and bed curtains
provide some in large ward but lights disturb at night; small wards
peaceful for resting patient butdo notprovide audio-privacy.
In USAmostcodesnow give max 4-B/rmand design standards usually
followed maintain mixof2-Band 1-B. In UK small rm also common; but
wardsmay consist ofmixofdifferent size rm—acute wards below.
Avstayinhospital foracute med orsurgery hasfallen, eg: major surgery
10—12 days, minor2—3 days, max 6 weeks (mainly orthopedic). Wards
forthesepurposes therefore designed formax efficiencyofstaffworking.
Forphysically and mentally handicappedand elderly —'longstay' —ward
design moredomestic and social —pl58 162 163.
Key problem ofdesign for efficient ward system: relationship of nurse
workingrmtopatientrm.Basic concept—3(1).
WARD DESIGN:ACUTE
Acute wards contain 24—30 beds; where possible should be linked
togetherto form admin unit of 2 or 4 wards, whichalso enables such
serviceasdayareas,doctors rm, disposal rm, stoetcbeshared between
2 wards; but check against fire reg before design decision made.
Possible breakdown of bed areasfor28-bed mixed sex wards include:
3 x 8-B rm + 4 x 1-B rm
4 x 6-B rm + 4 x 1-B rm
2x 12-Brm+4x1-Brm
Mostacutemed and surgical wards can be mixed-sex, argumentbeing
that itincreases bed occupancy. 1-B wards needed maintainoccupancy
atmax of85% orabove: 1-Balso required for patientsliable toinfection,
orto infect others, thoseseriously ill or dying and thoselikelyto disturb
others. Mixed-sex ward may not be acceptable to all users: check
before designing onthis basis.
Walking distance: keep walking distancesshortas possible for nurses
and ambulant patient. Maxdistance frombed towc12mand fromnurse
workingrmto furthest bedapprox 20 m.
Observation: continuous observation of patient by staff essential part
of nursingcare:during day achieved mainly in course ofwalking from 1
duty to another, at nightfromnurses station.Good design aim: 50% of
beds to be visiblefrom nurses station. Patients gain confidence from
seeing staff at work, dead-leg wards not popular forthis reason; if staff
have no duty perform less likelyvisit ward.
Control: patients, particularlychildren, adolescents and confused, need
to be controlled; dayr must not be too isolated from rest of ward.
Mixed-sexwards have own control problems. Staff need to control
visitorsandcheckthat theydo not overtire patients.
Noise: problem in large open areas; telephones and other eland mech
eqp can be noisier than acceptable. Design for40—45 dB by day and
35—40dB at night inmulti-B wards; 1-B wards should be35—40 dBatall
times. Courtyard designs can create problems of noise fromadjacent
windowstodifferent rm.
Daylight &glarewindows —p4O3—6 should notcause glare—p32 398
in bedfastpatients' eyes; beds should be parallelto windows unless
brise-soleil, external or between-glass blinds or similar devices fitted.
Windows design important:confused patientsmay try getout; allopening
lightsshould have device restricting accessible opening to 100.
Ventilation: mech ventilation often noisyand unsatisfactory, full air-
conditioning expensive install and run. Normal sites away from air or
trafficnoiseshould relyonnatural ventilation; 3 beds deepfromwindow
max before mech ventilation required. Central work rm require mech
ventilation and sufferfromheat build-up insummer.
Nurse call systems, closed circuit television (CCTV): Devices of
various gradesofsophistication; all liable to abuseorfailure. Seriously ill
patients cannot operate call systems therefore unwise rely on these
rather than personal observation; acceptable asauxiliary system.

ACUTEWARD: SUGGESTED AREAS

1-Brm lOOm2 excluding wc& sho
depending on amount of
multi-Bbay (per B) 9.3—10.0 m2 day space provided in
dayr (perB) 0.75m2 wards orasseparateday
space: separate 10.0 m2

I® lockersetc (per B)

nurse station
clean utility
0.5—1.0 m2

4.0—10.0m2
10.2—18.0 m2
extra space forlockers
etc
depending on position
ofdrug, linenbaysetc
dirtyutility& sluice 14.0—16.0 m2 ifseparatear = 9 + m
7m
treatmentrm 14.0—16.0 m2 depending onsto
provided
assisted bathr 10.25—12.0 m2
sistersrm 7.0—9.0 m2
doctorsrm 7.0—9.0m2
bathr 7.0m2 forambulant patients
washing & sho 2.75 m2
r• option I
compartment
wc with handrinse 2.0—3.0m2 mm forambulant P
B
•
nursing
sub-station
:• basin max for wheelchair P
I_ ptr 4.0—6.0m2 beverage &snack point
only
A control access&egress to unit ward k 20.0 m2 for ward k service
B access&visualobsefvationtoP flowerbay 2.0—2.5m2
C Convenientaccesstosupport activities cleaner 5.0—8.0m2
sto (inclargeeqp) 12.0—20.0m2 may be shared with
1 Diagramofnursing/Prmrelationship interview rm & another ward
overnightstay 10.0—12.0 m2
circulation ar 25%—40% depends onward layout
 Community 155

Hospitals
BASICWARD TYPES
Linearward—(1)
In past wardsdesigned on linear form: large single space, 20—30 beds
supported by nurse working rm at one end, sluices and wc at other,
quite often largework table middle of ward. Main ward or wards and
majority of spaces naturally lit and ventilated. Observation of patients
good; patients had little or nochance offeeling neglected. Background
noise problem butto someextent this gave greater privacy than in4-or
6-Bwards. Since 1950's different shapes have been used (also modifi-
cations oflinearasat Guy's HospitalLondon).

Deep wardor race track—(2)

Design concept developed in late 1950's, complete contrast to linear:
patients share nothing larger than 4-bed ward. Observation goodso
long asenough nurses tomove round ward. Racetrack design prevents
dead-legs where patients could feel neglected. Background noise re-
duced but as resultaudio-privacy for consultations not so goodas in
largelinear. Wards placed on outside walls, naturally litand ventilated;
nurse working rm form central core, need artificial light and mech
ventilation.
1 Guy's HospitalLondon typicalwardfloor,2 x 27 B ArchWatkinsGray
International Courtyardplan—(3)(4)
Courtyard plan (harness, nucleus —pi50) attempts reduce internal
centre working rm and providegoodpatient observation. Success of this type
depends on amount ofdaylight available and degree ofprivacy obtain-
able. All wardshave somedaylight but some mech ventilation may be
necessary.

2 Falkirk ward;experimental, resulting fromstudiescarriedout bySHHD;

built mid-i950's,2 x 30B; first& second floors

4 Typical 'nucleus'ward,2 x 28B

0 5 10 15 20m
15 30 45 60 ft

-v

hr 14
11

H
I L1J2 ___ iEJ L
9 Sm
20ft
10

3 Typical'harness'ward; 72-Bunitwith 3staffbases 1 wc 2sho 34-B 4 5 Typical nursingfloor (48-B)AnneArundelGeneralHospital Annapolis

5-B 5b 6treatment 7basecleanutility 8dirtyutility 9sister 101-B USA Arch Metcalf&Associates
11 day/dining 12 3-B l3sto 14visitors 15supplies
156 Community

Hospita/s
NURSEWORKINGROOMS
p156—7 show layout, dimensions and eqp required for main nurse
working rm in standard ward. Variationsin size and shape ofrm may be
dictated byward plan, butworkpattern and critical clearworking spaces
round beds and othereqpshould be maintained.

800mm 7200 (6-BI

T
4800 (4-B)
I for4-Bwaid

1 4-or6-B ward, 8.4m2&8m2/B: optimumprivacy,eachP having wallon

one side; Bparalleltowindowto reduceglare;curtainsgive eachBvisual
privacybutcentreBhasless;max 3-B depthbeforeartificiallighting&
ventilationrequired

I-

4 Dirtyutilityrm, 14m°,equippedfordisposablebedpans: ifnon-disposable

used washerreplaces destructor,nodisposable sto needed 1 rackfor
bedpancradles 2slop sk&drainer 3bedpandestructor 4spacefor
disposablebedpan box 5disposal bag 6hbunit 7spacefordisposable
bedpan &urinal boxes 8spacefordisposal bags 9wastedisposalbag
10urinetest cabinet 11 sk&worktop,cpd under 12sanichair

slidingdoor
external
dangerous
drugs
& scheduin

[thj E[i I I
=
i
depenserwithdrawer towel

Id1! Sb
with
drainers
paper
towels

Dbctier LJ- L
Iii
1
450x450

positionofdisposalaradjoining
disposalbin

:f::f:f:.:.J 3200

ce T-

L:I
3 .—, •
Dtha MJ'3
1
externalwet railfor
1
J
observation
window
el
:
b
2 1-BwardssuitableforPliabletoinfection ortoinfectothers: a13m2with
sho &wc, also suitableforotherPneedingspecialattention 12.34m2 with b T;ine
poene
we, orcouldbewithoutweforbedfastPdying, needing specialattentionor 5400
likelytodisturbothers;NB 1-Bwardsforsenouslyillmustbeclosetonurses
station
5 Cleanutilityorpreparationrm, 24.3m2; small dressing trolleys(carts)
replacetraditionalfixedworktops,considered superfluous;linenstoredon
2560 adjustableshelving&toppedupto agreed level; no linentrolleyrequiredfor
T clean linen

c,,l

6 Medicinetrolley (cart)chainedto
3 Smallward pantry,5.5m:forbeverages & snacks only wallwhennotin use
 Community 157
Hospitals
NURSEWORKINGROOMS

2x900 leaves

rnanoeuvnngfrom
straighf corrthroughdoorway

1 Doors&screensinwardcorr

r -i
.

- -L I_
I solidorgiazed sohdorglazed
I panelsifrequired panelsifrequired
——
t I 4 Mm corrwfor manoeuvring B

jIeoo j700 900

2=
500 -
T
900
single-leaf double-leaf
Princess Grace Hospital London
2 Standarddoor sizes forhospitals: wherehigh/lowB used standard 2050 Small 136-bed hospital for private patients, majority from overseas.
doorsIi enoughtoallowthroughBwith balkan beams;mm doorwfor Visiting consultants and surgeons diagnose and treat patients; perma-
wheelchair800, preferred900
nently employed nursesand support staff.Added needtoattractpatients
by providing 1-B wards of domestic character and comfortable pro-
portions (17 m2)with integral bathr, but as with NHS hospitals, prime
clock nursecall fire alarmbell importance to design best possible environment for diagnosing and
indicalor
treating patients.

9
5
P
3b 5
1 m
6Toft

3 Fittingsinward corr 5 PrincessGraceHospital22-Bwardunit: privatehospital Arch RSeifert

& Partners
158 Community

Hospitals
DATA FOR DESIGNINGWARDS:GERIATRIC 2 types;forassessment ofelderly, for long term care.
For assessment patients normally housed in adaptation of standard
acute ward withinDGH, because accesstofulldiagnostic and treatment
services needed.
For long-term patients (assessed and found to be in needoflong-term
curtainrail
care) aim to provide homely environment in which basic nursing care
can take place;emphasis on earlyambulationand rehabilitation—vpl 62.
curtainon3
ht
Dedhead sidesofbed Oftenin separate bldg on hospital campus, within easyreach ofdiag-
nostic and treatmentservices.
1700
bectiesdunit bedhead In UK shortage ofgeriatric beds partially overcome byupgrading some
thermometer wards inolderhospitals (upgradingwards—vpl 65). Fordetailsofgeriatric
oo 1000min
14801 — -
bathrandwc—vp163.
med gas outlets 1300
v——i Bboilers
I ingsFunc 700h
I B 2x200 w
4-500-

1A 1? 01.I
ti
95Owide
200
1650
—B
dotheshooh
B

Phclst980X880
2050+550forbedstripper
shelf
a
1100 towefraji
1 Multi-Bward: eqp & fittingsinBar D
1500 C
grabriel 100
- geriatricb
——
685

.hb
papertoweldispenser

c--i_-
suapdispenser

230clearanceundertap
4 Ba hr
j: •
1300
I
I 854
I clotheshook
865 i7tlsforchildrenor —-

1300LT#J__
1549
: duct 190v60 1650
— — papersack diet
—
—— 1100 grabrid
I
I1
adjustable light 1200
Staff hb unit inwards, nurseworkingaretc

l
bedpanred shed
unnetestcanet 1800
med droppedfrontsuitableforwtteelchanP
1111111 x330

-i gases-
bedpanwasher
5 Shoar
2400 7
nursecalletc

'T
x-rayviewer noticeboard
1 6
receiver

notetakuigdesk
300 4lousIooe
1300
80
1
x300
IllOOforseated 1000
viewer

3 Dirtyulilityar

6 Pwa unit (notstandard) 7 Nursesstation

syringedispenser

B Cleanutilityorpreparationar(dda= Dangerous Drugs Acts)

 Community 159

Hospitals
DATA FOR DESIGNINGWARDS(cont)

580
350..

typicalbedside lockers

3 KingsFundB:2080x910x380—810h

high/low B withpull-Outbedstripper

I
/ '.

_______ '4 t

overbedtableforhigh/low B
IL
4 Orthopedicfractureframe: B 5 Childrenscot: 1 370 x 760 x
maybemovedthroughdoors 610 + 69ohsides
completewith frame
x558+230space
Clinimaticdisposablebedpandestructor:
drip stand
dryweight110 kgmax capacity 1351 attachment

DHSSstandard
controlled
drug cpd

1 Typicalward eqp 6 Typicalincubator 7 Bassinetteforinfants

2 Geriatricassessment ward
(upgradedNightingaleward);one
problemofelderlyistoremain
continent:exampleshowshow
walking distancefromfurthestB
reducedfrom30m to8m &dayarfor
rehabilitation,dining &quiet
pursuitsprovided;B reduced from 10 20 3Dm
28to22&wc increasedfrom4to8;
dayar2.252P 11-B2multi- 90ft
3 60

B rm 3disposal 5b (freestanding)
6preparationrm 7hb 8sluice
9wc 10k 11 staff clo/wc&hb
12 specialbathr/cleansingar
l4eqpsto l5dayar l6quietar
17dining ar 18 nursesstation
19 DSR 22linen sto 23wheelchair
sto 24sanichairsto 26sister
27staff rm 29 switchgear!
calorifiersetc 31 Pclothingsto
33 lecturerm 38sho 39special
couch 42doctor 44stainless steel
skwith layingshelf 45lalptr
46free-standingbidet/wc
160 Community

Hospitals
MATERNITY
Units normally attached to DGH or community hospital. Allow 0.5 B/
1 000 total population; 75bedscater for2700deliveries/year, 100 beds

DV1F risi I L for 3600 and 125 for 4500. Maternity clinics include ante-natal, post-
1 Combinedfirststage&deliveryrm, 14.46m2 1 caps&masks 2baby
cot 3tray 4trolley(cart) 5singlebowlstand 6scrub—uphb 7sack&stand
8heatingpanel 9obstetricB 10chair 11 slidingdoor 12writingshelf
13 bedsidelocker 14 timeelapseclock 15oxygen suction, child 16sto
rack 17dispensers 18curtain 19 coathook 20spotlight21 drip poleon
wallhook 22wallthermometer 23clock 24observationpanel 25sphyg-
niomanometer 26oxygensuction, mother 27bedhead panel 28cup&
flask 29overbedtray 30towel rail 31 footstool 32 analgesia trolley
33 overbedlight
25
L1716
natal, baby follow-up and family planning. Most units require normal
backup for reception, admin, including records, and provision for
education. In USAtrend toset delivery suitealongside surgery suiteor
integrate with it.
Deliverysuite includes: theatre, abnormal and normal delivery rm and
assessment area. For 125 beds allow 17 normal first stage delivery rm,
10 observation beds, 4 abnormal delivery rm and 1 operating theatre.
Obstetric theatre suite: theatre (28 m2)with full mech ventilation, hum
and coolingcontrol and antistatic flooring, oxygen and nitrous oxide and
2 vacuum points for mother, vacuum and oxygen for baby; scruband
gowningareas (9.5 ml, anaesthetic rm (16.5 m2),recovery bedsfor 2
patients (25 ml and clean utility (8.5 ml. All delivery rm require
pleasant daylit environment with privacy (blinds to windows), good
lighting for suturing, sound attenuation, anti-static precautions, med
gas, oxygen and vacuum outlets, and mech ventilation with hum and
cooling installations. Abnormal delivery rm (24 m2 plus scrubarea 1 .5
m2). Normal delivery rm (15 ml: 2 of these should be quiet with
blackout eqp. Combined first stage/delivery rm —+(1) enables patient
stay in 1 place throughout labour, herfirstmove being topost-natalward
afternormal recovery period: provide 1 oftheserm to 5 post-natalbeds.
Assessment area: 20% beds should be in 1-bedwards (13 m2)with
oxygen outletat bedhead, remaining 80% in multi-bed bays (9.5 m2/
bed) with oxygen outletto each pair of beds.
Ancillary accn: sto, milk kitchen (14 ml and flyingsquad sto (7.5 ml —
whichmay be in accident &emergency dept(A&E).
30-cotspecial care baby unit (SCBU) attached tothis number ofbeds
requires 22 multi-cot bays (4 m2/cot), 7 single-cot rm (5.5 ml and 1
special-cot rm ((7.5 ml; 20 cots considered mm size for viable unit.
Entrance to SCBU must include gowning and handwash areas for
visitors, and changing accn for staff: female, 11—14 m2 male 7.5 m2.
Bedsitting rm for mothers with sho and wc—(2).

2 Mother&child rm, 16.32m2 1 wa 2visitorchair 3window(curtainsor

blind) 4mother's bedlamp 5cantilevertable 6drawerunitunder
1365m2 2671712 7mother'sB8curtaintrack gchild'scot looverbedceilinglight 11 twin
21
9
w__ _____
18 16
9 1

96
socketoutlet 12oxygen&suction 13locker 14childchair 15toybox
16wastesack 17hb 18toweldispenser 19towel rail 20shelves 21 wc
22baby bath 23mirror 24glazedpanel (withblindorcurtains) 25sliding
door 26sho

10 20 30
9 4pm
64 96 1286

3 Obstetricdept Easthourne
EnglandDGH:
Adelivery suite Bmatemityward
1 wr 2seminar 3staff changing:
afemale bmale 4dayr 5first
stage rm 6multi-purpose 7wc 8b
9 lab 10 abnormaldelivery
11 trolley(cart) &wheelchairs
12 ovemightstay 13dirty utility
l4exam l5ptr l6doctor
17 nursesstation 18chargenurse
19 cleansupply 20anaesthetic510
21 dirtyutility 22transferar 234-B
241-B 256-cot 26assistedb
27dirtylinen 286incubators29k
30 centralmilk k 31 demonstration
32 obstetrictutor 33nurseadmin
34 reception 35sb 36mobile x-ray
37 1-B toxaemia Arch SETRHA

PAEDIATRIC& CHILDRENSWARDS
1 20-Bchildrensward Arch NuffleldFoundation division forarchitectural
studies
b used eitherfor mother and child orfor2 patients. Classr forchildren in
2 West MiddlesexHospital England apaediatric/infantsward
bpaediatric/children'sward A4-B/4-cot ward Al 4-B —staff B 1-B/i-cot
ward Cwash/wc Dbathr Enursesstation Fcleanutility Gtreatmentrm
H dirty utility/sluice Idisposallift Jptr Ktrolley(cart)bay Lsto
M 2-B/mother& babyrm Ml clinicalmi—staff Nsistersrm 0doctorsrm
Pconsult rm 0secretariesoff A playground P1 milkk 01 mothers si
I
R1 relativesrm Sstaffdo clinicalrm Uelevators Vpaternosterelevators
& stairs Wplay ar Xcleanersrm Yclassr Zadmission rm Arch Robert
MatthewJohnson-Marshall
Community 161
Hospitals
o 3 6 9 12
,1 ,1rn
9 18 27 36 ft
3 Diagnosiscentreforschoolagechildren,convertedfromoutmodedarof
olderhospitalinJerseyCityUSA; existingcourtyard used asplay rrn &
receptionar;sequenceofrmprovidesboth range ofhealthtests&educational
programme Arch HillierGroup
WestMiddlesexHospital
Both wards—(2a,b) adaptedfrom standard,partof5-storey high system
bldg. Paediatric/children's ward—(2b)contains2 x 4-Bwards, 6 x 1-B
wards, 2 with wc and bath attached, and 3 x 2-B wards which can be
hospital for several weeks but fit enough attend classes, eg child with
brokenlimb.Away fromward, areawith adjacenttoysto where boisterous
childrenencouraged play. Protected openair play area also provided.
Paediatric/infants' ward —+(2a) has 8 x 1-cotwards each fitted with
babybath and 4mother and baby rmeach capableoftaking full-size bed
and child's bed ifnecessary. Playspace provided togetherwith protected
open air area. Milk kitchen provides for heated baby feeds and baby
bottlewashing: dailythroughput 240 x 0.25 I milk, of which two-thirds
kept under refrigeration; extrasto required to keep milk over public
holidayperiods.
162 Community
Hospita/s
LONG STAYWARDS Mentally handicapped often also physically handicapped may also be
noisy, aggressive, overactive and selfdestructive. Particularlyimportant
Long staywards forelderly and infirm mustbesited near publictransport that furnishings besoft, spongeable and durable forthese patients, and
for easyvisitingby relatives, often elderly themselves: need accessto that ceilings have sound absorbent finish.
diagnostic and treatment services, sowherever possible should be built
on samedevelopment as DGH (community hospital) or be grouped Psychiatric wards —p164
togetherto beable tosupport own services. Longstay patients highlydependenton staffin cases of emerg-
Patients could easilybecome institutionalised in wrong environment: ency: vital fire escaperoutes be easily identified, fire stopdoors
have automatic doorclosersconnectedalarmsystem and fabrics
accent on self-help and rehabilitationin setting aslikehome environment andfinishesfr.
as possible withoutimpairing quality of nursing care. Patients require
sleeping areas whichcan identify as own, and must have ready access
to personal belongings. Wc and washing places must be near to both
sleeping and dayareas. Design ofdayareas should allow patientsfollow
therapeutic routine enabling themcare for themselves and if possible
return home to receive necessary community care either atday centre
orbydomiciliary visits.
Elevatorlevel coding
Importantprovide variety ofspaces for social meetings betweenpatients 1
andvisitorsandbetween patients, and forsmall group chats orgames or system usingcolours&
numbers;helpfultoP
largergroupactivities (corralcoves, small separate rm). Dining arrange- with sensorydefects;
ments also important forproviding social and domestic atmosphere. raisednumeralsaid
Clear marking of rm, corr, elevators essential; colour coding helps near-sightedorblind

Nowfew completely bedfast patients needing bedpans and bed baths

during day: majority will be taken to wc and bathr even if incapable of
attending tothemselves —*pl63(2)—(7). Becauseincontinenceprevalent
extrawc required aidtraining (maxdistance fromfurthest bed orcorner
ofday area: 10m). Where space limited omit treatment rmand replace
by cleansing rm with bath or wc each with thermostatically controlled
sho handset —*pl63(2). Wc,sluices and cleansingrmmust have efficient
mech extractventilation. Small utility rm with washing machine and
clothesdrier needed forpatients' clothes.
Provide extrasto space for wheelchairs, walking aids and sanichairs,
and for greatersupply of linen, incontinence pads and, where used,
disposable bedpans and urinals.Cpdalso requiredforpatients' suitcases
and clothesnot in current use, and foroccupationaltherapy eqp.
All floorfinishesshould be soft, non-slip and washable: plastics flooring
with welded joints suitable for wc, bathr and all nurse working areas.
Carpetsmay be used in wards and dayr where number of incontinent
patients limited. Patients can be confused and if allowed go outside
more easilycontrolled in courtyards than in open hospital grounds. All
doors wide enough for wheelchairs —*p86; fire stop doors should be
held in openposition byautomatic fail-safe devices foreasymovement
of patients in wheelchairs or using walking aids.
Termgeriatric —p158 generally used to describe those over 65 years
who developseveral med problems at once and who may also suffer
impaired mobility and be incontinent. 2 Mentallyhandicappedunit,planoftypical villa,CraigPhadngHospital
InvernessScotland 1 sister 2visitors 3 Pdo 4sto 5domestic service
rm 66-B 74-B 81-B 9wc l0bathr 11 staffwc l2preparation l3linen
l4uty l5disposal l6hobbies l7dutyrm 18TV lgdayspace 2Odr 21k

3 GenatricDay Hospital WaltononThamesEngland: 35 Ponbasisof5-day 4ft

week;includesPassessment, med,para-rned,nursingprocedures,
occupational&physiotherapy, traininginaids fordisabled&domestic
routines 1 mainentrance 2reception 3do 4 interview 5speech, dentist,
optician, 6 hair,chiropodist 7 sto 8off 9 individual therapy; physiotherapy
duties 10grouptherapy;physical exercisesar 11 occupational therapy dr
l2court l3dr l4dr&wr l5wr 16k&servery l7dailylMngunitbedr
18rest 19b 20assistedb 21 treatment22dirtyutility 23 consult/exam
24staff rest 25boilers&tanks Arch Derek Stow& Partners
4 HostelaccnforP returning to hospital forrehabilitation courses(amputees
&other physicallyhandicappedP) 1 group dayr 2fireescape stair
3 bathr 4sh 5wc 6wheelchairbay 7ptr 8sto 9doctorsrm 10sister
11 dr 12duty mi 13nursesstation 14 preparation 15treatmentrm
16assistedbathr 17dirtyutility rm 18sluice rm 19staffwc 20wr
21 reception 22off 23porter 24 domestic servicerm 251-B 26 large
1-B 274-B
 Community 163

Hospitals: long stay

LIBERTONHOSPITAL—*(1)
Geriatric hospital in grounds of existing hospital; has both in and day
patients with total 184 beds mainly in 24-B units. Day patients can be
examined in 1 of 2 consult/exam rm and have midday meal in dr; share
physiotherapy, occupationaltherapy, dental and hairdressing services
withinpatients. Wards contain dining areaand 3 separatedayspaces, 1
forexercising and 2 for sitting in.
Wardblock I!:J!iJ
4-storeyward block: 3 floors48 beds each, 1 of40 beds on first floor
50
H-i 56

-
used for hemiplegic patients. 48-B floorsdivided into 2 x 24 nursing
units, each comprising 3 x 6-B bays, 1 x 4-B bay, 2 x 1-B. Bedside
fittings include nurse call, radio and tvcontrols, bed light and curtains.
Each 24-Bunithas2 bathr, 4wc,clean preparationrm, dirty disposal rm,
shares exercise/drfor ambulant patients, and 2 small dayr. Each floor
has ward kitchen, med officer's rm and sister's rm.
83Vij entrance j• 63
6J 66

0 5 10 15 2am
Groundfloor a b
1 1 I
Entrance hall with reception counter and general waiting area. Lift hall 16 32 48 64 It

with nursingand admin offices, hairdressing rm, porter and shop.

Occupational and physiotherapy, med social worker, dentist and chi-
ropodist share patient waiting area. Day patients and dr for midday
meals served from kitchen which also provides staff meals in small
canteen. Consult/exam rm separatedfromtherapeutic/social areas.
EQUIPMENT
1 LibertonHospitalScotland afirstfloor geriatricinpatients bgroundfloor
geriatricday P 49commonrm 50physiotherapy 51 dentist 52chiropody
53MD clinic 54therapist 55almoner 56wr 57hairdressing 58 darkrm
59consult/exam 60seminarinterview rm 61 medstaff 62lounge
63canteen 64dining ar 65servery 66trolley(cart)wash 67potwash
69cold sto 70reception 71 porter 72admin &nursingstaff
73generaloff 74shop 82bathr 83occuptional therapy 84wardar
85treatment 86exercise& dayr 87doctor 88sluice

cutacle
partition sho curtains

imperviouswall tinish
sho handset

Tc!_ floorchannel
t hand
spray — ptatform 1 980x550
tagh

-, ___
L1 -,

Ddspos11
fl I laid to
hooha

hoolrs' '
trolley
shj
curtain

rlIr I Li
I sanichairs )
trotley
(cart)

i.—L
YntSt1
(Th I
I 5 b& platform elevator

3200 , 1300 , 1300 I

T1• Tl

2 Incontinentbathr &wc,8.6m2+ 7m2; may beplannedasseparateunits;

requiredinwardscaringforelderly& handicapped wherepolicyofearly
ambulationcoupledwith needto extendnursingcaretonon-bedfast P; bothb
&wcequippedwith low-pressureshohandsetto easeproblem ofcleaning
incontinentP; goodventilationrequired:allowfor6airchanges/hr at peak
times
3 Assistedwc afornon-
It
t 2170
1800

Di
wheelchairP requiring assistance of
2nurses b forwheelchairP
U0 requiringassistanceof 2nurses

door

1a
I ducttor
'astern
4 Mobilebelevator
6 Elevatingb
4—1800---4-
250

1710

880
b
7 Fibreglasssittingb: dryweight52kg; avb 1251
164 Community

Hospitals
PSYCHIATRICCENTRES
a
Present trend away fromisolated sitesforpsychiatrichospitals in favour
ofplaces allowing easy accessfordaypatientsand visitors and enabling
inpatients maintainclosetieswith theircommunity. Community involve-
ment often encouraged in USA both by making appropriate parts of
centre available to public, eg gymnasium, children's play rm or craft
studio, andby incorporating suchamenitiesasartgallery or public lib.
Association with med centredesirable but important psychologically
psychiatric centre maintain own identity and character. Environment
contributes essentially to therapeutic process. Centre should be non-
institutionalaspossible consistentwith type of patient,need forsecurity,
protection from self-injury and vandalism; range from 'open door' to
forensicinstitution for criminally insane.
Great size to be avoided; patients should be grouped into units(max
30 P), smallenough facilitate development of community spirit(atmos-
pherenearercollege dormitory than hospital).
Where climate allows common practice provide residential units inform
ofcottages in landscapedgrounds. Evenwhere restricted site imposes
compact bldg formessential individual units be identifiableasseparate
entities.
Bedrshould afford opportunity retreat and privacy: if 2-B, plan so that
each patient hasclearly defined individual area.
b
Conversely design and furnishing of public areas should encourage
sociability, supplementingformal treatmentwith therapeuticallybeneficial,
informal patient/patient and patient/staffmeetings. Placenurse/security
stations so that staff engaged in routine activities can observe patients
casually. Unobstructive nature of suchsurveillance important psycho-
logically in alleviating persecution complex.
Hierarchical arrangement of staff and patients in group therapy rm
inhibitspatient involvement. Square orcircular seating space affording
mm distraction, with circular
seatingarrangement, probably ideal.
Mentally disturbed persons commonly showsymptoms disorientation
with regard to time and space. Views and contacts with outdoors and
living plants aid patient's comprehension oftime and season; directand
clearlydefinedcirculation patterns, supported by such aidsas graphics
and colour coding, inculcate sense of security. Colour playsimportant
role in therapeutic process: egyellowand orange help dispel lethargy
amonggeriatric patients.
Hospitalpsychiatricunits
Similarconsiderations apply psychiatric unitswithin general hospitals.
Since patients generally ambulatory,day rm and therapeutic activity rm
assumespecial significance. Although exigencies of hospital planning
seldom allow direct access outdoorareasatgroundlevel from psychiatric
unit sunnyoutdoor roofterrace should formintegral part, particularlyfor C

geriatric patients.

2 2

1 CapitalDistrictPsychiatricCenterAlbanyNewYork USAaccommodates
400inpatientsin 16residentialunitseachofwhichalso serves25day
patients:upper of2superimposed unitsset backfromlowercreatesoutdoor
terwhile lowerhasdirect accessto landscapedsite;treatment,educational,
recreational,admin,research &servicedept housedin4-storeychevron-
shaped structure,joined toresidential unitsbysky-lighted,brick-paved,
indoormall which hascolourfulbanners, informal seating groups,beauty&
barbershop, chapel, music&gamesrm, laundromat; planat mall level
1 geriatric unit 2adult unit 3pediatricunits 4psychiatric outpatientclinics
5consult 6volunteers 7dining 8admissions9medrecords
10emergencyclinics 11 business 12free-standingcolour-codedstairsin
mall each serve4residential units,supplemented byelevatorsfor
handicapped ArchToddWheeler& Perkins &Will Partnership.
2 Hospitalformentallydisturbedpatientsfounded 1844in Providence RI
USA, whichhasbeenupgradedandexpanded, stands inbeautifulgroundsby
Seekonkriver afirstlevel bsecond level cthird level
key 1 lob 2admin 3admission&testing 4emergency 5med records
6activitytherapy 7dayhospital 8 interiorcourtyard 9inpatientunits
10food services&cafeteria 11 existing 12intensivetreatmentunit
13interiorgardenbelow 14professional off 15 diagnostic/treatment
Arch HillierGroup
 Community 165

Hospitals
WARD UPGRADING
Although wards have always been designed for care of sick those built existing

before 1940were often intended forbedfastpatients.Sincethen advance

in technical nursing has allowed quicker throughput of patients most of
900900
whom fully ambulant for 2/3 of stay; thus demand increased for nurse
working rmand patient dayareas, washing and sanitary services. Older
wards, structurally sound but ill equipped for present day standards,
Lt I nT1 9 üü u no
therefore suitable for upgrading, particularly those with useful lifeof at
least 15 years. Moreover, taking factors below into account, can be
worthconsidering upgrading bldg scheduled tolast only 5 years.
Factors
Number of patients to be cared for under sub-standard conditions if
ward not upgraded, eq28-bed ward with 80% occupancy and 5-day av
stay has throughput of approx 1 600 P/yr and 8100in 5 years
Number of nurses to be trained in sub-standard accn, eq28-bed ward
with 6 students on duty during day and 2 at night for 6-weekperiod
equals 70students/year or350 in 5years 3
Proximifyto ancillary supporting accn
Change of usefromacute folong stay wards
Amount of money available
existing

1 Reallocation &divisionofspaces, noextension to existingward:existing 9 5 tom

29-B, upgraded25-B 2small sanitary annexeadded:existing 29-B, 15 ão ft
upgraded28-B 3corr& groupof nurseworkingrm&wcadded:existing 26-B,
upgraded30-B 4extension addedtolongwallof ward: existing 31-B, _JJJL.Li_ifl00009000009900
upgraded28-B 52wardsjoined withcoreotnurseworkingrrn:existing 29-B
each, upgraded52-Btotal

Key to ward plans C orC'd —cpd Con—consultrm D—dutyrm Disp—

runjnuoaonuugu5y
disposalrca Dr—doctorsrm DR—dayr DSR—domestic servicerm E or extension courtysrd upgraded
Equ —eqpsto flflowerrm I—incinerator k—kitchen L—linensto Lab— $

laboratory&testcm NS—nursesstation OP—outpatientswr PC—Pclothes

lockers Prep—preparationrm Rec—receptionist S—sisterscm Sec—
secretary SI —sluice St —sto Staff—staffwc T—treatmentan t—trolley
(cart)tx—telephone V—verandah W —waitingarforvisitors
Is
I
4

..LL.J
_____
onEEur, cc
existing

II
existing

EILLsJ
U U U UU U UU U U U
Equ stsff

?
i iptm

spgrsded

•I•
rninw nuu
ielevsto
JilhhiLk aH U.1U Ut UIU .UTII .UIU

existing

dsr .c.,ci.ict.. go].

00
U.
fl
staff

9 9 lp
1 3ff
upgrsded
5

OR
166 Community

Hospitals
0 Standarddhnics special clinics
ENTRANCESFOR NON-AMBULANT CASUALTIES &
OUTPATIENTS
All patient entrances must be suitable for those disabled or in wheel-
generai med
chair —*p86and must provide dirt control zone. Doors to A& E—÷pl 68
ante-natal opiliahiokigy reception
generalsurgery fracture ant mainwaiting
dermatology Orthopaedrc dental reonrds must allow accident trolleys —*pl66(11) easy entry. In A & E and to
gynaecology psychiatric
lesser extent OPD standard practice to provide automatic opening
doors—*(4). Although thesecan beexpensive and unreliableusefulness
diagnosis&V'treatment V' outweighs disadvantages in areas where wheeled access required.
Two main types:both actuated bypressure mats orelectronic devices.
plasterrm aadsimetry operatingtheatresuite Some manufacturerssupplyoutwardopening swing operatedmechanism
aççrbance sri
physiotherapy
radioragnosbc forprosthetics I tooverridenormal operation inemergency.
endoscopymi receptionarof I I
chiropody laboratories Design area between 2 sets of doors to take trolley pushed by staff
member, without obstructionfrom door swings etc (2700 clear), Integrate
nesmhospdalL !
3 dirt controlzonesinto design. Provide canopy or recess doorway to
shelterdoors. If ambulance required to back up to door allow 3200 to
Ward at malioperatingtheatres underside of canopy—(2).

I Relationshipofclinics to other hospitalfunctions OUTPATIENTS

beacon+aerial_______ Outpatients dept (OPD) provide consultation, investigation, diagnosis
and treatmentfor patients who require little or no recovery services
afterwards and are not admitted toacutewards. Most patients referred
attend session at specific clinic byappointment: receiveinitial diagnosis
clearincefor clearancebr and treatment, eg injections. Sessions approx 3 hr long (10per week)
reversingunder drivingander a ,6oOO and held 0900—1 200 & 1400—1 700. Each doctor may use either 2
combinedconsult/exam rmor1 consult with adjacent exam rm—n(5)(7)

EiJ1 fI
I :3600
2 Ambulancecritical dimensions,
standardLondon England
ambulance:turning circle14.17m,
turning clearancecircle 15.25m
barriersdowntotal length
ElIllIlIllIflhllIll
uofoading
p168(3) during 1 session. Am useapprox 9sessions/week: formula for
numberof rm required:
rmsessions/week = number of rm
required
9
3 Carparkingspacefor awheel-
chair P bambulantdisabledP After consultation patients may be sent directly or by appointment for
shelteredparkingdesirable furtherdiagnosis and/ortreatment to unitswithin OPD, eg plaster rm,
physiotherapy, operating theatre or endoscopy rm. Endoscopy rm —
p167(2) requires accnavailable forpatients under sedation and perhaps
hospitalstreet ante-rm forpre-medicationand holding(NBfibre-opticcoldlightsources
insate hospitalstreet
. must not be used in conjunction with inflammable anaestheticgases).
1 — actuator
lIllllllFFtFJ Units may servewhole hospital;theatres and ancillary rmmay be partof
main hospital theatre suite.

:1I Clinics which can use standard accn: general med, general surgery,

% qi; U
ssnJMMMM10 sFediafo dermatology, gynaecology, paediatrics, ante-natal, fracture, ortho-
paedic, psychiatry. Clinics which require special accn: opthalmology,
ear, nose & throat, dental. Clinics should have own reception pointand
waiting area 36 m2 (based on 1.4 m2/P).

oubade I I

canopy j j canopy canopy

AL eL._._\_ cL__N_
4 AutomaticdoorstoP entranceslayouts: Aforsetof900swingdoors
with safetybarrierbetweeneachdirectionoftrafficflow; Bforset of sliding
doors with parkingspace fordoorsinopenposition:max recommended size
foreach leaf900 C3cleaningzonesfordirtcontrol:externalzone should
haveopengrid typemattingsuitableforwheelchairuser,intermediate,
mattingwithbuilt-in scraperaction, inner,non-slipdustcontrolmatting

13 .1
7
flU
6 OPD FalkirkScotlandRoyal Infirmary 1 wr 2porter 3trolleys 4prams

R17
5hearingaid 6wc 7consult 8do 9staff 10sto 11 audio 12treatment
13 preparation 14disposal 15CSSDsto 16eqpsto 17optician 18eye
19workr 20 dental 21 off 22dark mi 23orthoptist24ECG 25studio

ri
26technician Arch Wilson&Wilson& Scottish Development Dept
wall a

13 w
15
16
fl®
Ii

waitb
7 Combinedconsult/examrm,
2
14

5 Exam&treatmentrm 10.4m2, forambulantorwheelchairP 1 sliding 15.48m2 1 chair 2couch 3 scales

door 2wastesack 3toweldispenser 4sk 5trolley 6dispenserwithdrawer 4steps 5hooks 6couch-cover
7sheMng 8writingsurface 9swivelstool lox-rayviewer dispenser 7 disposal 8exam lamp
11 wheeledcouch l2chair l3examlamp l4twin 13-amppoint 9wpb 10desk 11 hb 12worktop,
15emergencycallbutton 16light switch 17x-rayfilm rack sto under 13eqptrolley(cart)
18coat hooks 14curtain 15sphygomanorneter
bracket 16writingshelf
 Community 167

Hospitals:out patients
0 5 10 15 20 25
I I I rn 1600
16 35 45 6 809

—'I.
1 L7NEPLI 11

f
—
21 1
21
IT
I_,ti.
9
4[Th1h11Tfl1 14
bEEI 6 Wheelchairlay, 2.56 m2 —'162 7 Cleansingrm, 13.4m2

1 Ante-natalclinicAberdeenScotland MaternityHospital 1 prams

2children 3Pwc 4sister 5exam 6lecturerm&mothercraft7tutor key 1 basinwith shelf 2papertowels
8study rm 9consult 10staffwcfemale 11 lecturerm 12do 13elevators 3waste 4wc 5toiletpaper 6mirror
14work ar 15staff wcmale 16typists 17healthvisitor 18nurse 7 hook(s) 8sk 9gulley 10P trolley
19 reception 20urinetesting 21 waitingar Arch George Trew (cart) 11 hose point 12disposal
Dunn& Partners 14 13 sack holders 14trolley
15stapler

wallB
wallC

LL. (3)(5)—(8) room layoutssuitable

other depts &wards

1516

J4-U-1 11
6
wallA
12
1700

II I I 171
I

II I II
9I I I I I I •I

T1
A __j25fl 24 ro

m
4 4 iS ttis
13
9 1 i
2 Endoscopyrm—.pl66, 17.28m2 1 sk 2worktop 3wallcpdforfibre 12 1'Sft
optics 4trolley(cart) 5anaesthetic trolley 6stool 7intravenousdripstand 9 Plasterremovalrm,22.3 m2servesOPD&A&E
8 linenholder 9kick-aboutbucket 10 adjustable lamp 11 writingsurface
with drawers 12surgeonsbasin 13warninglight 14shelfwithlight 1510w 0 1 2 3 4 5
I Im
pressuresuction 16 highpressuresuction 17triplex-rayviewer 18 pin
board 19telephone 20coat hook 21 shelvesforpresettrays 22towel iS i5n
dispenser 23cpd 24drawers 25shelving 26alimentarytrolley 27 bin
28Ptrolley 29DDAcpd
___ [1
hooksbrmachinetools cleaningmachines 2lbottles
'shelues
dryerI(( )LJLJU -
buckets
undersk
[
trolleys
under

±LJ1
3
ED 3000
looker

Domesticservicerrn, 7.5m2
1

4
10 Plasterapplicationrm, 33.5 m2, servesOPD& A& E notsuitablefor
general anaesthesiabecausemorethan 1 Pspace
key 1 oven ontrolley 2doublex-rayviewer 3sto shelves 4plinth 5 chair
6plaster-sawmounting 7clotheshook& mirror 8trolley 9curtain lOsk&

213
Suction unit
drainerwith plastertrap 11 steps 12ceiling hook 13 plastercastdisposal
14waste 15sk&drainer 16plasterdust extractor 17wallhook(s)

-.i"L
§IrH 1400

5 Clinette& urinetestrm, 2.7m2 + 6.45m2 1 urinespecimenscollector

2150

2 reagentstore 3worktop, sto under 4 slophopper&drainer 5disposal

6 basin 7hatch 8shelf 9handrinse 11 Tiltingaccidenttrolley
168 Community

Hospita/s
ACCIDENT& EMERGENCY
Accident & emergency dept(A&E) provide 24-hr365-day/year service
for accidents and med emergencies occurring in home, at work, at
sports ortravelling. Patientsnormallytakento DGH(community hospital)
with A&E resources. Deptprovides resuscitation, reception and first
stageexam; patients can then be discharged, sent to another part of
hospital for further investigation and treatment, admitted as inpatients,
orsentbyambulance to hospital containing regional specialty,eg burns
unit, neurosurgery —p173--5. Patients dead on arrival taken to small
rm near entrance before beingremoved to hospital mortuary. For dept
close to potential sources of accidents (airports, motorways) extra
provision for resuscitation needed.
A&E need to be on good access roads with drive-in entrances for
ambulances, sheltered fromwind and rain by covered ways and battle
walls. Entrances should have 2 sets of automatic fail-safe doors to
prevent draughts, with enough space to manoeuver stretchers and
Full snackbar can be provided ifshared byOPD —*pl66. Patientswho
return for further dressings or treatment given appointments outside
morning and evening rush hour for casualties so can use same accn.
Exam and treatment rm preferable to cubicles for patients requiring
audioand visualprivacy (can undress and be seen in comfort); casualty
doctorwill worksetof rm. Cubicles suitable for small cuts and abrasions
which do not require patient to undress. Separate provision may be
requested for cleansing patients and dealing with infected wounds.
Peak periodsfor both A&E and Casualty dept invariablycoincide with
weekends and public holidays: essential that sufficient stores and nurs-
ing eqp be available either by providing extra sf0 at point-of-use or by
giving staff access tocentral sto during holidays and off-peak periods.
11

trolleys—4p166(4). Deptmust havedirectaccess forpatients on trolleys

to all parts of hospital, particularly radiology .—pl69 170, plaster rm _....J I 112.L13 I ij 14
—*pl67(9)(lO), surgical (OPD) —pl7l 172 and short stay wards.
Resuscitation rm must befullyequipped with med gases andbe close to
entrances. Doctors, often on duty for long periods, require comfortable
duty rm. Relativesofpatients needaccessto publictelephone. Interview
rm required by doctors for interviewing relatives and by police for
interviewing witnesses. Generous sto required for stretchers, blankets
and trolleys. Forbenefit of patients,relativesand escorts, whomay bein ——J
severe state ofshock, allwaiting spaces as wellas clinicalareas should
be heated tomm 21°C.
15 15
r2o f J2OJ1]
CASUALTYDEPARTMENT 1 _______
,2 C)

16
5 10

32
15

48
2Dm
646

Casualty dept provide 24-hr365-day/year service forcasual attenders

and patientsreferred byGPfor immediate examinationand treatment; 2 A& E FalkirkScotland Royal Infirmary 1 ambulance2ambulantP
generally linked to A&E; can share some nurse working rm and staff 3prams 4eqp 5trolleys 6treatment 7interview 8sister 9duty 10wc
services. But combined only for convenience: specific functions very 11 totheatres 12disposal 13 preparation 14to sharedx-ray 15visitors
different. Patients arrive on foot or by car, usually accompanied by 16exam 17resuscitation 18reception 19plaster 20sto 21 do
relativeorescort.Casualtydept should haveseparateentrance,preferably Arch Wilson& Wilson
with double setofautomatic fail-safe doors —pl66(4).
Patients come withoutappointment and may have to wait sometime
before being examined and treated; provide generous waiting space,
with beverage point and at least 4 wc, 2 suitable for wheelchair users
15 16 17
p167(6). 1 S

12 ________________
9
5 10 5 20m
B
16 32 4 645 13A
LJi L.J aI)B

T
I Lis
15

wall A

3 Exam &treatmentrm orbay, 10.15m2, designedto allowfortrolley

exchangesystem;P onemergencytrolleycan takeplaceoftrolleyinrm
1 sliding door 2wastesack 3towel dispenser 4sk 5trolley (cart)
6dispenserwithdrawer 7shelving 8writingsurface 9swivelstool 10x-ray
viewer 11 emergency trolley 12 chair 13trolley 14exam lamp 15twin
13-amppoint 16emergencycallswitch 17light switch 18x-rayfilm rack
19coat hooks

j
1 A&EEastboumeEnglandOGH 1 ambulanceentrance 2casualty
entrance 3trolleys,wheelchairs4porter 5flying squad 6trolleys 7staft
do 8rest rm 9 1-B 10nursesstation 11 cleansupply 12dutydoctor
l3cleaner l4reception l5doctorsstation 26chargenurse l7wc
18assistedb 196-B 20interview 21 dirtyutility 22resuscitation ar
23 disposalrm 24k 25surgeonschanging 26sto 27dayr 28pchanging
male 29Pchangingfemale 30doctor 31 nurseadmin 32 housekeeper
33anaestheticmi 34 minoroperating 35crutchsto 36plastermi 4 Resuscitation rm, 24.36m2 1worktop 2suctionunit 3 stool 4trolley
37ear,nose &throat (ENT), eyes, noisychildren 38 septictreatment (cart) 5surgeonssk 6linensack 7wastesack 8worktopwith sk 9writing
39trealmentar 40fracture&orthopaedic clinic 41 waiting 42clinic surface,shelvesover 10mobilex-ray 11 anaesthetictrolley 12drip stand
reception43P lay 44 appliance fitting 45canopyover Arch SETRHA 13oxygensuctiongas

1 Diagramofrelationships between radiology &other deptinrepresentative
USAhospital
2 EasthoumeEngland DGHx-raydept 1 lavage&disposal 2wc 3sto
4cleansupply 5 recovery 6x-rayrrnspecial 7x-raymibarium 8 bed
holding 9waiting lox-raymigeneral purpose 11 dark rm 12sorting&
viewing 13x-raymiA& E 14cleaner 15 reporting rm 16film sto
17disposal 18superintendentradiographer 19staffrm
3 Diagnosticx-raymidesignedbyAmericanHealthFacilities/Medical
PlanningAssociatesMalibuUSA 1 dispenserunit 2step-onwaste
receptacle 3surgical/instrument dressing cabinet 4apron &gloverack 5to
daylightprocessingar 6intercom 7leadglass vision panel 8partition 2100
h 9x-raycontrolunit 10ceilingtube mount 11 generator 12tube carriage
133-size film dispenser 14 radiographic tablewithtomographic attachment
15fluorescentlight fixtureswallmounted 16footstool with handrail 17 side
chair 18warninglight 19tolay 20 mirror 21 corr
Community 169
Hospitals
RADIOLOGYDEPARTMENTS —p170
X-ray or radiology has 3 major sub-divisions: diagnostic, which may
include ultra-sonics, fluoroscopy etc; radiation; nuclear medicine.
Depending onadmin patternoronphysical/functional relationshipswith
otherdept thesemay bearranged contiguously orseparately.
Diagnosticradiology
Provides internal images of patient either on film (radiography) or on
cathode ray tube(CR1—fluoroscopy). Must beprovided foroutpatients
and inpatients both forroutine examinationsand foremergencies. Dept
therefore has relationship to OPD, medical, intensive careand surgical
units.
Separation ofinpatient, typically ontrolley, stretcher orwheelchair,from
outpatient in street clothes and often bloody, should be maintainedlong
as possible, certainly through entrance, reception and waiting: if dept
largeenough alsothrough radiographic procedureand exit.
Arrange x-ray procedure rm sothatpatient's travel path does not cross
that of radiology technician until they meet in procedure rm. Easy
trolley/stretcheraccesstox-raytable essential.Plan dept sothattechnician
traveltime kept mm particularly between rm and filmprocessing.
Simplex-rays tolocate fracturesorposition ofcathetertake lessthan 10
minutes; more complex or intermittent procedures involving barium
swallowsor radio-opaque injections may take up to 3 hr to complete
while patientwaits in or near dept. Design forfollowing requirements:
separate rm for ultrasonography and for thermography; bench with
drinking water, bottle-trapped sink with sto cpd over exclusively for
bariumpreparations and wcfor patients whohave had barium enemas
both next to 2 x-ray rm; rm and viewing bay to process and check
accuracy offilms (normallycompletedwithin 15minutesof being taken):
automatic plumbed-in processors needspecial drainage; forward wait-
ing area on basis of 1.3 m2/P plus 1.02 for relative or escort; extra
screenedspace for 2 patients' trolleys; 2 wc suitable for patient in
wheelchairs —+pl 67(6).
Each x-ray rm must be screened from other parts of bldg either by
barium plaster orbylead sheeting, both very dense heavy materials.All
glazingshould be in lead glass. X-ray eqp heavy and requires ceiling
heights between 3100 and 4000, extra moveable structural beams
suspended fromceiling will be required. Design floorsand ceilings to
takeextraheavyloads. Entrancedoors tox-rayrmshould be 1 400wide
in 2 leaves 900 + 500.
In addition to above mentioned areas support spaces for film sorting,
film reading by radiologistsandfiling necessary,also spacesfortranscribing
reports, sto foreqp and supplies, admin off and oftenconference rm.
X-raybeam carriesinherentdangertoliving cells: propershielding
of all procedure rmessentIal; must bedesigned and supervised
by raditlonspecialist. In UK complywIth Code of Practice for
Protection ofPersonsexposedtolonisingRadiation.
131211
Eg
1312 11
13
I 1
[
[a
1100
[II
p
1700 7200
4 Radiodiagnosticmi/changingcubicles, 28.8 m2 1 transformer2eqp
trolley 3 chestx-ray 4steps 5buckytable 6safety screen 7controlunit
8cassettehatch 9 clock 10stounit 11 bench seat 12shelf&mirror
13hooks
5000
3500 I 5 I
*15004
closed open
5 Viewing&processing rm,open&closedlayouts 1 tanks&water
nstallation 2cassettehatch(from radiodiagnostic rm) 3 darkrm
4processor 5sorting&viewing
170 Community
Hospita/s
RADIOLOGYDEPARTMENTS (cont)
Radiationtherapy
Technique whereby radiation used reduce or eliminate carcinogenic
cells: generated either bynatural source suchasradioactivecobalt orby
man-made as in linear accelerator. Because of massive quantities of
radiation used extremely heavy shielding required contain it: so heavy
thatsomereg require thisdeptbe placed atground level.
Whole unit constructed ofdense concrete:walls, ceiling,floor pitthickest
(approx 1 200) within 3600arc ofeqp, remainderapprox 600. Design all
steelwork, conduit, piping to prevent radiationleakage.Viewing porthole
double-skinned with highly corrosive fluid infill (zincbromide solution);
door locks controlled fromconsole in adjoining rm.
Procedure rmwiththeir shielding mazes must be largeenough accom-
modate eqp plus access forpatienton stretcher/trolley.Spaces required
forpatient receptionand waiting, examination,treatmentplanning,mould
making forshielding needed for patient during treatment, off and work
spaceforstaff. Offand lab space also needed forphysicist forcalibration
and radiation safetyofeqp.
Patients taken into rm containing eqp and so positioned that all 3
sources of radiation converge on diseased partof body; attendant then
retiresto control rm fromwhich patient can beobserved through heavy
lead glass porthole or by tv. Procedure can be very frightening for
patient: ventilation, temp and general environment control of utmost
importance. Pastoral photomural or fresco on wallsand ceiling within
viewofpatient during treatment,together with falsewindow with pastoral
view' opposite entrance, will help alleviate fears.
Nuclearmedicine
Diagnostic procedure involving ingestion by or injection into patient of
radioactive materials whichthen traced by scanning eqp. Am used for
scanning require some shielding; must be large enough accommodate
eqp, patient on stretcher/trolley, console and technician. In contrast to
diagnostic ortherapy procedure rm level ofradiationlowenough allow 2
or more patients scanned simultaneouslyin same space. Support spaces
include reception and waiting, off, sto, well shielded 'hotlab' beside
2 Buckytable: rm h required with floor/ceilingtubestand mm 3000max procedure rmfor sto and preparationof radioactive materials.
4000
CATscanning
Relatively new method of non-invasive imaging of internal organs;
although diagnosticprocedure,often in separatesuitewith own procedure
rm, control rm, computer eqp space and support areas.

NB new diagnostic procedures continually developed; design

shouldallowaddition of mi/services when needed.

600concrete
400concrete

1JJE[ L1—light1
I
p6Inccobaitund
290001 800x500
duct under
dttlaii
5 X-ray film cabinet;willhold
approx 10000envelopes(360 kg),
26000 x-ray films(1040 kg):total
floor loading1 728 kg/rn2

6 Standardx-rayfilm very heavy

(155 kg/rnrun): max unsupported w
3 CobattunitforradiotherapyPembury England ArchSEThamesRHR ofshelf900; eachradiodiagnostic rm
producesapprox625envelopes/
month

QJ -t

4 Typical cyclotron 7 Transformer:weight380 kg 8 Radiodiagnostic controlunit


1 Typicalfloor ofsurgical&specialservicesbldg Massachusetts General
HospitalUSA Arch PerryDeanStahl&Rogers
JH
p
0
123m
5 lOft
2 St JosephHospital TacomaUSAhasellipticoperrmarranged round
centralcontrolrm Arch Bertrand GoldbergAssociates
? 1P 3p
6 6 18ft
3 Stobliill opertheatresuite:8standardtheatres withclean&dirtycorr
1 consultanaesthetistoff 2anaesthetistsecretary's off 3dutyanaesthetist
4studentlecturerm 5wc 6malechanging 7femalechanging 8 formseriesofunitsforuseinnew hospitalsorforupgrading; 10sizes
9cleaner 10 workshop 11 theatresuperintendent 12receptionarporter
l3dirty utility l4transfer l5cleanutility l6recoveryar l7darkrm
18 nursesrestrm 19 surgeonsrest rm 20techniciansrest rm 21 teak
22eqpsto 23theatresister 24 lab 25endoscopy 26calorifiers
27 refrigeration plant 28preparationrm 29opertheatre 30exit lob
31 anaestheticrm 32scrub-upar 33monitorrm 34plastermi 35plaster
sto 36disposalbay 37disposallob 38elgear 39med gases 40 stairto
air-conditioningplant 41 TSSU 42staff restrm Arch Cullen Lochhead &
Brown
Community 171
Hospitals
OPERATINGTHEATRES
Surgical and delivery suites increasingly considered centresto which
patients broughtforprocedures too complex for handling in physician's
off ortreatment area. Unlike traditionalsuite with different rmfordifferent
services (eg, ENT, orthopedic) suites now collection of multi-purpose
rm. In largeinstitutions more than 1 suitelikelybe provided, based on
usage: short (1—3 hr) procedures, such as ambulatory, frequently
separated from general, av length (2—4 hr) and very long (6—8 hr)
procedures. Delivery suites,formerly completelyseparatedfrom surgical,
todaycommonly alongside orintegrated.
Designelements
Consider patient flow: entrance, control, holding pre-anaesthesia,
operating, recovery. Consider staff: control, clean-up. Consider eqp,
particularlyinstrumentsand other goodswhich must besterilisedbetween
each use: done locally (within suite) or centrally (for hospital)? Let
volumes guide. Consider sharing: like types ofprocedure rmcanshare
supplies, cleaning etc. Consider testing functions: 'quick' lab tests,
x-rayetc: howwill theybe done?
Space needs
Space suites need per inpatient bed varies greatly, depending on
whether ambulatory surgery offered, whether hospital has teaching
programmeand other suchfactors: generally28—46 m2foreachoperating
theatre.Space forcirculation,nursingand medicalstaffand non-functional
bldg elements such as air-conditioning eqp usually high ratio in this
setting, perhaps 80% above individual rm needs. Ifreprocessinggoods
donewithinsuite 28—37 m2/operating theatre or delivery rm must be
added. Locker rm, showers and rest rm for staff should be provided
based on numberstaff expected.
Circulation
Crucial to design of high technology operating and delivery suites; 2
basictypes: single corridorand double corridor or 'racetrack'. Single
has 1 corridorleading to all operating/delivery rm, used for patients,
staff and eqp: sterility maintained in each user of corridor and within
theatreitself; each rm preceded by scrub-up ar and has provision for
sterilisation withinitorbetween 2 rm. 'Racetrack'arranges rmin 'circular'
fashion with outside corridor orrm for staff and eqp, presumed sterile;
locker rm 'bridge' corridors; staff and eqp leave with patient; staff
'bridged'backthrough locker rm and showers. Corridor forPtrolleys 2:
45mw; others1.5mw.
Cleanliness
Also critical in operating/delivery suite. All materials,surfaces, joints etc
must be easilycleanable and durable for repeated washings: sealed
joints to prevent infection. Anti-static materials should be used where
patients likelybe connected anaestheticmachines. Check requirements
with technical literature.
171615141312 1110
I I 1;
4 Vedestasystemmodularoper theatreusesbasicstandard octagonalto
available,arfrom23.22m2 —436 m2 1 domesticstaffchange 2disposal
3sluice 4inspection/sto 5generators/batteries6air-conditioning
7emergencycorr 8theatre 9sterilemi 10P in 11 Pout 12surgeons
nursesorderlies in 13surgeonsnursesorderliesout 14sterilesupply
15soiled instruments/disposal 16cleanedinstruments 17access to
services 18 sterilesupply 19 anaesthetic rm 20exit 21 gowning
22scrub-up 23med gas 24instrument sto 25nursestaffrm 26surgeon
staff rm 27 orderliesstaff rm 28recovery 29mobile eqp 30transfer
31 sister 32change—NBservicingoflightingeqp completed outside theatre
172 Community

Hospita/s
OPERATINGTHEATRES(cont)

11 ________
biii
13j16
r&nl
0 5 10 iBm
16 32 488

1 OpertheatresuitesNinewellsHospital Dundee Scotland, designedfor 5 Nut!ield OrthopaedicCentreOxford England: 1 conventional theatre,

I
teaching servicecorr 2opertheatre 3x-ray 4TSSIJ 5accesscor 2 clean-airglassenclosures'withfilteredair&special suitswith airintake&
6femalesurgeons 7malesurgeons 9 nurses 10students 11 anaesthetic exhaustforstaff 1 ramp 2 1-B intensive care ar 3barriernursing 4cleaner
dept l2surgeonsrest l3sto l4nursesrest l5nurseworkrm l6lecture 5ste 6cleanutility 7dirtyutility 8nursesstation 9fireexit 106-B intensive
rm 17junior staff 18 recoveryward 19receptionward 20seniorstaff care 11office 12seminar/restrm 13staff 14lockerrm 15visitors 16from
Arch RobertMatthewJohnsonMarshall wards 17waiting 18B park 19changingrm asurgeons borderties
c nurses 20 rest rm anurses borderlies csurgeons21 theatresister
22 plasterrm 23transferzone 24orderliesbay 25linen 26monitor eqp
1 isolatedpower
6700 station 27 operdept 28exit bay 29anaesthetic rm 30opertheatre
panel 2gas&el
servicepanel 31 gown/scrub-up 32forwardholding 33 switchrm 34sterilisers
3anaesthetiststable 35 batteryrm 36servicear 37med gas 38plant rm 39loadingdock
4monitor
5anaesthetistsstool 40 issu 41 preparation42scrub-up 43operrm 44disposalbay 45dark
6anaesthesiagas rm 46 mobilex-ray
machine 7x-rayfilm
illuminatorsexplosion
proof 8kickbucket
gsurgeonsstool
10deep canily
surgicalilluminator
11 eleciro-surgical
11
and l2doubtebasin
13 mayostand
14 singlepanel
118 lsmobdetvcamera&
recorder 16 ceiling
gas& elservice
17 instrumenttable
18 casecart/trolley
18 aub-stedlisation
20 con 21 scrub-up
ar OesignAxnencan
HealthFacililies/
MedicalPlanning
Associates

2 Generaloper rm
6 Typical opertable in standard
position: willtilt inboth directions; also
? I t Sm designedtake variousattachments; small wheelsused putvery high rolling
loadsonfloor weightapprox230 kg, mm h approx700, maxh approx1 040
1 1ft

3 Anaestheticrrn,exit mi,scrub-uprm, sterilesto: eloutletpointsin

anaesthetic&exit tobesparkless&hoseproof, insterilesto&exit hoseproof
only 1 sterilemi 2oper theatre 3table 4B 5 hb 6sterilesto 7scrub-up
7 Suspendedoperatinglamp
weight8kg
8
4:
Adjustableceiling mounted
exam lamp, weight4.5kg
rm 8anaestheticmi 9anaesthetictrolley 10anaesthetic machine
llservicepoints l2exitrm l3gowning

10 Mobilesuctionunit:this type
4 Opertheatre,36.10m2; alleloutletpointsinanaesthetic rm&theatreto be also availablewithoutcastorsorpull
sparkless&hoseproof 1 controlpanel 2dressingtrolley/cart 3 instrument handle;unitsforconnexiontopiped
trolley 4basinstand 5table 6kickbasin 7stool 8swab stand systemsdo not havelowerpartof
9anaestheticmachine 10anaesthetic trolley 9 Anaestheticmachine controlbox
 Community 173

INTENSIVECARE
Hospitalscontain 2 basictypesbed accn: 'hotel' for patientsnotneeding
continuous directvisual supervision or life-sustainingeqp; 'critical' (UK
intensive) for patients whose survival depends on constant attention
and/or complex life-support eqp. Proportion of critical to hotel and of
numberoftypesof special care units increasing.
Special unitsincludecardiac, spinal injury, burn,transplant, respiratory,
neurosurgical, limb fitting, physical medicine. Usuallyformpartoflarger
hospitals (regional specialties in UK);verylarge hospitals may have all
ofthem.
Design considerations
Will patientbeconscious,requireprivacy,toilet,constantnursingattention?
Will location or configuration of unit help or hinder patient's recovery?
Can staff see all patientseasily?Is ratiopatients/staffstation appropriate?
Can staff get help quickly? Can they reach services (medications, uty
etc) and support (lab testsetc) quicklyand easily? Can they examine
patient easily? What about infection control? Can specialeqp be brought
quickly bedside in emergency? Can monitors, pumps, screens be
Hospitals:special units
easilyread bystaff?Can eqpbe stored handilywhen not in use?
Bed unit basicspace module: numberbeds related to unit, decided by
usage or projected usage: 6—7 usual max. Unit must be sized for bed
(larger and larger as new features added orstructured), eqp (respirators,
pumps, monitors),people(manyasneeded duringresuscitation): common
today11—15 m2/unit.
Access fromentrance to bed unitand between critical. Spaces required
include: nurse/physician for supervising monitors, charting, consult;
support formedication station,uty; special use,egtreatment, procedure,
x-ray, based on patient plus staff/eqp 11—15 m2; amenitiessuchas rest
rm, locker, wc.
Keepdistance from control station or viewpoint to patient small so that
eqp can be read and patient actually seen. Bed unitmay be enclosed in
rm (eg coronary care, where patient conscious, or where infection
control or separation patient fromnoise necessary)or open (egfor max
visibility and quickaccess where patient unconscious).
Staff changing arrangementssimilar those foroperatingtheatres;visitors
if allowed, may be required change shoes, wear gowns and masks.

910203Gm
3264966

N
1 Punit intensivecare pavilionLongIslandJewish-HillsideMedicalCare 2 Masterplan Temple UniversityHospital Philadelphia USAshowing
CenterUSA relationshipbetweenspecialtyunits Arch Perkins & Will

NEUROSURGERY
Because oflengthofeach operationand itsexactingnatureneurosurgery
units rely heavily on support services. Ratio of population to beds
1:100000. 2 theatres shown —(3) serve 60beds. Theatresegg-shaped
to promote smooth flow fully conditioned air (21 changes/hr). Heat-
filtered theatre lamps set in ceiling and 1 wall. Monitoring eqp and
viewinggallery in mezzanine with viewing ports in domed ceiling. Each
theatre equipped with5-panel x-rayviewing box, oxygen, nitrous oxide,
suction, nitrogen for pneumatic tools, electro-encephalograph (EEC)
connexions, and CC1Vfortransmission ofencephalographrecordings.
Anti-staticflooring and flashproof el outlets required. X-ray rm attached
to theatres heavilyequipped for cranialand spinalradiography.Separate
lab forelectro-encephalographyand specialeye exam.Supportmeasures
includephysiotherapy with hydrotherapy pool.
Wards attached to neurologicaltheatres: mixed sex20beds (4 x 4-B, 4
x 1-B). Early ambulation of patients in need ofobservation reflected in
size of day and sun rm; patients encouraged to have visitors who can
help return normal life by using theseand adjacentflowerbay.
SPINAL INJURY
Care foryoung people, who suffer fromparalysisasresult ofaccidents,
eg motorcycle. Require 100%care: nearlyalways doubly incontinent;
because of shockto system can beaggressivetowardsstaff and visitors.
Occupational therapy, physiotherapy and study form vital part of
rehabilitation. Patients may take months recover; care can be divided 0 5 10 IS 20 25
I I I Im
into 3 stages: patients bedfast: can only be moved for bathing and I

16 32 48 64 80 $1
treatmentin horizontal position; patients spend partofwaking hours in
wheelchair: therefore more mobile (after this stage some patients go
home and return forstage 3); patients begin move round on crutches or 3 NeurosurgicalopertheatresWesternGeneralHospital Edinburgh
with walking aids. I
Scotland elevator 7med staff 12k 17domestic service 19eqpsto
21 sterilisingannexe 25stafftoilets 26wr 29secretaries 30staff
Stages 1 and 2 require 20—24 beds, stage 3 28—32 beds. Provide conferencemi 31 plasterrm 32eyerm 33dept/theatresister 34 EEG
approx 20% beds in 1-Bwards and remainderin 4- or6-B. Beds wider 35x-rayrm 36dark/work rm 37theatreha 38scrub-upar 39changing
than normal(1 000); allow mm bed centres of 3500. Provisionof nurse rm 40anaestheticrni 41 opertheatres 42 preparation rrn 43scientific
working rm similar to that for physical/mental handicapped units, observation 44stairtoviewing gallery 45stairtotheatreEEG
—*pl 62—163. 55engineeringplant
174 Community

Hospitals: special units

CARDIACSURGICAL
2 stages of care: intensive therapy and intermediate care. Patients
vulnerable infection: 2out of6018 beds should be in isolated bayswith
full height walls. Patients most vulnerable at immediate post-operative
stagewhen intransit and not attached to electricallyoperated ventilators
or monitors. Intensive care units must therefore be close to operating
theatres.
Example illustrated —*(2) also shows area to be upgradedascoronary
care unit. Requires bio-chemistry lab; some research and staff areas
can be shared. Provide for relatives overnight stay close to but not in
unit.

TRANSPLANT
For replacing damaged or diseased organs (usually kidneys) by direct
transplant fromdonor: needpaired operating theatres, one for donor,
one recipient. Patients nursed in 1-B wards in carefully controlled
environment (liable both toinfection and to infect others). When donors
not available kidneys may be obtained fromcold storebank (may hold
1 Relationshipbetweencardiacsurgeryunit,intensivecare,coronarycare, othersurgical spares required fortransplant surgery suchasskin, eyes,
nursing rm at St VincentMedicalCenterLosAngeles USA Arch Daniel bonemarrow, boneand blood).
MannJohnson&Mendenhall
LIMB FITTINGCENTRE
Considered advisable hold clinics in DGH (community hospital) save
patients, oftenelderly and diabetic, from having travel long distances.
All patients require rehabilitation for everyday living; walking training
should be provided for, either in centre orwithin wheelchair distance. If
centreprovides early post-operative walking training hostel type beds
may be required in or closeto it. Patientscometo centre for consult,
assessment,stumpcastingand limb fitting,and retumforstumpdressings,
limb adjustments and walking training. Provide workshops for making
limbs: if modular limbs mainly assembly process. Cosmetic covers
made on vacuum-forming machines fromhighly inflammable material;
5 10 15
I I
11m special sto required for this and for paint. Forworkshops and sf0 areas
16 32 48 (1
referto factory legislation.

2 CardiacsurgicalunitStobhillEnglandGeneralHospital; conversionof
existingward tosurgical unit 1 oftforregistrars/research fellow 2k 3 sister

mirci
4wclsho 5womensward 6domesticservicerm 7eqpsto 8isolation B
9corr2000w 10intensivecare B 11 preparation rm 12nursesstation
13disposal 14sluice 15mensward 16wc/sho 17treatmentbathr 18day
rm 19dining ar ArchEPhillips

lJ E]

a ((°O 05
5k0

ii H k
0007
0 5 10 15m
9
5 10
b
16 2 4ft
1 2 8ft
3 Nutfieldtransplantation surgeryunitWesternGeneralHospital Edinburgh
Scotland;mechventilationto asepticar, 1-B wards, cleancorr,auxiliaryrrn,
twin oper theatres, (designedforclose controlofairmovement pattern&
L iol
pressunsationtomm infiltration) 1 changing 2k 3sterilesupply
4anaesthetic 5recipienttheatre 6scrub-up 7donortheatre
8decontamination9P mi 10lab 11 Pbathr 12 disposal 13eqpsto
2

4 I0
14elevator 15entranceha/waitingar 16conference rm 17secretary
18director Arch PeterWomersley F—----- Jc

3 —
17
12
1i i ip 1,5
24 Ft
1'6 32 4 64(1
5 Limb centreconsultrm afor4suites bfor2suites
cconsultfitting layouts
4 Limbfitting centre 1 consultrrn 2prosthetist 3prosthetist off rm dwalk, fittingrrn, plasterrm 1 walkway 2plasterrm
4plasterrm 5fIttingrm 6rectifying 7toilets 8treatment 9domestic service 3fitting rm 4consultrm 5wc 6wr 7entrance 8admin 9courtyard
rm 10staff/seminarrm 11 medsocialworker 12walkway 13entryP/staff/ 10from OPD 11 windowwall 12longmirror 13walkingrails 14 plaster
ambulance 14entryplant/largematerials 15entrygoods/materials chair 15 Pwheelchair 16sk 17hb 18desk 19chair 20couch ArchE
16wait 17workshop 18 sto service ArchEPhillips Phillips
 Community 175

Hospitals:special units
BURN UNITS PHYSICALMEDICINE
Seriouslyburntpatients arrive byambulance; nursed onspecial beds in Provides med,domestic and oftenindustrial rehabilitationtofit patients,
carefully controlled environment. Patients liable to infections which either return workor for active domestic life. Provide for inpatients as
prevent acceptance of skin grafts. Each has 1-bed ward with scrub-up well as outpatients: mm population forviable unit150000. Accn related
and gowning lobby for staff and wc and hb for patient. Visitors not to type of population to be served; activities include physiotherapy,
allowed enterward:viewpatientthrough fixedobservation window. Unit remedial gymnastics, hydrotherapy, occupationaltherapy, heavy and
hasown theatre suite fortreatment and skin grafting. light workshops, consult and clinical resources, together withprovision
for speech therapists, disablement resettlement officers and social
workers. Because most attenders disabled accn should be on ground
floorwith carparkingcloseby (3000 wide baysallow disabledmanoeuvre
wheelchair fromcar)—p166(3). Specialprovision children uptoage 10,
usually within children's ward. Some patients attend for half or whole
day, othersfor 1 session/day; may be need for hostel accn for those
who have totravellong distance.
Gymnasium should be 10 x 20 x 7.6 m h (forball games) withbay 1 500
deepoff one side forstacking apparatus,and changing rm and wc(1.5
m2/P). Physiotherapy also involves individual treatment cubicles, walk-
ing and otherexerciseareas,waxtreatment rm(highfire risk) and splint
rm,withoffices,interview rmand linensto. Partoftreatmentarea should
have suspended below ceiling, at approx 2000above floor, reinforced
metal grid forconnectingslings and pulleys necessarytosupport patient's
paralysed limb during treatment ortraining.
Hydrotherapy pool —*(3) requires changing accn with clothes lockers
and sho, including 1 for wheelchair users, recovery areas with couch
(1 700 x 2200deep), utility area fordrying costumes and gowns, and
possiblywashing machine and drier. Provide apparatus bayfor floats,
cradles etc.
0 10 20 30 40 50m
I
I I
I
I II I I Occupational therapy workshops must complyfactory regs.
32 64 66 126 160ff

1 Bums unitQueenVictoriaHospital EGrinstead England 1 wr 21-B with t850

wc 3nursesstation 4cleanutility 5k 6 sto 7weighing rm 8 clinical lab ±800
9doctoroff 10visitorswc 11 sistersoff 13visitorsha&corr 14relativesrrn t550
& wc 15 ambulancebay 16resuscitation 17assessment 18admission
rm 19 staffdo 20surgeonsscrub 21 anaesthetic rm 22 opertheatre
drain oo
23sluice 24treatmentrm 25theatrecorr 26nursingcorr 27rest rm
28dirty utility 29med gases 30airlock 31 disposalcorr 32interviewrm hooks sho
33entrancetoplant rmunder 34courtyard Arch DonaldGoldfinch&
Partners

111111! I
trolley!

sho r
QD
lockers
wheelchairchanging
lockers
recoveryj

staff c
2 baseJ
Deptofphysicalmed SouthernGeneralHospital Govan Scotland 1 plant electric hoist
rm 2heavyworkshop 3timbersto 4 lightworkshop 5eqp sto 6duty rm if necessary
7utility rm 8finishedarticlessto 9bathr 10bedr 11 k 12senior
occupationaltherapist 13femalestaffchanging 14 malestaffchanging
15hydrotherapypool 16gymsto 17apparatusgym 18Pchanging
19activetreatmentrm 20apparatussto 21 preparationbay 22linensto 71 c
23 paraffinwax rm 24femalestudentschanging 25femalestaffchanging
26male studentschanging 27studentscommonrm 28staffrm 29 passive U staff
treatmentmale 30passivetreatmentfemale 31 interview rm 32 reception/ ifnecessary-.._.-' apparatus
records 33waitingspace 34 trolley(cart)/wheelchair bay 35consultmi
36med officer 37principal'soff 38uppergym 39 tank ml Arch Keppie
Henderson&Partners 3 Hydrotherapypool

4 Physiotherapy&rehabilitation, 51.6m2
1 coathooks 3wall bars 4hb 5wheelchair
6papertoweldispenser 7benchseat 11 disposal
bin 13fixedbicycle 15parallelbars 16exercise
steps 17mobile mirror 18 mat 19clock
20adjustableshelving 21 wall hooks 22stool
23trolley (cart)/matsto box
176 Community

Hospita/s
PATHOLOGYLABORATORY, POSTMORTEM ROOMS and snacks notavailable nearby, rest rmwhere thesecan be mademust
be provided.
Pathogens classified in UK in 4 categories: A, B, B2 and C
Reception area must have bench with impervious disinfection proof
Category A extremelyhazardous: includes lassa feverand smallpox. finish and handbasin set as in lab (above), with racks for delivered
Specimens assoon asidentified must besealed intospecialcontainers specimens and steforspare racksetc. Specificarea,notwithin reception
and sentto regional lab assigned forpurpose. orlab, must be provided for patients sent to give blood samples.
Category Bincludebrucella spp, hepatitisB, m tuberculosis: all workon
thesemust becarried outin exhaustprotective cabinets.Lab should not Note: pathology lab must not be designed withoutreferenceto
be less than 18 m2, must have lockable door with glazed observation pathologist incharge.
panel and also contain handbasin with bi-flow wrist operative taps,
papertoweldispenser and bin near door. Other eqp includes frig, deep Laboratorybenches
freeze,stofordisposable gloves, tissues, encasingjars etc, rowofpegs
near door forprotective clothing. Discardedspecimens must besentfor a 6—- $9oj. b 4200 f900-
autoclaving. Waste drainage frommostoftheseareasrequired to be in
separate runs. I I

Categories B2and C donot requirespecial accnbutadvisabledesign all U

00
fixed benches
lab tocategory B standard.
Provision forchanging vital tosafety ofstaff: each lab mustcontainpegs
I I I
forlab coats and each unitmust store6setsprotective clothing including U
bootsforeach staff member. Discarded clothing must be put in recep-
taclé for autoclaving. Each workr, off and reception area must have
handbasin near exit. Staff lockers for outer clothing and personal be- C 6450—4
II
4

longingsmust bein separate cloakroom. Staff visiting wards mustwear I CIII

separate lab coats forthisand thesemust bestored away fromlab. Iftea structuralceiling
900 servicesceilingntc!_i_
Spfle

49

2 a'Nuffield', 24.8 m,fixedbencheswithfixedservicespinesalong

partitions:hasbeencriticised forinflexibility b 'Darwin',standard1 200
x 600tables associatedwith 150 x 2400movable servicespine: services&
drainhaveflexibleconnexionsto ceiling &floor points c Edinburgh', 24.5 rn2
providesfreebenches& fixedservicespinessupplied fromverticalducts:
givesgreaterflexibilityoflayout Arch Nuffield Foundation, Lab Investigation
Unit, EdinburghUniversityARU

1200.005

:
150 —
2000
II;

3 Typical benchwith rig&built-in

service 4 Fumecpd

46O420
_________________ 7 Manestywaterstill
_________________ 6 Deioniser small size:output 1.11/
5 Autoclave hr,weight 13.5kg

1 Pathologydept EastboumeEnglandDGH 1 escape stair 2fireexit -n

3films 4laboff 5pathologist 6 hb& particle mixing 7 coagulation & mortuary
electrophoresis8ante-natal 9grouping 10pathologist 11 manual &
special 12sto 13packing 14centrifuge 15blood bank 16 reception postrnorlernml
cleani
17wc 18wr 19exam 20 clerical 21 chieftechnicianoff 22sterilising
23outfItpreparationrm 24stacking 25mechsection 26balance rm 6 Sm booth
27chromatography&toxicology 28 chemical sto 29disposal 30workshop 9
31 microbiology lab 32mediapreparation 33printrm 34darkrm35studio 6 12 18 24ff
36records 37med photographer 38wc afemale bmale 39staff rrn
4ofluorescentmicroscopy 41 coldrm 42hotrm43 histologysto 44pathologist 8 Mortuary&post mortem rm: locate loading baywherenotvisiblefrom
off 45serology lab 46cytology lab 47Specinien cutting 48histology lab main P orvisitorar;viewing rm notclinicalincharacter;hospitalchapel
49 staining&sections 50pathologygassto 51 recovery&wr 52wash-up sometimesusedforthis purpose; goodventilation needed topostmortem as
Arch SETRHA infectedspecimenshandled
 Community 177

Hospitals
PHARMACY LIBRARY
2typesof hospital lib, professionalformed and nursing staff, lending for

T345666 : patients; libraries also—api 29 145—8.

1 PharmacyEastboumeEngland DGH 1 staffentrance 2 issue ar
3dispensary 4wash-upar 5bulkpreparation ar 6 dangerous drugs&
poisonssto 7bulk sto 8chargeable empties 9inflammable liquids
10incinerator 11 goodsentrance 12do afemale b male 13 asepticrm
14sterilepreparationrm 15qualitycontrol 16sterilising mi 17staffrm
18deputypharmacist 19chiefpharmacist20general off 21 reception lob
Arch SETRHA
Professional normally attached educational areas; medand nursing lib
traditionally separate. Both requirebookstacks (16 books/rn) with space
for browsing, work tables and, if requested, study carrels —a(3) and
securitybarriers at entrance and exit. Area140 m2for general hospital
with post-graduate med training and similar space for nurse training
school lib. Hospital without these activities will require approx 46 m2 for
each profession.
Patients' lib will serveboth ambulantand bedfast and openfor limited
periodsduring day. 600-bed hospital may have 5000booksinarea 65
m2. Provide bookstacks (26 books/rn), chairs and tables usable by
elderly and disabled —a(4)(5). Bedfast patients served at bedside from
book trolley (cart) —a(6). Adjustable shelving needed take large print
books. Permissible floor loading in theseareas should be checked as
bookscan weigh up to 30 kg/rn run of5 shelf stacks. All ib need small
workr(10m2)and book sf0with shelving (5m.

Many large hospitals manufacturepharmaceuticalsaswell asdispensing

r
them. Some hospitals serve satellite hospitals, health centres, clinics 2100
and individual outpatients: check policies before starting design.
Because goods delivered can be bulky and heavy main loading dock pinboard
should beused;but because can beinflammable,explosive, corrosive,
fragile, require special environmentforsto: if (UK) DangerousDrug Act cassetterecorder

(DDA) drugs, poisons, or other poisons liable to misuse, must be

delivered tospecially designed protected areawith accessforauthorised
persons only; ODA drugs must be transported in locked containersat all
times.
Stoareas should providefloorsto forlargeitems, adjustableshelving for
,/
aiiow680unobstnicledh extrachair
t
toundersideiffor ifrequired
smaller items (300 for normal, 100 for small). Inflammable sto may wfreefohair users
contain items fromother dept: must be isolated from main bldg (refer to
current legislation controlling design and use). Cool sto fordrugs must 3 Studycarrel,providedformed&nursingstaff; alsosuitableforPstudying
be kept remote from any heat source, including sun; thesesto often forexam
within security sto: should be internal with controlled access (refer
current legislation for design and use). Bulk sto: divide into liquid and
dry powder areas; allow for storing heavy items on floor; pallet and
fork-lift systems suitable for some items; allow ample room for
manoeuvring fork-lift.

T' ;:!
Preparation areas include large floor-mounted mixers and steam- 10
heated pans for manufacture; small lab may be required for quality
control. Required also: machine to reduce items to unit packs; sterile
area to prepare and package material for autoclaving, which requires iLLIAL1
2000
inspection, labellingand sf0areas.Installautoclaves(largefloormounted
machines) againstwallsso can be maintainedfromoutside sterile area.
Stillsformanufacturing distilled water requirepiped connexion tosterile 4 General lib: recommended mm 5 General lib: informallayoutof
spacebetweenbookstacks table &chairs allowsforwheelchairs
preparation area. All sterile areas require special dust-free finishes
complywithstringent requirements of med inspectorate.Wash-up area 1000
requiressink, washing eqp, drying cabinets and shelving for clean and -t
returned containers. 450

Dispensing and messenger service areawith ante-rm foremptiesshould iij

have counter and security sto forpharmacy boxes awaiting distribution.
1' rurr
tjiI Ii
•1 • P
III!I tII!I II
Hospitals which dispense toindividualoutpatientsneed separatecounter
and waiting area forthis. liii!:

6 Lib trolley (cart)fortaking round

wards
2x3u68201
213i
5amp spareoxygen
oxygenmanitoid switchfuse cyiinders

manitoid heavy tab

2spareNO
.,,u cylinders
m .con,mons

1.__
200diacyhnders
at255C/conmanifold ganges
at230c/consparesracks controlunit
a
b
2 a Manifoldrmforsmall hospital bcombinedmanifold&sto rm;gases
normallysto:oxygen,nitrousoxide, nitrous oxide/oxygen,compressed air—
mustnotbeput withhydrogenoracetylene;sto must beon ground level for
accessfordeliveryvehiclesfromopenair, notfromcor; singlestorey, non-
combustible,1 hrfrmm, 2brickwallsorequivalent; sto normally takes 0 102030m
32 64966
manifolds&racksforsparecylinders; typicalautomatic manifold with2duty&
2reservecylinders:1630 x 6lodeep:1 extracylindereachsidegives5lo 7 LayoutofteachingcentreKnightCampusUniversityofRhode Island USA
extraI;2 x manifold—3600
178 Community
Hospita/s
NON-RESIDENTSTAFFCHANGING avnumberofstaff on duty atany 1 time approx 20% oftotal employed. If
hoursworked bypart-time staff reduced, egto 30 hr/week, percentages
As proportion of part-time staff tofull-timeincreases percentageoftotal of staff on dutyslightlylower.

-
staff on dutyatany1 time tendsto decrease. In allinstancesestimate of

12lX0
staffonduty %oftotalstaff

full-timestaffonly 19 IliIIiIi[iIWiiIHI]]iiIiilIiW
1 full-time: 2 part-time 18 --
bench
1 full-time: 4 part-time 17.5 S
1 full-time: 10 part-time 17 U)
.'i_i_L_L1 1

1 Max percentageofstaffonduty at any 1 time I. .4ljlockers.-

liii 111111 11111111 II I liii III
b
basis ofallocation approxtotal
12000

a lockersallocated onpermanent
basis,changing&sto combined
i locker300 x 550 x 1800
ii locker200 x 550 x 1 800
0.81
0.72
IlJ
II
II Ii.i41j.UIIL]tft LLLL[IIIIJ } ii.
tlIiiiLliLt

b lockersallocated ontemporary
basis,changing&sto combined S
i locker300 x 550 x 1800 0.43 N
mirrors I mirror
ia withsmall permanently I I T I I I brusliup l2dlangU)gspaces brushup
allocated lockersadjacent 0.5 a
& _J__1__L_J LJ_L_IL ar
c hangingbasketsallocated on -6olockers
permanentbasis:sto ofbaskets I-
behindcounter,changing IiIIIIIIIIIIiiiI11111 Mliii II11111111 liii[11111 11111111 I
C
separateoradjacent
i singletierhangingbaskets 0.84
ii 2-tire hangingbaskets 0.63 4 Changingrm aforcompletechangeusinghanging basketsforclo sto—n(2),ar/P 0.48 m2, ar/Pwith
d hanging basketsallocated on personallocker0.55 m2; bforstaffrequired tochangedowntounderclothes; locker300 x 500 x 1800;
temporarybasis:sf0 of baskets 1 changingspace:8sto lockers; cforstaffrequiredtoremove outdoorclothing;locker200 x 550 x
behindcounter,changing 1 800; 1 changingspace:5sto lockers
separateoradjacent
i singletier hanging basket 0.48
ia with small permanently I

!
4500 6150
allocated lockersadjoining 0.55 u
ii 2-tier hanging baskets 0.34
ha with small permanently
II III [liii!!
--
I
allocated lockersadjacent 0.41

2 Spacerequiredbyeachemployeeforstoring & S F I
changingclothes:only immediatecirculationar
included;entrances&maincorrvalyaccording to
location &numberof staffinvolved II!IHThHHIHI . I I I -

acnn provided arrii 5 Layoutfor150 personallockers nearuser's 6 Bulk sto for384 sets cleanunfiform
work station
femalestaff 3 wcwith hb

malestaff
2separatehb
2sho
1 chemical disposal bin
2wcwith hb
2592
tE-
IIL EJI
3urinals 25.92 I ILII] L. LIIIII
I'
5separate hb
2sho
NI ILIII LIII
IIIJ LIII
waitingar informalarrangement of
(peakuse comfortable seating & 23.23
4 obstruction oflockerdoors clearancesmustallowfor
by20 staff) lowtables 3600
byseatedperson lockerdoors

3 Ancillaryaccnprovidedonpeakusefigures 7 Bulk sto forsupply&disposalbagsfrom au: 8 Clearancesforlockers

(peakuseby36staff) 10—12disposalbagscater approx300staff/week

9 Lockerforstaffrequiredto 10 Lockerforstaff requiredto 11 Smallpersonallockersnear 12 Hangingbasket:loadedweighs

changedowntounderclothes removeoutdoorclothingonly user's workstation about8kg
egnurses
 Community 179

Hospitals
codeno space untar spaces totalar OFFICES
m2

65 65
As in other industries and services demand for admin space grows
business off; clerks
alarmingly. Can bethought ofashaving2components,1 which processes
1 1

2 business off: manager 11 1 11

3 staff lockers 3 1 3 information and 1 which usesit. Processors: such deptasmedrecords,
4 staff lounge 7 1 7
data processing, accounting; users: suchdeptashospital admin, med
5 credit/collections oft creditmanager 9 1 9
6 credit/collections; off 7 1 7 staff, financial control.Admissions combine both.
7 accounting off: comptroller 11 1 11
Space requirement for each component different: for processing dept
8 accounting off; secretary 7 7
9 accounting off; accountants 9
1
3 28 factors:volumeand typeof information and eqp used orprojected tobe
10 accounting off; payroll 9 1 9 used:inputchanging rapidly asdata processing advances;foruser dept
11 accounting/audit; conference 15 1 15
peopledetermine spaces.
12 cashier; office 9 1 9
Individual office spaces similar commercial offices —3235—8.
netarfotal 181 People formprime design consideration:adminworkersgenerally spend
grossing factor (50%) 90
alldayattheirposts; pleasantenvironmentaccordinglyimportant. Patient
grossartotal 271
and med staff interface crucial. Privacy of interviews,particularly about
1 Offspaceallocations thingsmedand/orfinancial must be considered.
Typical space allocationsfor hospital offices in USA —e(1).
goods
+ SUPPLY STORES& DISPOSAL
receiving lambulant P care
&shipping surgery!
IP dept divisions Nearly all goods, except sometimes pharmaceuticals and oftenfood,
todIetary delivery received and disposed centrally. UK daily av weight goods handled in
perishables
special items to
maintenance
I
.
emergency
600 B hospital 3000 kg, waste produced 1 200 kg. Considerations
central
general sto
+
orpharmacy
,1\ centralsterile
Supply
receiving &
relating to central general stores (CGS).
Function: receiving sto, distribution of goods, supplies and movable
eqp; inventory control.
bulkfoods todietary CGS ismantlina
leaning allitems
Main planning options: useofdisposables orreusables?Systems for
materials handling, conveying and transport; remote sto possibilities.
linens tolau
to alldepl
(c'1
linen ssembling
packs
sterilising
Key space: service courtforvehicles, sizedforseparateaccessto bldg
entrypointsforvarious types service traffic—e(2). Receiving dockwith
*
supplies
neweqP to toring
distributing levellers. Warehouse: special/secure stoareas.
requisitioning Main design issues: separation of incoming goods from outgoing
from dept
deptH
US eqp to alldept 3 CSSDfunctionalrelationships material(supplies,eqp,perishables,trash,refuse,soiledgoods); separate
rinted form to admin receiptand handling offoodstuffs; internally segregatedstoand control
,, ofgoods (central supply sto(CSS), pharmacy,engineering); special sf0
volatile liquids0 requirements: med gases, volatile liquids.
separatesf0 I
pharmacy Items classified as fragile, or needing light, moisture or dust control,
needspecial arrangements. Items withhigh security risk (eg radioactive
2 CGSallocations material, dangerous drugs, inflammable gases, volatile material) must
be stored in accordance with legislation and reg. Guide to UK areas
number ofBserved required —(4).
commodity Sto areas at point-of-use must allow for extraspace required during
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 public holidayperiodswhen portering staff not available.Usual holiday
Sf0Sr (UK):72-hrperiod 4or5times/year—*(5).
dry provisions 90 125 145 170 190 215 245 270 295 Conveying methods vary fromhand-pushed trolleys (carts) toautomatic
coldsto provisions 25 35 50 60 70 85 95 105 120 conveyor systems; UK experiencesuggestsautomatedsystem, needing
staff uniforms 45 65 80 95 105 120 140 155 170 trainedmaintenanceengineers, cannot be justified onsavings expected
Pclothing 5 10 10 10 15 15 15 20 20
cleaning materials 20 25 35 40 40 45 50 55 60 in labour costs: suchsystems vulnerable to mech failure or industrial
hardware&crockery 25 35 45 50 55 60 70 75 85 action.
bedding & linen 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 55 60
printing & stationery 95 130 155 175 195 220 245 275 300
CENTRALSTERILESUPPLY
dressings
(excCSSD) 45 60 70 80 85 95 105 115 125 Whathappens: centralised receipt, cleaning, packing,sterilisation, sto
CSSD dressings 20 25 30 35 35 40 40 45 50 and distribution ofreusable supplies (UKcentral sterilised supplydepot
med&surgical
sundries 60 75 95 110 125 145 160 180 195 (CSSD)). Special sterileprocessing of goods used inpatient care dept,
50 65 85 95 110 130 145 160
disposables 180
particularly surgery, obstetrics, emergency. Functional relationships
disposablebedpans
&urinals 60 75 100 110 130 155 175 185 210
es-localauthority Main planning options: closeness of relationship to other materials
handling functions: CGS, Iau against traditional ties to certain users:
items 65 90 105 125 140 160 180 200 215
sto ar
total 620 835 1030 1185 1330 1525 1710 1895 2085
non-Sb ar 370 390 425 465 475 490 520 555 565 surgery, obstetrics. Means of conveyance for sterile goods (dedicated
basic totalar 990 1225 1455 1650 1805 2015 2230 2450 2650 orgeneral usesystems).
recommended total
stoar 1050 1310 1560 1770 1940 2170 2400 2640 2860 Key spaces: decontamination, sterile processing preparation, stoand
issue.
4 DHI-1Sguide to planning centralsf0:requiredsto ar in m2 withworkingh Main design issues: strictseparationofdirt and cleanworkareas, use
between6000 &6500&sto upto5palletsh ofsteriliserbank to formseparation; location ofsterilisation function for
surgical instruments.
permanent
use bedpans loadw cen clearw
&urinals 1200 1400
1100 1300
900 1100
750 1000
600 90)
450 800
300 600

24hr
48hr +
72hr

5Storequirementsatpoint-of-useover72-hrholidayperiodfordisposable 6 wofload carriedrelatedtowof 7 Reach&space requirements for

&permanentuse items: disposableitemsincrease spacerequired corronsf0 ar avwomancollectingsto
180 Community
Hospita/s
HOUSEKEEPING DIETARYSERVICES
What happens:regular,thorough cleaningallparts hospitalwith special Most space-consuming ofall service elements.
emphasis on infection control in patient care areas and with respect What happens:meal service toseveralhospital populations:inpatients,
related materials flow; refuse disposal. Option: linen handling.
staff, ambulant patients, visitors. Procurement, diet planning, food
Relationships diagram—v(1).
preparation, distribution to inpatients by transport means, others by
Main planning options: determine effecton workload ofcleanliness serving line and diningrm; dishwashing and cleaningof dirty returns.
standard desired, extent ofair-conditioning/airfiltration,ease ofcleaning
and maintaining interiorfinishes. Manual or mech means ofconveying Main planning options: form ofdistribution: bulk transportfromcentral
trash(eg pneumatic tube system)? Manner and meansoftrashdisposal kitchentolocal stations in patient unitsagainstcentralised tray make-up
(—±lau/linen services).
Key spaces: central kitchen: receiving and sto, preparation, cooking,
Key spaces: housekeeping materials sto (ie maids/janitors cpd, eqp dish-washing, scullery, waste, trash and garbage disposal. Dining (for
sto); stafftraining area/admin. staff, visitors, ambulant patients); service line, table seating; local
Main design issues: size and distribution of cpd; centralisation of distribution stations; nursing floor kitchens or pantries.
eqp/materials sto. Maindesign issues:meansofdistribution of inpatient meals.—uFunctional
relationships food services—v(3).
LAUNDRY/LINENSERVICE In UKtrend towards tray service fromkitchen asopposed bulksupplies
What happens: dirty linen collected at points of use, conveyed to to ward—v(5): patients can choose menu day before. Food may travel
centralised sorting stations; washed,extracted, dried, mended, ironed, several km before reaching destination: insulated trays and plates on
stored. Clean linen distributed user dept according quantity and time heated carts/trolleys essential. Diet kitchen provides both med and
schedules, Ifoutside commercialserviceused linencounted andweighed ethnicdiets.
when sentand received; dirtycollection and clean distribution functions Machinery noise and vibration can be disturbing, particularly potato
remain unaffected. peelers, food mixers and central wash-up machinery.All ventilatorsand
Main planning options:linen load: operating policies on linen use grilles removable and washable. Floors and walls: impervious easy
clean finish; floorsnon-slip; floordrains must have grease traps.
depend upondisposalsagainstreusables—epi 79(5).Dirty linen collection
system: handlingand accumulation at points of use, meansofconveyance
to sortingstation, infection control, volume of cart/trolley traffic, overall
cleanliness. Clean linen distribution: cart/trolley system to user dept,
sf0system in units. Inventorycontrol: preventingwasteful use,excessive
wear, lossfrompilfering.
Key spaces: dirty collection and holding: hamper packing,chutes and
vestibules. Lau: area, shape and height forefficient handlingof material
and for employee comfort. Clean linen distribution and sto: cart/trolley
parking, shelf-cabinet sf0.
Main designissues: degree of decentralisationin bed unitsof nurse
workareas and supplies/linen sto. Pneumaticsystem expense against
general cleanliness in patientunits and corridors.Functionalrelationships

9
..—.-—------.mainflowsofsb & food
staff
foodhom dayiarder

1 scrapingbench 2crockerywashed 3centraiwash-up 4diningcrockerysin Sserviceeiovator

towards 6eqpsto 7cartJtroiiey8diningservery 9staffdr 10conveyorDeft 11 wardservery
l2barderraii l3dietk l4dietoff l5ia l6refusesto l7stuilrm l8sio lgteabar20chefoff
21 cio afemate bmaie 22 maink 23vegetabiepreparation24 vegetabiesin 25day ia 26 dry
goodssto 27 plantrm 28fish preparation29 mealpreparation30 pastrypreparation 31 pot
wash 32domesticsupervisor 33 corr 34 meatfresh 35 caienngofficer 36 ramp Arch Oxford
At-IA

5 Kitchen area Wycombe DGHEngland,serves650meals/sitting;

individualfood platesprepared forPon conveyor belt;tilledtray takenby
2 Lau/linenservicerelationships trolley to wardsby lift; usedtrays& crockery washedcentrally

4 HennepinCountyMedical
CenterMinneapolisUSAhas
automateddeliveryservices
Housekeepingrelationships
includingmonorail-styletrack&
chain conveyornetworkwith moving
Hennepincounty lockers&containersforcarrying
food preparation files, allkinds ofmaterials,medicine
service &food,deliveredfrom separate food
preparationbldg Arch Medical
FacilitiesAssociates—General

typIcalgaflery

cartreceiving
3 Foodservicerelationships
 Community 181

Hospitals
COMMUNITYHEALTHCARE
O 5 10 15 20 25m
15 30 4 oh 75ft Community health care inUK, alongside general practitioner (GP), now
principally provided by health centre (HO). In USA 'free-standing'
ambulatory unitsfall into several categories, in addition to physician's
office, generally with twofold aim providing preventative medicine and
making available health care atlower cost than involved in full hospital
treatment. Each such unit starts with programme worked out meet
marketneeds within service area, community or region. Various types
unit include Health MaintenanceOrganization (HMO), founded some
40 years ago asalternative insuranceprogrammeforindustrialworkers,
primary care centres in rural areas tor emergency exam and treatment
(include pre-hospital beds), community healthand social centres usually
founded by local or regional government. Each of these may contain
some, all or more services than UK HC. Larger ones often attached
hospitals.
HC primary activities: consult, exam and minor treatment backed by
med records, reception, waiting and sto areas. Basic amenities must
include: pram and carparking, wcforpatientsand staff, changingareas,
rest rm with kitchenette forstaff.
Secondary activities forlargeHC may include diagnostic and treatment
1 ClydebankScotlandHC groundfloorwith wingsforlocal healthauthority, services — physiotherapy, chiropody, dentistry, radio diagnosis and
hospitalservices&GP,some amenities being shared 1 consult 2 interview pharmacy — and health clinics for education and assessment, off for
3 disposal 4waiting 5drugs 6wc 7treatment 8 lob 9test 10typist health visitors,domiciliary nurses, social workers etc.
11 sterilesto 12sto 13telephone 14switchboard 15secretary
16records&reception 17 entrance 18play centre Viable size for HC consulting resources for not less than 6 GP, but as
vital to place HO near population served may be smaller and less well
equippedin rural areas.
On basis 1 GP has approx 2500 patients, centre for 6 GP will serve
population of 15000 and for 12 GP 30000. Assume health visitor can
coverapprox3500 and district nurse 2500people.
Sitesmust be near public transport routes; access fromroads and car
parks must be designed for wheelchair—p19 43 166 and pram users.
Entrancesshould be protected from rain and prevailing winds and have
covered and well supervised pram park.Allow forprotecteddisposalarea
forwaste: check with local authorityor health authorityhow tobecollected.
9 lp 15m Large centres may requireseparatestaff and service entrance; patients
15 3b 455 entrance may need canopyhigh enough take ambulance—p166(2).HO
groundsshould beattractivebutsimply landscaped formm maintenance.
2 CrieffScotlandHC 1 consult 2dirtyuty 3urinetest 4wr 5healthvisitor Manyrm in HO serve same purpose as equivalent rm in OPD: same
6telephone 7k 8staff 9boiler 10disposal 11 do 12toilets 13reception layoutcan be used with minor adaptations. Main difference: HO do not
14 treatment 15entrance deal with suchlarge numbers of patients; nor do they deal with acute
med and surgical cases needing sophisticated diagnosticand treatment
eqp. Rm which can easily be adapted for HO are set out —+p166—7;
most importantare: wheelchairwcp167(6),disposalrm, p167(8),dinette
& urine test rm, p167(5), ambulance dimensions, p166(2), automatic
doors, p166(4), disabled patients car parking, pl66(3).

3200
3 Dentalsuite,2-man practice; dentalchair(165—200 kg),dentalunit
(51 kg) needfirm fixingtofloor;services required: water,waste,gas, el,
compressedair 1 hb 2couch 3curtain 4armchairs 5recoveryrm
6steriliser 7aspirator 8sk 9disposal 10dental chair 11 smalldental
surgery 12worktop 13dentaleqpcabinet 14operating lamp 15cartltrolley
16 anaestheticcart/trolley 17desk 18largedentalsurgery 19 gasoutlet
20benchwith benchpin 21 wastehole bin below 22dustextract 23duck-
board 24 dentalworkshop 25filing 26 DDAcpd 27dentalunit
Waiting
Provide general waiting area. Small forward waiting areas required for
each group of consult rm. Assuming appointmentsystem, allow 7.0 n?
waiting areaforeach suite. Seatingshould becomfortableand informal.
Med records
Med records in 2 sizes: standard 175 x 125, new A4 in folders 310 x
240. Sto may bein shelves, filing cabinetsorrotaryfilingunits. Including
access these methods require floor space 1 .5—2.0 m2/1000 records.
Shelves cheap butoffer nosecurity; cabinetsexpensive butsecure and
adaptable;rotary notsecureand expensive.Allow for increaseinnumbers
of records.
Dental clinic —(3)
Dental clinicfor2-man practice consists of 2 surgeries (1 large enough
for principal surgery), recovery rm with couch and basin for post-
anaesthesia patients, dental workshop and waiting area plus normal
central records and reception area. Allow 9.5 m2 waiting area for 2
surgeries. Surgeries should have NEaspect if daylight needed buttrend
towardstheatre-type operating lamps and more mobile eqp. Obscured
glazingrequired for windows.
Chiropodyroom—(4)
Should be on ground floor oraccessible by elevator.

Hospital references:
—*Bibliographyentries 013014017020022023024025054 218219
220262 294 296 303 315 336 337 341 349354 362 419 420 421 478
4 Chiropodyrm,11.0m2 525547551 559560576577578647
182 Commerce

Churches
GENERALARRANGEMENT
hafor celebrant's
orchestra chair highaltar Main divisions ofChristian churches today: Orthodox (principallyGreek
vestry sacnsty sacristyflC communion
CflOi,tl sidealtar
and Russian), Reformed,RomanCatholic,separationbetween Orthodox
and Roman dating fromearliest history of Christianity, break between
pulpit
dom
i_tp1p1t I Reformed and RomanCatholic from 16th century.
In Roman Catholic churches emphasis now placed onmass in common
& tongue; altar usually raised. Reformed order of service depends on
hafor whether 'high', 'low' or 'free'. Some likeness between forms of Roman
communicant
altar
baptistryIf' 4N choir
Catholic, High Anglican and High Presbyterian (Scotland and USA).
towers Free followCalvinist and Lutheran origins with emphasis on preaching
sarcophagus t and communion carried out round 'Lord's Table', usuallycentrallyplaced
with nearbypulpiteither behind table orto left hand side. Baptists need
large heated water tank usually under removable floor for inititiation by
1 DesignforBerlinerDom 2 Typical Roman Catholicchurch total immersion. Fonts used almost universally for initiation into main
(Lutheran)GermanyArchSchinkel layout
groups and dedication into others. Many newer religious sects have
idiosyncratic requirements related to special forms and musical per-
formances. In USA Protestantchurches have approx70million members,
Roman Catholic 50million, Orthodox4million.
entrance font ladychapel
—i high Churches throughout world now have strong community concern;
with planning often relates to weekday uses; keyword flexibility. Ancillary
lantern accn, according to programme, may incorporate, eg coffee rrn, coun-
over selling rm, meeting rm, radio station. Car parking must be taken into
account. Centralised planpopular;but ritualistic, processionaland oblong
pressionaI door forms also used. However, importance ofpriest, pastororleader should
not belost; liturgical functions carried outbyindividualchurches of great
importance in design.
4 St Paul Bow Common (Anglican) More recently new factors have emerged, among them security of
LondonEnglandArch R Maguire church property, adequate acoustic design (for music and voice) and
provision fordisabled.
sacristy communicants high
altar sacristy
9
wc side
tar congregationa
pul font chapel

erPU2
5 Circular Protestant church 6 Roman Catholicchurch
EssenGermanyArch Bartning 0 Cologne-RietilGermany
Arch D Bôhm

'Iss,y —
—altar
communion
chapel
—
— -
pulpit
pulpit. • stage
10 OrthodoxchurchofSt SavaMcKeesport USA ArchPekruhn

II
UI wc

Lrr sacrlstry- J k(tea)

7 CorpusChnsti(RomanCatholic) 8 Church&parishha(Reformed)
churchAachenGermany 1-lanweilerGermany
Arch A Schwarz Arch R Kruger

"-i'
¶ii
- 2

--4— ---FllI—i11
--f- —

11 StMichaelHatfieldHyde (Anglican) WelwynGarden City England Arch

9 Notre Damedu Raincy(RomanCatholic)ParisFranceArch A Perret Clarke HallScorer& Bright
key 1 sanctuary 2nave 3pulpit 4baptislry 5secondaryaltars key 1 entrance 2chapel 3vestly 4pulpit&lectern 5baptistry 6altarwith
6confessional baldachino
 Community 183
Churches

a = 800—900 a = 850—950 INTERIORS,FURNISHINGS

seatw= 500-550 b = 50—140
Seatw= 500—550 Seating
hathook In some churches provision for worshippers to kneel not necessary
—
eso —(1); inotherssimple hassock or kneeler incorporated in bench—(2).
I Most important measurement for benches with kneelers: distance of
350 outside edgeof kneeler, when foldeddown, fromperpendiculardropped

i50fJt fromarm rest: approx 175—200.

160

Area/seat required: withoutkneeling rail 0.4—0.5 m2—(1); with kneel-

_________________
heating ing rail0.43—0.52m2—(2).
I Seatingwithout kneerail 2 Seatingwith knee rail Aisles
Dimensions —*(3)—(6). Cold radiation from external walls makes side
aisles advantageous. Centralaisle useful for processionalentryand exit
_____ in larger churches. In UK aisle should be provided for every 8—10
T' persons length of bench (benches more than 10 persons long need
aisle ateach end— in USA more than 7persons). Including aisles allow
0.63—1.0 m2/P. For standing allow 0.25—0.35m2; on crowded occa-
_________ sionswall space and rear aisles may be used. Width of exitdoors and
stairs should complywithregforplaces ofassembly—*p401.

I2__
T _____
J._________
Pulpit
Requirements vary from church to church —(7)(8)(10). Usually raised
with steps; but growing practice also place on level of sanctuary or
4 5 raised 1 step. In RomanCatholicchurches pulpit nowlikelybe replaced
by2 ambos or reading desks, 1 ateach side. In 'free' churches pulpit of
central importance. In all churches essential preacher be visible to
whole congregation.
6
Altars—(9)
_____
_________ In Reformed churches altar usually placed close rear wall; may have
__________________________________________________________ passage at back. Many Roman Catholic and someAnglican churches
3—6 Aisle now have altar in centre ofsanctuary: priest orcelebrant stands behind
___________________________ __________________________ to face congregation forpurpose of worship.
Roman Catholic and some Anglican churches have sacrament houseor
tabernacle (small decorated cupboardwith lockabledoors, bolteddown
pulpit) and immovable: —*cataloguesof church furnishers): may be in side
chapel oron plinth behind main altar,some2000away. Separate side
altar
Sacristy chapel sometimes desired.

4t
lectern

centrelineof aisle
_________________________
7 Pulpit&attarinsame axis
font

8
pulpit

centre lineofaisle

_________________________
Pulpitsidewaystoaltar
—
Font
Used for baptism; often symbolically placed in or near entry of church,
though in Protestant churches in USA sometimes placed conveniently
for baptism to formpartof main service. May be 1 or2 steps lower than,
and separate from, main body of church (baptistry —p182(2)(9)(1 1)),
with room for up to 30 people to stand during baptism. For Baptist
churches immersion tank—p182.

Confessional boxes
Best placed in aisles: separate compartments for priestand penitent
—*(13).Construction mustbesound proof.

9 Altar tableforsmall reformed 10 Pulpit(microphoneshave

churches madesoundingboardunnecessary)

550

550 550

11 Lectern 12 Font 13 Confessional box

184 Community

Churches
GALLERIES,ORGAN
viewovershoulder
&head Galleries
viewover Increase seating capacity for same area; also improve acoustics if
shoulder suitable distance from pulpit: common in Reformed churches. Have
tiered seating so that congregation at back may see and hear better.
100—140 Convenient positions: opposite altar wall (for organ and choir) or
sidewaysopposite pulpit. Height of gallery determined by necessary
free sightofcongregation beneath itin relationto altar and pulpit. Stairs
and exits from galleries must comply with reg for assembly halls.
RequirementlP 0.7—1.0 m2inclusive ofgangways—(1).
Choir galleries
1 Galleryseatingtiered,riserswith 2 Smallorgan (Walckertype)with Infrontoforgan —*(5) have 100—150 high steps (increasingfronttorear)
lighting:must be possibleseealtar 15stopsforchurchha&smaller and are 1 000—1 200wide.Ifdesirable choiron loose chairs arranged in
oratleastpulpit over headsof churches semi-circle infrontofconductor; if necessaryorgan console canalsobe
occupantsofsecondrowinfront in front ofconductor with orchestra seats built upbehind toachieve unity
between organ, orchestra and choir. Next to conductor's desk and
organ console largecupboard for musicsheets; outsidegallery suitable
1300—1600 cloakrm forchoirmembers.

3 Chamberorgan (Walcker-Jahn)
with about275 pipesforha
4 Organwith manualclosedby
rollershutter
Organs
Specialist should be called in for organ installation (acoustic specialist
also important). Size oforgan (number of voices and stops) notsimply
relative to sizeof church asvolume variable, butgenerally:
smaller churches 200—300m3/voice
medium churches 300—400m3/voice
largerchurches 400—500m3/voice
Each voice needs width of 2000—3000 and 250 depth. Each voice
weighs 200kg therefore 10-stoporgan needsarea (if 3000—4000)hof10

organ :j:
j±4rgan do'—
I I:
main organbellows
I music
sheets
(3 x 250) = 7.5 and weighs 10 x 200 = 2000kg,therefore approx
m
300 kg/m2. But organ specialists ask for 750 kg/m2. Height deter-
mined by length of pipes. Largest: 32 ftopenvoicepipe 11 m high with
sounding board; is passed through several storeys or may be bent.
Determining factor: 8ftpipe, 3000high with sounding board. Therefore
storey height for smaller churches may be 3000—4000, for larger
churches 4000—5000. Organ may be divided —*(5). Bellows best in
I /
120h
I
\
\\Lorganist
steps (Or choir V,organconsole
conductor
'.W
stepsforchoir
120 h
organist
rgan
harmonium
separate rm if possible. Organ builder should be consulted at planning
stage, also regarding appearanceofvisual pipes.
orchestra
conductor console
In USAorgansoftenelectronic.
5 Organ &choir: organconsolein 6 Organ& choirwith harnionium &
frontofconductor,organdivided organ placedtoeach side,
otherwiseas5

7 SectionthroughVuoksenniskachurchImatraFinland withgallery&
organ Arch Aalto

1J ft

8 Romancatholicparishchurchwith organ &choirgalleryat Wend Arch

Schwarz
 Community 185

Mosques
m,hr6b Mosque place of prayer forMuslims: not necessarilybldg. Term derives
wall
::;::::: : i from masjid, meaning prostration. Prayer as community act not men-
tioned in Quran but derives from prophet Mohammed's Friday com-

i:::.:j munal meetings. Friday sermon (khutba) set piece, made fromtop of
stairs (minbar), oftenincorporated as feature.

Early mosques characterised by wide and shallow shape —÷(1 )(2) to

enable ranked formation ofbelievers face mihrab wall.(Mihrab itself is
niche resembling door: highly decorated featurein laterexamples.)

©
L±L Holy mosque at Mecca, most holy sanctuary of Islam, to which all
mosques should preferably face (arrows in illustrations),houses ka'bah.

awtuL;: li • flJL.
,4::::::::
Ka'bah stands inhugecourtyard surrounded byarcaded precinct which
formspattern for many subsequent examples. However, mosques vary
extensivey throughout Islam from square village hall types to great
historical examples in Egypt, Syria, Spain, Iran, Turkeyand India. Few
entrance purpose builtexamples in W: many sects, with varying needs, adapt or
rent existingbldg for Friday prayers and for the twoid celebrations,for
1 Simple mosquearrangement: 2 Friday MosqueIsfahan: Islamic newyearand end of Ramadan.
Tlemcen Mosqueofal-Mansur 8th—I 7th centuriesAD
1303—1306 AD 3 main types oftraditional mosque: early open plan, usuallyto befound
in desertregions; central court, patterned after Mohammed's house at
domedarc,vermihrb Medina; opencourt, with 4vaulted halls (iwans) 1 oneach side ofcourt.

.•... - Mosque bldg have followed climatic needs for shade through use of
arcades, colonnades and courtyards incorporating areas of water —
most important for ablutions but also for cooling. These elements often
I.. used symbolically in designs and heavily ornamented or planned as
- ' court
- landscape features round mosques. Main architectural feature mihrab
basic to allmosques: setinwallfacingMecca (k/b/a wall),oftenemphasised
1•-
I..i bywindows orby dome above. Monumentalgrandeur ofmosque came
I.. largely through need to enclose activities in harsher northern climates
but also related to advances in vault construction in 11th and 12th
m ______ centuries AD; thus domed mihrab area was enlarged by single vault
32 64 tt gateways
prayer hall or 4 vaultiwansor //wans arranged symmetrically around
3 Mosqueof az-ZãhirBaybars: 4 Mosque&courtSehzade court. Tendency usethispatternwithopenorclosed courts according to
1266—9 AD MehmetIstanbul: 16th centuryArch climate.
Sinãn
Minaret
I-+4
• 'Call to prayer' toweroften attached to mosque: name derives from
'lighthouse'. After introduction of loudspeakers little used for calling.
Types varyfromnoneto cylindrical needle minarets inglazed tile with 1
high gallery, common in Iran; typewith 2—3 galleriescapped with wood
conesand based on polygonal plan in Turkey; often 2—6 minarets per
5 Suleymaniyecomplexincluding mosque in somecountries, depending on size.
0 lOm mosque Istanbul; covers6000Cm2
dorne53mh mrhrab & includesnumerousancillarybldg Segregation
Arch Sinän Male worshippers only in most mosques although gallery for women
oftenfound. Some sects, eg Ishmailis,fully integrated.
Ablutions
Requirement ofthefaith; modern western examples—e(7) include these
with other toiletarrangements in partof bldg nextto nearby congrega-
tion hall.

Planning
Because of ranked formation allow 680—1 250/standing P incongrega-
tion hall. Carpets and other floor coverings required as faithful are
barefoot: sto space forshoesrequired. Axial layout common butopen
courtyard forprayers useless inWclimates.
Decoration
Accepted generallyshould be non-representational although notdecreed.
This rigidly observed tradition, however, allows free use of calligraphic
devices from Quran which forms valuablecounterpart to plain surfaces
and basic architectural forms.

b,ns

sunke
garden

makkarl
0 5 10 15
Londoncentralmosque agroundfloor b lowergroundfloor
21) rn

•244 It
_____________________
6
Arch Gibberd& Partners
186 Community

Synagogues
No formal architectural precedent forsynagogues (literally 'assembly);
tend to followarchitectural styleof country in which built. Dual function
ofplace ofworship and of social orcommunity meetings tendsdemand
complex of bldg. 3 divisions of Jewry all require space for prayers;
conservative and reform Jews use choir and organ butorthodox Jews
donot use instrumental music.
Liturgical furniture consists of: ark, focal pointgenerally at E containing
scrolls; paroches, curtain-typecovering; candelabrumtoright;pulpit for
rabbi and cantor. Furniture mounted on berna, raised platform at centre I :
(orthodox) orendof hail (conservative,reform). 12

Second commandment proscribes 'making of graven images, so

ornamentation floral or geometric.

- .

9 0 2 3pm
3b do

3 Beth Israel Synagogue&schoolOmahaUSA:seats650 insanctuary &

extra 800in congregational assemblyha;courtyardprovides additional multi-
useflexibility 1 congregational h 2synagogue 3rostrum 4stage 5k 6sto
&uty 7foyer Bcantor 9rabbi 100ff 11 chapel l2court l3classrrn Arch
Kivett&Myers

76
9 8 L6
12
.7Ii
2

21

9 1 5 Om 4
ic 14'
1 0 45 don
.3
1

23

1 KTISynagogueNewYork:accommodates upto 1000;noteflexiblespace

forsocial andlor religioususe 1 socialha 2sanctuary 3k 4entrancefoyer
Arch PhilipJohnson
0 10 20
odo9o1o
p 4 5 mft
4 TempleBethElUSA:normalseating1000canbeextendedto 1600;bldg
includesprovisionforreligiouseducation, lib& dramaticpresentations
1 temple 2retiringrm 3chair sto 4classr 5supply&mimeograph rm
6off 7coveredentrance 8vestibule 9lob lotemplegarden 11 pool
12chapel 13socialha 14socialgarden 15ante-mi 16rabbioff 17women
18men 19 lib 20stage 21 k 22 dressing rm 23driveway Arch Percival
Goodman

2 JewishCentreWestOrangeUSA:allweeksocial, religious&educational
use; chapelseats250—350; multi-purposerm upto750onhighholy days 5 Planofmain floor ParkSynagogue&community centreCleveland USA
Arch David BrodyJuster&Wisnuewski Arch Erich Mendelsohn
 Community 187
Mortuariesand crematoria
MORTUARIES
1
Dead kept in cellsseparated by partitions (usually sheetmetal, some-
450—600 times plants) —v(3). In larger mortuariesgangwayforbearers separated
3l0—,
350 from visitor's —(3b), from which relatives may see dead through air-
tight glass panes before funeral service. Protruding piers between cells
preventinconvenience to different groupsof mourners —s(3b). Usual
dimensionsof cells:
780—900
, 750—1100 2200x 3500
2500 x 3750
3000 x 3500
Tempin mortuary: 2°to 12°C; if it fell below mm figure frost could
1 Urn &coffin 2 Mm wneededbybearers expand corpses. This temp range maintained by central heating, air
conditioning and, specially in summer, ventilation. Floorsmutbeimper-
vious, smooth and easyto cleanse; walls best lime washed (frequent
renewal advisable). Larger mortuaries also need rm for guard and
1 ... :. :. .1
bearers 15—26 m2 inclusive oftoilets and lavatories.Stand for hearses
bearers 8 I visitors visitors I
visitors C'J i I CJ also needed.

LLIL!LLIL
a bearers
(::..:.:::.i
I
huH
250O
bearers
In city morturaries special rm may be set aside for unidentified bodies
with sto for their clothing, next to which locate post-mortem rm and
surgery—s(6).

CREMATORIA
Furnace room
Should beeitheron lowerfloorwith liftforcoffins —n(4)orbehindchapel,
separated from it by lobby —v(5)(6). Horizontal transport with hand-
operated winches easiest, hydraulic lifts being necessary for vertical
movement. Lobby door orfloor trap designed to shut slowly as coffin
disappears through opening.
3 Mortuarylayouts In furnace rm coffin taken from transport carriage and transferred to
chamotte grating infurnace. Cremation performed byspecial coke, elor
gas-fired furnace consuming 45 kW per cremation. Height of 2-storey
[acnn T furnace 4300. Cremation completely dust freeand odourless by means
wreaths wreaths
of900—1 000°C dry air; no flames reachdeceased. Furnacepre-heated
for2—3hrand cremation itself lasts 1—1 1/4 hrafter which ashesgathered
j,_,Ob,,j in iron boxforsto in urn. Cremation supervised through peep-holes.
proiestani rails catholic
priest priest Chapel
coffin Cremation installations should ifpossible lie atrear ofcemetery chapel,
whichserves all denominations. Sizeof chapel varies: must be at least
100 seats and 100standing places; also 1—2rm forrelatives(which may
chapel
be addedto chapel rm) and such ancillary rm as may prove necessary
— —

4 Plan ofinstallationwithfurnace 5 Furnacerm behindchapelwith Administration

belowchapel interveninglob Conveniently close by chapel should be admin rm: 1 for director, 2—3
offices,coffin sto, flats forcemetery keeper and boilermanetc; nursery
can be located nearby, with greenhouse —+pl 11, rm for gardener and
landscape architect, worker's rm, stoforeqp and seeds, and toilets.
Urns & gravestones
Oftenlimitedin size by cemetery reg —(1); wall niches in columbaria
usually 380—400wide and deep, and 500—600 high.

I
drive

Religious buildings references

6 Layoutofmortuarywithcrematorium andancillarymiforlargecemetery —Bibliography entries 005 070 072 160 184 311 312478579 620
188 Commerce

Shops & stores

SITUATION
Prominent sites in population centres served by convenient public and
each floor
stockrm private transport. Carparking standards in UK, 3.5—5.25 car spaces per
controller/buyer lOOm2grossretail area(3—4changesday). In USA max 150 cars/acre.

Access
admin- taffaccn Pedestrians, vehicles and delivery traffic should be kept separate;
directors canteen shopping centre best restricted to pedestrians, short connexions
personel lockers (covered to protectfromsun and rain) linking parking area and shops.
accounts training Bus stops or underground railwaystations may be adjacenttoshopping
advertising rest rm
lecture rm centrewith direct access. Max distance between shopper's car orbus
medical care stop or station and principal shops should be 201 m and should be
withininnerdistribution road system.
1 Plananalysisofrm& routesofcustomers &goods
Spaceallocation—*(l)
Large stores may have lecture and demonstration rm, restaurants,
cafes, kindergartens, banks, post office, travel agencies, cinema and
garden area.Small shops often grouped in shoppingcentre —*pl 99—201.
Design begins with allocating space to units, conforming to tire and
other reg, followed by subdivision into sales areas, internal service
areas, jointservices etc.
Sales areas
Should be immediately above one another and asnear entranceflooras
possible. Basement betterfor selling than additional upper storey, so
stock rm and staff rm best located on upper storeys, with offices on
highestfloor.
Storeyheights
For largeunits, 4000—5000;forsmall units, 3000dependenton services
2 Free standingmodularsheMng (UK practice). Unnecessary floor to floor heights deter customers and
units makeupmajorpartoffurniture are tiring to staff. Shop units do not rely on natural lightbut on artificial
in modemestablishments mainpassage lightingwith mechventilation.
Structuralgrid
Column dimensions and centres determine lay-out of fittings. Rec-

i200N mainpassage
ommended structural grid: large units, between 7300and 9000width
on frontage and 9150depth; small unitsbetween 5300and 6000width
on frontage, 18to 36m depth front to back.
Aisles
Recommended mm aisle width: 1 980, subsidiary aisles 990. Counter
heights generally 920. Systemmodulesvary accordingto type ofshelving
3 and bracketing used.

J13
—.
EBEB1
§ mainpassage

E 20i- 40 +266 420-1 14

3 Functionaldisplaystandsfor
differenttypes of merchandisewith
Ft I f144 LJ1 T
II 110
units running betweenequalcolumn
centres LI;
flH
.
100 —iii 41
11I1
_____
- -20
j
4 Arrangementof furnitureunits

5 Sectionthroughshopsalesfloor withaislewwhichhaveprovedpractical inuseforpersonalservice

 Commerce 189

Shops & stores

MOVEMENTBETWEEN FLOORS
groundfloor
fl salesar
Number and widths of staircases —xp408 Bib5Ol 628 and exits prescribed
cable
duct
k::m; 11 by reg. In UK number of staircases relatedto travel distances, widths of
staircasesand exits relatedtooccupancy,eg UK practice calculates loadas
1rl.dispiay
diy9w4 follows: ordinary consumer goods 1.9 m2 gross floor area/P; special-
L<j
from trmii
upperfloor
window
basement
ised shops 7 m2grossfloorarea/P.
Different reg governmulti-storey stores and shops, and 1-storey small
2 Emergencystairsin multi-storey shops. Except for 1-storeyunits UK reg require shop bldg to be divided
1 Separateexitsfrom basement& into compartments notexceeding 7080m3—xtire reg. This prevents use
upperfloors instair well bldg
of very largestaircases, makes use of escalators difficult and restricts
features suchas open wellsbetween more than 2floors—n( 1)—(4),
5°5 In USA determine total occupancy, consult national and local codes:
r 122
N
30.5
-.. bldg classified by use and fire ratings; open floor areas subject to
sprinkler systems, fire curtains, specified exits etc.
Most customers use escalators; elevators availableforexpress service.
Numbers of customers to be transported fromground floor estimated
fromdensity x storey area x number of storeys (8O% on escalators,
3 Unimpededexit fromstairs 4 Max distancefromenclosed
20% elevators); this figure must be divided by capacity of transport
staircase inUK
chosen to give number of elevators and escalators required.

Elevators—xp4l 0—2
iii
41111111111111111111 Should be in groupsvisible fromentrance; in large stores in centre of
lllllllllllll
IIIII bldg not more than 50 m fromanypart ofsales floor.May be arrangedin
groupsback to back or incombination with escalators —x(5)(6).
In USAelevators onlyused forcarrying goods; notcommon in new dept
stores: nearly all have escalator bands, parallelorscissor.

5 Back-to-backarrangement of 6 Combination of elevators &

Escalators—*p409
elevators escalators Essential when mm of approx 2000 P/hr must be transported; should
run in successive series (return flights) toall sales floors, both directions.
Best placed in centreof floorvisible from all entrances: pitch 30In UK
may need tobeenclosed tocomply with fire reg;normally open in USA.
2200
Refreshment rm oftenon top floor with kitchen and hoist tosto.

.1 -
2200
Ancillary rm
Wc,telephone booths, staff cloakrmand lavatoriescommonly placed on
mezzanine floor —u(7); oftenplaced in basement in USA, alsobargains
7 Ancillaryrm onmezzanine level 8 Goods deliveryinparkingbays —(10).
Goodsdelivery
dailynecessities. Separated from customer circulation, frequently in goods yard or by
NocTNNJNJ 2500
restaurant,demonstrations
delivery ramps. Delivery may be made to goods sto connected to
general sf0, perhaps with automatic conveyors. If delivery difficult in
sales 5000 luxurygoods

NfNJNJNJNJ salesservice busy street, parking bays recommended —u(8). Circulation through
receiving rm, sto rm etc, to selling positions —r(10). Refuse and waste
5000 clothes
has to be handled from dept back to despatch through waste disposal
2500 fast sellinglines area.

5000 bargains
---I-

9 Intermediate stockrm floors 10 Favourablearrangementof

which take floor structure (in USA goodsforefficientsellingon sales
stockdeliveredfromgroundfloor or floor
basement)

[:i 1000 1000 -

•.
.- s
'iHT!
-4 i— services cpd —4 — accessgangway cpd
1 12

I
backwardsliding downward withhatch 4—

II><IDI2.
— 3000
sliding

—F-
frombasement

3000 —4— 3000 —

1

°°.
L__J

t6o0
i.— 5000 —.— 5000 —-4 I ......... 5000 —4—-

11 Singledisplaywindow 12 Continuousdisplaywindow 13 Accessfrom behindcolumns 14 Withaccessgangway

with movablecpdunits
190 Commerce
Shops & stores
-- 5000 —-1
— 3400
1 Displaywindowextendedby
havingshop entrancebehindit &
staircaseto upperfloors set back:
internalw of shopmm 2600
-H
= 2300
-- 3500 ---H
3 Deepshops mayhavewide
vestibuleswith displaywindowsat
anglestoentrance,attracting
customersawayfromstreettraffic
5 Fornarrowfrontagerecess
entrancetoprovidelargerdisplay
area&anglesofviewthroughoffsets
7 Automaticinstallation foropening&closingdoors(1-leafdoorwith 2-way
passage,entrance&exit coupled):aphoto-elcell &light barrier;
b contactmat
SERVICEDETAILS
Back-upstock
Either on 1 floor,preferably top salesfloor,or on each floor in separate
backstock rm areaoron low mezzanine floors—pl89(9).
2000
Goodstransport
By trolley (cart), goods hoist, chute, roller conveyor, conveyor belt,
500500 ramp conveyor, spiral chute, fork-lift,palleted trolley.
500
Displaywindows—(1)—(8)
Interchangeable fitments usual in dept stores. In designing window
I— 5650 —
spaceimportant give easyaccess to display, with mm loss of display
spaceat back—p1 89(13)191(1 )—(4).
2 Very deepshopsoftenpermit Staff entrance
extensivedisplaywindows,
Separate fromcustomers,ifnecessaryinconjunctionwith goodsdelivery;
impressiveeven ifshopitself quite
small own stairs to cloakr, whichshould be 0.4—0.5 m2/P.Staff rm preferably
on top floor.
Staff wc
Shouldbeatmm rate of1 for25females, 1 forevery 25 males upto 100
and 1 for every40thereafter; however, ratio of 1:15 recommended,with
6250
washbasins prorata. Staff should beprovided with drinking water, rest
rm, lockerrm, drying arrangementsforoutdoor clothes, control oftemp,
ventilation and lighting, seating (UKreg).
] 6001er Building regulations
Consultreg on construction, eqp and finishes ofshopsand stores. In
UK: openings inwall must beof appropriatefrconstruction and comply
tI-
—-
with appropriate bldg reg. Division floorsmust be of approved fr con-
struction with all vertical communication between floorscut off. Floor
3000 —i--- 3000 —
heights usually governed bygeneral bldg height limits laid down byreg.
Sales areas should be mm 3000 high.
4 Centraldoorssuitableforshops
6000—6200wide; countersmay
beinstalledonboth sides;shouldbe
cash!wrapneardoor
6 Byslantingentirewindowar& B Properlyplacedfittingsallow 9 Noseparationbetween
havingdoorsinsameline, ideaof(5) customerstomove fromentranceto customer&sales staff:wholermat
isdevelopedtoitslogicalconclusion sales counter,cashdesk,issuing disposalofcustomer(self-service)
counter&exit withoutreverse
circulation
i4
dispay'ndow /
10 Shopforindividual consult, 11 Flowershop with largewindow
fitting tables,egfortryingon &display ar: rearofshopfor
spectaclesin optician arrangingflowers
 Commerce 191

Shops & stores

LJ
narrow deep
frontage

window
dressing ar
frontage
j
narrow flat

[XI
iDJ
wide frontage

entranceto
yj
wide frontage
SERVICE DETAILS
Stock & despatch rooms
Sto and workshops to be separated from sales areas by fr walls and
floors(UK reg), thesetobe treated as separate sto areasand to comply
with restrictions on compartment size.

Entrance&exits
Inbldg ofover 1 500 m2usable floor areaallyards should have entrances
and exits sited as far apart as possible. Entrances and passages: mm
separate
offover heightand widthclearance 3700on level ground—WK reg: access for
door access fire appliances. Turning circleforappliance 17 m. Roadsto take laden
__________________ weightof 10.1 t. Distance of any point from entrance max 25 m. On
______
max windowat
____________island
max display
showcase [din Li El
maxcustomeraccess ground floor exitsand main aisles for customerstobe 1070wide forfirst
frontage withshowcases 200 people, additional 152 foreach additional 30 people. Where 2 exits
required each opening tobe wide enough for full number ofoccupants.
Exit doorsto openoutwards: nosliding doors —Bib1 17 601. Amounts
1 Shopfront layoutvariations: deepwindowplanssuitableforfashion,
furnitureetc,shallowforjewellery,books,stationeryetc and type ofglazing controlled by reg.

Stairs—*p408
Preferably on outside walls with direct exit to open air or through
shallowest entrance hall etc (UK reg). From each part of upper floor mm 2 stairs,
natural
Iighy. withindistance of 30.5 m. Rm in vicinity of 1 staircase only must be no
beam 'a' furtherawaythan 15m.
from(2)
Width for first 200 people 1070; additional 152 for each additional 30
people. Rise/going 125—250 mm (UK reg). Stairs to basements enter
directfromopenairorseparated fromstairsto other floors by lobbies.

L..E All rmforstaff and customers must haveemergency lighting independent

ofmain lighting. Forcirculationareas, stairs,exits etcspecialemergency-
litdirection signs.

2 Insufficientday orartificial 3 Reflection

lightingreflectslighterbldgopposite
orviewer
substantially reduced WINDOWS
ifstronglightstrikesbackon display
aboveeyelevel of viewer Shopwindow'simpact determines itsvalue. Almost useless: dazzling,
reflecting panes, deepdarkwindows near bright pavements: goods for
sale can only beseen with effort —(1 )(2).
Shopwindows now rely forimpact on artificial light.
Sun blinds necessary to protect goods on all aspects except N facing.
Fascia totake sign:integral to shop front and relativeto sun blind.

Cold
Condensation and ice on frosty windows can be avoided for windows
connected with shop bywarm aircirculationoverwholearea,if necessary
by ventilator; forenclosed casesventilation slotsin shop frontwindows
required.
Provision may beneeded forfreshair intake intoslip through louvres or
mechintake over shop window or overdoors.

4 Typicalshop frontcomponents

WIOdOWS
above
stock
cpd
I

chang
I
:•::•::::•:•:-:•:•::•:•:•:•:::•:.:-.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:•:

F
'
a
0
worlishopfor
small
alterations
b

T1T{][
5 Bldg with side wing&backyard (typicallayoutofrentedaccninGerman
cities) suitableforshops:goodsforpassingtradeongroundfloor,on upper
floorworkshopsforalteration,fittingrm, stock rmetc; in basementdo,wc&
ancillaryrmforstaff a groundfloor bupperfloor
192 Commerce

Shops & stores

Fire
Special fire precaution installations:smoke detectors,automatic warning
I glass solid systems, sprinklers. Compartment size —p189 can be doubled where
sprinklers supplied.

-ii!— Ip
very good
excellent Temperature & ventilation
16°C mm after first hour ofoccupancy (UK requirement). Ventilation by
a extract/intake tans orair-conditioning in larger units. Necessarydesign
for heat build-up from artificial lighting and occupancy loading.

1 Impactsiting: amaxfrontage&display; bgoodimpact; ceffectsofsiting Shoplayout

Aswith display shop itselfshould be easy to take in at glance. Space for
customerand sales staff depends on commodity and number of cus-
tomers; aim atsmooth quick procedure.Big store organisationsdevelop
systemplanning to suittheirparticular requirements.
Locationof shops
Varies according to type of business: determined by custom, eg con-
venience shopping and consumer durables.Trade of smaller unitswill
be affected by location of deptstores, variety stores and supermarkets
which act as magnets. These larger units should be sited to draw
shoppers past as many shops as possible. Shops should besituated for
max impact related to trade potential and should be seen fromas many
angles as possible.
Shape offrontage, shop sign (integral component) and protection from
weather should draw customers. Corner shops 30% more valuable
than shops in row. Each type of shop has its individual shop window
shape (shoe shopsneeddifferent displaysfrom butchers and jewellers).
Deptstores usually have flat frontages. Sizesof window vary with local
conditions even in new bldg. Size and design ofdisplay windows and
height ofstall-riser related to goods displayed, eg jewellery orfurniture
—p191(4).

Boutiques
Examples of 2 different concepts —n(3)(4)

first floor
groundfloor

2 Typicalshop layout (fish, fruit & vegetable sb)

key key
1 entrance toboutigue 1 entrance
2 entrancehatoapartments 2 cashdesk
3 displayplatforms 3 showcase
4 bItingml 4 dispiay cubes
5 sb cabins 5 ciothesracks
ek 6 dispiay shelves
7 wc 7 charrgingrm
8 cash counter 8 mirror
9 stokiosks

3 Boutique Istanbul Turkey: exampleoftroglodyticillusionist interior; 4 BoutiqueChampsElysee Paris France: reflecting glass sets goodsoff
reflectingceiling makeshappeargreater,visitorleft guessing aboutshop's againstcomplexbackground; artificiallightingdirectseyetomost rewarding
extent Arch Mehmet Konuralp points Arch IsabelleHebey

1 Circulationfor bakery: shopwellventilated,
possiblewith steamextractor
3 Salescounterwith screen:bread compart-
ments—u(4) vary with loafsize
5 Circulationforgreengrocery: smallstockas
mostgoodsdelivereddaily
8 Counterwith standsforboxes&wire baskets,
drip pan &dirttrap
Commerce 193
Shops & stores
BREAD & CAKE SHOPS—(1)—(4)
I- staff tlcursto
Generation ago small bakeriesproducedapprox
85% of household requirements of bread and
breadsto
I-. SS
pastries,factory bakeries remaining15%: these
percentages now more or less transposed in
ftn
UK.
bakery
Sales in personal service shops mainly over
counter, which may containrefrigerateddisplay.
Freshly bakedgoodsrequiregood aircirculation.
if 2 Plan of small bakery: breadsto withgood FRUIT & VEGETABLESHOPS—*(6)—(9)
connexiontobakery,shop &despatch
Fresh vegetables should be stored cool butnot
refrigerated: potatoes indark rm, carrots & root
vegetables in sand, fruit in dark rm at temp
1—5°C & 85—95%hum. Deepfreezersfordeep
frozensupplies. Walls tiled or washable.
Sale often from delivery containers (baskets,
woodengrille
crates, boxes) —e(7)(8). Dirt traps below sto
racks —s(8). Fruit & vegetable shops usefully
combined with flower shops.
zinctrough
4 Shelf arrangement:breadonslatted shelves
S.
(air circulation)withtins belowto catchflour
c>
staff
1
spices
I aration
prep- I cellart
IlltlllllM
intake —
\ 490(
_l I I
H
I 55d
6 Planoffruit &vegetableshop: rmwith 7 Typicalboxesforfruit &vegetables
machinesfor cutting &preparingvegetables
9 Pavementsales fromtrolleys(carts) or in frontof shopwith attractive display
194 Commerce

Shops & stores

FISHMONGERS —(1 )—(3)
=:
r' intake;
os coldi peparation
sto
Fish need cool sto (often marble) for display,
cold rm for overnight sto and deep freeze
cabinets in shop for deep frozen products.
Smoked fish must be stored quite dry in con-
_______ ______ trast tofreshfish.
_____________ Shop must be well equipped with ventilation
devices. Wallsand floors washable. New UK

u1T
——-7 't,=z-_
reg mayrequire glazed shop fronts.
Arrangements forreceiving largedeliveriesand
forrefusedisposal.
Ifdesired, aquarium for eye appeal—÷(2).
1 Circulationforfishmonger 2 Seafood specialtyshopwithoutallied sales
BUTCHERS—(6)—(10)
Work procedure: 1 delivery, 2 cutting up, 3
intake.__]— —[game cr'] manufacturing, 4 refrigeration, 5 selling.
Preferably on 1 level, if possible with rail and
[:sta1_
_________ —f chiihngrm
_________ wheel carriagesaspig halves and beef quarters
heavy: 75—100 kg. Manufacture and cold rm
1.5—2 times size ofshop.
F: prsparasorsJ_ —i deepfreeze.]
Walls: tiles, mosaic etc, washable.
f Table tops: marble, glass, ceramic.

3 Fish counterwith coolingcompartment &drain 4 Circulationforpoultry& gameshop GAME&POULTRY—.(4)

Often together with fish. Similarin requirements.
Workr with plucking machineand game scraper.
Poultryabsorbs smells so must bestoredsepar-
atelyfrom fish in shopand cold rm Table tops
and walls washable: marble, tiles, mosaic,
plastics.
Spacious refrigerated compartment or show
cases.

6 Counterwith marbleortilefacing

5 Butchers counterwith chopping block

7 Hooks & railsforhangingmeat

Stairs tocellar
Ij co" __jII 1
pickling
[9
______ _____
n,achines oithngup
J_ J
— - — -- —
deplay worI<space

meat counter stake

8 Circulationforbutcher's 9 Large butcher'sshop

wdesececepassage

10 Counter in butchers shop—.also (5)


1 Planofchemistshop
adiustable
chair services
curtain
2 Space-savingarrangement
round servicecore in hairdresser
4 Organisationof atailor'sshop
6 Displaycounterwith shelfabove for materials
7 Organisationofshoeshop
3 Standardshampoounitwith
backwash for beautyparlours&
hairdressers
aJIllhJftEIfl
bfl2V
5 Arrangementsforstoofcloth:
ashelfsame waslotbale
bobliquestaggeredsystem(for
shop) c pairedshelves,eachof
bale w
8 Shoe shop
Commerce 195
Shops & stores
CHEMIST—(1)
Frequently self-service except for prescription counter. Will include
other merchandise, egphotographic eqp, cosmetics.Mm requirements
for accn and fitments usually laid down in special chemists' manuals.
Dispensary (with reg-type double-locked cupboards for poisons and
narcotics) subdivided according to activities. Prescription counter and
customers' section ofshopprovided with seats forwaiting.
Dispensary ofparamount importance;must allow undisturbedworkwith
goodview over drug shelves; must be well ventilated with tr ceilings,
acid-resistant table tops and floor coveringsand washablewall surfaces.
Ancillary rm and workrm ? twicesize ot dispensary.Med supply base-
ment must not be connected with other basement rm; spirits, ether,
phosphorus etcmustbe kept in secure recessesorin cellars with steel
doors.
Night dispensary may serve as office in daytime; alternatively night
counter may be provided in recess with illuminated sign and night bell.
MENSWEAR& FASHIONSHOPS—*(4)
For self-selection clothes displayed in free stands or wall racks; for
personal service in glass-fronted and hanging cabinets with special
displays. Arrangement must be flexible, with movableeqp and fitting rm
1500 x 2000.
SHOE SHOPS—i.(7)--(9)
Medium size shop, personal service: 8000—16000pairs; polish, stock-
ings, socks, tights also available. Allow 1 footrest/2 seats, 1 stool/2
footrests for salesassistanfs —*(9). Carpeting desirable; low level and
wall mirrors should be provided. More convenient ifstockand sales on
same floor. Forward open sfock or hidden stock at rear. Adequate
forward open stockpreferable for quickservice but selt-service shops
followgeneral pattern, with specialdisplay racking.
FASHIONFABRICS—*(5)(6)
Often sold in conjunction with ready-to-wear clothes, lingerie, fashion
accessories, wovengoods, haberdashery.Merchandise required to be
attractively arrangedwith lighting toshowtrue colours—np25 398.
Shelves not higher than 2200 so that they may be reached without
steps; optimum height 500—1 500. Surfaces smooth so that material
slides easily and does not catch. Counters for standing customers
850—950high, forseated customers 550—700; counter width700—850.
Forready-to-wear clothesdept provide changingcubicles 1100 x 1150
and fitting rm—*(10)(11).
36O—i
Jt
a
men 330 180 110
women 300 160 100
children 300 160 90
9 Combinedfoot-rest&assistant'sseat
r4-r-—1 473—-664-
I—i 473—1—864-J---1
_
JLNLli
L—1 524—1
NH
10 Typicalfitting rm 11 Betterdressesfitting mi
196 Commerce

Shops & stores

SELF-SERVICE
Self-service stores mostly forfood shops, drug stores and increasingly
preparation rm
coldsto for other types of convenience goods. Staff mainly for advice, assist-
customer ance, checking out, replenishing, possibly for quick service ofmeat and

lEle
delivery
waste dairy foods. All goods prepacked and clearly displayed and ticketed
stock
(exceptsometimes fresh foods).
goods lift
Proportion ofancillary accn mayvary between 60% sales 40'/ ancillary
and 48% sales52% ancillary.Width of aisles 2200—2500. Entrancevia
staff restrm basket stands ortrolleys(carts); exit via checkout points. Replenishing
staff toilets &do
.-Hoff byassistants.

i
unpacking
Wall shelving up to reaching height (top shelf 1 650, bottom shelf300
above floor level) .—(8)(9). Free-standing sales display suitable —*(4).
1 Circulationforself-serviceshops
Checkout points —(5)(6) laid outto suit frontage ofunitwith counter top
forpurchases, cashregister, wrapping space with paperbags, spacefor
parking basket ortrolley. Surveillance point essential.
Number of checkout points varies with unit scale and is related to
turnover/m2, as controlled bytrading policy —4(2)(3).
For each 100 m2 shop area: 50—100 baskets and 10 trolleys (carts).
For each 200 m2 shop area: 50—200 baskets and 30 trolleys (carts).

o
in out flout flOut out

2 Typicalself-serviceshoplayoutsshowingcheckout pointsrelatedto basket stand

frontagew

display cash
display counter —
____
___ T
0
N

rack r ister

I
baslcetsheff

800—H
j1 N
C.,

sndardw 1600-1
1194 6001 1194 600p 1194 checkouts
991 991 500 991 — —minw 6 Planofcash deskwithmm 7 Stackablebasket&trolley(cart)
checkouts dimensions
customers basket packingar
shopfront
pelmet with ticketing
& lighting
3 Layoutofcheckoutpointsshowingdimensions

—900-1 400—
ventilation' —

dirttraP\
1-600--I

4 Salesdisplaywithstacking Sectionthroughsmallcashdesk Wall shelvesforbottles 9 Wall shelvesforfruit,vegetables

compartments&concealedlighting & unpackedgoods
4—864 I— I—762——---l

I
10 Self-selectionunit: Ivaries;
specialmerchandiseneedsspecial
inserts 13 Millinerytable
12 Free-standinghangingrack;
hangingrack 11525

11 Backfixturewith shelvesonly
 Commerce 197

Shops & stores

SUPERMARKETS:EXAMPLES
[ 30

sto ar
1 oilheating 16 vegetables
2 air-conditioning plant 17 twit
3 airshaft 18 checkout I 15I15I1516I16j16j17I 171
4 refrigerating plant 19 flowers
5 coldstofats 20 trolleys (carts)

____ 20[
[;1
6 deepfreezing 21 wr
7 coldsto meat 22 changing rm,women
C
1 13 111111
8 minced meat 23 changing ml, men customer self-servicear
9 ante-mi 24 wcwomen
10 meat 25 wcmen
11 coldmeats
12 fish
13 deepfreeze
26 fruit&vegetablepreparation
27 fruit&vegetablecooling
28 empties
1IIiIIIIIlIl
14 coffee 29 bottle reception
15 fats 30 heatingoiltank !!lh1!IIIIII1III rwtEJ

1 Germansupermarket Arch PeterNeufert

4800 t 4800
—— - 55.12

2 Swisssupermarket

0
O II groundfloor
c)

=0 II
II
II
0
0 II II
II
II carpark ii

II
260
I

4800
II
_____
4800 4800 —4
II

3 Cross-sectionof(2) 4 Siteplan of (2)

198 Commerce

Shops & stores

HYPERMARKETS
Basically single volume transfer shed, grossarea 10000—50000m2: 1 upper partof
trader under 1 roof, using self-service methods to sell max range of durables warehouse
convenience and durable merchandise at low prices; goods delivered
directfrom manufacturersto largeon-site warehousing areas.
Location
Out oftown on perimeter of city, townor district centre. Mm catchment
area 80000 population; 25 minutes driving time out of town; 10—15
minutes frominnerzone:siting related to road patterntoallow this.

Carparking
5.25 cars/100 m2 gross area (av shopping trip 1 hour). Provision for roofover
trolley (cart) collecting. Separate provision for service vehicles and
refusecollection (perhaps with incineration or compaction). Discount
petrol and tyre service forcustomers only.

Planning
Up to 50% gross area for warehousing, cold sto, food preparation,
offices and staff. Main sales on1 floor,mezzaninecould houserestaurant,
hairdressing, offices, toilets, staff accn and some warehousing. Staff
numbers related to sales area: say 3 staff to 350 m2 sales, with shift
working.

Warehousing & ancillary accn mezzanine

Stowill be open 24hr/dayforrestocking outofhours,cleaning,servicing
etc. Deliveries and restocking using mech aids, eg forklift transfer in
warehouse to palleted trucks forrestocking shelves; warehouse racking
may be high (groceries) orlow (textiles). Large food preparation areas
needed forfreshfoods, butchery,baking, preferablyvisiblebycustomers.

Sales area
Self-service principles apply generally—p196. Aisles must bedesigned
for palleted trucks, with 1 800—3500between racking.
Construction
For flexibility wide spans and max column spacing (say 8 m x 12 m).
Firstfloor must be designed for heavy loading if used forwarehousing.
Compartmentation of warehouse areas essential: controlling factor in
design may be insurance requirements. Waivers may be needed to
allow max opensalesarea.

Service
Air-conditioning, high intensity artificial lighting, throughout. Cold sto
refrigerator.
Services —vp383—97
Floors must be hard wear, easily cleaned tiles.

Fireregulations
Consultreg. Subject todistance ofbldg fromboundary, frand compart-
mentregdo notapply inUKto 1-storey hypermarkets: meansofescape groundfloor
provisions mustbe approvedbylocal authority.In2-storey areasnormal
compartmentation reg do apply, subject to possible relaxation by I Diagrammaticplanoftypical hypermarket
appropriate authority. Sprinkler essential.

181.5
key
1 softdñnks.winesetc
2 groceries
3 pharmacy & cosmetics
4 dairy
5 fruit &vegetables
6 children'sclothing
7 clothing
8 householdgoods
9 fancygoods
battery,caraccessories 10 shoes
11 elgoods
12 fumiture
13 fire-fighting& sprinkler
installation
14 etsub-station

I
15 butchery preparation
16 cookedmeats
17 fruit& vegetablepreparation
18 balieraapastryshop
adm&oftover 19 changingnn
—1 20 lay
21 boutique
22 aftersales service
23 furriiturerepairworkaliop

2 Layoutoftypicalhypermarketwithapprox20000m2 selling space

 Commerce 199

Shopping centres & precincts

Increasing trend in Europe and USA during 1970s plan large retail
complexes in innercity areas. Despite their large size restricted space
forms primary design factor. High site rentsoftenmeanthesecomplexes
incorporate office space; also sometimes residential flats and condo-
miniums but less frequently. Aswith convention hotels —p221—3 large
internal spaces allow separation of interior circulationof public fromthat
of service and store personnel. Traffic patterns which maximise retail
display and access to retail unitsgenerally mechanism by which high
rent unitslet.

2 Bullock'sSouthCoastPlazaCostaMesaCaliforniaUSA a second
floor bfirstfloor c groundfloor Arch WeltonBecket&Associates
200 Commerce

Shopping centres& precincts

EXAMPLES

:
tlLlord&taylor
liii II I
• —.

marshft7d&cO
Lk
b
::::::
*
lord &taylor
- ________ - _________________
• ____________

tmh18co

2 Water TowerPlaceChicagoUSA agroundfloor bmezzanine floor cfirstfloor dsecondfloor Consultarch

WarrenPlatnerAssociates Arch LoeblSchlossman Bennett& Dart
 Commerce 201

Shopping precincts & centres

EXAMPLES

a b

streetlevel

1 CiticorpCenterNewYorkUSA asection btypical mid-risetowerfloor cconcourselevel dstreetlevel Arch Hugh Stubbins

Shops aridstores:
—Bibliography entries 116 117306340341369 374 450477552 601
202 Commerce
Restaurants

1
PLANNINGFACTORS

waD 50
wall 200

0
-S.

900
4.

2300

ei S a a 4o I I U
circulartables:diagonallayout
local density0.82
squaretables,squarelayout squaretables:diagonallayout
localdensity1.4 local density0.92

+—36s0---$-500

2350M
I _____ 4j counterservice
largeboothinrecess localdensity1.26
local density0.86 itseating10 people dimensionsA& Bincreasedwhere2
orl.1itnnly2peoplesitonbenchseat waitersemployed
banquetteboothseating
localdensity0.8

1 Layoutarrangements
Restaurants should be planned sothat variety otseating arrangements
can be achieved, eg tables tor2 and 4 and placing together oftables to

it
provide 6, 8 and 10 places. Consider also banquette or booth seating
—u(3)(6); but theseshould be supplemented by normal tables to give
flexibility.
—*(1) shows typical table and counter layouts and local densities.
Columns best situated near group of tables or at corners ot table.
Provideacoustic lobby toservice doors between restaurantand kitchen.
Accessforguests should beplanned sothat notconfusedwithservice.
4diners 1person 2diners Service aisles —'(2) not less than 900—1 350 if to be used by both
750 +450+900 + +700+ tt+ trolleys(carts) and guests.
2persons
Waiterstations should be located so as not to disturb guests: number
will vary according to standard of service but following may be used as
Ttaso guide:
restricted menu : 1 waiter/waitress per 12—16 covers
2 Aislew typical menu : 1 waiter/waitress per8—12 covers
a Ia carte &deluxe : 1 waiter/waitress per4—8covers
Ambience an important tactor in restaurant design: decoration, lighting
should be integral part. Large regular spaces should be broken up into
smaller more intimate areas, if necessary by means of screens of
various heights or decorative features. Changes of level not usually
favoured by caterers butacceptable providing they make positive con-
tribution to design, donot involve morethan 2or3steps and main partof
restaurant on same level as kitchen. Where changes of level occur
seating areas should be protected bybalustrades.Cash deskmay beat
+ 1650-1900 1 entrance or by service doors or within kitchen area depending on
cashing system operated bymanagement.
3 Typical banquetteseating Provide head waiter stand in a Ia carte or de luxe restaurants. Hard
wearing floor service in area around service doors. Traditional and
specialty restaurants frequently have aperitif bar associated with them
tor waiting customers and drinks before meal. Such bar should be
planned sothatheadwaiter cantake orders and call forward customers

fl
I

_
I
whentablesready.

DLI H 111 Dance floor in restaurant: allow 1.0—3.5 m2/couple.

DO DO
28seals 22m2

DODD k::::::1[yffffIi
D

5600

5 'Staadtler'table to seat4:with 6 Banquetteseatingbooth:table

flapsextendedseats6 must bemovedtogainaccessortop
4 Mmlayoutforpartof restaurant: local densityexcludingmaincirculation &
wafterstations& serviceareas may bemovable
 Commerce 203
Restaurants
SPACEALLOWANCES
(EXCLUDINGCOOKINGAREAS)
Snack barservice
Usually restricted tolightmeals, served atcounter ortaken bycustomer
to table. Food normally cooked withincounter area but back-up prep-
aration, wash-up and sto required. 1.50—2.20 m2IP including counter
and cooking.
Cafeservice
0.83 m2/P: limitedmenu, usually family type of business, designed on
traditional lines with kitchen separate from dining rm. Food may be
collected bywaitress fromsmall service counter orhatch tokitchen.

Self-servicecafeteria
1.4—1.7 m2/P, long self-set-vicecounter, provide good circulationspace.
Space for clearing trolleys (carts) required. Self-service counters
—p206(2).
0 1 2 3 4rn
1'2ft Coffeeshopservice—*(3)
1.2—1.4 m2/P, usually waitress service, oftenfromforward cooking area
withcounterwhichmay be decorativelyscreened. Main preparationand
wash-up at rear. Counter servicesometimes included.

1 Traditionalrestaurant: 110 seats

Specialtyrestaurant
Space requirements vary widely. Display cooking, grill, dance floor,
special decor effects may be required. Bar may be included within
restaurant.

Traditionalrestaurant—(1)
1.3—1.9 m2/P according to type of business. Should have space for
display table, flambé work, generous seatingand spacing oftables.

Carvingtablerestaurant—*(2)
1.6 m2/P including space for carving table. Display table with hot and
cold positions for self-service of Joints, vegetables and sweets. Prep-
aration, cooking and wash-up donein main kitchen.

01
I
2345678
I I I I I I rn
servioe 12 1'S iI 1 24 ft
2 Restaurantseating124with self-servicecarvingtable

W =waiterstation

012345678 I I I rn
12 I
15 18 21 24
I
ii
204 Commerce

Restaurants
Table sizes vary according to typeofrestaurant; mm forcafeterias etc:2
TABLE SIZES
persons 600 x 600, 4 persons 600 x 1100. Diagrams show tables for
goodstandard of restaurant.

r 110, preferably
150—200

600, preferably
65O750
I
I-— 380—f-—-- 800 —f-- 450 —+— —!--— 550 -H— 850 —i—— 750 —H lottable/P

I
T knee h600

man woman waiter sitting eating getting

down U

4 4 6 8 12 P
2

II II 00 '000 0000 .n0,0Ip

-1 - :2500j I35° H
1Jj \IIU iU\JU
TiI- 1450
average Iof tables
with chairs at eitherend
for
ii 6
- - 2050

8
— —
2700

10
ci[ 3300

12

avdia of circular
dining tables for 5

16 14 12 10 P
 Commerce 205
Restaurants
SNACKBARS

1 250

C.)

1 Barstool 2 Bar stools:normaldistance 3 Mediumh bar stool

service diners
service diners
—
F.
500
+ 2100 fl4500-4-i --4-1300--
500
normal — 2700
stoolh -7501- 1200 -f.75Q.4
1300 -I
30
od
rT2 1r'
I I
r1 mediumh
--I-- .C. _.I
,- hstool Wt.:.Tui
4 High densityarrangementwithsmall tables 5 Widertableswith more space 6 Refrigeratedshowcase
Situation
15.0 In centres of cities where accn expensive must be max turnover of
T T
customers. Counters with stools less economical ofspace than closely
spaced tables but ensure speedy service and quickturnover. Avsitting
°9P229P!JjJ time20minutes: 3 occupants/hr compared with perhaps 1/hrin normal
r

0
_____________ 00 restaurant.
_________ Cli
Format
700
Typical U format with 12 seats mm length 600/P = 7200. This length
C

may beserved by 1 waiterifmeals pre-cooked; ifmeals and drinks have

to beprepared atcounter further1—2waiters necessary—(7)(8)(9).
7 LongU-formatcounter Areas required
Per seat 1480—2150
24.0 Ratio ofservicearea to total area25—50%
Netkitchenarea 15—25%
lllll'.. -fX1 Kitchen& wash-up
J se;ice! Preferably at same level as restaurant,kitchen area divided into:

shi
ShortU-formatcounters
servery
area ofcooking, frying, grilling and preparationofsoups and vegetables
cold buffet (meat, salads, fruits, fish,sweets and desserts)
wash-up area
—*Bib2l 7
Other requirements
Toilets for customers, staff toilets, staff cloakrm, small office, food sto
I—. 20.0 —4
including refrigerator and deep freeze, liquor sf0, boiler rm, air-
conditioning plant if required. For scale of sanitary fittings —*reg.
IT Public cloakrm not normally required forthistype of restaurant,hdtand
coat stands or coat rack on wall sufficient. In large snack bars separate
entrance and exitsdesirable. Cashier near exit.

service U) CC)
C\J
ar C'J.
tray slide

50 rail
1150 750
*—750 +
9 PairedU-formatcounters 10 Self-servicecafeteriaservice
206 Commerce
Restaurants
DRIVE-IN& SELF-SERVICERESTAURANTS Drive-in restaurants supply food and drinks
direct to cars so that guests may eat without
leaving vehicles. For access and serving pro-
vide canopies and covered ways; dining hall
O 3 6 9 12 15 18 21m should be separate, with parking space close
16 7 36 45 4 ft
to drive-inservice. 1 waiter can serve 6cars.
Self-service advantageous for snack barsand
to overcome staff shortages. Smooth-running
system (entrance-trays-counter-cashier-dr-exit)
more important than comfortable atmosphere
because diner's stay much shorter than in
ordinary restaurant.

1 Drive-in restaurantCalifornia ArchLauter

backfittings& hatchesfran,k

I / / // il 'i , 9
J J•1• U.U1. :1 I
fl
IIi.i111 trayslide

=Sat

9.0—11.0

2 Typicalself-servicecounter toserverangeof 2/3 choicesto80/90customersin 10minutes

22 21
J
1 fiat 1icf1,c
2 coldsto 13 ter
3 day sto 14 restaurant
4chel l5ha
9 6 12 15 18 21
5 wash-up 16 newspapers
18 27 36 45 4 3
6 bakery 17 beerbar
7 meat preparations 18 maincold5*0
1
8 sk 19 deepfreezerm
2 trays
coldbuffet
9 coldbuffet 20 chiP no
3 beverages
10 hotmeatpreparation 21 preparatiOn
11 wafter'sgangway 22 wodishop 4 hotmeals
S cheese& desserts
12 café 223garbagebins
24 carport 6 cashier
7 refrigerator
8 beverages(cpd)
9 iCe
10 hotcpd
11 streetsalescounter

3 Self-servicerestaurantParis ArchPrunier

Restaurant references
—*Bibliography entries 016 043 045 049 096
4 Restaurantonmainhighway:restrm &layon lowerfloor,wheretheycanalsoserve motel 097147153156176217226243282319341
Arch Neufert 439441 442477583
 Commerce207

Restaurantcars: using minimum space

Space needed for dining services in long-distance trams and motor
10.7 —1
coaches —s(1)(2) modest compared with train dining cars—s(9). Dimen-
sioningofGerman dining cars result ofmany years experience; present
I UUF systemafter numerous design changes. Diagonallyplaced tables tried
out in recent years found unsatisfactory and not illustrated here.
LJf1c1DflcTTj1flLtJflODr1L1flflcIjoflc1___)I Kitchen arrangementsrepresentmax useofavailablespace; this applies
1 Tram restaurantcarofRhinelandRailCompany both to width of doors and service hatches and to refrigeration units,
whichare exceptionally large—(8).
1.49 550-'- 950 550—480'- 3 480 All disheshave to be washed up in kitchen between 2 meal services
(main and snack lunch). Service in dining car made easier because
70
number ofcustomers limited to number ofplaces—s(8).

-1550 + 3100 -I- 3430 + 1651) ± 1327 H

I
Detailsof1; diningtablesonly halfaswideasinrestaurantcars:noserving
pantry; kitchenlocated almost in middle of vehiclewherespringingmost
effectiveto lessenjolting
9 Groundplan of Germanrestaurant car—.(6)(1O)

3 SectionA-A—u(8) 4
-
Section B-B—.(8)

biing

b 1600° 1015
615 Cf)d
for railwaystaff hratirig
1740 air-conditioning
1485 0 corr fulng e[] tcpd
conductorsseat
5 SectionC-C-.(8) 6 Transversesection—u(1O)
12 Sleepingcargroundplandetail 13 Crosssection—.(12)
—u(13)

7 Section D-D—*(B)

1— 1650 -
ksy
1 provisions 5 trig 9 sideboard 13 warrningcpd
2 ck 6 staffconipartment 10 trig 14 deepfreezer
7 foldingseat
3 switctrcpd 15 k
4 refuse bins
8 door tr 11 preparation
12 sk 16 sk
8 Ground planofkitcheninGerman restaurant car: section(3)—(5)(7) 15 'Comet' articulatedtrain double
compartment
 208 Commerce

Hotels
C) Location is one of most important factors for commercial success.
0 Depending on market orientationhotels should generallybe conspicuous
type m2/mi gross
2 and sitednear main road ormotorway intersections,airports,commercial
conventionhotelwith largeconference
2 and business centres or resorts.
rm, night club,shopping 55—65
CD Site citycentrehotel 45—55
motorhotel 35—45
C) Following points should be considered: height and plot ratio require- resorthotel 40—55
CD ments, ease of access, adequacy forparking either on ground or within low-mediumtariff hotelwith private bathr
bldg, viewsand aspect, relationshipto adloining bldg, levels. but mm catering 20—30
hostels: singlerm & mm service 18—20
Types
Marketorientation will dictate type of hotel. Construction of new hotels 1 Grossar/miforvarioushoteltypes
of less than 70—80 bedrhardly viable unless they can be run on family
basis.

Citycentre: includeluxury, convention and citytourist hotels. Charac- a b

tensed by high plotratio, high riseconstruction,frequently largefunction section 200 bedr 500bedr
accn, inclusion of shops—.p222or offices —*p223 in development to motorhotel citycentrehotel
improve viability.
m2/rm m2/rm
Motor hotels: cater mainly for people en route by car or motoring
locally, therefore sited at important road junctions and on outskirts of residential
cities. Land cheaper therefore sites fairly large allowing large car park bedr 24 26.5
and low or medium rise construction. Generally contain all usual hotel corr,elevators, stairs 3.2 9.3
services but on modest scale. No rm service. service ar 0.6 0.7
totalresidential 27.8 36.5
Airporthotels: similar planningto motor hotels butcatering specifically public &servicear: frontofhouse
for airtravellers therefore require all night receptionand possibly some lob &circulationincluding P
nightcatering. Sometimes have convention services forconvenienceof elevators 1.6 1.8
international companies. reception,do, reservations off,
switchboard, luggage 0.4 0.5
Resort hotels: at seaside or mountainresorts orspas. Usually planned admin 0.3 0.4
to cater for package holidays with reception arrangements for large restaurant 1.1 0.6
intake at weekly orfortnightly intervals. Restaurantshould accommodate coffeeshop 0.6 0.5
all guest. at 1 sitting. Require spacious lounges, games rm, bars, bar 1 includingcounter, sto 0.8 0.4
bar2includingcounter, sto 0.5 0.3
possiblyalso swimming pool, beachand sports installations.Conference 0.5 0.3
rm can also be included encourage off-season business. lounge
toilets 0.4 0.3
Motels: .—p219220 functionrm 1.1 1.3
pre-functionar — 0.5
Convention hotels: —*p221 —3 furnituresto 0.1 0.2
privatedining/meetingrm 0.4 0.9
Condominium:development involvingjoint ownershipwhere individual shops — 0.2
owner has full benefit of rm, suite, villaforown useorletting butshares totalfrontofhouse 7.8 8.2
costscommon to whole development which may include all usual hotel public &servicear:backofhouse
services. k&ksto 3.8 2.5
stO 0.9 0.9
Functionalrelationships workshops& maintenance 0.8 0.4
Diagram—p209 shows typical relationshipofpartsofmedium size hotel. Iau, linensto etc 0.3 0.7
Points ofprinciple tonoteare: staffcanteen,lockers,toilets 1.0 1.1
offfor personnel, accounts,
separation of guestand service areas: no cross circulation; distinction control,housekeeper etc 0.3 0.5
between frontand backofhouse circulation,serviceelevators etc 0.8 0.9
total backof house 7.9 7.0
all catering outlets ifpossible beon same level askitchens: ifnot, main
restaurant directlyrelated to kitchen; other restaurantsand banqueting total 43.5 51.7
rm should have service rm connected by elevators and stairs main
kitchenwhere bulkcooking is undertaken boiler houses,plant rm &car parking excluded

organisation ofbackof house such that staff and goods are separatefar 2 Space allocations
as possible and control can be maintainedoverboth.

Space allocation& standards

—.(1)guidetogrossar/rmfor varioustypes of hotel.
(2) shows space allocation for 2 typical contrasting hotels: figures
assume mosteconomical layout. Quality of hotel mainly dependent on
serviceand finishes; de luxe hotels have larger service areas, more
service elevatorsetc; ineconomy hotelsthese areasreduced,sometimes
tobare mm of reception,office, breakfastrm, bar and supportingservices.
 Commerce 209

Hotels

service entrance

guest entrance

Flowdiagramoftypicalhotel
210 Commerce
Hotels
PLAN FORMS
Bedroomaccommodation
As bedr formsgreater proportionofhotel constructionkeytoeconomical
design largely in layout of bedr block. —*(1) shows some possible
arrangements:
Double-loaded block (A) capable of development into L U courtyard
plan; requires only2stairs; considered most economical layout.
Double-loaded Tshaped block(B)capablebeingdeveloped intocross;
also economical but 3stairs required.
Single-loaded block (C) capableof being developed into L U or court-
yard plan: not economical solution but may be desirable, perhaps
combined with A take advantage of site conditions; ifdeveloped form
centrecourtyard can beused provide atrium effect.
Square block (D) with central core containing all vertical services,
maids' rooms etc, compact and useful for small sites where tower
development may be required.
Y plan (E) requires 3 staircases and has more complicated structure
than straight blocks; structural system may cause problems in public
areas.
Triarc(F) similar to E but more space taken up by circulation; concave
curveresults in bedr wideratbathr end providing opportunity forlarger
bathr and dressing area.
Circular (G) requires careful handlingavoid awkward and inward facing
rm; notcapable ofextension.
Circular with centralcore (H), similarto D; also requirescareful handling
avoid awkward rm. Convex curves inGand H result in bedr narrower at
bathr end, causing cramped space forbathr.
Relationshipofbedroom blockto publicroomareas
Many ways in which bedr block mayberelatedtopublic rm and circulation
but can be illustrated by 3basic arrangementsshown —.(2). Likely that
combinations or variations of these arrangements would have to be
adopted.
A Compact development of bedr block superimposed on podium.
Suitable forhigh risedevelopmenton city site. Problemsarise frombedr
services having topassthrough public rmand fromprobableneed carry
bedrblockoverwide spans.
B Bedrblockadjacent topublic rm block: considered to beeconomical
because optimum structure and services can bedesigned foreach part.
Suitable formotorhotel development on large site.
C Open layout with public rm and service blockcompletely separate
from bedr which may be in groups scattered about large site. Suitable
for motel and resort type hotels where plenty of land available and
landscape conditions dictate.
VERTICALCIRCULATION
Hotels of more than 2 storeys should be provided with passenger and
service elevators (—(3) —p41O—2). Except in small hotels all elevators
should be duplicated provide efficient service and standby in case of
breakdownor repair. Numberand speedofelevatorswill depend on height
and populationof bldg and for largeinstallations should bebasedontraffic
studyby specialist.
Service hoists ordumb waiters notadvised owing need have 1 person
each end: bettermake service elevators largeenough take trolley(cart)
plus personnel.
If possible plan all elevators in 1 bank or towerwith service elevators
opening to kitchen area and passenger elevators opening directly to
guestlobby. Separatebaggage elevators not required except in de luxe
hotels; but may be desirable to have 1 elevator available for manual
controliflargeamount baggagehandled. In high bldg much depends on
qualityand speed of elevator services as regards both guest elevators
and serviceelevators: not wiseto skimp this aspect.
In addition goods elevators may berequired inbackareas: should be of
large capacity and of sturdy, easily cleanedconstruction.

A B
1:circulation &
services
service

A guests

J
L -.1
service
C

servKe

.vemflcal
circulation
bedr
Dsemvice

1 Plan formsforbedraccn 2 Relationship of bedrtopublicmi 3 Typical verticalcirculationcore for500bedr

hotel

PUBLICROOMS
Restaurants
In medium and large hotelscommon to provide more than 1 restaurant
give customer choice menu and price. Cheaper restaurant usually
coffee shop or cafeteria: more expensive a Ia carte. Large hotels may
have additional specialist restaurants.In certainsituations,eg citycentre
hotels, cheaper restaurantmay beaccessiblefromboth hotel and street
to attract non-residential business.
Seating capacitiesrestaurantsvary accordingsize hotel, amount potential
outside business, location in relation other restaurants, duration stay
guests, amount breakfast rm service to be provided.
In resortand other suitable locations provision should be made serve
meals in open air either by extension of 1 restaurant or by separate
service.
FurtherdetaIls—up202—7;kitchens—vp213
Bars
Cocktail or aperitif bar (if required) should be planned as comfortable
intermediary waiting area between hotel lobby and main restaurant;
servicemay be by waiter: long bar counter may not berequired.
Main bar will provide chiefdrink service of hotel. May have external
entrance to encourage non-resident business. Fairly long bar counter
supported by bar sto with ice making machine and bottle cooler should
be provided: section may berequired for service ofsimple meals.
Possible otherbars: rooftop,pooi side,beach, club areas.
All bars capable of being shut securelyduring non-opening hourseither
bygrill or shutterat bar counter orbyclosing rm. Former has advantage
rm can be used aslounge when bar closed. Should be possible service
bars without passingthrough publicrm. Barsshould comply with licensing
laws.
Space allowance forbars excluding counter:
cocktail lounge (comfortable) 1.8—2.0 m2/P
general bar (some standing &on stools) 1.3—i.7m2/P
Lounges
Reasonable provision should be made for people waiting and relaxing
either in relation to lobby or circulation areas or to revenue-earning
areas suchas bars. More lounge space required in resort hotels than
Commerce 211
Hotels
others. Service of drinks, tea and coffee should be provided from
dispense orfrommain kitchen. Separateresidents lounges notnormally
required.
Recreation rooms
Card rm, table tennis, billiard rm etc should be considered for resort
hotels.
Functionrooms
Multi-purpose rm for meetings, banquets, balls, parties, exhibitions
valuable asset. Design considerations include: separate access if rm
large; divisible by movable partitions; separate access for guests and
servicedesirable; audio-visual eqptobeprovided. Large span required
precludes this rm being planned beneath bedr block except on costly
city sites.
Space allowances:
i.i—1.3m2/P
banquet style seating
meetings: table groups 0.9—1.1 m2/P
theatre style seating 0.5—0.6 rn2/P
Other requirementsforfunctionrm:
ante-rm, preferably approx 1/3rdarea offunction rm, with dispense bar
furniture store0.5 m2/seat easily accessible fromfunction rm
cloakrm and toilets (depending on proximity of hotel toilets): provision
of wc and urinals as for public areas—vp212 unless music and dancing
licence required, in which case should be as for concert halls, theatres
etc —vBib36i 604.
Movable partitions should be full height and fold completely away into
pockets. AvdB reductionof45—50 sould be achievedthrough partitions
and between function rmand kitchen.
In large function rm consider separate access for heavy exhibits. Allow
510 kg/m2 floor loading.
Meetingrooms
In addition some meeting rm, preferably associatedwith main function
rm, may be required. May vary in size; should all be capable being
serviced fromeither main kitchen orpantry.
Fireprecautions
Alternativeexitroutes must beprovidedforall publicrm. Travel distances
toexits,flameresistance ofmaterials,fire and smoke resistantcompart-
mentationmust be in accordancewith regulations —up216408.

service
ptr elevator
elevator
S

freight
elevator

Ia
banquetrm
600seats
—

L_ bar bar
royal l4 Idre stairto
projection
booth

I Spacerequiredforbanqueting for37allowing 2 Space requiredin a

Si
,—
a
do pre-functionlob
1600 people
standing
I royal
forservice dr for14 allowing for E E I I salon

service:2.0m2/cover
a a n
=a
banquetfoyer

II
- 8500

--
.—.t-
- vest ___ 0

—- •
r:
vestibule : vestibule

r---1
o

0
I

r S
a

5 20m
1 0 10 15
I__________________
t5 30 45 605
3 Banquetingseating at tablesfor 10: typical arrangements forlarge 4 of
Example banquetsuite forlargehotel
banquets:1.2 m2/cover
212 Commerce
Hotels
FRONT OF HOUSE
Entrance
Arrange drive-insocars can pull off road and with space forwaiting cars
and taxis: waitingspace for coachessometimes needed. Providecanopy.
In exposed positions provide draught lobby or revolving doors (require
pass doors for fire escape and baggage). Where traffic heavy with
guests carrying own bags automatic doors. Separate door to baggage
rm in high class hotels. Special provision for baggage handling for
hotelsexpecting people in largegroups.

Receptionarea
Reception desk —v(1) near and visible from entrance with porter,
receptionist, cashier close by. In largehotels separatedeskfor porter
(mainly supervising baggagehandling).
Hall porter's desk 1 Reception& porter'sdeskfor400-bedr hotel: receptionists, porters,
cashiersnotnormallyseated,therefore worktop heightforstanding
Lengthof counter arranged so porter can go freely into entrance hall.
Depending on size of hotel should be fitted with alphabeticalguestlist, backelevationofdesk
message waiting indicator, working shelf, drawers. Site key rack —x(3)
with slots for keys and letters corresponding with number of bedr in
easyreach receptionists. Am behind forshorttermstosmall items, post
box and slot.

Receptionist'sdesk—v(1)
Fitted with sloping rack not visible by guests for rm states (usually
manual card system but may beelectronic in largehotels), worktop and
countertop for guests registration,section at normal height forclerical
work, shelving, cupboards. Provide alphabetical list. Behind reception
desk reservations office with direct access for receptionists: should
have wall space forcharts and telex(ifany).

Cashier'sdesk—v(2)
In small-medium size hotels may be partreception desk. In largehotels
normally partitioned-off section ofmain reception deskwith small office
at rear for chief cashier. Desk office for: 1 or 2 cash registers, bill tray
spaces alongside registers,lockablecashdrawers, shelvesand drawers,
guestsafe deposit boxes—n(4),deposit boxes for staff floats,telephone
meterdisplay board, airtube system terminal ifrequired, safe.
2 Typicalcashdeskfor400-bedrhotel
Telephone switchboard—(2)
Often placed near reception counter so receptionists can operate at
key 1 safetydepositboxes
2 key & messagerack
—
3 rmstatusrack
off-peaktimes. Otherwise in separate rm, possibly with hatch to public 4 roiaryaiphabeticaiindex
lobby and public telephones nearby. 5 currencyinformation
6 cash register
7 cashier
Fire alarm panel: at reception deskorsomeotherpointwhere all night 8 reception
attendance. 9 concierge
10 switchboard
Typical counter lengths fordifferent sizes hotel: 11 frontoff manager
12 fihng
13 telephoneswitches
noofrm counter length 14 ielephonemeters
50 3000 15 tapestry& decorativeclock
16 pagingrecievercharger
100 4500 17 flreaiarmpanei
200 7500 18 reservabonsoff
19 safe
400 10.5 20 chief cashier
21 clock
Hotellobby 22 advancereservationsrack
23 tapedmusic& pagingeqp
Consider supplying in or nearlobby: housetelephone, publictelephones, t riomiai teieptione
television security monitors, clocks and calendars, news teleprinters, fs servicestationteiephone
d drawer
information desk, travel agents, airline and car hire desks, kiosks and cd cash drawer
shops, lounge and waitingareas,guest secretarialand businessservices, shelf 4 Typicalbankofsafety depositboxes:
cpd varioussizes should be provided
public toilets.
Cloakroom&toilets
In small—mediumhotels where noteconomicalemploycloakrmattendant
space may provided for coats and bags under eye of porter or recep- swilcfl
reservations
panei

tionist. Otherwise provide cloakrm formain lobby, restaurants,function U

rm: sited discreetly, if possible together for ease of supervision. Plan Cf0
cloakrm for large function rm so asensure easyflow and quickissue of & bags key rack telephone
coats. Provide recessed area atleast1200in front ofcounters to avoid
encroachment on main circulation. Counter lengths: generally 1 000/
work Fm cash
100 P. top rack register
&work top
Publictoilets:number ofwc, urinals,wash basins usuallydetermined by
local reg. Forwomen'stoilets vanity top, mirrors, good lighting. 1 wcfor
eachsex fordisabled persons. 5 Typical frontofffor120-bedrhotel
 Commerce 213

Hotels
KITCHENS& FOOD STORES
Should be planned on one level ifpossibleto serve allcatering outlets. If
not possible main kitchen should be on level with main restaurantwith
preparation and stoon differentlevel. Foreconomy 1 wash-up desirable.
Banqueting and any otherfood service area not next to kitchen should
belinked byservice elevators (preferablynothoists) and stairs and have
own forward service eqp. Kitchen, cold rm and food sto area should be
planned to be locked offfromstaff when not in use. In large hotels food
and drink sto should be under control ofstoreman.

Approxspace allowances forkitchen planning including food sto, cold

rm, wash-up,chef'soffice:
main restaurant kitchen area 1.4m2 x no of covers
banquet kitchen &servicearea 0.2 m2 x no ofcovers
coffee shopkitchen 0.3 m2 x no ofcovers
separate independent coffee shop0.45 m2 x no ofcovers
Increase or reduce theseallowancesaccording whether fully traditional
orconvenience foodoperation envisaged.
Allowapprox500/c extraforstaff toilets, changing rm, canteen and other
sto (see below).
1 k&food sto flowdiagram
Specification notes for kitchen areas: floors non-slip tiles, draining
to gulleys with wide radius coved skirtings; sloping floors to have
gradient not more than 1:20. Recessed area at restaurant doors for
ribbed rubber matting or other non-slip cleanable material. Plinths re-
quired for some eqp. Grease traps outside kitchen if possible. Gas,
waterand plumbing supplies to be run towithin 1 000ofappliance: final
connexion by specialist. Walls in kitchen tiled up to 1 800. In sto walls
1350k +—--+
L=1L1 max reach convenientfor
heavyItems
fairfaced or plastered and painted. Dwarf walls tiled with inclined top
surface. Corners protected. False ceilings offr tiles with access panels
to inspection covers, fire dampers etc. Openable windows to have fly
screens. Where mech make-up air provided windows non-openable

.
except forcleaning. Doors to havevision panels and metal kick platesor
automaticopening devices.
f.... Main cooking eqp should be eitherin island or againstwall with extract
1•5o canopies extending about 250over. Extractvelocity usually 7.7 to 10.2
m/s. Should preferably have vertical sidesextending to ceiling. Height
tounderside 2150.
2 Mm spacesbetweeneqptoallow
forcirculation convenientfor max reach Sizesof kitchen sto will depend on type of hotel, location,frequency of
heavyitems deliveries, type of food, ie whether convenience food. Cold rm temp:
3 Limitinghforsto shelving deepfreeze—20°C, chill rm2to 3°C.
Other stores
8O
-t6Th--- t Furniture sto with adjacent workshop, paint shop etc: 0.2—0.3 m2/rm
depending on amount in house maintenance

I A C D 0 Cleaning materials: 0.2—0.4m2/rm

Glass, silver, china: 0.1 m2/rm
Liquor:0.2 m2/rm, divided into areasforbeer and mineral bottles, kegs,
redwines14—16°C, whitewine 10—12°C and spirits
Empties: closetoloading dock
Refuse:planning will depend on method ofsto and collectionsiebinsor
A cleanlinenracks A tumbler F press& board compactor. Allow space for vehicle backup to receptacles. Providefor
B table B tubs G shakeOuttable washing down refusearea, bins etc. In warm climatesprovide refrigerated
C dryers C extractor H four rollironer
0 washers D washer J soiledlinenur refusesto.
E table I foldingtable
Linen: area depends on type of hotel. Typically 0.4m2/rm: may be less
if inhouse laundry provided. Shelves at least 600 wide open lathed.
4 Non-ironIau for120 bedrhotel 5 La ufor200 bedr hotel
Allowspace forsorting and worktable for repairs.
All above areas for 200 bedr hotels, do not necessarily increase or
reducepro rata according to number of bedr.
crockerycpd
Laundry
For 200 bedr hotel space ofapprox 140 m2 required excluding linen sto,
steam boiler, chemicals sto, office. Ifnon-iron linen used space can be
reduced to 40—59 m2. Ventilation ratio should be 15—20 air changes/hr
with separate extraction for steameqp and dry cleaning.

Servicebay
Should be arranged in such way that incoming goods can be kept
communication separate fromoutgoing refuse and preferably with separateentrance for
staff all undersupervision ofcontrol office. Vehicles back upto loading
dock. Providewashdown, weighing scales,staff clock-in. Allow sufficient
6 Standswithopenshelvesfor 7 Waiter's servery& sk heightand turningspace for large vehicles. Columns and corners to be
goods protected fromdamage byvehicles.
214 Commerce
Hotels
KITCHENS& STORES

meals/day

2 Totalstorequirementsforconventional kbasedon numberofmeals

prepared/day

staffar

wash-up Sr

serveryar

cookin9ar

preparationar

stoar
25 55
meals/day

1 Kitchenlayout of largeroadsiderestaurantCaliforniaUSA 3 Arrequiredforsto k,servery&staffarusingconventional methodsoffood

preparation

4 Exampleofktoserve4restaurants: coffeeshop 120covers; mainrestaurant100covers; specialtyrestaurant

100 covers;staffdr80covers; mainfood sto inbasement, alsoservice&ktofunctionrm
 Commerce 215

Hotels
ADMINISTRATION
In small hotels office accn may be limited to general office behind
reception desk, manager's office and chef's or control office at rear.
Larger hotelswill require all or some offollowing:
At front of house associated with reception: reservations office, front
office manager, chiefcashier, sales manager,secretary.
General admin (preferably nearreceptionbutcanbeelsewhere): general
manager, 2 or 3 assistant managers, secretanes, chief accountant,
accounts' dept,duplicating rm, archives.
At back of house: control office at service bay, storeman, personnel
office,secretary and clerk, waiting rm, chief engineer, security officer,
chef (within kitchen), housekeeper, training rm.
Space allowance for offices (UK): 0.3—0.4 m2/rm orin accordancewith
statute(Bib346347).

Staffaccommodation
In large hotels provide staff canteen for approx 1/3rd staff with own
kitchen. Canteen should beaccessiblewithout staff havingtogothrough
kitchen. Senior staff diningrm may be required. In small hotels senior
staffmay use restaurantand junior staffdining rm may be supplied from
main Kitchen. Provisionofstafftoilets—Bib341480.
Lockers: 1 full height locker for each member of staff should be
provided: space allowance0.36m2/P excluding bench space: 1/2 height
lockersmay be used for certain grades of staff. Assume equal number
male and female staff unless otherwise informed.
Staff sleeping accn depends on location and management policy.
Manager's flatmay be required.
Technicalareas
Maintenance engineer's workshop and sf0 required adjacent plant rm.
May include, according to size of hotel, furniture sto, engineering eqp
sto,carpenters shop, paint shop, printingdept. Allunder chiefengineer's
eye. Accessfor replacement of heavy plant to be allowed for. Space 2 Exampleofadminoffforlargehotel: except forfrontdesk,reservations&
also required forel sub-station and switch rm. cashierthese may also besitedelsewhere, egonmezzanine

1 Servicear&staff accnforlargehotel
216 Commerce

Hotels
GUEST BEDROOMS
Bedroom sizes —(1)
In medium tariff hotels 2-B rm typically approx 15—17 m2. High tariff
hotelsmay have rm upto28 m2, excluding lobby and bathr butincluding
sitting area.
American sizebed: twin990 x 1 900;double 1 370 x 2030; queen size
1520 x 2100; king size 1830wide.
Most hotelorganisations buildbedrsized totake twin or double beds in
order provide flexbiIity and avoid built-in obsolescence as standards
raised in future. Some rm may have fold-away beds so that they may
also be usedassitting rm or small meeting rm—.(2).Murphy beds fold
verticalclosedwith wall panel.
Floor to ceiling height 2500 (mm 2300)with lower ceiling of2000over
entryto allow for mechanical services.
Except at resort hotels balconies not usually favoured by hoteliers
because ofcostand maintenanceproblems.
Proportion of rm (approx 20%)with communicatingdoors. Should be2
doors, preferably with rubberor neoprene gaskets to reduce sound
transference. Sound transmission between bedr and between bedr and
corridors should beminimised bydBreductionof45—50. Where external
noise fromheavytraffic oraircraft provide double glazing for reduction
40—42avdB.
For greaterprivacy and sound insulation additionaldoor may be placed
between entrylobbyand bedr.
Privatebathrooms
Bathr normally contain wc, washbasin orvanity unit with mirror over,
bath with shower. Insomedeluxe hotels and in most SEuropean and S
American hotelsbidetnecessary. Showers in placeofbaths savelittle in
cost or space, therefore not often provided. Shower compartment in
addition to bath sometimes provided in de luxe hotels, as also separate
orscreened off wc.
Bathr should be carefullyplanned in relationto plumbing and ventilation
ducts. Theseshould be located in relation structure and ease ofaccess
formaintenance.
Following additional features should be included: glazed tiling round
bath tub (at least), grab handles for bath shower and bath, shower
curtain and rail, soap tray, removable bath panel foraccess toplumbing,
shower, mixervalve preferably thermostatically controlled, adequate
towel racks in accordance withclass ofhotel, good shelfspace if vanity
top not provided, el shaver connexion, bath mat and non-slip surface to
bath/shower, toilet roll holder, clothes hooks. Other items to be con-
sidered: tissue dispenser, bottleopener, hook for shoe duster, waste
basket, sanitary bin, stool. Good lighting over mirroressential.
Bedroomcorridors& stairs
Corridorsnot over-long; may be 1 200—2000wide according type of
hotel. Corridorflowcapacity—vp407. Wherewidth lessthan 2000consider
modulating corridor by recessing bedr doors. Ceiling void often used to
house engineering services: heighttoceiling notless than 2250.
Direction signsand numbering of doors to be clear and well lit. Protect
corners from damage. El socket outlets at 12 m intervals. Provide
emergency lighting. Carpet floor for quietness. Space
forshoecleaning machines, drink dispensers and ice machines may be
required in corridors or lobbies.
Fireprecautions—(4)
Follow national and local fire codes.
Doors to bedr tobeself-closing with mm halfhourfr. Partitionsseparating
guest rm from corridors to have 1 hour resistance unless automatic
sprinklers installed. Mm fire ratings for separation of exits such as
staircases normally: bldg up to 3 storeys 1 hour, 4 storeys or more 2
hours.
In UK self-closing smoke stop doors should be provided every 18 m in
corridors and at all exit staircases. Max travel distances to exit stairs
shown in diagram. Linings to corridors and stairsshould have class Aor
B rating forsurface flamespread.
All exit stairs must be at least 1 050 wide, be of fr construction in fire
protected enclosure having 2 hour rating. Access must be through
vestibulefittedwithself-closing doors at least 1000wide. Lockeddoors
should beprovided with panic boltsorbreak glass system.
Floor service
Numberof rm perfloorshould ideally be related to number of rmwhich
can beserviced by 1 maid: willdepend on class of hotel, productivity of
staff and size ofrm, butwill comewithin the rangeof 12—18 rmpermaid.
Maids' rm should becentrallylocated and close to serviceelevators.These
should contain space forservicetrolleys(carts),soiled linen hampers,
clean linen racks and rubbish sacks. Depending on class of hotel and rm
servicesystempantry may alsobe required: should contain shelves for
setting out breakfasttrays, sinks and worktop, refrigerator, ice maker,
boiler, toaster, space for trolleys.
There are arguments for and against linenand rubbish chutes. Need
should bechecked with operator.
Every floorshould also have sto space for cots, extra beds and spare tv
sets.
In hotels where maids cannot get from bedr to staff toilets without
passing throughpublicrm, eginmotorhotels and motels, provision may
be madeforstafftoilets andchangingrmIn bedrblock.

biT
bed size rm ar accesspanels corr access
corr access

1
single bed
double bed
twin beds
1 000x 2000
1500x2000
1000 x 2000
8.75 m2
12.5m2
13.5m2

Basic mm rrnsizes (excluding lob &bathr) [!61 trolleys(Carts)

under
worktop
L_] serviceelevatorlob

spaceforrabbisf
144 328 42h tray& china sk sacks
shelves cleanerssk
3 Typicalarrangementsof bathr&ducts: access
over desk/work
-
panels toductsshouldbet/2 hrfr; ductsshould boiler ..._—..—— ptr I II I soiled linen

have firestopsbetweenfloors;sizesvary with toaster LJL IL hampers

double
heightofbldg; 'a'isbestforaccesstoductbut b &
single

'c' providemorespaceforvanitytop ±
trig maidstrolley cart)park
maxtam maxl8m

5 Typicalservicearfor50—60 mi/floor;
note: aprovisionofptrdependsonclassofhotel
and rm servicearrangements in k blocal linensb
orcpdmay berequireddependingon method of
control cfloorsto forbeds,cots notshown

ij1ffli
1Jbedr
b sometimes communicating
toiletonly doors
2 a basicbed requirements barrangement of
sittingrrnbetweenbedrprovidesmaxflexibilityfor
suites;suitescanalso beformedat corners ofbldg
orwherestandardisationofstructuralgrid not
possible;luxurysuitesmayalso beplannedas
penthouseorvillasin grounds
maa allowabletraveldistancefrom 4 stage 2escape;no furtherthan 18m
mostremotecornerofrmtodoorway allowedfromexitdoorofmito
2 inmulti-rn,suitesno singlecross-ire
dimensionshouldexceedSm
entranceofprotectedroute
5 dead endportionofany escapecon
3 inmuftl-rrttsuites anyassocIated should notexceed7.6m
privatecorrshouldnot eaceed 7.5m
inlength
4 Fire:max traveldistances
 Commerce 217
Hotels
GUESTBEDROOMS

1 Guest bedrdiagrams
Diagrams —(1 )(2) showconfigurations for bedr and bathr. Most new
hotelsplanned with private bathr attached to bedr; examples without
private bathr therefore not included.
a Typical twin bedr in common use: 3600 rm width optimum for
economy/comfort; wardrobe in lobby
b Similarbut reduced in depth for single or double bed
c Narrow frontage scheme againstbathr
d Width of rm increased allow possibility of dressing area & walk-in
closet
e Bathr placed between bedr allow one bathr have natural light
Layout provides for separate wc compartment with bidet if required;
angled window can be applied to any of theseschemes & allows for
extrasitting area &directional view
g Luxury bedr withvanity unitseparated frombathr
h Staggering wardrobes in partition wall can savespace

-rubbish

4 Chambermaid'strolley(cart)

2 adressingtable unit bnighttable &bedhead with wallhungtelephoneto

leave table clear:table maybesplayedtoalloweasymovement of bed
ccombineddressingtable, luggagerack&tvunit; may becantilevered for
ease ofcleaningbutifsomustbefirmly anchored totakePsitting;upstand 3 Typicalcombinedunitwa: where
should beprovidedatbackof fitmenttopreventdirtmarksonwall;luggage hangingspaceonly allow 500 rail/P;
rackmaybereplacedbyteamakingunit; lights shouldbeplaced toilluminate
worktop& both sidesofface evenly
some luxuryhotelshavewalk-in 5 Linen trolley (cart)with removal
closets&dressingrm fabric
218 Commerce

Hotels
BUILDINGSERVICES
—(1) shows salient features of bldg services design (—p383—97)
following additional points should be noted:
Emergency electrical supply
Certain essential services must be maintained in event of failure of
mains supply. Generator willbe required maintainfollowing: fire exit and
emergency lights, approx 20% of public area lighting, cold rm and
refrigerators, fire pumps, cash registers, fire alarm indicator systems,
telephone communications, sumpand sewage pumps.
Firealarm systems
Following essential: manualbreak-glass contacts and automatic smoke
or heat detectors with audible warning throughout bldg; automatic
recessed hose reelsthroughout, hoses to becapableof reaching every
bedr; external fire hydrants; portable fire extinguishers at strategic
locations; asbestos blankets in kitchen; fire dampers.
Airconditioning
Central system generally preferred to individual rm units. Should be
capable of being controlled by guests in bedr. Public areas must be
zonecontrolledto copewith peak loads and foreconomy when certain
areas not in use. Good maintenanceaccess toallunitsessential.
Centralheating
Ifair-conditioning (normal USA) not adopted bedr should be heated by
but radiators with individual controls designed for quickresponse. Public
rm, particularly restaurants, should be provided with controlled mech
ventilation tobalance kitchen extract. Bars should have extract fans.
Bathroomventilation
Generally extract system should be ducted tofans on roofwith individual
bathr connected to main riser by shuntducts to minimise sound trans-
mission between bathr.
Lighting
Bedr lighting systems to be arranged so that at least 1 main light
switched from door and bedhead. More elaborate switching arrange-
ments maybeadopted according totype ofhotel. Fluorescentlighting in
bathr to be of quick start' type. Each bedr or pair of bedr to have
consumerunitwith isolating switches. Corridor lighting should be time
switched sothat sections canbeturned offatcertainperiodsforeconomy.
Public rm should be switched in zones and special consider-
ation given to decorative effects. Main switches should be located
where public cannotreach them.
Shaversockets
Thereshould be dual voltage (single voltage USA) shaver sockets in all
private bathr and male public toilets.

screen
I 114
coldwater plant onroofmust
sto 140 I/guest be well insulated

bathr
extracts

•separate flues
foreach boiler

zone forservices

airhandling
plant sited to
minimise nuisance

1000 zone for

9
3

18
6
I9
27
I
3611
12m

LEEJ— sto
boilers: at least2
each capable of 2/3
total heating load
water softener probably
required

I Section showingsalientfeaturesof bldg services design for hotel


1 Unitopen to 1 side only;3different layouts
Arch Polivnick
3 Carportsbetweengroupsof3or 6units Arch Duncan
4 Unitswith coveredcarportsas3but in fours ArchTibbals-Gramley-Masson
5 Layoutofmotel withparkingarforeach block&restaurantas
independentestablishment ArchFried
Commerce 219
Motels
6250
Location
On major highways, often near largetoxins,
excursion centres and holiday resorts, and
convenient for supplies (water, el, gas, fresh
foodand laundry). Restaurant, petrol and garage
services need not be connected to motel but
should be available nearby. Self-service
restaurant —p205 206.
Sited so thatpassing headlights do not sweep
bldg: avoid hilly terrain because of noise of
vehicles braking and changing gear.
Approach
Take into consideration stopping distance of
cars: 100 kph— 150m.
Entrance: leads to reception (short stop), then
to parking area (carport or garage) near as
possible to rm. Exit through reception (control
and return of keys).
Size
Motels generally 1-storeyand spreadout since
2 Unitwith daylightfrom 2sides (difficultto land relatively cheap.
control) Arch Roberto
If run by couple withouthelp10—i2unitsprac-
ticable; 1 helper required for every additional
10 rm.
If affected by seasons,divide motel intosmaller
groupsof 4—8rm with stop-cocks forwater, el,
gas etc. Single bldg cost more than terrace
housing.
If trucksto be excluded construct low canopy
over passage atreception.
b
3 6 2 18 m
1!D 2D 410 6ft
6 Motorhotel RevereMassachusetts USA aunitsinblocksof 12with
accesstoparkingatendeach bldg bcatering &adminbldg provides for
entertaining,dining,conferring Arch Salsberg &Le Blanc
220 Commerce
Motels
1 Staggeredlayoutofresidential
unitswith reception&caretaker's
flat Arch Williams

2 2 doublermwith lob(forcold Provide large central rm for all guests, with

season)and cabin (forch)whichcan recesses for writingand reading, card tables,
beused separatelyorwitheitherrm radio, television, souvenir shopsetc.
Telephone boxes should have provision for
sitting and writing, and have maps, directories
etc available as mostly used for long-distance
calls.

Roomsize
Large thanforcity hotel:approx 4000 x 4000
upto 5000 x 5000,withbathrand ifnecessary
kitchenette, even if only 1 bed.
Provide inter-communicating doors between
unitssothat suites may beformed.
Since90% guests stay only 1 night cupboards
and chests unnecessary: provide large coat
racks on wall instead, where belongings hang
visibly,soless likelytobeleft behind.

3 Entrancewith b/wc, betweencarpark& guest
rmforsoundinsulation Arch Hombostel
Ancillary rooms
1 centrallysituated linenrm with 5 sets linen/B
(1 being used, 3in sto, 1 in laundry). Cleaner's
rm accomodates trolley (cart) with compart-
ments forclean and dirty linen, soap, bath salts,
toiletpaper, vacuum cleaner, broom,floorpolish
etc.
If possible direct access from rm to car park.
Efficient drainage ofapproaches, parkingareas
and paths, as guests enter rm straight from
outside.
Play areas some distance away to avoid dis-
4 Staggeredlayoutwith approach from 1 side turbingresting guests.
only Arch Thompson

restaurant

resdeflta
units

-
approachfroni fillingstation

hrhway

Layoutof3 with restaurant Arch Hornbostel 6 Establishment withefficiententrance &exit control

 Commerce 221

Convention hotels
Planning and design concept which absorbed large proportion of hotel
m2 occupancy investment in USA during 1970s, often as part of efforts regenerate
innercity areas. Basic characteristic:large amount ofspaceavailable for
595 425 convention business activities such as meetings, exhibitions,seminars.
280 400 Conventions entail dense traffic:400-rmhotel can have population 800
185 185 ormoreat height ofconvention orconference.
restaurant 370 200 Flexibility of space essential —v(1)(2). Spaces for eating capable of
beingserved independentlyatall times butkitchens should utilise same
175 185 central supplies (eg water,gas, drainage).
parlour&cafe 93 75
Staff servicing guests orworking behind public spaces should notcross
520 375
or impedepublic areas —v(2). In addition to segregation of personnel,
space meeting banquet main public and meeting areas require large outside halls for security,
check-in by conference organisers, provision of coffee, literature and
520 800 400 exhibition stalls etc.
390 600 300
3750 5785 2900 Large numbers involved make necessarycontrol oftraffic inand between
5.40 758 880 main convention spaces. Use of atrium as unifying design concept
ballrm 4660 7148 3580 —p223(1) groups ballrm, meeting rm, exhibition spaces, shops, bars,
foyerspace 740 restaurantson 4 levels. Service functions ofoffices, laundry,sto, loading
5390 thus contiguous with space they serve but out of sight; segregation of
vehiclesalso obtained.
meetingrm:
00 P 70 Conferences and conventions generate need for bedr with space and
7930 eqp for daytime business meetings. Small kitchen, tables, easy chairs,
parking) adequate lighting required —vp222(ld). (Rm thus equipped termed
suites insomehotel chains.)

58
520
432
1010

a employee employee
telephone lockers dr
lau linen
I) '
I
I
LL.,... I •!.
meetings
above
banquet
L d ptr

: :

foyer
;i1ç.
ballrm I

StO\ 1sto

entrance

1 PhoenixofAtlantaHotelUSA abreakdownof publicar(totalof2058

guestrm) b mainlob floor c lowerlob floor Arch AlanLapidus 0 6 12 1,8 24 m

key imainlob 2loblounge 3regetration4admin6shops&agencies

o 40 t0 ao ft
7checkrrn 8restaurant 9coffee shop 10 news stand 11 bar/cocktail lounge 2 Smallconventionhotel(400rm) asecondfloor bmainfloor:showing
I2discotheque l4grandballrm l7meetingrrn 2Oreceivingk 21 maink 22k 25rrn
service 31 rnech 34 snackbar 35main entrance 36convention foyer 37 reception & control segregationofhotel &convention business vehicletraffic& tightcontrolof
38 openlightwell 40 convention entrance service& personneltraffic inside
222 Commerce

Convention hotels
EXAMPLES

9 6 12m

a 20 40 ft

summitrestaurant

hoteiguestfloors

ofttower

iuflior balirmIeve
ballrTn veI
-podiumbael
_—otttower Wnmediate level
Streetlevel

I,
--.,---
a
01.53m d
9 9 9 12m
5 lOft 10 20 30 40ft

1 Hyatt RegencyHotelHoustonTexasUSA
a lob floorbfirstfloor ctypicalguest rmfloor
dexamplesofbedr suitesshowingprovision of
meetingspace;note possibleuseof dividingwalls
to createsmallerrm Arch JVIII

2 RenaissanceCenterDetroitUSA:convention
center & 1400 mi hotelwith 2650m2 ha,
13 restaurants,offspace, commercial retail space
&rentableflats(orcondominium) asection
b streetlevel plan ArchJohn Portman
 Commerce 223
Convention hotels
EXAMPLES

E Jcrc.
?
pool°°
r
:

U'.•
___PIaZa__1 fastfood'
/5\ I I:

IL
r
ew
dr
restaurant

I bei<'
bac ow

b
036912 m
10203040ft
b

9 121824m
204b600 ft

2 BonaventureHotelLosAngelesUSA:atriumdesign incorporating 4cylindricaltowers&central

tower a retailfloor blobfloor ArchJohn Portman

1 Hyatt HotelBostonUSA:atriumdesign with

addedfeatureoforientation over riverproviding
viewfrom publicspaces&guestrm aground
floor btypical guest rmfloor ArchJohn Portman

Hotel references:
—Bibliography entries 001 011 043 049 050 147 176217223226243
255 272 273 274 319 324 341 346 347 363 377 439440 441 442 477
480583645
 224 Commerce
Public houses
b enough when pub 1 -storey. Elaborateformula,takes into accounttravel
1 Lord HighAdmiralLondon England: entirely modern pubwhichrecreates
atmosphereoftraditionalEnglishdesign,containedwithinlargescale
housingscheme;bars separated, varyingindesign &comfort: aground
floor bsection Arch Darbourne & Drake
2 Groundfloor plan TheFanciersNorthampton England; bright&breezy
workingmen's club;colourfuluseofmaterials, stripedglass panels &
curvedcorners Arch Roscoe MilnePartnership
first
floor
plan
b
3 1st floor plan Foxhillsgolfclub Chertsey England
Arch BuildingDesignAssociates
English pubsfamous associal institutionsthroughout world; very difficult
create afresh. Being increasingly copied as special attractions in large
European and Americantowns. (Evenprefab pubs availableforexport.)
Few moderndesigns have satisfactorilycaught right atmosphere; many
originals have been brutally altered, often first to so-called modern
design, then back again to spurious Edwardian. Constant feature of
successful pubs seems to be breaking up of space into small intimate
rm whichnevertheless retain feeling of bustle all round. Traditionalway
dothis centralservery with bars radiatinground. Good pub hassomething
oftheatre about it: good taste should be used sparingly; brashness and
vulgarityhave place in interior fittings.
Regulations
Apartfromstatutes, for purposeof firesafety UK pubs mainly controlled
underliquorlicensing law. Applicants opening pub must apply to local
magistrates for licence. Must also notify fire authority,whichhas power
inspectpremises on questions of adequacy offire separation, between
such areas as kitchens and bars, and means of escape. Fire authority
inspectorhas power objectgranting oflicence ifdissatisfied.
For pubs catering for less than 50 people 1 exit generally considered
distances, door widths and numbers of people, to calculate number of
exits needed for pubs serving more than 50people.
Unless pubs employ more than 20 little affected by (UK) Shops &
OfficesAct; but ifpartsof larger structures full rigour ofbldg reg apply;
could dictate, eg, provision of sprinklers at base of multi-storey block.
Finishes on wallsand ceilings also controlled by reg to prevent flame
spread.
Amenities
Scale, siting, quality, cleanliness of lavatories most important aspect
of successful pub; can be decisive in keeping or losing customers;
particularly important when renovating old pubs.
Most pubs nowalsoprovide some snack bar service thoughnot usually
with stooPs —p205; provisionof heatingand cooking eqp suitablefor bar
counterimportant. Quick restaurant service for lunch time trade now
common in town pubs, necessitating some kitchen and food preparation
area.
Do not forgetprovision for pub games, generally darts, dominoes but
somehighly Pocalised.
For modern cellar techniques and installationsconsult clientand/or (in
UK) Brewers' Society.
4 MarkhamArms ChelseaEngland; sympathetic conversion of existing
Victorianpub; originalbowfrontremains;addition hasbeentackedonat back;
geometryof bow repeatedin built-in seating; a ground floor b section
Arch RoderickGradidge

BUILDINGTYPE
Office bldg either custom builtto meet particularsetof requirements or
speculatively toattract largest possible range oftenants.This distinction
has led towidedifferences in bldgform. In theory should be no difference
at all because same fundamental principle applies to all office design:
organisations change far more rapidly than bldg. Distinction managed
bydistinguishing between design for4scales oftime:
Shell last at least50 years: must be designed to meetwide variety of
organisational needs —.(1).
Services become obsolete as office technology changes and must be
replaced at least every15 years —.(2).
Scenery: fitting out of office interiors to meetprecise organisational
needs; sceneryneedlast onlyso long aslease, usually5—7years—o(3).
Sets: positioning and repositioning scenery elements such as desks,
chairs, screensand partitions to meet immediateorganisationalneeds
perhaps evenevery3 or 4 months—*(4).
2 fundamental developments in office bldg in recentyears. First, signifi-
cance oflong termshell diminishing as shorttermscenery,particularly
furniture, absorbs more and more functions. Carrying services,
Commerce 225
Office buildings
visual and acoustic separation and decoration now frequently achieved
by furniture. Second, becoming increasingly difficult distinguish office
function from allied activities such aslab, industrialprocesses,education
OFFICE FUNCTION
Most employees in advanced economies workin offices. Office work
primarily involves handling information and making decisions based
upon information. This definition hides enormous variations in size of
officeorganisations, office technology and styles of management.
Range includes multi-nationals which employ thousands of people in
only 1 of many bldg to 1-man enterprises.
Much office worksedentary but offices also include spaces for machin-
ery, canteens, meetings, filing, libraries and other ancillary activities
whichcantake up 1/3 ofspace needed byorganisation—e(6).
Office organisations changing rapidly and in every respect. Extreme
care should be taken toavoid building obsolescence into new bldg.

1 Shell

iHi
1' 1' 1' 1'
r- -I

2 Shell &services

asconstructed after15years after30 years after45years

5 Relativecost comparisonof shell, services & scenery over 45years

workplace anciIiay
3 Scenery
primary
circulation,coreetc

I I I 1

I I I_j
I I I I
1

6 Comparisonofspace requirements in4bldgshowingvarious

4 Sets relationshipsofworkplace/ancillary needs
226 Commerce
Office buildings
a DEFINITIONSOF OFFICE AREAS—(1)
a
Efficiency of office bldg usually measured in terms of ratio of usable
(a

office area to grossarea of bldg. Real estate definitions vary but basic
unitsalways same:
— ia5 ,-
,5d Workplace area (oruseablearea): spacesin which possible forpeople
fl,e ,
B
5 to workatdesks;includes secondary circulation,
Primarycirculation: circulationessential toprovide accessand means
ead,oftfloor ofescape to workplace areas,
thicknessofexternalwalls •• ••
columns
•S Special areas: space which cannot be used for office workers but is
staircases
lifts
lax •• S
••
S
option
I•
S S
S
S
dedicated to particularfunction, egarchives, restaurant.
ducts S S Core:space needed forsupport of bldg, eglifts, stairs, ducts, lavatories,
S S S •S
plantrm
circulationwithincore S
•S •• S Gross outside area (GOA): —a(2a)(2b) sum of all constituent office
publiccorr S
privatecorr
internal walls required for
S S • areas including core,structure and perimeter walls,
bldgpurposes—not influenced Netusable area(NUA): —x(2c)(2d) what remains when core,structure
byspacease— S S and perimeterwalls subtracted fromGOA.
internal walls tenant's own
subdivision •S •S •S S
S
S
S
Core in multi-storey office bldg should occupy no more than 20% of
floor recephon
oft space/deskar • S • S
GOA—4(2e). Obviouslysmallercore more efficientbldg—xp228—9.
S
Primary circulation usually takes up between 10 and 15% of net usable
wtelddg area. Special areas vary enormously depending uponfunction ofoffice
bldgplantrm •• S
•• S * •* • organisation —v(3). NB in multi-tenantedbldg primary circulationsome-
bldg reception
coveredparking S times excluded from 'rentable' area.
sf0forwholebuilding
iienclosed) (if enclosed) t t
eginbasement • S • * * Special areas should be convertible to workplace area. Not all work
*t
optionifsingleletting Upartiallyincluded
place areaequallyvaluable. Common design faults—x(4)whichresult in
insufficient use ofspace:
subjecttoseparaterentalcalculation S whollyincluded
columns too closeto perimeter walls
1 Definitions of termsusedtodescribeofficear:precisedefinition wasteful modules
sometimesdifficultbecause of differentusages, variations in bldgdesign dominant columns fixingprimary circulation routes
(eg slab &centrecore), differencebetween letting floors,partsof floors& space ofwrong depth
wholebldg
provision of services onlyat perimeter

2 a forplanningpurposesgrossfloor aristotalof
bldg measuredfrom outside edgeofexterior
walls b forcost purposesgrossfloor artotalof

in
bldg measuredfrom insideexternalwalls
C NIJA:UKpracticeexcludesallcorr between

-0
tenancies d NUA:USApracticeexcludesonly
circulationincore e bldgcore:example has
major& minorcore

C
DE.

d
L±L e

intrusionot

/I7\
structureintowork place
wasteful badlypositioned pesmeterserocesonly
module radiators wastedspacearoundcolamns

IJ

,1 11wrongdepth
"—....— space—
oft
toodeep / ,.--——'
\ / -' '.\ difticubto

adover

( \\
entranceto/
—pnmaty circulat: fixed bycolamns

3 Analysisof space usein4 projects showingvaryingspace requirements 4 Commondesign faults

 Commerce 227

Office buildings
TYPESOF OFFICESHELL Positions of primary circulation: fixed? does it serveto 1 side or 2
(single ordoubleloadedcorridors)?
3 factors determineshape offloorofofficebldg —s(1): Position of core: placed centrally, orat 1 end, ordetached.
Depth of space: depth of any work place area measured between 3 major bands ofofficespace depths can beidentified —*(2):
perimeter orcoreand primary circulation. narrow, 4000—6000: suitable for single office rm or for 2—3 open plan
workplaces
medium, 6000—8000: suitable forenclosures larger than single rm or
11111111111110 11 II for3—5open plan workplaces
oflspace deep, 8000 + : more than 5openplanworkplaces deep
cellular
open These depths can be combined in various ways and together with
structured
position of core and circulation generate wide range of office shell
configurations —*(3).

CELLULARISATION

Greatest test of office bldg capacity to accomodate various kinds of

organisation: degree to which can be divided upintormofvarious sizes.
Not all organisations require large number of small rm and not all can
use high proportion ofopenplan space successfully. In life of organis-
1 Determinantsof shape ation demand forcellular and openspaces will fluctuate. Consequently
shallowspace capacity of office bldg shell to provide range of rm arrangements must
4000-6000 X2000)
be measured. Should be remembered that small rm not just required

/-
for individual office but increasingly for other functions, eg noisy or
confidential machines such asterminal printers ortelexes. Capacitycan
be measured by number of rm of various sizes which can be provided

)
in given shell —s(4): this can be matched with demands of typical
organ isations for rmofvarious sizes _a(5).

rne&urnd6000-8 000 1K2000

shell

I-Ii =
integralcore detachedcore

/ \/

()
\ I \'__/I IN_JI

( '\} (-
,iN
______ 0 0

rn
K— —-

/
deepspace6000+

\
/__

' ) :_) /I X2000

___
-
\\ (/
/ f
__/ \_// \_/
4 Shell array
2 Spaced
o indivkiualenclosed rrn

O groupsharedenclosedrm
0 open
shallowspace

lOO%fl
100%

67% 67%
mediumspace
Ill Ill

::
III
11111111111 33% 33%
I
100%
deepspace
Ill I

f111

5 Capacityof3shells, showing max amounts of individual cellulansation

3 Spaced and differentways of organisingspace
228 Commerce

Officebuildings
CORE
Office bldgcore—.(1)(2) p229(l )(4) must providetor:
Elevators: number and size depend upon population ot bldg, number
of floors, and required waitingtime. Elevatorsshould begrouped sothat
availability ofanyelevator in bank on anyfloorcan be easily observed. In
tall bldg elevatorsusuallygroupedtoserve 10ormore tloors—.p410—12
Ducts: vertical ducts required forheating, telephone,electrics, drainage
andwatersupply; alsoin air-conditioned bldg forairmovement. Provide
on generous scale, particularly for increasingly important electrics and
telecommunications, In large multi-storied air-conditioned bldg allow
for.
vertical air movement
el
telecommunications & telephone
drainage
watersupply
Services p383—97
Lavatories:Proportion men and women on each floor may change:
desirable that male and female wc be adjacent so that replanning
possible using sameducts—(3).
Cleaners' cupboards: oneach floorof multi-storey office bldg provide
cleaners' cupboard (mm 2m2)containing sto and slop-hopper.
Stairs: width of stairs determined by reg on means of escape and in
particularby numbersofstaffto be providedfor—.p407—9

© ©

1 AmericanExpress BankingCorporation
London England Arch DuffyEleyGuffone
Worthington

2 SW ElectricityBoardBristolEngland Arch
SWEB PropertySection

ii

nals male
9 female

3 Groupinglavatoryprovision toallowfor
changingproportionsofmen&women
 Commerce 229
Office buildings
CORES: EXAMPLES

1 DobsonHouseKillingworth NewTown England Arch Faulkner-Brown 2 Deptof Environment LondonEngland Arch PropertyServicesAgency
Hendy NatkinsonStonor

\
/)
/
/
/

3 GreaterLondonCouncilislandblockLondon
England Arch GLC ArchitectsDept

4 EuropaHouseStockportEngland Arch John

Caytten&Partners
230 Commerce

Office buildings

/7/77/"C
I, _ RELATIONSHIPS
Office bldg can be designed provide best relationship between parts of
organisation;travel distancesboth horizontaland verticalcan be reduced;
visual links between component parts can magnify sense of close
relationship. Other bldg forms can be used toachieve preciseopposite:
max autonomy of component parts—(1).

INTERFACEWITH OUTSIDEWORLD

Ideally office bldg, whether speculative or custom built for 1 user,

designed with 1 entrance so that contact with outside world controlled
for security, to present unitedface to visitors, and tomake finding one's
way inside bldg obvious as possible —+(2). However, different policy
which allows for more than 1 entrance can be adopted if organisation
does not value security so highly and wants to allow tree access to
1 Connexions several internal functions —(3). Another condition when major user
wants sublet space. Proportion of sublet space may change: could
cause severe design problems.Third problem:when officebldg designed
to be lettoverylargenumber ofsmall users and easypublic accesstoall
partsof bldg becomes a malor objective.

2 3 Organisation'sinterfacewithoutsideworldreflectedinhow
approached& degreeofpenetration allowed topublic

4 Typesofaccess:depending on typeoforganisation, boundary shown

betweenvisitor&companyar may fade &2spacesbecome1
 Commerce 231

Office buildings
MEANS OF ESCAPE
Means of escape important determinant ofoffice bldg shell.In bldg over
2 storey travel distance from any point on office floor to escape stair
strictly regulated (30 m). Alternative means of escape on each floor
usually demanded. Design ofaccessfrombldg tostreet controlled. Reg
also affect scenery planning: eg rm may not openoff rm. Each space
must have direct access to means of escape —*p(1)—(3) —p91 —
Bib346 347.

1 Altemativeescaperouteswith limitedtraveldistancemustbeavailable
fromfiretoprotectedzone

2 Traveldistancefrom anypointonground&firstfloor to protected zone

mustnotexceed30.5 m

3 In some bldgover 18.3 m hsomestaircasesshould beconstructedas

fire-fightingstaircases,withsmokeoutlets, vents& frself-closing doors
232 Commerce

Office buildings
OFFICE SERVICES
Demand for services in offices increasing. Each work place must be
next to outlets for power and telephone. Coaxial cable access for
terminals frequently required: with increasing automation and tele-
communications will become common seeworkstations with 6 oreven
8wiresofvarious kinds. Already some organisations provide 1 terminal
for every 2 work stations. Precise need for connexions cannot be
predicted: essential provide grid to whicheach workstation can have
easy access without dangerous, trailing wires. Such grid can be pro-
vided infollowing ways:
distribution at perimeter and through partitions
distribution throughfloor grid (usually 1 800—2000centres)
distribution throughfalsefloors(height should be 50—500)
distribution fromceiling (NBproblem with safety)
1 Perimeterservicing
distribution throughfin walls (points at desktop height)

2 Floor grid

3 False floor servicing

4 False ceiling servicing 5 f

Distributionthrough inwalls
 Commerce 233

INTERNALENVIRONMENT
Quality of internal environment become major consideration: rising
energycostsmainly responsible, leadingto reconsidering design of:
ventilation (natural— mechanical—air-conditioned)
lighting (highgeneral levels—tasklighting)
heating (single source — optionalsource)
—.(1)tor difference in energy use before and atter energy crisis (c1974).
Environmental system should allow for:
Adaptability: servicing systems may beexpected tohave liteotapprox
15years. System should be adaptableto
varying degrees ofcellularisation and screening asoccupant changes
possible changes in tuel sources
changing expectations and standards
Control:individuals may be able control their immediate environment
according to nature of work: providing some control over lighting and
ventilation can help. Acceptable level ot lighting and ventilation in 1
location must not create glare or draughts in another. Solution must
recognise no 2 people equally comfortablein single environment.
Management& maintenance: environmentalsystems shouldbesimple,
maintenance tree, easyto change. Depending on size, bldg manager!
supervisorwill probably be needed, ideally appointedduring construction
and betore commissioning
Economicfuelconsumption:flexibilityto adaptto alternativeeconomic
tuel sourcesin future. —.(2) for comparison of energy use in 4 generic
bldg:
Office buildings
A shallow, l2mdeep,naturallyventilated
B shallow, 12 m deep, mech ventilated
C medium, 14 m deep, mech ventilated
D deep, 50 m deep, mech ventilated
Each bldg form has same gross floor area, construction and amoint of
glazing, with vertical dimensions adjustedto suit each.
Requirements for heating each plan form shown separately. Can be
seen that relatively little difference in energy consumed with respect to
variations in form, increased energy going into lighting as depth of
space increases, compensatingtor reduction ot energy tor mech plant
because of more compact shapeof bldg.
Each plan formtested tor2different overall lighting levels: 400 lux, 700
lux. Can be seen lighting and fanpower canaccount for approx 70% of
energyconsumed.
If prime oblective conserve energy attention must be paid to reducing
artificial lighting requirements by:
providing mm overall lighting level of 400 luxforoffice work
reducing lighting further and introducing task lighting
making greatest useof naturaldaylight and providing localisedswitching
Fanenergyusemay be reduced byattention to design ofmech systems
and byusing low pressures and velocities for distribution of air.
Any economic environmental system must be designed for specitic
bldg toensureenergy usage kept low aspossible.
However, first2 questions any user must ask are:
whatoffice plan formis required?
does this form orits location make air-conditioning necessary?

beforeenergy crisis

high overall illumination levels 0

0 0
0 0
(1000 lux) N- 0
N-
mm task lighting

complexcentralised control
mm externalglazing
heat recovery
highthermalcapcity
excessheatsto
singleenergysource

deepplanbldg

afterenergycrisis

loweroverall illumination E
levels
task lighting Em
moreindividual control a
moreexternal glazing
heatrecovery
lowerthermal capacity
excess heatsto
possibility ot additional
energysources
variety of bldg torms NB 10.76Ix = 1 foot-candle

1 Changingenergyusebefore& 2 Energyuse in4 genericbldg

afterenergycrisis
 ii
234 Commerce
Office buildings
OFFICE CONSTRUCTION Ceiling grid can affect single rm design in similar way. Single most
critical dimension: standard size of fluorescent tubes (1 200, 1 800,
3 critical constructional elements affect office layout: partitions, ceiling, 2400; USA 1 220, 1 830, 2440).
window module. 2 basic choices: complete modular integration and its
Wide variety of possible types of ceiling: lightfittingssetin ceiling
opposite, avoiding precise modules—.(1).
diagonal patterns
Test of any office planning: how well range of small rm sizes can be movable fittings
accommodated. Small rm usually found in following approx sizes: 15 waffle grids
m2, 20 m2, 25 m2, 30 m2 (smallest size USA: 7.4 m2). Single rm depth largecoffers
should not exceed 6000 otherwise unusable space created towards
All can be made compatible withplanning small rm. Discipline of ceiling
backofeach rrn. Acceptable rm proportions should not exceed ratio of
1:1.5. Thusif strictmodular grid thought necessary, 1 500mm feasible grid relaxed when task lighting used because fewer lights needed in
ceiling.
grid —(2)(USA 1220—1524).
1.2mgrid

5m 30m2 24m2 18m2 12m2

whole bldg
grid:
structure
services
ceiling .5 m grid
partitions ___________

5m
30m2 22.5m2 15m2

modular Integration

1.8 m grid _______________ _______

noceiling grid
perimeter or
floorservices
5m 36m2 27m2 18m2

partitions can fitagainst

walls&ceiling as required
within solid wallzones 2.4mgnd _____________

1 Non-modular&modularintegration
5m 36m2 24m2 12m2

2 Rangeof rmsizes at constant5000depthwith

variouswindowgrid modules

I1HHH IIHIIHHHI
3 Nogrid, smoothfinish,exposed concreteslab 4 Nogrid, smoothfinish,suspended ceiling, 5 Lineargrid, drysuspendedceiling, continuous
ordirect finish ceiling,surfacemountedlight surface mountedlight fittings 1-directionaliecessed light fittings
fittings

6 2-waygridded suspendedceilingwith 7 2-way small structuralwafflegrid 8 Largecoffer/baygrid

recessedlight fittings
 Commerce 235

Office buildings
SPACESTANDARDS
workplaceare knownanciiiary
Am sizes determined by space standards which allocate area and popsiatron (egcomputer)
enclosure todifferent levels ofstaff. Manycompanies usesuch standards 10%aiiowanceforanciiiary
but widevariation in:
numberof levels ofstaff nettasabie
at which level enclosure required
allocation ofspace to levels
Thesefactors, and even greater degree of variation in ancillary needs, +primarycircuiation
make extremely difficultpredict amount of space/head whichshould be
used to calculate roughly amount of space needed to accommodate nettrentabie
given number ofstaff. Certainly 10 m2NUA!head very low; 25 m2/head
high. Any figure in between could be relevant to given organisation. 1
UK statutory mm of workplacearea excluding anyancillary approx 4 m. +aiiowanceforcore,stairs,Uty,corr,iobetc
(No statutory mm USA.)
gross

CALCULATINGSPACEREQUIREMENTS
Office area requirements calculated in 2parallelways: 3 Methodofcalculating spacerequirements forwholebldg; adjustments
people space (le individual space standard x numbers)+ allowancefor should be madeforsharedcommon spacesinmulti-tenanted bldg
immediateancillary + factor(usually15%) forprimarycirculation;
non-people space, eg machine rm, libraries, which depend more on a'
+
eqp than on staff numbersfortheir area should be calculatedby informed
estimatesbasedonexistinggood practice or comparable examples: a
daie E .L
°
again factor must beaddedfor primarycirculation. department comments a + a
aworkplace
1 manager
2perSonai assistant
CALCULATINGRELATIONSHIPS 3secretary
4
5
To prepare stacking plans te relating 1 department to another in an 6
totai workpiace
existing bldg. or even to work out configuration of new office bldg. bancillary
interconnexions between parts of organisationcan be studied by more 1 tiieS
2iib
or less detailed surveys of communications. 3
totalancifary
totairequirement

4 Exampletabulation sheetusedforrecording existingspacerequirements

&future predictions

5 Stackingplan example

HE.

2 Comparativespace standards in4 companies 6 Interrelationships

236 Commerce
Office buildings
ventilation loading servicing access SPECIALAREAS

computer * * * * Offices contain largenumber of special areaswhich may need:

lib * * * ** ventilation(orair-conditioning)—p392
meeting * * * superior floorloading
presentation * * * ** to beplaced away fromwindows incentre ofbldg
k * * * special servicing even toextent ot suspended floors
restaurant * * greater height than normal office dimensions
special access topublic or goods
1 Requirementsofspecialar

cnmssoeares resteroi
11111 II IUIThU
tIIIIII companies
receç,on p41Øfl;.
board1

UU recephOn
desk

1Bn1 data

identical

O controlted
environment

2 Examplesshowingdifferentstyles of reception 3 Computerrot

 Commerce 237
Office buildings
SPACES FOR MEETINGS
also —p238

typeofspace number typical space type ofuse provision ofeqp location

ofP required
perP

provision atworkplace 2—3 m2 shortdiscussions brieting 1 or 2visitor's chairs atwork located in screened urif in
meeting atdesk 2 0—275 subordinates, personal station planned open off
interviews environment

C
0
meeting ur 1.5—2.5 working discussions with conference table &chuirn;
members otntsff or related eqp pinboard,
C visitors chalk board
cOo
0

provision forgroupof 6—6 t 5—2.5 working sessions conference table & chairs tocuted ingrouparudtucent
workplaces between members within withsome screening from toprimary circulation, to
meeting ur group otpersonnel from surrounding workstations; limitdisturbance of
outside involvedwith related eqp: tipchartn, pin individuals
some prolect. may last up space, chalkboard;
severalhr provision otpermanent
notice board orchart board
foruseotgroup

provision foraltmembers 2—3 t.5—2 0 interviewing personnel or aural & visual privacy clone to mum entrance &
of staff salesrepresentatives;
interview rm
required deptwith malor usage; may
discussions withmembers require waiting uradtacent
olpublic shortperiods of ifused frequently
use up to ¾ hr

rm 8—t2 t.5—20 meetings withoutside slides, overheadprolector, ease ofaccess toatt dept
visitors orinternatpolicy flipcharts,dimmer lightn, easily serviced with
making & planning meet- good ventilation; sto for refreshments; access for
ings 2—3 hrmeetings drinks, audio-visualeqp outside visitors without
going through workar;

k 0UU0 cu costs arclone by

primarily used brrefresh-

rent ar 12—t8 225—4.0 vending machines,stand-up adlscent todo, wc &rest
ment breaks, but may also counters, lowtables & easy rm; equally accessible to
be urwhere general chairs; diuplayboard; allpersonnel on each floor
notices, scheduling screeningfromworkar
channetc can be
displayed;may become
importantpoint foren-
change ofinformation &
ideas;aned throughout
dayforutortperiods
assembly ar 100—150
infrequent meetings: may use cafeteris or
involvement ofallstaff recreation npsce
bourdrm 16—24 1 5—2.0 formal board meetings; formal layout; audio-visual anterm (forrefreshments &
signing ofcontracts; eqp:good ventilstion
1= managementmeetings;
business lunches &
essential; telephone
eetension; space & eqpfor
leaving coats) attached;
easyaccess forretresh-
mentn: 2visits
I OL ITJD
DUO
I entertaining: 2—3 hr
meetings
stenographer

K°°00 04
conference rm 15—20 t 5—2.0 presentation; working audio-visualeqp; dimmer easyaccess forvisitors
discussions with outside lights&black out; uto for
visitors eqp & furniture, allow
satficient spacefor
alternative layouts
lecture rm 50—100 large conferences, closed circuit tvsystem, adlacent ar foraudience to
presentations, lectures & control rmfor prolector, assemble beforemeeting;
training sessions lighting, curluins,tv& several entrances
audio systems, stospace
forfurniture display systems

1 Typesof meetingplaces,characteristics & requirements

238 Commerce
Office buildings
SPACES FOR MEETINGS as% of total netar
supportspaces space allocation expressed
also —.p237
avof all av of off I av of av of
off using other drawing
'Kew' general' off
furniture off

% % % %
meetingsi5aces 3 3 4 2
sto 4 4 6 2
refreshment/rest 5 3 6 —
do 2 2 2 —
generalservices 7 7 4 8
circulation 18 15 19 15
1 Percentage of space allocated in
openplan offformeetingaras total supportspaces 31 34 29 31

percentageof total net ar

meeting irs meeting rm conference lecture i'm

meeting atat meeting ar meeting rrn ounge/
workplace serving group 6—BP restar 12-16P 16—20P i'm 22—28P 100—150P
ofworkplaces

headquarters accn for 1 per 15 1 per 10 1 per80 1 per 280 t per 120 none 1 per 1200 1 per 1200
office stall office staff office Stall office staff clficestaff officestaff office slatf
engineering organisation
Ipopulat ion 1 2001
1 per40 1 1 per 45 1 per 80 none 1 per60 1 per200 none
manufacluring admin per 12
organisalion oflicestall office staff office staff office staff oiliceStat) officestaff
populat ion400)
1 per18 1 per 26 1 per55' 1 per400 1 per 280 1 per230' 1 per 1 400 none
headquarters accnfor
clerical organisalion officestaff office stall office stall officestall office stall officeslaff officestaff
Ipopulation 1400)
consultancy organisafion I per 16 1 per 20 none none none 1 per80 none none
officeslaff office slut) office staff
)populafion80)

2 Meetingarprovisionfordifferent apporlioned toseparale companieson each floor

typesoforganisation

seating arrangement & condition

1 informal situation with both parties working on equal basis

2 informal situation probabledifference in status between parties

.9
3
.9• involved interview orbriefwith subordinate

4.0.formal interview 'U..

48m
-t • a.
l &4 &2J.

!
I

—2.7rn-4 If a Ill
-1+
-4-2 2m-4
rajit: 0• iuOu
-.-—3m-— —3m-—i- j—3m----4-
-1-4-

: •••• 1'T • • .•
iE1u1 I • • II
_il
. L J I

L
L
I)
. ..
4-245m+
UU
T± 1 +-365m-+
UU -it
'E
4—3.5m--—4-
I
• 1
I
5 -+- U • •
I
E

U... •
i!
l
U in)
L_J4 L L J4- U______ I
I•
U I_____ •

lll
3.1m
•
I
• ______•lI • ______
________

•
I

'.
1
4-31m I

-- IU .IE I I • •fE --
L__UUa

LJ L1
•flUIE
I. 1

IU
L J L!Jt • U...
______
7,2m
-t-f••'U • U •
•••••••...
•
1 1 U
• .1
-4—3.1 m—4-

• III
$fl
1+ •na •• .•
•l
4—31ni—-j
UI II
1'4'
,
I

4—3.lm--4
-it I
I •l—l
II
I
I I •I
.1
I. •• o
l,IaIl •.1II•m •U
I UIIUIE - E
•• U

•
I UflU a Ut

IUI!UlI:
f
. I •i
I
I
IE •I E I
U U
I Uf
•UIa • • U
lU L]U SLJUII
lSII•l
lUll1 UU•U• UUUU
• aijI
1_____j
I
L
• L
• J$_ L
U
-J

3 Meetingtable space requirements

 Commerce 239

2 These developments have beenbasis formany
1 Typicalclericalworkstation
Office buildings
OFFICE FURNITURE
Once simply element in workstationsforclerical
staff and managers office furniture has become
more specific and also means of controlling
use ofspace, eg:
screens to separate
linking unitsto allow workplaces to be ganged
in various ways
services carried byfurniture
use ofvertical surfaces for sto
use ofsto tosub-divide
fin walls
Secretarialworkstation
proprietary furniture systems. Many types of
layout possible but principal controlling factor
density. Densities in openoffice planning at 8
m2lhead, 12 m2 and 16 m2—.p240(3)—(5) give
someidea of range of possibilities.

3 Supervisor'sworkstation

6 Gangedworkstations:screened (carrel)

4 Gangedworkstations:open

5 Free standing
furniture 7 Free standing enclosed
240 Commerce
Office buildings
OFFICE FURNITURE

1 Furnitureused to controlspace: finwalls

2 Furniture usedtocarry services 3 Officelayout8rr/head

4 Officelayout12 rri/head 5 Office layout 16r1/head

 Commerce 241

Office buildings
STORAGE
Filing cabinets still predominant method of storing office paper: but
manyother possibilities, including suspended and lateral filing, which
can be considerably more efficient in space use—*(1).
Microfilm—p7 can be used to reduce bulk of paper held in offices: may
rft not always be acceptable substitute because of:
hanging complexity ofinformation stored
files frequency of retrieval
cost
legal requirements to keep original copy
Drawer type filing cabinet still predominant type of sto unit but not
always mostefficient in space use —(3).

box files:
Spacerequirements
ledgers Deeper the cabinets, wider the passage required between them. High
onshelves shelves not easily serviced: time saved because access easier to
vertical sto. Hanging files utilise wall area87% more efficiently than box
files —*p242(1). Filesmay have betransportedby conveyor;desks in filing
rm should have shelves for sorting; provision ofsmall tables and chairs
on castors for convenience ofclerks desirable.
Registry (document entry) should be centrally situated. Since clear
shelves height of 2100 only required, 3 storeys of registry could be fitted into
hanging equivalent of 2 normal office storeys. Dryrm essential. Deep registries
more economical. Provide writing on reference surfaces next tostacks.
Trolleys may be needed for moving files. Moveable registries make
plan- possible 20%greater utilisationofspaceby doing awaywith intermediate
hanging passages—*p242(3)(4). Layoutsnotstandardisedbutadaptedtodifferent
needs, such as archives, lib, sto. Paperstovery heavy; can createacute
floor loading problems.
Space required and capacity of 3 types of filing system compared
—*(3)(4).USA dimensions filing cabinets, lockers, sto cabinets—*(5)(6)
p242(6).

480' 900'

1 Filing 65;600 500 3O0'7Q()

4 Comparisonofcapacityoffiling systems

a ii,,, ,rlIIIIrIIup,,Ili,ln, b P!II!I!fl!!!

iI,j(I
1 TI
c , i,,i i,,,, d I,,,J,,
5 USAstandardclearances forfilingcabinets apassage drawersclosed
only bpassagedrawersopen ccabinetsfaceto face passage drawers
closedonly d cabinetsfaceto facepassagedrawersopen

3100
3100

2 Exampleofrelationships with registryin insurance firm

Ff M44Tht
deskh counterh extrah standardh
drawers

/
4-drawerfiling lateral filing open
cabinet cabinet shelving unit plan - extended plan

theoretical capacity (linearm) 2.4

capacity in use (linearm) 2.0
4.5
4.5
5.4
5.4
::::::::::
i
:::.::.::::t
-71 1-+—686-'l--660.4-6864-71
rj.r::::::
Er o.j__ ::::::::::
1-
t
capacity/unitar (linearrn/rn2) 2.7 5.5 6.0 762 762

3 Comparisonof space requirements of filing systems 6 FilingcabinetdimensionsUSA

242 Commerce

Office buildings
STORAGE

3rowsoffiles 6rowsoftiles
—1T——-r——T-T
;ii 1i41f
11

11T1Tm—T—i

i1Lt;;Ii11 I [.

1 Wall space comparison betweensuspended& 4 Movableregistry(document entry)

boxfiles ofsamecapacity

flatfilingin library filingin vertical &sus-

loose-leaf index in roll- pended tilingin
binder on open front cpd folders, pigeon-
shelves 35/200 40/125/220 holes65/78/200
10000tiles Continuous 7.25 ni 11 Ow 2.4 m
approx 2mm cpd/cabinet -
thickwithout floorarmcI 5.92 rn- 825m 36m2
11 holders, operalion but
approx 25 exclside
sheets passages

5 Proportionof gangwayspace totiling cabinetspace

T
ml w w twi lockerdimensions

[
Co
(0 rri
HI I —
1 2 3

L I H 1524 762
—
II II
= 1830 914 305
II
UH
I 1067
=
1 2 3 229 229
1300 lockers W to to 305
610 457 381
—
plan <ITTi D 305
- to 305 305
a a
533 381 381
2 Largedocumentchest: section& plan —
plan

ir 1
UUU
U
U
UUEIIEJ
EJ EJ U

6
stocabinets
:.::::.:.:.::.:ID

gl4maxfor 1 drawer

Locker&sto cabinetdimensionsUSA
cabinetdimensions

H
W
D
C
762 1067 1676 1981
457
457
610 914
559 610
457 max tor2drawers

officespace saved

3 Comparisonof space required formovable &ordinary registry

 Commerce 243
Office buildings
OFFICE EQUIPMENT
Office eqp increasing rapidly in complexity and scope as information
technology develops. Use of office automation growing rapidly and
expected be single most important use of information technology in
longterm.

power telephone heat noise water

supply connexions extract supply

eltypewriter . . .
telex . . . .
word processor . . . 5 Telex
copier . . .
terminal . . . .
telecopier . . .
micro-computer e . . .
microfilmviewer .
telephone . .
vendingmachine . . . .
video/tv monitor e . . h = 500
w= 500
1 Basic requirementsofofficeeqp incurrentuse d= 600

6 Microfilmviewer

h = 1200
2 Elgolfball typewriter w= 1700
d= 680

h=350
w=600
d = 450

7 Large(15 collator)copier

3 Smallphotocopier

h = 125
w =550
d = 375

4 Telecopier 8 Wordprocessorwith hardcopyonly;visual display unit(VDU)commonly

used in addition
244 Commerce
Office buildings
OFFICE EQUIPMENT(cont)

distribution
frame I

I
I I
rectifier unit N

4 Small(4line) telephoneswitchboard

battery h

maintenance
workbench
I"
1, 4000

1 Privateautomaticbranchexchange(PABX) rmrequirements

5 Mediumsized telephoneswitchboard (20 linesPABX)

h = 950
w=600
d = 360

2 Terminals Small vending machine

h= 1850
w= 780
d= 650

printerh= 150+w = 400÷d= 380-I-

7 Microcomputer

Office buildings references

—*Bibliographyentries 069 177178222241 249 257 259260 341
346347363 364 366 374 389 429 465 479480540 541 542 545
3 Large treestandingvendingmachine 554 564 565 566 570 580 592 601 614
 Commerce 245
Banks
Different design requirements according to whether private bank with
primarily mercantile interests, major bank, savings bank, mortgage
ecu " eflirance
bankingha

partition
bank; but ingeneral banks places where money paid in orwithdrawn by
customers. Procedures needbe transactedquickly, securely, simply as
commussionaire securitiesdept possible. Mech conveyance and similar systems notnecessary orworth
while except for really large institutions.
bankingha

(
siairstostrongrm
Route followed by customer: from street outside through lobby into
writingdesk
'--- banking hall, sometimes fitted withbench seats or chairs forwaiting and
writing desks forcustomers, andvarious positions forpaying in, drawing
deposiiboxes partitinri
desk. iedger clerk
ieadin9tosirOng en out, security, savings and (in Europe) giro transactions,or 'uniqueue'
cashcounier 4$]iob Desks for accounts and book-keeping (check on state of drawer's
I account) usually behind cash counter—.(1).
Other offices serving customers, eg manager, credit dept, auditing
1 Customer'sroutesin major 2 Routestostrongrm dept, usually next to banking hall with separate ante-rm, or on upper
Europeanbanks floor—.(3).
Route to deposit boxes (often in basement): frombanking hall through
partition into passage, usually past securities dept and safe custody
deptdown stairs to protective grille in front of lobby leadingtostrong rm,
where customers' deposit boxes and strong rm door; sizes ofboxes: for
stafisideentrance lpersonl000xl500uptol500xl500,for2persons2000xl500
Larger institutions normally have separate bank strong rm next to
customers' strong rm, while safe custody dept has offices in front of
entrance to this, with separate staircaseto banking hall or special cash
elevators —.(3).
Basement reached by separatestaircasecomprises cloakrm,sto space.
heating plant, plant for operating elevators and pneumatic despatch
tubes, elecfromech communications eqp and so on, as well as registry
and elevator for documents.
In mortgage banks must be possible for all mortgage business be
completed conveniently onground floor.

3 Relationshipsofrm inbig bank a —. —

directors

clock
tower
world
savings

[ L
parkinglot

0
i,/
10 20 30m
'z

I
un

LIII Li
machine rm
u 0
sf0

'I
[
326498 ft
b
9
è
? '
12
6
18 24ff

\, bankingrmN
', couporbooths I

_entrance
conference teller counter
C

1entobelow
p

4 WorldSavings& LoanAssociation SantaCruzUSA; main banking rm 5 TannersNationalBankWoburn USA:conversion of originallysquare

extendsupwardsthrough2 storeys litby skylights &clerestorywindows asite rectangularbldg byadditionof2 corners enclosing respectively staircase&
plan b groundfloor cfirstfloor Arch EsherickHomseyDodge &Davis off a lowerlevel b main level Arch Architectural Resources
246 Commerce

Banks
Strong rm doors and armoured doors pivot gently on steel hinges
withoutdropping; canwithstand anyattackand fitted with unpierceable,
indestructible steel plates, with fire-proof and non-melting reinforcing,
with additionalfireproof, non-melting and unpierceablecompound cast-
ing. Total thickness approx 270—300. No keyhole: elaborate locking
device (eg miracle lock, remote-control lock) and el-operated alarm
system, whichsounds atslightest vibration ofdoor.
Cashier positions —(2)—(6) nowadaysin Europe usually completely
protected with bullet-proof reinforced glass, 4 panes 250 thick.
Similar protection oversunken drawers. Alarm system operated byfoot
or knee.Underneath counter normally standardtype steel cabinets.
Exceptions still exist,particularly in USA, in bankswishing foster informal
'non-authoritarian' image. In USA many banks still retainteller positions
either behind grilleoreven open.
1 Strong rmwith innerdaytimedoor Intercommunications system now more usually by means of tele-
visioninstead ofby pneumatictubes, belt conveyors etc.
Customers Customers Drive-in banks: to save time customers do not go into bank butdrive
EJ ET1 up to cash point—(8). No parking problems: cash points can be incor-

bankstaft
lo
(0
rufL
bankstaff
porated in bank bldg —(10)(11), separate islands —.(12)(13),orbelow
pavement level, with shaft by kerb containing reflecting mirror, loud-
speaker and cashconveyance device —.(9). Each cash point can serve
up to 250 customers/day. (Eachtransactiontakes approx 60 seconds.)
Not all banking transactions can be at drive-upcashier's desk: even
2 Parallelcounter arrangement 3 As—(2)with desks where this system operates normal banking ha also needed for
lengthierbusiness.
r(01-r NB diagrams this page apply totrafficcirculation on right
10
5OO
II 4 Sawtoothcounter arrangement
with desksatsides

ii
f! çi Ei;i ci

T_
10 Drive-upcashpoints

H- 12.0 .1

--
L --L]1--i-{
::
5 Germancashdesksas in big 6 Swedishtype cashdesk
Berlin banks 11 Cash points incorporated inbankbldg

microphone

a-b
bullet
28.0
8.0

7 Drive-upcash point,noparking

12 Twin cashpointsasislandto easetraffic

8 Drive-upcashpoint inkiosk

9 Cash point belowpavement

with shaft forcustomerservice
3parkingplacesneededfor
uninterrupted&smoothservice
(Snorkelbank) 13 Cash points as—(7)(8)forthroughtraffic
 Commerce 247

Banks
EXAMPLES

9 1.5 3m
a loft
1 Bancocli NapolibranchNewYork USA;interiorplan conversion of1070m ground flooroffspace in offtower
block Arch SkidmoreOwings& Merrill

key
1 conference 2reception 3lob 4elevator
5toilet 6lunch rm 7do 8lockers 9refuse
10 planting bed 11 tellercounter 12 strong rm
13 safedeposit desk&booths 14chequewriter
l5fountain l6newaccountslldistrict
manager 18coveredentrance

6m
b 5101520tt

2 WorldSavings&LoanAssociatesSantaAna USA afirstfloor bgroundfloor ArchKamnitzerCotton

Vreeland

a
m
10 20ft

4
unid
Albany SavingsBank: smallbranchbank
NewYork USA agroundfloor b firstfloor
Arch Feibes&Schmitt

3 FederalReserveBankBostonUSA,
arrangementof aexecutiveoff32ndfloor
bexecutivedining &meetingrm 31stfloor
Arch Hugh Stubbins

Banks references:
—*Bibliograhpyentries 007 249 254 374 477
248 Commerce
Vehicle services
0 CAR PARKS

a
c,J

With growth in motor transport separation of moving and stationary

trafficessential.
Results of traffic research suggest different parking layouts on basis of
local conditions:

Population: desirable parking area in mid-town = 0.5_lob of popula-

tion ofwhole built-uparea.

I 2 Number of cars: 1 parking space on towncentre for every 5—8 cars

Parkinglane alongside footway Parkinglane eitherside road
divide kept in built-uparea.
Visitingtraffic:parking space for 7—9% of vehicles regularvisitors to
c'i+
town centre.
-

Parking space needed (including drive in) 20—25 m2/car.

Parking areas within roadway limits

Kerb space requirementsfor longitudinal parking—a(1)—(3)(7)(8).
Parking lanes: oblique or right angle parking lanes for various road
widths —a(4)(5)(6). Parked vehicles must not restrict visionof moving
LL vehiclesatcorners; therefore gap betweenendofparking lane and bldg
line 6000; 10000 preferred —a(1)—(4).
3 Parkinglane downmiddle of 4 Double parkinglane down
middleofroadway Avoid rightangle parking (dangerous for passing traffic).
roadway
Safety strips 500 wide recommended between parking lanes and
moving traffic.

± 00 roadway ---------* 43cars/i00m

roadway
NB diagrams on this page apply to trafficdrivingon right:data
based on Germanpractice
+ 0.05
3.0 - 2.32.3'
parkinglane o5r relationto streetedge
+ 0.16 footway 5.0 parking bays

footway
edge of premises

9 Parkinglanesformotorcars
5 Rightangledalignment

3.5

6
3.0

\\\\N
Obliquealignment
footway
Ipumps

14 cars/i00m
— 7.0 —— 7.0
-- 5.0 -- 5.0 -

1DL LDLcD
- 4.75 -l--- 4.75-
I :içf lit 1111111111
7 Segregatedapproach& departure L IT!! r1
10cars + 9spaces 11111111 [1 1

Ii
59.5 1—
500
— 5.5 —' - 500
5.5 —— 5.5 -
500
s—
L

H b
footway
10 Enclosedparkingspaces a neighbourhood garage barrangement for
narrowsite c road at anglegiveseconomical useofspace fordifferentcar
8 Settingdown: continuousapproach &departure (eg theatres, taxis) sizes, savesapprox 10% floor ar
 Commerce 249

Vehicle services
CAR PARKS
USAstandards —op250
Off streetparking
In permanent car parks, lanes and baysshould be clearly marked with
safetystrips for pedestrians —(10)(13). Enclosed parking spaces also
—*p248(10).

Spacerequirements —(8)—(15)
Space/car withdriving lanes but without main access and exit:
44— 7.5 ± 10.0 1 7.5 14 44- 5.5 -s- 7.5 1-5,5-44 90° parking approx20m2
800 800 600
45° parking approx23 m2: usuallypreferred forease of parking.
1 45°parkingforbuses 2 Truckwith trailer 3 Smallbuses
Parking bays—(8)—(10)
Space/car (medium—large) 5000x 1 800. Forcarparkslargerthan 800 m2
provide20% baysfor larger cars (6000 x 2100) if park attended. Pro-
vision for motor cycles, bicycles,disabledaccordingto localrequirements.
4.0
Truck & bus parking
Fixed bay sizes advisable because vehicle size varies greatly. For
truckswith trailers provide for parking without reversing —.(1)—(6). For
articulated lorries reversing usual.
For long distance traffic provide yards at town approacheswith driver
— 12.0 -4-———- 20.0 —4— 12.0 —1
accn, workshops, filling stations etc.
4 90°parkingfortruckswithtrailers 5 300 parkingfortrucks NB diagrams on this page apply to traffic driving on right: data
withtrailers based onGerman practice

4-150—20.0 ± 16 0—22.0 -4- 15.0—20.0 —4 — 12.0 —4-- 12.0 —4

6 90°parkingfortruckswithtrailers 7 90°parkingfortrucks

35.0 4—15.5-—.4 1— 12.5 —' 4— 125 —t— 8,25 —°

oc: soc soo 500500 soo 500 500
-'o 6.0 145.04-5.0 6.0 -'4- 6.0 -, 45,0-ir-4.5ii- 5.04 44,5443,544- 8.0 —443,544-4,51 4435,4- 8.0 —443.544—6.0 —4

i
T2.3 '
12.3 — I — .°
I I 3.0

+
— i —
,0

— '44
:— I
¶ -carsize —

jjj_ parking bay

-
a b
8 90°parkingformedium& small 9 Wider baysfornarrowdriving 10 45°parking 11 45°parkingforcarsa, vansb
cars a &verysmall cars b lanes

500 500
'
390
soo sco 500
26.5
soo 500 500
_____ 21.5
13.54'--10.25—143.544-—10.25-—143.5°-6.0 -II 43.544-- 8.0 —443544—- 8.0 —44354
2.5 45 2.5

2.5
M

12 45° parkingfor largecars, 13 45° parkingformediumcars, 14 450 drive-throughparkingfor 15 45°drive-throughparkingfor

reversing reversing mediumtosmall cars(no reversing) largecars (no reversing)
250 Commerce
Vehicle services
public road PARKING:USA STANDARDS
—(2)givesUSArecommended (—aBib513) parkinglayouts, stall widths
and parking dimensions for 2 most typical car sizes. Recommended
smallcar dimensions be used only in car parks designed forsmall cars
orwith entrance controls which admit onlysmall cars; putting small cars
into standard car layout not recommended: standard dimensions will
take all normal passenger vehicles. Withlarge car dimensions parking
easier, quicker: recommended for elderly, high turnover, luxury. With
parking angle 600 or less may be necessary increase bay width by
75—162to give room for users walking toand from parked cars. Always
consultlocal zoning reg.
a

[
— dayparkeruse
lL1_L'[I
H-H
2.43
II
I III
2.74 3.05
Ill!II
I
3.35

I
I

I
Turning dimensions
—v(1) shows USA dimensions at intersection of private with public
standarduse roads. 'U' drive --a(3) illustrates procedure for designating any drive
& Lse
luxury elderly
supermarket& camperuse configuration given vehicle's dimensions —vp2l(1) and turning radii.
Ihandicappeduse Tangent (T) dimensions approx mm only: may vary with driver's ability
nunrequirements=1 or2/100stallsorasspecifiedbylocal,state,ortedemallaw;place and speed.
convenienttodestination
Roadways —vp2l
b NB: diagrams onthis page apply totrafficcirculation on right

sungle loaded
waNtowafi
(with burquers)
doubleloadedwail to
wali(withounhinuous
concretekemb)
dqubleloadedwall
toltiwfttlsawtooth
concretekerbi
doubleloaded
ittoltiortt
towalkedgei
l0$bayor
edgeo$walk

C
dangle of park
SW w 450 50° 550 600 65° 70° 75° 80° 85° 900

2743 1 9.75 9.98 10.36 10.77 11.43 12.09 12.8 13.51 14.07 14.63
2 15.03 15.54 16.2 16.91 17.63 18.29 18.85 19.61 19.74 20.12
3 14.12 14.88 15.65 16.41 17.07 17.88 18.59 19.2 19.66 20.12
4 13.61 14.17 14.94 15.7 16.46 17.37 18.19 18.9 19.56 20.12
2896 1 9.75 9.96 10.36 10.67 11.23 11.84 12.65 13.31 14.02 14.63
2 14.99 15.39 15.8 16.31 16.87 17.68 18.44 19.1 19.66 20.09
3 14.33 14.68 15.19 15.7 16.43 17.37 18.19 18.9 19.58 20.09
4 13.61 13.97 14.48 15.19 16.0 16.99 17.9 18.74 19.46 20.09

NOTE' IIangles greaterthan70°have aisle w for2-way travel

2 Parking a recommended stallw b layouts Cparking dimensions

vehicle R Ri T D C

small car 6.05 3.28 3.7 3.05 0.15

compactcar 6.55 3.61 4.57 3.3 0.18
standard car 6.83 3.84 4.57 3.4 0.2
largecar 7.01 3.84 4.57 3.66 0.23
intercitybus* 16.76 10.06 9.14 6.86 0.3
citybus 16.3 10.1 9.14 6.86 0.3
school bus 13.26 7.92 9.1 4 5.92 0.3
ambulance 9.14 5.72 7.62 4.04 0.3
* headroom= 4.62
Lb

small large
F 15.52 26.59
A 46.71° 35.58°
B 273.42° 251.15°
Ra 9.75 30.48
Rb 11.58 15.24
La 7.95 18.8
Lb 55.27 66.8
NOTE Rvaiues brvehicles
intended to usethesecuis-de-
sacshould not exceedRb.

3 a'U'drive diagram withtable ofturningdimensions bcul-de-sacwithtable ofdimensions& angles; largevehiclel—np21(1)

 Commerce 251

Vehicle services:multi-storeycar parks

DESIGN GEOMETRY

'Standard designcar'—*(l)
UK 95% of all new vehicle registrations: USA large car dimensions
column 2:
A 4750 5500
w B 1800 2030
h C 1700 1630
dooropening clearance D 500
wheel base (worst cases) E 2900 3250
F 900 890
G 1100 1350
turningcircle (dia)
kerb H 13000 6550
wall J 14000 7010
ground clearance K 100 1 220

Recommended parking dimensions (90° layout) —*(2)

stall I L 4750 5500
stall w M
standard 2400 2750
shortstay 2300 2600
long stay 2500 2750
disabled persons 3000 3050
roadway w N
1-way 6000 9150
2-way 6950 10700
standard bmw P 15500 20100
headroom (mm clearance) 2050 2130

Recommended rampdesign
1 Standardcardesign' upto 1 500rise 1 in 7 USA: ramp1< 19.8 m
morethan 1 500rise 1 in 10 max slope 1 in 7
used forparking 1 in2O > 19.8 m ramp I
max slope 1 in9
gradients, max, on helical ramps:
L N L upto 3000rise 1 in 10
:1 morethan 3000 rise 1 in 12
w, mm, straight ramp, noturning:
between kerbs 3000 4000
clearance, kerb to structure 300 75

w, mm, curved ramp, turningtraffic:

1-way 3650 5200
2-way 7000 9150
central kerb, 2-way 500 150
turningcircle, outerkerb radius:
recommended 12000 6600
mm 9000 6600
clearance kerb, to structure 600 46O

2 Recommendedparkingdimensions Useofangled parking layout—.(3)

parking angle bin w av ar/vehicle USA
mm rn2 m2
900 15500 24.0 27.0
80° 15400 25.0 27.9
70° 15300 27.0 28.0
45° 13700 34.0 35.3
Most efficient parking angle 90°; lesser parking angles not normally
used in UK.

CAR PARK ARRANGEMENT

2 parallel bins normally used provide circulation arrangement with 1-
way trafficflowshaving upwardand downward routes separated;makes
possible best traffic capacity. Dynamic capacity reduced if2-waytraffic
flows or mixedupwards and downwards circulation used. Cul-de-sac
driveways undesirable: should not exceed 6stalls in length.
Economy achieved byusing longestpracticable bin lengths. Downward
route should be shortexpedite exit; upwards route devised give best
possible search pattern for vacant stalls.

3 Typicalcarpark arrangement(NBlefthandcirculation)
252 Commerce
Vehicle services: multi-storey car parks
DESIGNGEOMETRY(cont) Barriercapacity
2 barrier typesavailable:rising arm orrising kerb,having recommended
Split level layout—*(1) capacities:
Arrangement widely adopted. 400vehicles/hr
entrybarrier
2 bins soarranged thatadjacent parking levels separatedbyhalfstorey exitbarrier
height. groupA 250vehicles/hr
Shortinterconnecting ramps used between levels. groupB 400vehicles/hr

Warped slab layout—x(2) LIGHTING

Parking levelsconstructed with uninterrupted horizontal external edge:
Mean serviceillumination forpublic should be (Ix):
steady transition of gradientsconstructedgiveinternal interconnexionof
parking levels. Compared with splitlevel layout need forramps ateither parking areas 20
endof bldg eliminated, gradients reduced. driveways 50
ramps 70
Parking ramplayout—*(3) roof 20
Parking level constructed as long ramp: has significant effect on elev- entrance & exit 150
ational appearance; to keep to acceptablegradients long bldg required.
When necessary exit can be speeded up by adopting external helical
ramp. FIRE PROTECTION& SAFETY
Flat slab layout—*(4) USA: check applicable codes and standards.
External ramp usedto interconnect level parking areas.
Structuralfire resistance
Construction of non-combustible materials with structural fr 1 hr. In
specified restricted circumstances requirement for structural fr may be
VEHICLECONTROL waived for bldg less than 15.2 m high.
Feecollection
GroupAdriverpayment: Means of escape
fixedor variable charge payedon exit All parking spaces within 45.7 m of escape stairway having 1 hr fr.
Adequate alternative meansof escape.
GroupBpedestrian payment:
fixedor variable charge by purchaseoftokenorticket Fireprecautions
season ticket Adequate fire brigade access, dry rising main, fire points plus any
pay & display ticket specificrequirements of local fireofficer.

highwater372.5 iowwater37O.55

221
2.21 ___________________ _____________________
2.2!
a

2
emergencyexit

NB right handcirculation
4 FIatslablayout 5 Underlake carpark Geneva Switzerland asection b siteplan c plan offirstfloor DesignCZschokke

1 Typical startinggate' layout allows2 carsto enteratsametime
2 Typicalechelonlayoutsuitsnarrowersite
Commerce 253
Vehicle services:petrol stations
Self-service station nowdominating influence on design,as result partly
of high labour costs, partly of availability of new electronic pumping
systems with memories for storing pump information at control counter.
In UK self-service basis adopted by oil company petrol station net-
works: approx 75% of petrol sold in UK through self-service. Practice
spreading rapidly in continental Europe. Proportion lower in USA but
growing; motorway and inter-state stations increasingly self-service
operations. Whether self-service or mannedpetrol stations usuallynow
include shops or selling areas exposing customers to wide range of
goods as they pay forpetrol.
DESIGN& LAYOUT
Basic principles same whether forselforattended service.
Preliminary
Tradingarea: detail study will establish needfor site.
Road pattern: whether single, dual or three lane roadway will deter-
mineease of entryinto site.
Traffic flow: number of vehicles passing site per hour per day to be
established.
Vehicle roadspeed:will influence frequency of customers visiting site.
From these factors estimate number of vehicles/hr/day calling at site
and ofexpected peak periods forwhich site will have toprovide.
Basic
Initialcommunication:visibility; pole signvisible atleast 300 m before
siteentrance —*p254(2).
Visibility:pricesign readable 100 mbefore siteentrance.
In and out: easysteering on to site and space for cars to line up while
waiting for place at pump; easy steering away from pump with no
blocking ofexit and goodvisibility fordriving out onto road —*p254(3).
Site traffic: 1-way flowonlyon site.
Pumps: thinkin terms offilling positions —(1)(2)p254(4):
consider filling at peak periods, usually 2/day, morning and evening;
note that car is at pump site before starting filling for 4.5 minutes, and
actual filling for 1.5minutes;
memory system atcontrol counter imperativeto allow forquickrelease
ofpump;
capacity of1-hosepump with allgrades offuelavailableapprox 3201/hr.
Pre-payment:consider whether volume of cars at peak periods or at
night warrant money acceptor or card acceptor unitsto relieve control
counter operator.
Shop: commonly 20—40 m2depending on retailing activity envisaged.
Control counterareaadditional 4.5m2: sited to supervise refuelling area
and shop activity.
Air, water: site away from pumps with adequate parking spaces
according to size ofstation.
Other services: should be kept separate from petrol filling area, eg
dervfilling, carwash, sale of liquefied petrol gases.
NB diagrams on this pageapply totrafficdriving onleft
254 Commerce
Vehicle services:petrol stations
SITE ESSENTIALS
Accommodation:shop and control counter,office,toilet(s), sto, perhaps
staffarea—p253(1 )(2).
Petrol sto: underground steeltanks cased in sulphate-resisting con-
crete 1:2:4 mix. Consult local codeforthickness ofconcrete surround.
Tanksizes (UK) vary 13000—360001,in 45601 increments.
Supplytanker: easyroute todischarge pad on site. Discharging must
not obstruct cars. In case of emergency tankers should be able drive
directfromsite. Lighting required for night deliveries.
Canopy: required to coverallfilling positions with approx 3500projec-
tion beyond pumps on both sides: height above filling area 3850. On
lightingfor night time retailingconsultcodes; in UKzone2type (vapour
proof) if fittedtocanopy ceiling; zone 1 type (flame proof) if fitted within
750ofpumpsightglass; USA requirements similar.
8000 Levels: avoid variation ri level beyond 1:80 on filling area and tanker
discharging pad.
Drainage: consultcodes; in UK from all areas within 4250 of petrol
Hioo1-8ooo source (ie pumps, tanks) ventsto be taken to 3-chamber petrol inter-
ceptorbefore processing to main foulsewer.
Site size: dependent on number of filling points and future marketing
needs; preferred sizes—(4)p253(l)(2).
Forecourtlayoutofpumpsiteswith preferred dimensions
NB diagrams on this pageapply totrafficdrivingon left

site

boundary,1
•l3000----
50
—'7/
imin
I —
sight ilne
I. min6l.0- 40—70mph road

outa

40—70 mphroad I.—mln61

2 Areasofvision: I mainpole 2canopyfaciasigns 3secondarysigns 3 Entry&exit sightlines

NBhigherroad speedsreducemotorist'sangleof vision

4 Typicalfoursquarelayoutsuits
deepersite
 Commerce 255
Vehicle services: bus stations

1
r1T3Ji5500
110

-' Li
1— 12 0 —4—-—--- 200 —-

i—1I}[] 32.0/trucktrain

Parkingarlayout parallel to directionofarrival

ii
— 12.0 —1

1.... wayin
1
-
FORMSOFPLATFORM
Buses increasingly taking over from trains, demand ever increasing
attention in relation urban traffic. Need take corners especially wide:
turning spread needs special watchfulness—*p256(1). Bus parks large
and small an essential partof traffic planning. Forms of platform—*(1)—
(18). Bus stops should be under cover —+(19)(20). Consult bus
companies ondimensions.
Town centre squares should be designed or adapted serve as bus
500 stationsaccording natureofrequirements—np256(1O)—(12).
500
scratchkerb End ramps and convenient boarding steps of300—400—e(1O)—(11) and
i8 350k linemarker 8000 forloading baggage tofloor level.
Service rm needed in connexion with bus stations —np256(1O)—(14).
F0 Provide space for temporary car parking —ep256(9). Keep in mind
possibilitiesofextension—ep256(8).
NB diagrams on this page apply to driving on the right (German
8000
' r,s 5000
8000

500
data)
500

2 Parkingplacesofvehicleswith
trailersorcoaches
3 Obliquely(45)todirectionof
arrivalforcoaches I ----l ri - I

> 36.0

500 12 Platformalignmentwith passinglane

14.0 3.6
3030

parking
—IL_______
10
14
24.0—36.0— --4

L / 8.0

/
3500
13 Withoutpassinglane 14 Obliqueplatformalignment

4 Rightanglestodirection ofarrival 5 Forvehicleswith trailersor

forcoaches coaches
2
3500

-28.0 —F-16.0---4 4Otn]40[1

6 Obliquelyiodirectionofarrival 7 Platformalignmentparallelwith
directionofarrival
15 Longplatforms 16 Departureatright 17 Departureat
with passinglanes angles;arrivalat obliqueangle
-- 1_ obliqueangle

-3030:
1.5j
0
24.0
ri'iiith 55°
1111111
i6.5 65— r20
jJ-
-
1.51

14.0

8 Longplatformat45todirection 9 At right anglesto direction of

.
ofarrival arrival
18 Positionatrightanglesto
directionofarrival

0"\ggage\ ' ±0.0

iii Lii glasswindscreen
J

_________
5400,
+300—400
2250

3000
,sathkt !1EE 4000— —

10 Standardverticalinterlocking 11 Radiallayoutproviding more rm 19 Shelterforunilateralloading 20 Forloadingboth sides

layout (USA) infront (USA) platform
256 Commerce

Vehicle services: bus stations

TRAFFIC ORGANISATION NB diagramson this page applytotraffic drivingonthe right (German data)

—30.0—————

- reintorcedl—
surtace (
"-
,R1=7.0
Ku)
rein- 42,0

• 60f /,

3,5 a=7.5 3.5 4.0 2Ttñ '7.0

1 Roadwideningatrightangletum 2 Turningcircuit 3 Smallturn-round 4 Platformoutside

station turningloop 5Platfomiinsideturningloop
6 Semicircular
withoutpassing writrpasiving lane relationtolineofarrival paralle at4& at90
platformiype
platformoutside lane
loopwith noP relationioline leachparhisgplace)rrr) 32 12 24 12 24
crossingover otamnal b o b a
ophors
parking a a
roadway r

fl
e a a
ni ar 22
24 24 24 36— 36— 36—
plattormllrnl

plattorsiw)m) 3 3
60 60 60
3 35— as— 30—
tU §
40 4.0 4.0
7 Semicircular no ofloadingporrts weachparking place(ml 3.5 35 35 3b 35
a coacses 2 2 2 2—3 2—3 2—3
platforminsideloop bvehicleswith trailers 1 1 1 1—2 1—2 1—2 warrivalspur irs) 4.0 80 8.0 14 14
accessibleonly by arviplatform& arrival arwith
parking
crossingroad spar (m2)
a coaches roadwayirs2)
138 170 189 293 296 313 avehiclewdhtrailer 176 178 182
vehicles
withtrailers 276 340 378 439 444 470 bcoach 68 135 89 140 91

8 Space requirementsforplatform ar 9 Space requirementsforparkingplaces

town
rightofway centre

sales605k

V
0 -A-
11121314151
6

-'-'it

'•-,,ftV'
®.;r-i
mainroad

1 drivers wc 2rusrringrepairs 3petrolstation 4eqp

1 =supervisors 2= restrm 3 = petrolstation 5supervisor 6maltcollection& deliverypoint

10 Largetransitstationwith parkingar 11 Large transitstationwith separate departure &arrivalplatforms

1 departurePentrance
2 amealP esit
3 vestrbule
mainroad 4 baggagedespatck
5 arrival Pentrance
6 baggagein arrival
7 departurePexit
8 baggageoff
9 baggage deposa
10 managersoff
11 off
&airtidrets
12 intormatron
13 an

13 Groundfloor KLM busstation

Arch Brook&Bakerna

1 wcrnes
2 wcwomen
3 nursery
fromparking 4 do
5k
6 canteenstaff
7 drivers'rm
8 metercpdsto
9 registry
12 Transitstationwith separatearrival &departure platformspositioned 10 pumps
obliquely,parkingarinseparatelocation 14 BasementKLM
 Commerce 257
Rail stations
PASSENGERDETAILS

HiH 2200 -
1 to 4 Space taken upby people
1100 '
H
60O
Tempbooking hall 12°C
Daylighting 1/5 surface area
Ticketofffrom 1 500 x 2000upwards
Typeofsurface: rough, hard sintered clay orgranitictiles
Walling up to 1 750 high with impact-resistant lining: tiles, hard plaster,
boards
Baggage deposit: doors for baggagetrucks 1 900—2300wide: alldoors
preferably steel to withstand heaviest demands. Opening at deposit
counterupto 1 200high; sliding window or protected bygrille.
Baggage despatch cabin 2000 x 2250
Arrangements for storing bicycles verysimple and space saving: hung
up neatly by front wheel —(12)(13)
Easy to hang up if first raised on rear wheel, then liftedup with knee

fN f/I
iooc
behind saddle

iooo-4
—1000+1000-4-1000-4-

6 Cabintrunk

30
1
I turntable

850nomiat h
train
scheduta 14 Bookingoffsection—.(16)

7 At train schedulestand 8 Luggagetruck

15 Baggageoffsection—.(17)

dmphragm

ticketmachine

lT \j T

__
3750
11
1
16 SectionA-A 17 Section B-B

1500 1500 -— 1350

r1
—1

10 Baggagestand 11 Baggagerack

*
100
530 530 500500i
T T

I— 1100+
H
1500
3700
±1 100—I
H
j tt
1-600 -600-
1 18 aStraightbarrier boblique
barrier

Vehicle seivicesreferences:
—aBibliography entries 086 225 276308348424435513555567
Bicyclestands Abreaststaggered 636650
258 Commerce

Airports
Primefunctionprovidepassenger airtransport.
-airport boundary
future During short history has had respond tremen-
approachlight dous growth and technological change.
,_/runway
system Should be plannedand developedprogressively
crash/tire structural expansion
rescue serviceroad meetchanges and newdemands —(1).

PRELIMINARYWORK
Planning and design of airport should evolve
according to sequence:
preliminary study; examine indetail whatexists
and identifyconstraints
physical: land boundaries,topography, geology
access: airside and landside
environment: noise, pollution, landscaping
cross overtaxiway serviceroad
resources: finance, labour, materials
assess economic, demographic characteristics
runway of population: gauge impact onairport; forecast
traffic demands 5—10 and 20 yearsin future,
showing annual and day, peak month, peak hr
1 Airport layoutfor parallel runwaysystem trafficforpassenger boardingandaircraft move-
ments—(4)(5)
developmaster plan forwhole airport
develop plans for each component airside/
landside:
runLay airside:
runways,taxiways —*(3)
landside:
passenger terminal with apron (1)(2) —*p260(1)
140.0 ground transport
152.0 216.0 237.7 259.0 air freightterminal with apron —*p262(3)
aircraftmaintenance with apron —p262(l)
aircraftcatering —*p262(2)
other components: car rental, hotel, motel,
offices
2 Passengerterminal& aprondistancesfromrunway centreline forvarious bldgh; 1:7 = imaginary
surfacecannotbe penetratedbystationaryobjects(aircraft atgates)orfixedobjects(bldg) surface access:road systems,fixedguideways
Reg standards, mm criteria —8ib391 392 393
394395396.

single apron taxilane

spacing forDC-10/L-1O111B767
118.9withlimited B-747 positions
spacing forall B-747 positions
131.0 290.0—305.0
1
note combinationpier/satellite
dimensions will vary for dual apron taxilanes
each airport 8-747positions at satellite

3 Runways&taxiways

2000
3.6
phaseIll 1600
,-
'
passengers
O 284
phasel
.514CC total

H visitors '\ /' '%

IfTfJ[fJTIf
0.7

yr 5
2OC. .I-
hr 020406081012141618202224

4 Planning&projectdesignschedule: start
0
• 5 Derivepatternav/day peakmonthdepartingP
planning4yrinadvance forecastupdate: 1 start and visitorsfromsurveys;preparesimilargraphs
design &working drawings 2revise3defer forarrivingPand visitors,groundtraffic etc: major
data fordetermining sizeofbuildingar
 Commerce 259

Airports
AIRSIDE
Runways&taxiways—*(1)
Length ofrunway depends on prevailingweather, topography, altitude,

:— ±:::
________________ _________________
ill b temp, environmental restrictions, aircraft type and weight expected
______ operate fromairport.
+-.—.--.—.—-.4
______ _______ Orientation of runway in direction of prevailing wind. Modern aircraft
canusually land and take offwith crosswind upto20knots. Light aircraft
._.!1L_÷ seriously affected by wind: if airport to be heavily used by this type

:"7 additional runway may bejustified.

Runwayconfigurations(airportboundaries notshown) acloselyplaced
1
parallelrunwaysforsmalltomediumvolumes: parallel access road system
limitsexpansion bintersectingrunwaysformediumtolargevolumes:
terminalexpansionlimitedwithintriangularar cparallel runwayswith
simultaneousaircraftoperating1 280m spacingforlargevolumes: expansion
capabilitiesalong axis (crossovertaxiwaysnotshown)
______
ILinner taxiway
Utilisation: aim should be for airport be usable by all aircraft for mm
97% oftime.
Single runway can handle up to 50 movement/hr (1 movement = 1
landing ortake off), depending on mix ofaircraft, when operating under
instrument flightrules(IFR).2 parallelrunways 1 310 m apart canaccept
upto 70aircraft movements(USA reg) under IFR. Number ofmovements
higher undervisual flight rules (VFR). Where large and small aircraft
operate to same airport specific separations required in air, atlanding,
take off and taxiing because trailing vortices from large aircraft will
reducecapacity.
Taxiwaysystems should bedesigned allow aircraft clear runway soon
as possible and provide shortest route betweeen runway and parking
aprons.

r—i : lane Layout & design of runways and taxiways: essential consultexpert
advice.
I I _<. ___j_ar&tParkmn
-I_-satellite LANDSIDE

Passenger terminalconcepts
Aircraftgate configuration and way aircraft gates connected with one
——— ___________

-- -- anotherand with main terminal dominantfeatures ofterminal concepts,

-
_______________
—
sateilite &terminal
-- - —serviceroad of which 4 can be distinguished. Concepts nearly always occur in
_________ _________—concourse connecting variations andcombinations.
I terminal units
— —
_____________________________ terminal
SateIlite—(2):aircraft parked in cluster surroundingstructureconnected
with main terminal bypassengercorridor orconcoursepositioned below,
ierminairoadsystem on orabove ground level.
2 Satellite Satellite structure cantake severalgeometrical shapes.
Pier—(3): aircraft parked in line ateitherside of structure. Passenger
—-- —-. -— -
"—inner taxiway corridororconcourse attached to main terminal.
—] ———aircraft manoeuvnnglane
(In both theseconcepts passengerticket,inbound andoutboundbaggage
— handling usuallyceritralisedin mainterminalbutvariationsand exceptions
.44 aprontaxilane occur.)
)_j)._ aircraftparkinglimit line
Linear—(4):aircraftparked in single line at structure,passengercorridor
concoursepier
connecting functional elements ofterminal. Formerlywith aircraftparked

+1 in line on apron functions centralised in small terminal. In past 10—15

I + yearslinearconcept developed provide passenger handling functions

and ground transport forindividualaircraftpositions.In sucharrangement
terminal functions decentralised.
J_L_. - Transporter—*(5):aircraft positions placed at distance fromterminal;
——-concourseconnectingunits passengers carried byvehicles betweenterminal and aircraft. Passenger
____________
_________________________ terminal handling centralised in main terminal.
—-—terminalroadsystem

3 Pier

— -. —.- —--— -- —-- ,taxiwayoraircraft

manoeuvring lane

4+ I
innertaxiway C_aircraftparkinglimitline
—---—---— -
l—aircratt manoeuvringlane I—flightline

L_aircraftparking I I —groundhandling

L_light line
terminal
1 1
- CODO 00 transporters(busesetc)
—terminal roadsystem

—'--terminai
terminal

road system

4 Linear 5 Transporter
260 Commerce

Airports
FLOW& FUNCTIONS
Flow of aircraft, passengers, baggage and vehicles can be shown in
compositeandsingle diagrams, used toidentifysequence of functions
for preparation of schemes in plan and cross section —*(1). Series of
diagrams can be developed asgraphic model to identify effect ofchange
in events, testdifferentarrangement offunctions orsub-functions.
Flowinterminal complex takes place in 3major areas:
apron: area between runway/taxiway system and terminal; serves
aircraft flow toand fromgates and flow ofaircraft ground handling eqp.
terminal: area between aircraftgate positions and vehicularkerb; serves
flow of passengers and baggage.
ground transport:area located between terminal and points ofaccess
at airport boundaries; serves 2 flows, ie passenger vehicles, service
vehicles.
Flow of passengers & baggage
Both domestic and international can be divided into 3 categories each
requiring sequence of operations as below (based on USA practice):
outward (originating) passengersarrive atterminal byground trans-
port forwhichmajor operations:
kerbside baggage check in for passengerswithtickets —n(2)
ticketprocessing at counters with baggage check-in —(2)(3a)
outbound baggage —n(3b)
security check—*(2)
passport control forinternational flights
ticketcontrol ataircraft gates; passenger waiting rm—*(4)
aircraft boarding stairs, loading bridge etc—*p261 (4)
inward(terminating) and transfer passengersarrive at terminal by
aircraft; major operations:
aircraftdisembarking (stairs, loading bridge etc)
immigration control (international)
customs control (international)
baggage claim
ground transport
transferpassengersfrom1 flightto another; inter-line from1 airline to
anotheror intra-line on same airline; baggagehandled byairline except
for passengers transferring from international to domestic flight who
must claim baggage and pass through immigration and customs
inspection.
Outward and inward passenger traffic generates visitor traffic. Visitor/P
ratios vary byairport;need be establishedas partofquantifyingpassenger
flowduringpre-determined times ofday.
Transfer passengers seldom metbypeople at point oftransfer.
Through passengers continuing on same aircraft domestically rarely
disembark except, eg, occasionally fortelephone calls.
Secondaryflow—p262
Airfreightflow between freight terminal and aircraftpassenger terminal/
apron.
Mailflow between mail depot and passenger terminal/apron.
Catering flowbetween catering serviceand passengerterminal/apron.
Fuel flow between fuel depot and passenger terminal aircraft apron:
takes place increasingly by pipeline (hydrant fuelling), eliminating large
fuel trucksand requiring onlyhydrant pump vehicles on apron.

19 8—22.9

tL
é98
79855-6.1t
tr co
Clast
DG
minute telephones
Dbaggagedrop

sign;tobagclaimterminal&
groundtransportation

4 Pwr at aircraftgates,capacityfor200 seat

aircraft,80% loadfactor,boarding10—15minutes
before scheduleddeparturetime:grossar 180m2
—b excludingfirestairs,net150 m2
———,

2 Schem ticdiagramofdepartureleveloflarge
terminal: 1 countercheck-in ()security check

1 Airportflow diagramsbasedon USA
procedures adeparture barrival: brokenboxes
indicate internationaltrafficfunctions
a b
3 Diagramof2levelterminal asecondlevel 1 carparking, kerbsidebaggage check,ticket lob
2 securitycheck 3Pwrwithticket andbaggageprocessing capability 4parkingatgate positions
bgroundlevel 1 carparking 5outwardsbaggage make-up 6baggageclaim 7off,groundhandling
operation
 Commerce 261

Airports
Baggage handling

jirculation

U
a

rn
•

baggage trolleys
2. canbearranged
perpendicularor
parallel to belt

7 - 52-6.
circulation _____________

7.9

2 Baggagemake-up/outward(outbound) —.p360(3b)

Aircraft parking

1 Baggageclaim/inward(inbound)—p26O(3b)
___________ ________ 9.1
ground level
gatecheck

Terminals 3 Aircraftparking

iL
parkinggroundlevel
—
kerb
I
ticket lob

Lbaggageclaim
outward
L.concourse
boarding
baggage landing
a

DC-b
DC-9

structural
gar claim ar
I L
space for
ground transport
systems present
b & future

4 Terminalcrosssections asmall 1-level blarge2-level : aircraft& boarding deviceshownperpendicular toconcourse

 262 Commerce

Airports
SECONDARYSERVICES

UHIIIHIIIIIIHIIIIU
carparking

flIHIIIH HHIIIHIIfl _________

1lIlIIIIIIIIIIlIiJ
flIIIIIHIHIHIIIHIn

-—.—
—.—
150
=-.—-—. ticp —_ —_ —i-i:
runway

1 Aircraftmaintenance 2 Cateringbldg

FREIGHT

Freight carried byairline operating

both passenger & airfreightaircraft
consistsmainly ofinbound & out-
bound flow —v(3). Freight also
transferred from 1 aircraft to
another. Handling takes place
inside & outside bldg. Procedure
varies; to large degree depends
on type & volume of freight
handled: size, percent loose,
percent containerised; type ofair-
craft in use: single deck, double
deck, side door loading, nose
trailer& loading, tailloading, combinations.
staging Such factors influence degree of
mechanisation required. —v(3)
shows 1 B-747position, nose-in,
push-out, side door loading by
ernployeeT] trailers, & 1 B-707position, side
parking I door loading mechanised.
preferably+
acrossroad

3= Outbound flow —a(3) 1 loose

freightdelivered at truck docks &
processed through bldg; 2 con-
arfor
future
freight tainers delivered at truck dock',
expansion4 processed & loaded outside bldg
trucks/cars 4— dmery/PICk-Updocks by mech systems; 3 percentage
of all freightcarriedon passenger
aircraft (as high as 70%) & dis-
each
a lane patched from freight terminal by
truck,cart ortrolleytoair passen-

0 =0= 0 0=0 0 == 0 0 =00

ger terminal to be loaded at gate
position.

ry'TrT
dockhapproa 1170 clearS vanes
4.22 Smallterminals 544—610 largeterminals clearhvanes
3 Airfreight
Airportsreferences:
—vBibliographyentries 048 067 165 186341 370 391 392 393 394 395
396653
 Industry 263
Industrial buildings
SITE SELECTION DEVELOPMENTOPTIONS

Assess area requirements fromclient'sbrief forfactory orwarehouse, Rehabilitate existing site/bldg

including: Infill + rehabilitate (including in townsites)
expansion potential Newbldg on existing site (including phased redevelopment)
parking: visitors, employees, trucks Newbldg on newsite
external sto area Each will be defined by:
landscaping
road, railway orbarge access Zoningordinances, reg USA
Suitability of site size/shape; boundaries
Checknational and local legislation,zoning ordinancesand codes for: Suitability of bldg size/type/shape (as briefed)
permitted sitedensities Geology
useofpublic utilities suchas (forprocess and personnel consumption) Topography
water, power, gas, effluentdisposal Public utilities
accesson public and private roads foremployees, goods vehicles and Statutory permissions
trucks Access forindustrial vehicles and workpeople's cars
Rail or water access
Assess environmental impact of heavy industry, light manufacturing
andwarehousing onsurrounding community; in USA fileenvironmental Airport proximity to site
Labour resources ofarea
impact statement withauthority. Consider: Finance: development costs or subsidies, operating costs including
noise:machinery and vehicles (particularly at night)
taxes/tax relief, loan interests
vibration
light (external circulation, marshalling,shipping and sf0areas at night)
fumeand dust pollution SITE DEVELOPMENT
effluentintowaterways orground water
hazards of possible explosion orradiation exposure Building plot ratio & sitecoverage
Plot ratio of 1: 1 should be regarded as max on all sites inclusive of
Investigate assistance for development finance from central govern- industrial and ancillary office bldg. Site coverage should not exceed
ment (Assisted Development Areas in UK) and local authorities, city
75% of site at ground level. Likely that site coverage ofapprox 50—60%
development corporations (State Development Commissions USA) can be achieved. Site area forplot ratio calculationpurposes excludes
etc.
anypart of adjoining streets (except where theseto be closed).
Car&truckparking
Typical car parking requirements for industrial accn (check local
standards):
UK USA
m2 spaces
lessthan 92.9 4 a total employees on max shift x 85%
lessthan 232.26 5 (15%absent x percent whoarrive by
lessthan 371.61 6 car) dividedby avcar occupancy =
lessthan 510.96 7 parking spaces required
lessthan 656.32 8 b 1 space forevery2 employeesduring
lessthan 789.67 9 shift of max employment & 1 foreach
lessthan 929.92 10 truckto be stopped simultaneoulsy
lessthan 1 021.92 11
lessthan 1114.83 12
Lorry parking requirements will depend on needsofparticularusers and
local reg.

stage 2

F'

Li
factory

V//47/I
-_J :_
1 Locatefactories&warehousesonsite to allow expansion, preferably in2 2 'Nursery'unitdevelopmentsshould alsoallowforexpansion butwith
directions:considervehicleaccessduringphased expansion urbaninfill sitesthis may haveto beatexpense ofyard ar
264 Industry

Industrial buildings
BASICBUILDINGTYPESELECTION AREAS FORSOME INDUSTRIALOCCUPANCIES
Factoriesand warehouse bldg types only economicallyand operationally For feasibility studies before detailed brief (program) from user these
interchangeable where structural frame has column spans that will not areas can be used asapproximatebldg areas.
conflict with spacing of pallet racking, clear height permitting use of
modern mech handling eqp, roof structure that can accept loading of Serviceindustries
15 m2!P (smallest) to30 m2 medium size
production and environmental services. This normally only economic
forsmallscale bldg orwhere companyhasmixed stoand manufacturing el repairs
useson site likelyto change. builders
engineering contractors (eqmachine tool movers)
Keyfactors in buildingtypeselection appliance repairs
Factories —p266—8: instrument repairs
operationalflexibility for rapidresponseto changingproductiondemands: reprographic services
clearheight column spacing,roofand floorloading,roofconstruction for printers
services routing fortype of manufacturingprocess involved machine tool repairs
energy and environmental control: natural or artificial light; environ-
mental needs of/from process: good working conditions forlabour Manufacturingindustries
durabilityand firecontrol: selectionofmaterialsforstructureand envelope Av 28 m2/P; range 22—33(33m2/P under 664.5 m2)
related to fire riskand anycorrosive effects fromprocess anodising
resale potential sheetmetal work
promotional value for user company polishing
furniture manufacture
Warehouses —p269—72: shop fitting manufacture
structure commensurate with sto demands: structuralspans tosuit rack
clothing
spacing and height and floor strengthto allow more than 1 arrangement textile (made up)
energy and environmental control: to keep stored products in good
condition: insulation and cooling in somecases, ventilation in others; Distributivetrades
good working conditions for labour (eg avoiding loadingdocks tacing av8Om2/P
into prevailing wind) builders merchants
fire control:compartmentationtominimise fire spreadassessed against timbersupply
hindrance to stoand handling and cost ofsprinklers books & magazines
machine spares
Selection strategy electrical goods & spares
Single ormulti-storey development antiques/furntiture
modern production and stotechniques make full use of bldg cubewith upholstery/textile
inherent multi-level characteristics
multi-storey development (or conversion) can be efficient for lightand
high technology industry, particularly where landcostlyin urban areas: Average area/worker
consider personnel circulation and escape, national and local reg, fire m2
control, goodscirculation and process, services routing and trucks and clothing 11
private vehicle access and parking, particularly in dense developments research & development 13
consider cost and environment impact electrical components & assembly 17.5
surgical instruments/appliances, scientific instruments 19.25
miscellaneous manufacture(eqplastics products, musical
instruments) 23.5
leatherwork 24.0
metal goods, cutlery, jewellery, forging, small tools 24.25
made uptextiles (egbags) 28.75
packaging, stationery, printing 32.5
pottery& glassblowing 36.75
motorrepairs, reprographic services 45.5
joinery, furnishing upholstery, shop fitting, timbergoods 46.75
a 4
— .7,7,,r,/7,,,///z,//' Typicalarea distribution
Includes circulation space

—ir4-- Manufacturing
production 60—70% (decreasesas size increases)

00 sto
off
amenities
20% & less (increasesassize increases)
10—15%
5—9%
(increasesassize decreases)
(increasesassizeincreases)
01 0 Distribution
80% +

I4i
sf0
off 10—20% (greater need in some types ofdistribution)
o o amenities 0—5%
b
0
Key: 1 verticalservicesrisers 2goods
elevator 3access&escapestairs(check
local reg formaxdistances) 4 plantar
00
00 1 Multi-storeydevelopmentor
conversioncanprovideefficient
accnforlight &hightechnology
industry,particularlywhere
differencesbetween production, lab
&adminhardtodefine:example
shows potentiallydivisiblespace
 Industry 265

Industrial buildings
0 0 0 SELECTIONSTRATEGY 0
Building shape inplan. Selection ofplan shapeis function of: C')
demands of production or sf0 system
climate, size, shape,
topographyand geology ofsite
location ofutilities
expansion potential ofprocess in relation to site _-*p273(l)(2)
i: : : :[:
p4
Some production processes can demand long, narrow bldg:
intensive line production methods, eqmetal rolling, papermanufacture
factories using overhead gantry cranes, eq heavy engineering
ground level
high-bay automated warehouses: function ofeqpmovement efficiency
multi-storey development, flatted workshops for natural light and
p •____ ventilation

Majority ofother industrialusescan beefficiently installed in rectangular

plan with proportions 1:1—1:4, typically 1:2/2:3. Modern mass pro-
duction methods capitalise on mech handling techniques no longer
literally interpreting line production'.
Increasing demand forbldg which will notrestrict location ofproduction,
stoand admintoclearly definedareas, butwhich permit rapidreallocation
withinbldg envelope.
Structural bay sizes suited to process and location of access equal
- shape in importance.
production
level

N1N. IDENTIFICATIONOF BUILDING REQUIREMENT

I 2
I I
I I —— I Factories:
should be designed to serve variety of useswithin their life: frequent
Key: 1 groundlevel: goodsin,despafch,parking 2 production
level 3 intermediate process plantlevel 4principal problem inefficient factory stock through structural obsolescence —
environmentalplantlevel insufficient services support capacity of roof structure, insufficient
headroom, shortspans.
should not be considered merely as weather-proof envelopes round
1 Mulfi-storeyfactorieseconomic forprocess-based industries (eq food,
production process. Formand dispositionoftheir structurefundamentally
pharmaceuticals,tobacco)wheregravitycanbeusedinprocess andenergy
beconservedbycompactplanning influences essential freedom to optimise production layout and route
services equally freely to serve that or any future production layouts
withoutdemanding long periods ofdown time foralteration.
Selection of structure is key factor in providing efficient and flexible
operation. There is range of structural types that have proved efficient
and adaptable. Buttechnological innovation mayadd to these types, eq
stressed skin construction requiring only minimal frame support for
envelope.
Assess roof structure for:
servicecarrying ability in each direction and easyaccess for relocation
abilityto accept point loads and flexible location for materials handling
eqp, eq overhead hoists, conveyors
natural lighting: consider glareand insolation/heat loss
durability and maintenance: performancein fire and need forcleaning/
repainting, particularly in clean areas
Industrial bldg designed to be closely matched to initial process or
layout can prove as inflexible and costly tooperate inlong termasthose
designed to minimise capital cost (to exclusion of consideration of
operating costs and operational flexibility).
2 Mass production does not usually demandlong narrowbldg, ie formal-
isationof flow diagram:typicallyprocess is loopedbetween common vehicle
access& sf0 zone

[Z1
a
Z2
:::7:.
r
± 4 7

I I
[Thi
Key: 1 offar 2labar 3amenity ar 4 production ar
!H! JW
L±_L1
L
J

5testing & inspection 6wet servicecore 7expansion

3 In light & hightechnologyindustry production research &adminarare
becomingless & lessdistinct: deptwillneedtoexpandorcontractfreely
--'-i- _o--
4 Factorystructuresmusthavespanswideenoughinbothdirections to
allow user optimiseproduction layout: traditional batchproduction linesof
similarmachines,a, may needtobereorganisedintointegrated cell' to
exploitmodernmech handling techniques, b
 266 Industry
Industrial buildings
FACTORYBUILDING TYPES
Separate bldg types can be identified as most efficient in meeting
operational demands ofcertain methods of production. Spans, type of
structure, clear height, roof and floor loadings function ofhow product
manufactured or stored rather than what product is. Industrial bldg

—
should be designed to serve broad range of useswithinthat general
production sector.
Basictypesto be identified are: 2 Light dutyindustrialbldg mainlyforsto purposes:portalframedstructure
typically4.5mtoeaves;spans mm 9m,typical12m;roofloading0.35kN/m2
Lightduty (no hoisting);floor loading 16kN/m2
Impliessmall scale (also —p285—90workshops). Industrialbldg where
operational demands of production or sto process place few demands
on structural frame or floor. Interchangeable between light production
and distribution duties. Typically up to 1 860 m2. Light metal work,
packaging, clothing, consumer durable repairs, small printers. Distri-
bution of el goods, builders' components, sub-depots for local retail
distribution.

Mediumduty 3 Mainly light production: trussedframe;eavesh &spansas—.(2); roof

Principally batch production orsto duties where process and supporting structuralloading(services)0.5kN/m2(up to 2thoistloadsdistributed!
services implysomedemands on design of bldg structure, shape and structuralbay)
floor, allowing potential flexibility of production and sto layout. Sto and
production bldg types not interchangeableunless roofstructuredesigned
with production services support capacity.

4 Typicalprocessflowdiagramfortraditionalbatch production organis.tion,

eg engineering components

ru L . .-i -

1 Typicalprocessflow diagram forhigh technology industry, eg electronics

material
5
-

V
n. ,
.-

Lifi

Mediumduty industrial bldg: 6.5m preferred eaves h(toallow

mezzanine),mm 5.5m;spanstypically12m x 18m; roofstructuralloading: to
t
accept point loads2 monorailhoistlbayorupto5 tsuspendedcraneloads
distributedover bay; floor loading 25kN/m2forstackedsto
 Industry 267

Industrial buildings
FACTORYBUILDINGTYPES(cont)
C
Heavyduty (I)
Designed to accept large scale batch or mass
production systems, which have intensive
demands for overhead productionand environ-
mental service and materials handling, and
dense floor layoutswith some heavy production
machinery and inter-process sf0 areas. May
need high bldg to exploit multi-revel ability of
materials-handling eqp. In heavy engineering
sector somespecial types to exploit heavy lift
overhead gantry cranes.

1 Heavy duty industrial bldg: 7m mm general

purposeeaves h, 9m forracked, sto &overhead
handlingsystems a; 12m forbulkprocessing
plant b;spanstypically 12 m x 18 m butcan be
lessforheavyroofloadings(9m x 12m)orgreater
forlighterloads(20 m); roofstructural loading: 5
pointloads& lOt beamloadsdistributedoverbay;
heavierloadsneedgantrycranes&additional
structure; floor loading:15—30kN/m2withsome
specialbases forheavymachinetools

possibleparallel
sub-assemWy
process

may be multiple
subassembly
stages

2 Typicalprocessflow diagram fortraditional

massproductionline: modern developments tend
tosplit assemblyfunctionsoffline into teams
268 Industry
Industrialbuildings
FACTORYBUILDINGTYPES(cont)
structuraltype 1 2 3 4 5 6
Hightechnology
Demanding high quality process and/or personnel environment. Small hght duty S CST S S • CST S AS S AS S (a)AS
or large scale: similar design demands. Provisionfor intensive services
in roof zone; can also be requirement for under floor servicing. High mediumduty S CS S S 0(b)CS S S • S

content of bulk handling; powders, liquids, gases. Interchangeability heavyduty S S O(b)cS S S S S S)c)AS
between production, lab and admin areas: rapid change demand with
technological innovation and volatile markets. hightechnidogy S S • CS S AS

S CST S CST

• ••
smallscale

generalpurpose S CS •S S CS S CS
termerhate
.S S(c)AS

3 Factorystructuraltypes
. appropnatestnicture
appropriateslnicturein
0 notedcaseonly 4 Structuraltypes: asingleaxis
A aluminium solid beam,long span purlins
C concrete
b singleaxiscastellabeam,long
spanpurlins:forservicerouting
S steel cportalframe forusewhereservice
possibleseparate loadingminimalorgantrycraneage:
secatdary processsto T
typical pitch6°, rooflightsbuilt into
timber

a multi-divisiblespaces pitchorridge d flat orcambered

withoverheadgantry truss, 1 or2axes emonitorroof,
b
cranesonly evenlydistributedlight,singleaxis
secondaryprocess(maybeondifferentsite) spaceframe: forverywide spans;
C widespans on irregularsite
wherecolumnscannotbeat equal
spacing;wherehighdegreeof
servicingfreedomrequired

1 Typicalprocessflow diagram forprocess-based industry, eg petro-

ctientical,rubber

2 High technologyindustrial bldg: mayrequire undercroft for bulkprocess

access& servicesrouting; 7m preferred mm eaveshover process plant
a&forpalletisedsto b; 4mmm forhightechnology assembly environment
C;roof structura'loadingsupto 1.2 kN/m2, distributed,forservices, hoistloads
upto5tdistributedperbayforplantremoval; floor loadings 15—20kN/m2 for
largeplant, 10—15kN/m2forhighlabouruseassembly

STRUCTURALSELECTION
Check nationaland local (state) reg forconstruction and performancein
fire relating to required occupancy andwith client's insurancecompany:
thiswill affect materials choice —sp277.

SERVICINGSTANDARDS; STATUTORY
REQU IREMENTS
Forgeneral servicing standards in industrial bldg —up383—397.
 Industry 269

Industrial buildings
WAREHOUSES
ci
Warehouse bldg selection depends on scale and type ofsto operation.
Different methods of sto unit loads imply various levels of efficiency in
c
C,)
filling bldg volume and accessibility to load. Equally these decisions
affectselection of mech handling eqp —vp278(4)(5).
Warehousing operation usually involves bulk sto and order selection
functions. Thesetendhave dissimilarstoand materialshandlingdemands
except when small scale installations: typically high dense sto for bulk
stockto exploithandling techniques with lower 'active stock' areas for
orderpicking. Typical proportion divides warehouse: 1/3 high bayarea,
2/3 lower area for order picking and assembly and loading bay zones

Key: ahigh bay palietsb efficientmechhandling blow
bayar:Order picking&load assembly cloadingbay
I Typicalproportionsofhigh& lowbayarfordistribution warehouse
—v(1), ie can combine 2 of bldg types described below. Because of
densityof stock bulk sto area may not needto expand so rapidly as
processing zones.
WAREHOUSEBUILDING TYPES

L
I? I, Small scale
—vp266lightdutyfactory and —vp268(3) entries 1 & 2.
General purpose
U I _in1 Forfork-lift,reach truckand narrow aisle stackeroperation. Bldg acts as
weather-proof envelope to sto operation. Importantthat spans, height,
check-of1/
sort
U floorstrengthallow forflexible installationofsto methods —ep272 types
check-off!
[ sod 3—6, 7a & 8a; also—ep266 medium dutyfactory types and —*p272(1 0).

Intermediate high bay

[ bulkstock
Independent bldg structure for intermediate height narrow aisle sto
U systems. Up to 14 m bldg height (12 m sto height). Allows variationsin
I activestock! sto layout and possibility of other later uses; also —p267 heavy duty
[ orderpicking factory.
U
[er assembly

U
k-outloadirigi
despatch

2 Typicalstoflow diagram: repository, 3 Typicalsto flow diagram:

componentsb foradjoiningproduction egcold sto,steel
repository,
process stockholding

4 Generalpurposewarehouse,typicallyfor7500 stackh: 8000to eaves; spans 12—18m; 5 Intermediatehigh baywarehouse, typically14mto

floor loading25kN/m2mm NBconsideralsoflat roof eaves:spans 11.1—20.5 m depending onaislewand pallet
size; floor loadings50 kN/m2 distributedloads
270 Industry
Industrialbuildings
WAREHOUSES
High bay -.p271(1l—13)

Integral rack structure: for sto heights to 30 m to exploit automated

handling techniques —o(2). Economic land cost high, labour cost high,
expansion potential limited. Sto rackingforms bldg structure, with root
and wall cladding attached to it. Very strong floor and foundations
required so poor ground can preclude concept.

r S supphersgoods

U 3 Wheresf0arlimited&throughputspeednottoppriorityintense useof
volumecanbemadewith mobile racking; double-sidedrackingmounted on
rail-bornecarriers: racksnestfacetoface, only 1 aisleopeningat time;
imposeshighfloor loadings

+
+ f
1-
-1-—

4 Blockstacking3—4palletsh: aislemoves through stackto providefirst-in,

first-out rotation; aislewrelatedto type of fork-liftused—'p271

f
1 Typicalsto flow diagramfordistribution warehouse, eg retailfood
distribution

ii IIi[IIHU
ii iii Hi
7zzfr2
lii
I
a' a 1: [Cflbfl

1(
5 Forbulkpalletstoin long aislesstockshouldbearranged innotional arso

[—snj
that fastestthroughputstock closest toassemblyar: noterackorientation at
900to assemblyzone
—

BB'1
__s 2b
— . p p7 •
[3
_ . —
0 0 0 loadassently
— —
6 Fororderpickingdiversestockrackingarranged parallelwith load
assemblyzone with rackardevotedto stockwithvariousthroughputspeeds,
2 High baywarehouse, bldgstructure fastest nearestassemblyzone: reduces slowmoving pickingmachinery
integral with palletracking; h 30m;
floor loadingscan bemorethan 60kN/m2distributed blockingmovementofothers
 Industry 271

Industrial buildings
WAREHOUSES
Fork-lift dimensions C
In design for best use of sto space note interaction between aisle (I)
spaces and fork-liftdimensions: decision on stacking may decide size
and make of fork-lift, choice of fork-lift may decide stacking. Relevant
details for somefork-lifttypes and pallet sizes —(1 )—(6).

type offork-lift dimensions weight

1 Counter-balanceforkliftcapacity 3000kg: stackingaisle90°with 1220 kg
squarepallet3670; intersecting aisle (dotted) 2000;Iwithoutpallet3150,
w1100 counter-balanced fork-lift:load capacity

/'\l_____
./ \-
2500kgat 610 load centre
I withoutpallet
wwithout pallet
3246
1118

// h: mastlowered
weightwithoutload
2286

//
4500
wheel loadsladen1: front(drive) 6000
rear(steer) 750
90°stackingaisle (1 200 pallet) 3480
turn-out aisle (1 200 pallet) (dotted)—(1) 2000

1
fordistributedrollingloadsdividebywheelcontact ar, available from
/•/ 4
trade literature

Counter-balancedfork-liftdimenskns&weights: palletsizesUSA 1220

x 1220, 1220 x 1 830; somepalletshavesides1220h

typeoffork-lift dimensions weight

kg

extendingmastreachfork-lift:loadcapacity
2040kgat 610 load centre
Iwithoutpallet 1 930
wwithoutpallet 990
2 Reachfork-liftcapacity1 500kg, palletcarriedwithin wheelbase;stacking h: mast lowered 2667
aisle 90°with 1 220 squarepallet2400;intersecting aisle (dotted) 1 900; weightwithoutload 2722
Iwithoutpallet 1 600, w 990 wheel loadsladen1: front (mast extended) 4282
rear(mastextended 481
90°stacking aisle(1200 pallet) 2362
turn-out aisle(1200 pallet) (dotted)—.(2) 1 905

1
fordistributedrollingloadsdividebywheelcontactar,
available fromtrade literature

5 Extendingmastreachfork-liftdimensions&weights

type offork-lift dimensions weight

kg

poweredP-controlled palletfork-lift:load

/ capacity 1815kg
Iwithout pallet
w withoutpallet
h: mastlowered
1 854
762
notapplicable
wwithout load 372
wheelloads notapplicable
\ 90°stacking aisle (1200 pallet)
turn-out aisle (1200 pallet) (dotted) —(3)
1 752
1 498
3 PoweredP-controlledpalletfork-lift: stackingaisle90°with 1220square 6 PoweredP-controlledpalletfork-liftdimensions&weight
pallet1 750; intersecting aisle(dotted)1 500;Iwithoutpallet1 820,w787
272 Industry
Industrialbuildings
WAREHOUSES
Storageefficiencywith varioushandling methods
Takingtypical stacking areas 33m x 33 m, volume efficiencyassessment includes 1 repositioning
aisleat end of rack runs; pallet size: 1200x 1000 x 200 tall—*(1 )—(9); figures in column 2of (10)
relate to numbers ofpicture captions. USA pallet sizes —*(11) and p27l(4).
1 Fork-liftinblockstack:3SOOaisle;3600stackh
(4.5m bldgh dotted)

LE
2
±E E E
Fork-liftin palletracking: 3500aisle;7500
stack h

3 Reachfork-liftinblock stack: 2600aisle;3600

stack h (4500 bldg h dotted)

-
4 Reachfork-liftin palletracking: 2600aisle;

j
7500stackh

F_______________________

9 Automatedfixedpath stackercrane: 1 400 aisle; 24 m stackh; integralrackstructure

5 Reachfork-liftindrive-inracking, drivesinto

uflu
stack betweenframes:7500stack h typeof sto stack pallets volume access sto increase
eqp
h stored efficiency overfork-lift
equivalent

% %
fork-lift: bldg h Smto 1 blockstack1 3 1452 24 poor
undersideofstructure 2 beam pallet 5 1 200 20 100
racking
6 Reachfork-liftindoubledeepracking, has reachfork-lift: bldg 3 blockstack2 3 1 584 28 poor 9
extendingfork attachment: 2600aisle h8m to undersideof 4 beam pallet
structure racking 5 1400 35 100 17
Sdrive-in 5 2400 58 istin
racking laat out
6doubledeep
racking 5 2400 49 50
narrowaisle stacker: 7a beam pallet
racking3 5 1800 46 100 50
lb beampallet
racking4 7 2520 46 46 110
7 Narrowaisle stacker,movesparallel with rack: 8a double deep
astackh7soo bstackhdottedlo.5m racking3 5 2400 59 50
8bdoubledeep
racking4 7 3360 60 50
automatedhigh bay stacker 9beampallet
crane,rail guided:bldg racking 15 5400 32 100
ft 24 m toundersideof
roofstructure(can be
30m+)
'volumeefficiencyincreases iflowerbldg used (4500 mm) 2 volume efficiencyincreases
8 Narrowaislestackerin doubledeepracking, iflowerbldg used bldg fttounderside roofstructure 8000 bldg hto underside of roof
l600aisle: astackh7soo bstackhdotted 10.5 structure11 m assectionof longeraisle: typically 100m+
m
10 Stoefficiencywith various handling methods

11 Whenusingpallets1220 x 1 830(frequent inUSA)preferred aislew3600;4270run of rack

accommodates3pallets1220 x 1220or2 pallets1220 x 1 830
 Industry 273
Industrial buildings
SITE LAYOUT
key: 1 off 2goods inwards 3rackedbulkpallet sto
4order pickingar 5order &despatchassemblyar Site layout for factories and warehouses
6repackaging& processingar 7expansion
determined by:
shape and size ofbldg
expansion potential
services running through site, eg gas mains,
powercables
topography: affecting accessforheavy vehicles
andbuilding economics (cut and fill)
energy conservation: exposure to prevailing
and storm winds
ground conditions and drainage, eg avoiding
pilingor potential flood areas
surrounding neighbourhood: keeping noisy
external plant and loading baysfromresidential
area
vehicle (road and rail) manoeuvring and
marshalling area in relation to loading bays
—p282—3.
Economics
Comparing alternative site layouts will usually
resultin trade-offbetween conflicting factors.
Exampleshows alternativesforsiting distribution
warehouse: important cost factor involves
1 Option 1: lowrise 'conventional'sto; minimalsite works expansion potential and linked mech handling
eqp investment decision
First option —+(1) minimises excavation by
exploiting fall of land to provide raised loading
dockat infeed: distribution vehicles were to be
side loaded fromground level. But goods in-
wardsloading bay would face prevailing wind,
energycost, and circulationround site required,
needing relocation in event ofexpansion.
Secondoption—(2)accepts some excavation
forraised dock: in leeand exploits fallof site to
sink part of high bay stacking area for less
environmental intrusion and increased handling
efficiency. Revised axis of bulk sf0 area allows
much increased expansion potential without
affecting operation of existing installation.This
combined with improved sto and handling
economics more than offset any increase in
capital costof construction.

Planning grids
To coordinate building's structure,services and
circulation in formulating siting and expansion
strategy and to integratetheseelements during
2 bldg design, discipline their disposition by
Option2:narrowaisle highbaysto:trade-off= costofsiteworksagainst increasedoperational
employing planning grid.
flexibility& lowerenergyloss

3 Tocoordinatestructure,services& movement
indevelopmentstrategyworktomastergrid;note
3-dimensionalimplications
274 Industry

Industrial buildings
LAYOUTOF MULTIPLEUNITDEVELOPMENTS
& ESTATES
Small scale nursery' and 'seedbed' units: meetneedto integrategroup
of units into existing urban or rural community. Illustrations —(1)(2)
show small 'seedbed'group combined with landscaped open space
and 'nursery'unitswith expansion capacitywith grouped goods access.
Speculative developments forrental: built in variousforms ofterrace to
allow flexible space allocation. Note:
sufficientheavy goods vehicle manoeuvring and parking area (see also
car parking for workpeople and visitors (check local standards)
off and amenity accn: either integral within volume of bldg (where site
area restricted) or as attached block (where developer requires max
rental fromproduction/sto area)
mixture ofsizesofunit in estatecan beachieved byvariable location of
cross walls in terrace or by providing 2 or more groups of bldg of
increasing size: decision depends on scale
Trade mart concept may be used to revitalise urban areas: divisible
space undercommon roofallowing high degree of planning flexibility.

// ////
loading bays)

9 12 24rn
39 785

41V
—i:

wt
3

key: 1 yard 2 public

open space key: 1 goods vehicle parking/loading 2cross
routes 3atrium pedestrian route 4retail
use 5service use 6craft use 7lightproduction

1 'Nursery'& 'seedbed'industrial unitscanbe integrated intorural 3 'Trade mart' typedevelopment, attractiveinnercitypossibility mixinglight
community,bringreliefto crowded innercity industrial,craft & retailuserstostimulate workingcommunity: common
envelopeprovidesmulti-divisiblespace

key: 1 'nursery' units; rental 2mediumsized divisibleunits: rental 3largerdivisibleunits: rental

4purpose-built units(lease-back) 5yard/loadingar 6carparking(grouped) 7 landscapedopen space

tOrn
14 ft

2 Typicalmixed useindustrial estate with rangeof unitsizes forrentaleachhavingexpansionoptions(by extendingintoadjoiningunit):openspace &

grouped, shieldedparking& yardsforeachproperty;landscaping improveswhatcan tooeasily bedesolateenvironment
 Industry 275

Industrial buildings
INDUSTRIALPARKS ci
C')

sewagetreatment plant railroad spur

\\-it t
' "\ // )
I /'I
1)1/I

- - —
/ hillwaterS
/
—:-
,/-'
1 —'-
— diversion
channel &
lakeoutlet

2 Siteplan EarthCityindustrial parkSt LouisUSA:developmentinflood

plain of Missouririver necessitated systemofdrainage lakes&diversion
channel,with leveebetweenEarthCity&river

3 IndustrialAirparkSpiritWestSt LouisUSAhasaccessfromairportto individual sites in park through

taxiwayeasement& also fromChicago-Rock Island railroad
276 Industry
Industrial buildings
BUILDINGENVIRONMENT light requirementIx
place
Rising energy and labour costs make bldg environment increasingly engineeringmachineshops
important contributor to operating costs and productivity. Factors to be manualwork 200
considered in providing goodconditions atworkplace include: benchwork 300
dust and fumeextraction carefulbenchwork 500
ventilation in hotweather precisionwork 1 000
heating in cold weather engineeringinspection&testing
natural and artificial lighting mediumdetail 500
noise control fine detail 1 000
minutedetail 1 500
Ventilation sheet metal
As rough guide 5 I/sIP: conventional air change rate of 1—1.5 air benchwork 750
changes/hr may resultin more than 50 times this requirement,wasting stamping,pressing 500
much energy. spot welding,general 500
precisionwelds 10001
Heating assembly
sedentary work 19°C 66°F mediumdetail 500
active (bench) work 16°C 59°F small detail 1 0001
very active work 13°C 57°F very finedetail 1 5001
storesissue counter 300
For many companies with processes involving heat, energy can be
recovered and waste heat transferred to contribute to work place paint shops
requirements: considerable cost savings possible. Warehouses with paintdips 300
500
refrigerated orchilled areas can also benefit, heat being recovered from spraying
colourmatching 1 000
the chiller's compressors to warm areas where people work.
warehousing
Heating and ventilation demandsalso function ofstandardof insulation loading bays 150
and quantity of glazing provided. In UK factory and warehouse bldg palletpicking 200
mustbeinsulated to0.7 W/m2 °C, with single glazing limited to 20% of order pickingsmallitems 300
roof area and 15% of wall area. These areas still high for energy packingstations 500
conservation: 1O%ofwalland roofareausuallyconsidered appropriate. 1
also needstask lighting
Natural lighting
1 Artificiallighting:typicalrequirements
Demand for natural roof lighting influences selection of roof structure.
Compared with the insulated roofwithoutanyopenings 20% permitted
soundpressurelevel dBA maxexposuretime
glazing will increase both heat loss by4 times and ventilation demand
through insolation: in highly serviced environmentsuncomfortableglare hr
canresultfrompipe runs crossing bright roof lights.Outdoor illuminance 85 24
varies from 5000—25000 lux fromovercast to sunshine conditions in 87 16
temperate climates: therefore 3% DF will provide equivalent of 150— 90 8
750 lux at work place; 10% roofglazing will result in av DF about 5%. 93 4
Flank glazing must alsobe carefullydesigned toavoid glare, particularly 96 2
athigh level. Natural lighting inwarehousescan bepositivedisadvantage, 99 1

minutes
sunlight raising tempand causing package fade.
102 30
Artificial lighting 105 15
108 71/2
—.p398—400;—*(1) 111 33/4
Noisecontrol continuouslevelsover 85dBA should be avoided
Noisemajor pollution and limit on working efficiency: noise damageto
hearing, humansensitivity tovibration —p18; max levels inworkplace 2 Maxexposuretonoise

Reduce noise at source bydesign ofeqp, screening and enclosure.

Reduce vibration at source by mounting machineryon resilient pads or
special foundations.
Reduce noisebefore reaches workplace byabsorption (walls, roofsand
pendant absorbers) and/or bymodifying backgroundnoise.
Reduce noise effectbyisolating workers in noise reducing enclosures.

Escaping noise also troublesome outside bldg: place external plant

awayfrom direct lines with surrounding users; screen and suppress
source.
 Industry 277
Industrial buildings
PLANNINGFORFIRECONTROL BUILDINGREGULATIONS :3

Designing factory orwarehouse to meet potentialfire hazard involves: UK bldg reg relating to compartmentation for fire control and cubic
C')
measures to limit spread of fire within and outside bldg by compart- capacity of bldg, covering eg rules for measurement, periods of fr for
mentation, detection devices, sprinklers and choice of materials for elements ofstructure —Bib116590592593594601.
structure and cladding In USA areas, construction types, egress or exits, compartmentation
providing readily accessible and identifiable means of escape with and all matters concerning fire safety and fire control are regulated by
alternative route in everysituation
bldg code administered by city or municipal inspection dept (—*Bib027
providing ventilation in roof to reduce heat and smoke build-up to 505 509 510). Matters concerning fire insurance ratings of hazard and
prevent fire 'leap-frogging' underroof cladding and enablefire service bldg covered bystandards ofNational Board of FireUnderwriters.
rapidly vent smoke: typically 1 vent per structural bay, with curtains of
non-inflammable material forming smoke reservoirs in roof space
extinguishing fire or at leastcontrolling seat of fire until brigade can
extinguish it, by means of sprinklers, high expansion foam or gas
drenching
Firedesign decisions involve consultation with:
user: compartmentation may significantly affect layout of process or
warehouse
fire chief/officer: local reg and practice, particularly on fire appliance
access, water supply and means ofescape
user's insurance company: predominant influence on fire control in
USA. Insurance company can demand compartmentationon basis of
calculated maximum forseeable loss' (MFL fire wall). Reduced com-
partmentation can be negotiated against designing roof structure of
greater fr and installation of sprinkler system. Insurance companies
usually allow 50% premium reduction for sprinkler system.

Statutorycontrols
On national or state basis. In UK controls affect max cubic capacity of
compartments for single and multi-storey bldg and fr of elements of
structure forfactory and warehouse bldg of certainfloorareas.

Warehouses
Warehouses with pallet rackingcan provide particularfire hazard,aisles
acting as flues. Reg forinstallationofsprinklers,accountingforfrequency
ofoutletand flowratesbasedon degreeof hazardforstored material. In
USA apply rules from National Fire Protection Assocation and client's
insurer. In UK Fire Officers' Committee Rules forAutomatic Sprinkler
Installations should beadhered to.

Site planning
Control offire spread canalsoaffect location offactory orwarehouseon
site, particularly in relation toadjoining users. This can affect bldg costs
as there are rulesset down formaterials and frof walls when adjoining
otherproperty at particulardistance. ForUK—unprotectedarea require-
ments in Bldg Reg ES (Bib592); for USA —*state bldg codes and
requirements of American Insurance Association (Bib026); in general
codesprovide fire safety for people and underwriters protect bldg.

IIIII
1 Factorieswithoutsmoke ventscan become
rapidlysmoke-filledwith fire spreading under roof
surface

2 Withvents& smoke reservoirsfirecan be

quicklycontained&controlled
278 Industry
Industrial buildings
ENVIRONMENTALCOMPARTMENTATION
V
,P V V
Compartmentation, so long as compatible with handling and services
demandsof production and sto process, can be used reduce both
energy loss and certain hostile environments, such as fumes, heat,
noise and dust, aswell as limiting fire spread.
Hot, dirty processes can be grouped to exploit energy and material
recoverytechniques. Proportion ofarea/volume of factory affected by
processwill indicate strategy; high proportion of area affected, group
processes into compartment;low proportion,enclose separateelements
of processwith local extraction and controls. Alternative increasingly
attractive with high energy cost: segregate those whoworkin production

-11* area into environmental enclosure, exploiting automation, and only

minimally temper malority ofarea. Parallel with warehouses: automate
main stosection, limiting environmentalcontrols tozonesofhigh labour
use fororderpicking and assembly.

1 In unitsconstructedspeculativelyforrentingoff& amenity accnprovided WORK PLACEDESIGN

in stripforflexiblespaceallocation
Design ofworkplace fundamentalto achievinghigh levels ofproductivity:
alsoinfluences labour relationsand absenteeism.Work placecombines:

Ergonomics
Work people's relationship to machinery and work actions to reduce
fatigue and increase safety.
Mechanical handling
From most basic, low cost handling devices, scissor lifts, hoists and
counterbalanced manipulators,whichcan revolutionise manualwork, to
accumulating conveyors, automatically routing mobile work stations
and robotassembly machines.

Work organisation
Grouping people for certain tasks. Traditional isolation of machine
operatorsand line assemblyorganisationunder reviewin severalcountries
in Europeand in USA; team organisationcanoffer greatercommunication
and production flexibility.

Environment
Positive demands:
temp suited to activity—USA: AmericanSocietyof Heating,Refrigeration
& Air-conditioning Engineers (BibO3l), UK: Institution of Heating &
VentilatingEngineers (Bib164)
2 Environmentalfactorscanbeconsidered forpurpose designedfactories: airflowand air cleanliness
with noisy &dirty processesoff andamenityaccncan besegregatedfrom
lighting: backgroundand task —p398—4OO
productionzone
Defence against:
glare
noise
vibration
harmful gaseous or dust products: explosions

key: 1 lightmaterial:low usage,infrequentoperation 2frequenthighlevel

controls orlightpositioning 3 convenientcontrolzone: standingmanipulation
4seated control zone: light& medium-heavylocation 5infrequentzone of
heavy material

3 Manualwork& sto involvesomecriticaldimensions: mostcommon

working &manipulativezone is in2—4band

IQDL
4
II II Hli Li2
Simplehandlingaids suchasscissorliftcanimproveworkingconditions&
II

5 Counter-balancedmanipulatorcanenableoperatorplaceheavy loads
productivity accurately
 Industry 279
Industrialbuildings
WORK PLACEDESIGN
Amenity
c0)
Washing, changing, wc and smoke/rest provision related to workplace.
Location and scale depend onworkorganisation—.(4):
traditional line production will require centralised services accessibleto
numbers of people
team organisationimpliesamenityaccnclose byorlocaltoteamoperating
area; with changes in production organisation depending on manufac-
turing methods and volume, both are likely to change with increasing
frequency.

key:a1000 b2400 c800

1 Typicalmanualorder picking frompallets&shelf,replenished by reach

truck; simultaneouspickingfromeach sideforhighthroughputinstallation

key:a 1000 b1800

2 Slowerthroughputpickingoperation with 1-waytrolley access:

replenishedby narrowaislestackerorfrombehind rack

uiu
a
b
c
a

key:a800 b75 c150 dllOO e250

3 Typicalrack& shelfhforfloorlevelorder picking
4 Wet services,washing& rest ar: a small divisibleunitsas stripalong
boundary bmed & largesizefactorybldgwith 2possiblezonesforplacing
wet services,eitherallowing freelocationineachzoneorgroupingintoflexibly
positionedbutdistinctwet serviceunits,egforteamaccess cforlargescale
factoriesanotheroptionisislandwet serviceand amenity ar; advantages:
singleundergroundservicesrun &accessibility fromall sides
280 Industry
Industrial buildings
HYGIENE
,'
1••••
unnals

washtrough
Washing general
UK law requires that adequate and suitable facilities for washing,
conveniently accessible,beprovided and maintainedforuse of employed
persons in allfactories. Where nospecialorderofficial recommendation
not less than 1 washbasin/20P doing clean work, 1/lOP doing dirty

—i
work, 1 /5P handling poisonous substances.
Provisionofwashbasins—vBib6O8

Lavatories
UK factory laws do not specify numbers of lavatories: provision con-
sidered 'suitable and sufficient' foroffices, shopsand railwaysequally
ii, relevant for factories—vBib346 347 604.

Lockers
1 Layoutofdo, washr, drinfood 2 Changingmiwith strict Forclean trades 1 locker/P must beprovided; fordirty 1 double locker/P
productsfirm separation ofclean&dirtyclothes to keep workand street clothing separate.

ocher sizes Changing areas

IhwdI
I I
Mm changing area0.5 m2/P
Ambulance rooms
11750130013001
Specificationforambulancerm:
11850130013001I
118501 3501 500 Floor space not less than 9.29 m2 with natural light and ventilation.
timber I Should contain: glazed sink with hot and cold running water, table with
120001 400 I 500I
smooth surface, means of sterilising instruments, adequate supplyof
12000140015301
suitable dressings, bandagesand splints, couch, stretcher, separate rm
for male and female, qualified nurse always available.

vents

3 2-tier rowoflockersformultiple 4 Doublerowofventilated clothes

shift firm: orlower lockerforwork lockers:benchesinfront
clothesupperforstreetclothes

shell
—
*

1120

towelholder

5 Hbwith tapsand adequate 6 Washfountain(Bradleysystem):

dimensions;washingtroughs 25% saving in spacecompared with
narrower(up to 940 deep) rowsofbasins;waterconsumption
10P/15—391: water pressure 7 Continuousbasin: Rottersystem 8 Fountainonwallwithdrinking jet,
atmosphere controlledbylever

o•
11 Sho cubicleswithclotheshooks outside

9 Seriessho eachfor4P 10 Continuousshoalongwallswithfootsho

iri
12 Sho cubicleswith clotheshooks inside
 Industry 281

Industrial buildings
SANITARYINSTALLATIONS a
C
Sanitary installationsaccording to German standardgiven here. 1 tloor
ID ;7N outlet with smell trap per closet and 1 tap connexion with 1 socket
spanner and hose union. Cleaner's sink. Floor surface non-slip, water
C',

iD 7
—125—"———1.55—i __ H
is......
resistant, easyclean.

\N
___________ Walls washableupto2000high. Floorand wallssealedagainstmoisture.

h ZN D Rm temp mm 15°C. Wc partitionsto ceiling height; space outside well

ventilated; 1 washbasinand handdrierper 5wc.Where soap dispensers
titted 1/2 basins. Mm 1 mirror for2—3 basins.

i— 1.5 —"-—1.15—-, h
LDH 1.5—44———1.55 —t

Iii
1 Singlerowclosetsdoorsopening 2 Singerow closetswith urinal on
outwards(above),inwards(below) oppositewall

7N {D7K
D
—1.25
: 7i\2.05—
h
l.25
500+— 1.1 —t-600-

:*
r 1

ZNT F500+S1Xii h5004900

—1.5—it-——125—i 11 Changingarwith simplehook 12 Changingarwith hanger

tittings:unattended fittings:unattended
3 Singlerowclosetswith bowl 4 Doublerowclosets
urinals opposite
iockerswdh
benches locker bend, locker
L
11
350
HHHH
1

Al
Lit '— —900-i

r IL
wwstodssickngunder —5Xi—4 1.0 1.3 1.0

slo4ffl I
[I] HI U [Istool

450s-ô--r--6OO-i—6OO-i
ftj
H±H
DH[IIE E±1:d
i—9-H 1.0 t—500—4 i—900—4
I

1.0 I— 9—
5 Washrwithhb 6 Washrwithtrough
13 Mm dimensionsforchanging rm

4
'a >2,05
_—105 —500
Al

7 Washrwith tootbaths 8 Washrwith foot-trough

14 Depositdo, singlelayout with pegs, duallayout with hangers (theatre

1.05 do): attended
I
closedsho wrlti
—1.05—4550: changingcubicle

__Ff14
1.05— 1.5 —±1.05*1.05°--1.1-'
3.6 — -°2.15 -H

720-800-'
9 Gullydrainage,individual 10 Bath cubiclewith changing
drainagetorhalf-opensho alcove:mm dimensionstorsho& 15 Vendingmachines
compartment bath units
282.Industry
Industrial buildings
LOADINGBAYS
Link between production or sto process and distribution system. Much
effort toreduce production costs can bewasted throughdelayed vehicle
turn-round and increased manning if loadingarea notcarefullydesigned.
Decisionsin loadingbayplanning
Raised orgroundlevel dock?Generally, forend-loading containersand
box bodies vehicles, as in retail distribution, raised; for side-loading
curtain sided and flat bed vehicles, ground level.
Separate loading baysforincoming and despatch —v(1): separate bays,
together with vehicle marshallingareas, where manufacturing system
involves differentcharacteristics between raw materials and finished
products, with raw materials calling for side handling at ground level and
palletised for despatch needing end loading. Similarly for large distri-
bution warehouse: bulk loads of single product delivered, mixed loads
oforders despatched indistributors' ownvehicles; here segregationfor
traffic management and materials flow in warehouse, particularly as
vehicle handling peaks may coincide.
Number ofloading bays, spacing and layout:
loading bays must never be considered in isolation; mustbe related to
circulation and check-off area behind them. Decision on numbers
question ofthroughput patterns and availablearea next todockfor load
preparation. Clearly ifvehiclescan behandledfasterwith pre-assembled
loads, less loading docks required than for slower turn-round with
material being assembled as loadingoperation continues.
loading bay spacing and layout influenced by depth of manoeuvring
area available and depth of load accumulation space behind dock.
Choice of which should have more spacemust be basedon assessment
of individual throughput demand.

I I It
o 10203040 m
3366 99132 ft

key: a ods inwards:suppliers'bulk

loads bhighbay bulkstockpaflelsto
Cpalletbreakdown& repacleng er dorder
selection& loadassembly edespatch
loadingbay: users'disbibutionvehicle
fl-way trafficflow glongtermtruck
parking& users'maintenance ar

2 Manywarehousescanusedockforincoming &
despatch goods; in factories sharing type of
loadingbay maynotbepossiblebutgoodsvehicle
manoeuvringarcanbe common

1 Large retaildistributioncentrewith separate goodsinwards&despatch

key:
loadingbays longwheelbasengbichassistruck
a2.8m b3.9m c4.7m d5.5m
e5.lm f4.6m g26.8tntsmingcircle
3 4smmninparfdng:3mcentres

4 _-"n reinendloading:3,3 mcentres

35 mpreferredmm spacing:3.8 mCentres
5 33mnabsolutemmnal3.8mcentres
6 3omdat5timcentres

15marticulatetruck
a4.7m b5.7m c7.3m d8.3m
I 23 m(75 6
efl.8m t7.8n1 g27miunmingcircleat
900fulllock

I neverless than20nidepthevenifspacinggreaterthan tOrn

20 25 30 35 40 45n1

ntis distancefromface ofloadingthktoboratdary

ofrnanoerenngarforsinglemovementtum-c&d

3 Calculating yard depth& loading bay spacingfor 15 m articulated trucks

parked at 900 to dock 4 Typicalturningdimensionsforrigidchassis &articulated trucks
122m1n(for maalo7kerticul
19.flforlfl.8tractor/traileretc b c A B c
tTaflicflowA
c0unterclockwise 168 for168tractor/trailer
tractor-trailerI posftion w
VIA
V I
A 10.7 3.0
'apron' space
14,0
V 3.7 13.1
t' A
£
3
I
£ 122 146
13,4
43 128
manoeuvengyr loadingar
———— 137 30 174
37 14,9
4.3 14.6

-— - -ltorclockwise.
trafficflow A) waitingar

5 Truckloading& manoeuvring, USAdimensions a loading, manoeuvring andwaitingar b& C apronspace requiredfor 1 move intooroutof
position
 Industry 283
Industrial buildings
LOADINGBAYS (cont)
Spacing
Directly related to yard depth; conditioning factor: distance closely
parked vehicles have to pull out before turning —.(1). Angled, raised
docks reduce yard depth at expense ofnumber ofvehicles handledat 1
time: ground level drive-through bays reduce circulation width but
increase length. Finger dock compromise for side and end loading
where manoeuvring area limited.

end-loadingraiseddock:
drawforwarddistance
Loadcheck-off/accumulationspace
Behind cross circulation aisle load handling zone (dock levellers with
raised docks). Should have capacity of 1 .5 vehicle loads. Remember
space for broken pallets, relected loads, rubbish: at least 1 load area.
Crosscirculation aisle4000 allows 2 fork-lift pass and for turnout from
docklevellers. Keep thisarea clear ofcolumns.
Raised docks
Equip with docklevellerplates accommodate both changes in vehicle
bed height as they are loaded and different types of vehicle. Standard
loading dockheight in USA 1220, common with 1 200 in Europe: with
European vehiclesgreater variationsinbed height.Dock levellers should
not exceed gradient of 1 in 10withhighest orlowest vehicle.

Energy
Do not face loading bays into prevailing wind. Raiseddocks: use dock
shelterswhere vehicle forms hermetic seal with bldg and segmentalor
roller shutterdoor closes on to leveller when vehicle leaves. Ground
levelor finger docks can be completely enclosed (straightthrough flow
ortail in). Alternatively, hot orcold air curtainscan beused butthese not
substitute for enclosure.

Security
finger dock: raised Drivers should not be able gain access beyond dock, except in some
end& sideleading distribution operationswith company'sownvehicleswheredriver arranges
order of loading. Generally, raised docks with dock shelters provide
inherent security: separate lavatoriesand access totraffic office should
beprovided forvisitingdrivers.
Weather protection
If docksheltersor enclosed dockcannot be installed canopy required
overloading area: should allow at least 5000clear height.
Gradients
Ground should beflat(except forlocal drainagefall) for lengthofvehicle
checkoff in frontofdockor mm oflength of articulatedsemi-trailer.
buffenat
1.5toad
equivalent Heavy goodsvehiclemarshalling & circulation
gafew foraccess Segregate light vansfromheavygoods vehicles: to use differentdocks!
,I' \
21.5
frombothdirections partsofthe dock
Provide heavy vehicle waiting bays before loadingbayarea and clear of

------- __J manoeuvring space

1 Themore angleofvehiclefromloading dockreduced greaterreductionin
yard depthbutlower numberof vehicles handled simultaneously in space
Provide parking baybefore exit for drivers tocheck load security
Circulation should beclockwise inrighthanddrive countries, anti-clock-
wisein lefthanddrive: iereversing into loadingdocks alwaysondriver's
sid

7mcanopy
L :—-------

_
3800 mm
5000 nun

- 1100—1500 - II
ml 1220standard

K
12.0 levelsection 3000typicalfor4000laming/passing
(55 ftinsomeliSAslaten) levellerplate aisle

2 Sectionthroughraisedloading dockfittedwithdockshelterforenergyretention: canopy(dotted)only

needed ifshelteromitted
284 Industry
Industrial buildings
LOADINGBAYS: USA RAIL

1 Typical rail track spacingrequirements USA

fence(if required) leadtrack

J2.2railrightofway \ - 7'
ii.
property line&centerhneleadtrack
\
___
r1tZii!
—
3050 9140min rail easement
m1n_- __ tspurtrack
_______________ j_ iit)mm spur track

(—23.0—

truck
loading
61.0
rail servicedoor

bldg
2590(typical)

1 520 walkway
21 3

parking
!,
C-
a

0
r
-'
I
truck
loading
23.0—

61.0
rail servicedoor

bldg
2590 (typic&) -21.3

1 520 walkway
parking 9. .
orlandscaping F V orlandscaping
______________ 91 91.4

19146setback(landscaped) 146 setback (landscaped)

street right-of-way
// streetright-of-way b

___________________property line&centreline

23
:
12.2railright ofway 12.2 raileasementi of lead track
leadtrack- 6100min — I
- eli

Il
.1111,! Sm!
rail spurinside bldg •
railspurinside bldg
2590from inside wall 21 23— 25gOfrominsidewall
21 3 1
c
Is,

I
1
61.0 IC)
tWCI( bldg
parking 61.0 bldg
loading parking

.l
I loading
0
stH
n
5,
CS1I
1 520walkway
orlandscaping H -.j F
I 1520 walkway
orlandscaping
j___________ 5, I
V
co
J9l4osetback(Iandscaped)
c street right-of-way — f9l4osetback(landscaped) —

2 Railservedbldg layoutsUSA arail in right-of-way, bldgset back,spuralongsidebldg brail ineasement, bldg

set back, spur alongsidebldg, note:spur layoutrequires easement onadjacentproperty: canbeeliminatedby
movingeastwardrail servicedoor &consequently point of switch crail in right-of-way, bldgonpropertyline,
spur insidebldg d rail ineasement, bldgset back,spur insidebldg
 Industry. 285

Industrial buildings
WORKSHOPS Rental unit ci
Great variety in shape and size: workshops classifiedhere by location, C')
circulation requirements —*p286, tenancytypes —p287, and technology
theycan accommodate—*p288. Most ofdetailedstandardsand examples
given thoserequired fortypical inner cityflatted factory (rental unit).
Most common locations —.(1)—(5).

Domestic

1
garden

IK
1 1 or2 peoplecarryingonhobbyorpart-timeoccupation inextension of
home

Educational institution

4 Standardunitswithsharedaccessinmulti-storeybldg

Ancillaryto large factory

2 Repetitiveprovisionforclassorgroupof 20—40 people production

Small industrial estate

wc

sto
workshop
I
off

—
photo wood

I I
lab workshop

I I
metal
workshop

onference gar

I
5 Specialistworkshopsforusebystaffmaintaining company'splantorbldg
3 Groupofnon-specificunitsfor range ofverysmallbusinesses itself
286 Industry
Industrial buildings
innercity suburbs&rural WORKSHOPCIRCULATION
spaces/floorar

distribution m2 m2
Parkingoutsidebuilding
Standards depend on location as well as on type ofuse—.(1).
heavy goodsvehicles 1/1000 1/500
light commercial vehicles 1/1000 1/500
cars 1/400 1/1 000 Elevatorsinsidebuilding
Related toexternal parking and totenancies —.(2)(3).
light industry
heavygoodsvehicles 1/4000 1/2000
light commercial vehicles 1/1 000 1/500 Circulationwithin workshop
cars 1/200 1/50 Derived fromtechnology used aswell astype oftenancy —+(4)—(7).
offspace
light commercial vehicles 1/1 000 1/500
cars 1/150 1/30

1 Parkingguide lines: USAstandards—.p263

4 Straightline: goodsin&outoppositesidesofplant; requires bldg with

good accessboth sides:common inmedium-sized firms

5 Overlapping:similarto4 butformuchlargertypeoffirm

2 Goodselevatorservinglargegroup of tenancies: centralmanagement

may neededtomaintainfreeuseofelevators at peaktimes

6 U-shape:goodsin&outsameside of plant; possible in bldgwithonly

limitedaccess:commonwith verysmallfirms

3 Severalgoodselevatorseach of whichservesseveral tenants,whomust 7 Convoluted: goodsin&outon same side of plant;sometimes necessary

cooperatein its use forlargefirmswhen accommodated in bldgwith restricted access
 Industry 287
Industrial buildings
WORKSHOPTENANCIES: BUILDINGTYPE ci
Indirectaccess—(1) C')
Typeofbldg: shallow ormedium depth with cross wallstocreatevertical
compartments.
Type of management: individual firm's name displayed and each has
unitwithownservices. Managementcould take 1 unitover forown use.
Type ofuser. small well establishedfirms requiring own identity.
Subdivision: units have street (or yard) frontage, may receive visitors
directly and have own stairs,elevators.
Compartmentation: each bldg contains several tenancies divided by fr
walls.
Escape routes: each tenant has fr stairway: if area of high fire risk
alternative means ofescape required.

Open plan —*(2)

Type of bldg: shallow or medium depth with central corridor on each
level.
Type ofmanagement: common receptionist: lifts/stairs/corridors from
intermediate space to be maintained.
1 Indirectaccess Type ofuser: small firms needing some security but less concerned
withpresenting individual identity.
Subdivision: unitsreached through internal stairsorcorridors common
to several users.
Compartmentation: each tenant separated from adjacent tenants by fr
floor.
Escape routes: each individual tenant has door to shared fr escape
corridorwhich leads to fr stairway, second means of escape normally
alsoneeded.
Shared spaceI —(3)
Type ofbldg: deepplan.
Type of management: tenants share services and participate in
management of accn.
Type of user: small expanding firms with compatible uses: allows for
rapidchanges in sizeand staffing.
Subdivision: unitsas suchdo not exist but tenants take space within
largeenvelope having single front door.
Compartmentation: each open area surrounded byfrwallsand floors.
Escape routes: each compartment has directaccess or 2 or more fr
stairways: may be necessaryprotect relevantdoorwayswith fire shutter.

2 Shared spaceII—*(4)
Open plan
Typeofbldg:any building type.
Type of management: head lessee relinquishes no responsibility for
space: may provide telephone, secretarial services on time sharing
basis.
Type of user: newly founded tiny firms (1—5 persons) requiring low
overheads and mm commitments.
Subdivision: space rented from another firm usually on somekind of
licence.
Compan'mentation: separate subdivision only required if sub-tenant
represents high riskof fireorexplosion.
Escape routes: considered same as for main tenant unless special fire
risk.

3 Sharedspace

A
J

4 Sharedspace
288 Industry
Industrial buildings
type passengers heavy light machine pit external access WORKSHOPS:EQUIPMENTSPACE
goods goods rrn fittings
—(1) shows requirements for some suitable handling eqp for small
elelevators yes yes yes yes yes yes 3sides premises. —.(2)(3) showtypical space needed per machine in tightly
hydraulic lift yes yes yes no yes yes 3sides planned layout: does notnecessarilyallowforgeneral circulation,process
manually yes no yes no yes yes 3sides sto or initial installation of machinery. —v(4) shows percentage of total
operated lift
platform hoist no yes yes no no yes 2sides area required foroperations invarious types of workshop.
elservicelift no no yes no no yes 3sides
scissorslift no yes yes no yes no 4 sides
dock leveller no yes yes no no yes 2sides
elbelt no yes yes no yes no 2 sides
conveyor
gravity no yes yes no no yes 2sides
conveyors
elwinch no yes yes no no yes 4sides
manual winch rio no yes no no yes 4sides
manual floorcrane no no yes no no mobile mobile

1 Suitablehandlingeqp forsmallpremises

2 Eqpspace—.(3) 4 Space budgettingbytechnology types

eqp in commonuse Ax B-.(2)

workingspace
per item

metal work woodwork clothing

machiningcentre 6.0 x 4.0 bandsaw 3.0 x 5.0 layingup machine 7.0 x 14.0
jig boring& milling machine 3.0 x 3.0 circularsaw 4.8 x 7.9 sewingmachine 1.2 x 2.2
turret drill 2.6 x 3.2 surfaceplaner 2.6 x 5.0 steampress 2.0 x 2.0
surfacegrindingmachine 2.6 x 2.2 knot holedrill 2.2 x 4.2 ironing bar 2.0 x 2.0
capstanlathe 3.0 x 4.0 milling machine 4.0 x 5.0 steamboiler 1.2 x 1.2
bar & billetshears 2.5 x 3.0 slot boring machine 2.2 x 5.0
press brake 3.0 x 6.0 dove-taller 2.2 x 4.3 footwear
engraver 2.2 x 3.0 jointer 1.4 x 8.3 nailer 1.5 x 2.2
diesinker 1.8 x 2.2 scroll saw 1.6 x 1.9 sole press 1.5 x 2.2
weldingplant 2.8 x 2.5 drill press 1.6 x 1.6 heel press 1.5 x 2.2
toolgrinder 1.1 x 1.2 woodshaper 2.9x 1.6 shapingmachine 2.Ox 2.5
shaper 1.7 x 2.1 radial arm saw 6.5 x 1.8 leathercutter 3.0 x 3.5
power hacksaw 4.0 x 1.2 beltsander 4.4 x 4.8 patternstamper 1.5 x 1.7
punch press 1.5 x 1.3 veneerpress 5.0 x 4.2
sliproll 1.1 x 2.1 lathe 2.0 X 3.0 electronics
nIbbler 2.3 x 1.2 2.2 X 2.6
polisher instrumentbench 1.5 x 4.5
shearclamphead 2.1 x 1.5 carpenter'sbench 3.0 x 4.5
bandsaw 2.3 x 3.1 motor repairs
workbench 2.7 X 1.9 printing
2.5 x 5.0
each bay 30x 60
lithographicpress
plastics plate maker 1.5 x 1.8
folder general
extruder 2 8 x 2.8 1.2 1.5
compressor 0.75 x 1.2
vacuumformer 2.8 x 2.8 drill 1.2 1.5
blow moulder 3 ü 4.5 guillotine 1.5 < 3.0 dustcollector 1.5 x 2.0
3.0 x 50 gluing belt x
2.0 4.2 furnace 1.5 x 3.0
acrylic saw
06 x 1.1 hot dip tank 1.7 x 2.2
heatingoven 3.0 x 7.0
photographic dryingcabinet
developingtank 2.4 x maxlength upholsterypress 2.5 x 3.5
print forge 0.9x2.1
1.5 x maxlength kiln 0.9 x 2.1
enlarger
print/2 potter'swheel 1.8 x 1.7

3 Typicalspace requiredper machineintightlypackedlayout

 Industry 289
Industrialbuildings
WORKSHOPEXAMPLES 3 Mixed workshop: die casting; employs15;approx 150m2 ci
c(I)
1 Benchworkshop: furskins;employs2; approx 75m

4 Repairshop: electronicsrepair;employs2;approx47m2

2 Craftwork: organ building & wood furniture; employs2;approx

175m2

. general
woodwork

ii
sander

ri
U organassembly
& wiring

—V
5 Machine workshop:
lithographicprinting; employs3;
approx93m2

6 Small factory:
women'sshoe manufacturer;
employs47;approx 370m2
290Industry
Industrial buildings
Workshopdesignfactors
Factors affecting fabricdesign and services requirementsforrepresentativecategories ofworkshop —(1).

factorsaffectingfabricdesign Service requirements

E
1 Factors affectingfabricdesign& z a
servicerequirementsforworkshops ma

poBe
rjsssDiowniri
A timber furniture
film production
furs, skins
film processing
B
electronicrecording
engraving
toys, musicelinstruments
metalwork,plating,casting
C
clofhrig

tight engineering
valves,tools
D
deskaceessories,plastics
food processing
pnnting
rnenufacturing
stationery
E
brewing
spinning
electronicrepairs
motorcar repairs
F
bicycterepairs
meamcaiprops

SERVICINGSTANDARDS
Check all applicablebldg codes and municipalplanreview requirements.
Fornew industrial bldg following standardsapply:
Electricity
UK: Each unit to be provided with separate 415 V 3-phase supply,
including, sitednormallywithin production area,main distribution board,
ofadequate capacity fornormallyanticipatedunitneed ofabout 70kVA,
fitted with fused switchboard. (70 kVA units in range of 1 000 m2 and
upwards need separateloadcalculations.)Lightingcircuitsto beprovided
within offices and lay in appropriate locations. Power socket outlets to
be provided in offices. Fused switch socket outlets to beprovided in lay
where el sto heaters used. In offices —vp234 lighting wiring should
followlikelyoffice subdivision and should finishwith fluorescent fitting
but in lay and do should be batten ceiling typefitting. Provide external
flood lighting atbackof bldg over service door wired to each individual
unit to illuminate rear service area: may be supplemented by street
lighting where layout permits.
Note: no provision to be made in standard specification for lighting
trunking or 13 amp ring main in production areas.
USA:currentcharacteristics ofservice vary with process. El eqp forair
conditioning may be required for some processes orlocations.
Telephone
Underground service ducttobeprovided intoground floortoallow easy
cable connexion.
Gas/gascentralheating
Services to be carried into bldg and sealed off in production area.
Supplycapacity to be designed toallow provision ofcentral heating to
production and office areasto normalworking standards.Centralheating
to be provided only when required at landlord's cost: may be in office
areas for larger units using conventional hot water radiator system
incorporating provision for hot water for domestic uses. Boiler to be
sitedin production area.
Watersupply/plumbing
Cold water supply for domestic needs only to be carried into bldg;
tenants'process orsprinkler requirements notallowed for: supplemen-
tary serviceto be laid if excessive need indicated. Cold and hot water
supplies tobe connected to allwashing installations: hotwater supplied
from either wall mounted el 3 kW sf0 heater (capacity54 I) or if more
economic central hotwatercylinder having capacityapprox 351/basinor
sink. All stotanks tobe adequatelyinsulated.
Drainage
Surface waterdrainage down pipes should have traps accessible from
ground floorlevel and be locatedinpositions to avoidaccidentaldamage.
Ample external surface watergullies should be provided in service yard
to avoid waterstanding and grid channels should be provided across
serviceyard entrance where levels ofyard could allow surface water to
run off into bldg. Foul drainage should allow for domestic demand;
sealed gully in production area for process effluent. Trade effluent
certificate required for individual trade needs.
Ventilation
Mech ventilation tobe provided forwconlywhere layout makes imprac-
tical natural ventilation. All offices naturallyventilated. Productionareas
needonlyhave separate provision for manuallycontrolled roofmounted
extractors where chosen form ofheatingwill notachieve this result.Any
extractor fans to be completely weather proofed and capable of being
serviced at roof level.
Fire alarm
Alarm systems to be installed toeach unitthroughout office production
areas. El operated systemwith manual initiation. Supplementary brief
(program) to advise if provision to be made for sprinklers, smoke
detectorsor emergency lighting. Hosereel pointsonly to be provided
whererequired by reg or statute.
In USA sprinkler design approved by state insurance commissionorfire
marshall's office.
Industrial buildings references:
—eBibliographyentries 031 036 052 053 164 177 178257280284301
305 331 332 333 338 341 346 348352 354 363 374 382 387418456
470 477480 481 486 505 534 539 590 592 597 600601 602603604
605 606 608 616 627 634 642651
 Industry 291
Laboratories
CLASSIFICATION
________ linkto adjoiningunit
&/orfireescape Lab differwidelyin layout and service requirements according to use.
Classificationcategoriesincludetype ofdiscipline(eg chemistry,physics,
biology), level ofstudy(eg routine, teaching, research),provision of eqp
(egbenches, rigs), level ofservicing (eg wet, dry).
aM bE2] Hospital lab —+p176

TRENDS

IL] dE2i
In past lab designed for specific, fixed use; now growing tendency

ii
advocate 'multi-purpose' where worker has permanent station. Rapid
changes in technology create new fieldsof study and demand costly
sophisticated eqp which must be fully used: consequent need for
adaptable labspaces which may bechanged during life ofbldg.

eH Most difficulties in adapting to change arise because lab benches, sto

1 Comparisonof square&
rectangularlab unitsofequalar
showinggreaterflexibilityoffered
bysquare layout arectangular
unit (24.8m2) bsquareunit(24.5
m2)C2workers& sharedeqp
d3workers&sharedeqp e4
workers&shared eqp in centralar
f2workers&largerig
2 a banthropometricdata
governingbenchspacingforboth
teaching& research
type
sittingonly
sitting& standing: women
sitting& standing: men
3 Typical rangeofbench&seatI
_ILLIIJLL±IIILIJ
cupboards and piped services aspermanentfixtures can only be moved
with considerable effort and disruption. 1 approach is design main
structure and standardservices asfixed items with more specific variable
items,including furniture, movable.
PLANNINGPRINCIPLES
Most significant recent developmentsin planning:
adoption of square rather than rectangular modules —÷(1) allowing for
greater flexibility in bench arrangements with introduction of island
bench unitsand freestanding eqp;
use of movable table tops rather than permanent fixed bench units:
variations in work top height as well as grouping of tables can be
achieved to suit particular needs;
bench seat w vertical arrangement of heavy eqp, fume cupboards, wash-up etc grouped in
mm mm
h h kneehole central servicezones.
distance
floorto
underbench INDIVIDUALSPACEREQUIREMENTS —*(2)(3)
Ideally conditioned by critical anthropometric dimensions, eg depth of
700 425 575 606 work top being based on max convenient reach; may be some 600 in
850 625 575 800
900 675 575 850 theorybut in practice worktopmay vary between 610 and 840. Work top
length similarly may vary between 2100and 4600for researchstudent,
depending on discipline and particular research requirements; can be
reduced to approx 1 500/P where groups of workers share eqp. Work
top heightmay varybetween lowchemistry benches at450above flocr
level and 900 forbenches at whichworker stands.
PLANNINGMODULE
Working unit (group ofworkplaces) forms basic planning bay ormodule

r;i
—(2b). Normal workplace can beconsidered as being approx 1600 x
800. Modulewidth may vary from 2600 to 5250; av approx 3000 to
3600, which allows 2 parallel rowsof benches with centre gangway
giving room to pass between 2workers.
Modulew = 2workspaces + centre passageway
3000—3600 2 x 800 1400—2000
Typical bldg dimensions include:

I.
modulew 3000—3600
!Tn1T1t moduled 5000—8000

hiflfTTTTTflrfl corrw
storeyh
2000—2500
3600—4200

FtiIiiIL Li:'1 L.

4 Typical plan showing flexible lab with grouped central services (pre-
clinicalsciencesSouthampton UniversityEngland) ArchJohn S
BonningtonPartnership
key 1 teachinglab 2post-graduate & research lab 3preparation&
servicemi 4rmwith specialisteqp

5 Typicalplan showingrelationship of centralworkspace tolab unit

(zoologydept Edinburgh University Scotland) ArchArchitecture Research
Unit Universityof Edinburgh 20m
key 1 lay 2sto 3culture 4 research lab 50ff 6cold mi 7lecturelab I
ip
I
15
I
8instruments 9 post-graduate lab 10chromatology 11 centralworkspace 16 32 48 64 ft
l2warmrm l3darkrni l4secretary l5labl6radioactiverml7media
preparationmi 18wash-up
292 Industry
Laboratories
SERVICES DISTRIBUTION —ip383—4
Sub-main distribution can be either offvertical ducts serving individual
orpairs oflab ateveryfloororoffhorizontal ducts serving group oflab on
everyfloor.Vertical ducts can be integrated with main structural frame,
provideready access toservices onfloorthey serve, eliminate problem
of fumecupboard ducting; butcanprove expensivestructurally if service
potential not fully utilised. Horizontal distribution of sub-mains
usually cheaper initially; but has not same adaptability and requires
numerous connexions infloor.
Several methods of servicing individual benches available; need for
adaptability led to development of movable and pre-plumbed services
connected flexiblyto floor points. Central service spine permits back-
to-backlayout of benches; service bollard allows benching laid out in 2
directions. However, studies of relocatable spine systems show new
layout ofteninvolves extra costand disrupts activities in rm below since
live supply of services to all possible connexion points prohibitively
expensive.
Overhead servicing by mast and/or flexibles more convenient and
economic arrangement. Perimeter,peninsularand island layoutscan be
serviced in any combination and spacing required. Access for main-
1 Flexiblelab arofscienceblock
WellesleyCollegeMassachusetts
USA Arch PerryDeanStahl Rogers
2 3 Zoologydept EdinburghUniversityScotland: leftintegration ofservicesandstructure
right sectionthroughdeptextension showing repetitive verticalsub-mainsducting
iFmn -
wUP .
LjL oljHlL
worktop sto cpd
o 400
4 Overheadflexibleservicinginpilot project 5 Sectionthroughscienceslab Polytechnic Sunderland England showing detailsof overhead
LeicesterPolytechnic EnglandArch Leicester servicing& its integration withinstructure ArchJo4in SBonnington Partnership
EducationAuthority
tenance and adaptation can be achieved with mm disruption offurniture
and eqplayouts and confined tofloorbeing served. Valuablefloorspace
can be saved since traditional floor-mounted service spine between
benches removed. Furthermore, tendency overprovideto compensate
for lack of flexibility in layout reduced.
DISPOSALSYSTEMS
Drainage problem with overhead servicing: gravity ratherthan pumped
or vacuum-assisted systems simplest, with permanent grid of floor
points. Lab wastes may carry corrosive agents orbe ofvery high temp.
Drip cups, bottletrapsin borosilicate glass and chemically resistantptfe
flexible tubing to outlets normal methods of dealing with suchrequire-
ments. In any case waste runs should be immediately visible and
accessible in rm towhichtheybelong.
Solid waste normally put in bins; but in hospital research or animal
experiment lab incinerationofsoiled materialorcarcassesobligatory.
STORAGE
Growth in project work and use of multi-discipline lab has increased
amount and type ofsf0. Recent developmentstowardadjustableshelving
and trays: movable sto unitsundertables more adaptable than fixed
bench sto.
Pressing needfor further space makes organisation and management
ofsto major consideration. Categories include:
central: special sf0 often centralised (eg workshop sto, inflammable
solvents, explosives, poisons); best for large scale and/or expensive
eqp; staff organisation and checking control important;
local: frequent use of items necessitates regular local sto, limited in
capacity;
workplace: essential forpersonal eqp and project work material.
key
h hotwater
coidwater
m main
W waste
g gas
twp rainwater
wvp waste ventpipe
te telephone& at
le iume extract
I lightingtrunking
heatingpipes
as air suppiy
400
 Industry 293

Laboratories
SPECIALREQUIREMENTS
Some operations need special eqp or techniques calling for particular
a
controlled environment not availableorappropriate ingeneral lab areas. ci)
These include:
cold sto & lab temp control important
warm & incubator rm
sterile/dust free rm air locks & cleansing provision needed
dark rm entrycontrol needed
fumeproducing techniques cupboardsusuallysufficient: largescale
need special rm
chromatography rm special rm: fume extraction
chemical distillation
steam production extraction needed
vibration/noisy eqp structural & plan isolation
animal rm environment & security control
radiation & x-rayrm screening & security

RELATEDSPACES
Space for related activities needed in addition to general lab provision:
staff, seminar, small off, lib, do, sto, plant, preparation, some or all of
suchrm will be needed
1 Detailsof lab benchesinscienceblockWellesley College
Massachusetts USA
FINISHES

Floor: durable, easy clean and maintain, resistant to most chemicals

likelybe spilled; ideally should be lointless or have mm jointspossible.
Such traditional finishes aswood blocks still preferred by users buttend
to high cost. Sheet linoleum, pvc or rubber with welded orsealed joints
and coved skirtings now more common.
Walls &ceilings:special protection notgenerally needed. Suspended
ceilings provide smooth, light-reflecting surface with acoustic proper-
ties to whichpartitions can be abutted. Walls need to be washed down
from time to time: blockwork should be plastered and decorated or
sealed with sprayed plastics finish.

Worktops: traditionally solid timber, teak or iroko; laminated plastics

faced board cheaper. Aswith floor multitude of finishes frompvctiles or
sheetto vitreous tiles can be used, depending on type of work being
carried out.

2 Mobile fumecpdshowingserviceconnexions

Laboratoryreferences:
—.Bibliographyentries 039 122
206 278 283 336 337 341 349
354362 524571
3 TypicalteachingarTeacherTrainingCollegeTeesideEngland
294 Industry
Farm buildings
partsper million PURPOSE
hydrogen carbon ammonia NE-I3 Function of farm bldg to modify effect of climate on livestock, crops,
dioxideCO2
sulphideH2S agricultural eqp and man atwork. Housing also allows easier handling
upper limitconsidered and storing of feeds, products and waste materials. Decision to erect
acceptableforman to 10 5000 25 farm bldg may also be influenced by other considerations, eg invest-
breath duringworkingday ment, taxation, personal motives etc.
I Toxic gas limits Design data presented here are based on human and animal require-
ments, animal housing technology including labour use, crop sto and
illumination (lx) —.p25 processing, waste handling and legal controls.

stockyard 2050* HUMANWELFARE

calf nursery 50
sickanimal pen 50 Man: environment
pig/poultryshed 30_50* Dust concentration not more than 10 mg/rn3ofair
milking ar 100
100 Toxic gases —v(1)
dairy
vacpumprm 20_50* Noiselevel not more than 90dB (A) per 8 hr-day exposure
barnetc 2050* Avoid contact with dirt ifpossible
tractorimplements 20_50* Illumination levels —+(2)
farmworkshop 100
* higherfigureapplieswhen nonatural lighting CATTLE:BASICDATA
2 Illuminationlevels
Thermal requirements
Under UKclimatic conditions allclasses ofcattle can be housed at temp
equivalent tothoseprevailingoutside. Protectionfromrain notnecessary
forolderanimals (180kgliveweight) ifanimalperformanceonly criterion.
But combination of rain, wind and lowtemp may lead to fluctuation of
food intake. In high rainfall areas rainwater entering waste sto system
can be excessive.
USAwide variations inclimate meanall classescattle cannoteverywhere
be housed at temp equivalent to that prevailing outside. Except in
temperate areas milking cows need protection in extremes of cold and
heat. In blizzard areas cows calvingand beef cattle up to 14—16 months
3 DimensionsofFriesiancows old need shelter.

type age weight hto

withers
body I neck I Animaldimensions
Typical dimensions ofFriesiancows shown—v(3); otherclasses ofcattle
kg
calves atbirth 35 700 650 —
6rnonths 175 1000 1101) —
— Reach ofmouth basic criterion fordesign offeeding barriersand troughs
youngfemales 1year 300 1150 1 250
(heilers) 2year 450 1 250 1 450 — —v(5).
575 1300 1600 —
3year
Feed &waterintake
cows lightbreeds mature 350—450 1140—1350 1 390—1620 600—620 Cattle in UK consume 30—60 kg of forage or silage depending upon
medium-heavy mature 500—550 1 320—1380 1 530—1650 630—650
heavy mature 600—650 1 350—1440 1 620—1680 650—700 energyand fibrecontentof ration, and drink 35—601 ofwater per day.
4 Typicaldimensionsofcattle; recently USAbeefcattlerevertedto longer In USAwider variation in normal feed and water intake.
back

animal I reachof mouthforvarious h

of feed table abovestance
0 100 200 300 400

1100 750 800 840 910 940

1300 800 840 910 960 990
1500 850 880 980 1010 1040
1 600 880 900 1 020 1030 1070
1 700 900 920 1 060 1060 1090
1800 930 940 1080 1080 1120

5 Reachofmouthofcattle
 Industry 295

Farm buildings
CA1TLE
a
Wasteproduction
Cattle defecate and urinate indiscriminately:canonly be madetodeposit 1200kg/rn2deadload (I)
waste in particular places by useofphysical restraint,egcubicles. —*(1) 200 kg/rn2 live load
showsquantities ofwaste produced by different classes of cattle

HOUSINGELEMENTS
Housing systems canbeclassified bymethod ofcollectingand handling
waste products. In slatted floor systems waste passes through perfor-
ations in floor to be collected and periodically removed from cellar
beneath. In straw-bedded pens dung and some urine absorbed by
straw. Resultant farmyard manure must be removed periodically. In
cubicle systems use made of inability of cattle to walk backwards up
step.Raised cubicles can thereforeonlybeentered headfirst; dungand
urine deposited into cubicle passage, scraped regularly, or may be
slatted.

Slatted floorpens
Slatted floorsystems eliminatebedding and save labour. Proper space
allowances —(2) should be maintained to ensure sufficient animal
3 Reinforcedconcreteslatsforcattle
treading action. Totally slatted floors normally used for beef cattle or
suckler cows only. For dairycows useofslats limitedto cubiclepassages,
feeding stances and circulationareas.
125 slat laid with 40 gap suitable for all stock above 200 kgliveweight or
6—8months —*(3).Foryounger stockqualityand conditionofslats more
critical: 25 or 30gap preferable.
Slurry cellars should be flat floored with draw-off points orreceiving pits
for vacuum tankers orpumps at gable ends orperimeter walls. Sluice
gatesliftedorpusheddown allowing slurryto fill receiving pit; overflow
lip system —.p304(4) also used. Sometimes necessary agitate slurry
before emptying. For this purpose slats may have to be removed for
access with recirculation/agitation pump. Some designs incorporate
suspendedcentral passage with several access points. Some pumps
require 0.5 m sump to work efficiently. Examples of slurry draw-off
points—*(4).
Sto capacities of slurrycellars —(5). Externalwaste sto—p301 (3).

animal age (month) wasteproduced

(kg/day) (m3/day)

calf 0—3 5 0.005 (O.17ft3)

calf 3—6 7 0.007
store(stock) 6—15 14 0.014
dairyheifer 6—15 14 0.014
beef 15—24 21 0.021
dairy heifer 15—24 21 0.021
beefcow 24+ 28 0.028
dairycow 24+ 45 0.045 (1.6ff3) 4 Slurrydraw-offpoints
1 Avquantitiesofwasteproduced bycattle
weightof floor ar sto capacity (m3lbeast) forvarious
beast (kg) (m2/beast) cellardepths(m)
weightof approx floor ar
animal (kg) age (months) (m2/animal) 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.0
200 7 1.1 200 1.1 0.99 1.32 1.65 1.98 2.31 2.64 2.97 3.3
300 12 1.5 300 1.5 1.35 1.8 2.35 2.7 3.15 3.6 4.05 4.5
400 16 1.8 400 1.8 1.62 2.16 2.7 3.24 3.78 4.32 4.86 5.4
450 18 1.9 450 1.9 1.71 2.28 2.85 3.42 3.99 4.56 5.13 5.7
500 20 2.1 500 2.1 1.89 2.52 3.15 3.78 4.41 5.04 5.67 5.3
550 23 2.2 550 2.2 1.98 2.64 3.3 3.96 4.62 5.28 5.94 6.6
2 Spaceallowanceforbeefcattleonslats 5 Stocapacitiesofbelow-slatcellars
296 Industry
Farm buildings
numberof capacityofurinetankrequired(m3) CAULE
animals
540 kg 360 kg 450 kg Build-up ofslurryatrecommended stocking densities 300—400/month,
beef cows beef cattle beef cattle depending on type and level of feeding. Hay fed animals produce thick
50 22 19 22 slurrydifficulthandle with pumps. In suchsystems high-level slats can
100 44 38 44 be installed allowing tractor access for mucking out. Urine drained off
150 66 57 66 throughdrainage shafts intourinetank. Urine tank capacity fordifferent
200 88 76 88 numbers ofanimals —(1).

1 Tankcapacityrequiredfor2monthsstoof urinefromhigh level slattedbldg Fortypical arrangement ofhigh-level slatted systems —(2).
Straw-bedded pens
Resting area bedded with 2—4 kg of straw/animal/day. For space
allowance/animal —(3).

Mucking out usually doneonce during and at end of housing period.

Build-up of bedding overhousing period .—*(4).
Walls mustbebuiltwithstandpressureofmuck and stock:225 blockwork
with piers at3000 centres rising to height of 1 400 above max level of
muck build-up suitable. Height should preferably be3700(mm 3000at
eavesto allow tractor headroomformucking out.
2 High levelslats forbeef cattle
Whereverbedding next to feeding trough step or ramp should be
weight(kg) approxage total ar, lying provided allow cattle reach trough comfortably —(5). Floors should
(months) &feeding(m2/animal) preferably be concreted butrammed hardcore may be used.
200 7 3.0 Ifliquidto bedrained fromunderbedding concrete floor should have fall
300 12 3.4 of 1:20. Concrete feeding stance above level of bedding area provided
450 18 4.0 3 in part-bedded pens: saves some straw. Cattle may also be given
4.2 Space allowances
500 20
forcattlein bedded access concrete area cleaned by scraping in self-feed silage systems.
550 23 4.4 Silo floor should fall 1:30 away from feed face. Open scraped areas
pens
should fall 1:30away fromtroughs and covered areas. Urineand faeces
together with bedding and feed residuals scraped to external slurrysto
lot housing build-upof muck(m)
(midden). Tractor mounted orautomatic scraper blades normally used
period (months) remove slurryintosto.
3.4 ma/beast 4.0m2/beast

6 2.1 1.8 Cubicles

5 1.75
4 1.4
3 1.05
2 0.7
1 0.35
5 Step orramponbeddedfloor
6 Cubicledivisionsforcattle
pen type
1.5 In this system small quantities bedding (500 g/daychopped straw or
1.2 sawdust) spread over resting area equipped with cubicles and raised
0.9 150 above passage. Cubicle divisions —(6) should not hinder lying or
4 Build-upofmuck
0.6
at2stockingdensities rising movements ofanimals orallow animal to gettrapped orentangled
0.3 in cubicle frame. Cubicles not often used for beef cattle. Keeping
(not USApractice)
cubicle bed dry more difficult with male animals. Problem accentuated
by fact that animals are growing. Cubicle system not suitable for bull
beefproduction.
Cubicle must notbe sowidethat smallestanimalto use itcanturn round
and dungin it; but must be wide enough allow animal lie comfortably.
Cubicles must be short enough ensure dung falls in passage: but
cubicles too shortwill not be used as animal will lie over heelstone or
kerb. Adjustable head or knee rail used to reduce effective length of
cubicle;adjustable side rails accommodatedifferent sizes of beast.
Cubicle dimensions should be related toanimal weight—(7).
Cubicle passage widths (mm): slatted 1 800, solid scraped 2100. If
passage serves also as feed stance, mm widths 2500 slatted, 3000
scraped. Cross-passes 1 800 should be provided if more than 25—30
cubiclesin line.
Calf pens
Mm space required —(8).
Divisions forindividual pens can be constructed from demountable and
adjustable rails,or boardswhere completeseparationrequired. Divisions
should bedemountable and easily cleaned and disinfected. Alternative
to individual penstethered feedfence—.(9).
612
age (weeks) mm space (m2/calf) 180
-i
640

individual upto4 1.1 (1.5 x 0.75m) 3660 4270

uptog 1.8(1.8x 1Gm)
upto8
6casT
L1&
group 1.1
uptol2 1.5mm

7 I& w cubicles as 8 Mm space requiredforcalf pens 9 Tetheredfeed fence

relatedtoweight
 Industry 297

Farm buildings
CATTLE

Calf pens(cont) C
(1)
In grouppens with bucket feeding pen front oftenequipped with simple
manual trapping yoke.
Alternativeto buckets cascadetrough: allowssimplified pipeline delivery
of milk with individual rationing.—(1)shows details ofcascadetrough:
system suitable for larger scale operations where labour spent on
feeding tasks often reduced to mm. Self-trapping yoke installed to
control calves during feeding reduces subsequent cross-suckling.
'Automatic' feeders mix and supplymilk substitute feed to groups of
1 Cascadetrough 10—15 calves on adlib basis: allow more flexible labour routines but
formilkfeeding feed consumption (and hence cost) higher.
calves
Feeding
When feed rationed or restricted sufficient trough space must be pro-
weight (kg) approxage mm troughspace vided for all animals feed simultaneously. Trough space requirements
(months) (mm/animal)

150 5 360
300 12 When teed continuously available (ad/lb feeding) notall animals require
520
400 16 600 teed atonce.Trough-space/animal depends on typeof feed aswell as
450 18 620 sizeofanimal. Lessspace required forcereal feed than forforage:
2 500 20 640 grainor concentrates: 75—100/animal
Troughspacefor 550 23 660 self-feedsilage: 100—175/animal
restrictedfeeding
mechanically-filled trough maintainedfull: 175/animal

J:L__ i5 jpj
130° 300:otoer stock Feeding barriers —(3)essential prevent feed wastage.
25
250:youngerstock
Self-trapping feeding barriers (yokes) designed prevent animal access
tofeed,or restrain or releaseselected animals—*(4).
Dimensions of trough and feeding passages for mechanised cattle
500 180 feeding —*(5). Inclined floortrough allows animals reach further; sub-

nmn
sequently less secondaryhandlingoffeeds required—.p294(5). Forunits
housing over200animalsflat floor feeding passage4400wide preferred:
feed left outside reach of cattle can be pushed forward nearer to them
using specialised tractor mounted plough or brush attachment. Feed
residuals can be also removed using this machine. Feed bunkers for
3 Feeding barriersforcattle complete (mixed) diets—*(6). These hold2—3days' supplysince denser
feeddeteriorates less rapidly.

120 1600
j

4 Self-feedingbarrier
,
:/LZ,//k
6 Feedbunkersforcomplete(mixed)diets

5 Passagesformechanised feedingofcattle
298 Industry
Farm buildings
CATFLE
Feeding (cont)
Typical dimensions ofmobile feeding eqp —(1); turning space require-
ments —*(2).
Feeding stances should allow space for animals pass behind others
feeding. Foradult cattle allow 2400mm forslatted stances,2700mm for
solidscraped stances.
Watering
Should be 10—30 animals/water bowl. Water troughs should provide
0.02 m2 of water surface/animal or 300 of water trough frontage for
40—50animals. During winter water should be heatedto 10CC.Provision
to prevent cattle fromdefecating intowaterdrinker required: install floor
curb200highor rail about 300 fromdrinker; ordrinkers can be recessed
into wall or covered with cattle operated flaps. Water bowls ortroughs
usually installed at height 700—1 000: should be located where do not
obstruct otheranimals feedingor movingto and fromfeeding area, and
preferably wherespillage will notwetbedded lying areas.
Ventilation
Natural ventilation suitable for ventilating all cattle bldg, including calf
bldg. Fan-assistedventilationsystems only justifiedinexceptionalcircum-
stances eg USA in heavily fly infested areas to supplement fly spray
system; exhaust fan system not continuous running but worked on
times.Sizesofopenings fornatural ventilation basedonbldg floor area,
weightof cattle and difference in height between airinlet and airoutlet.
—*(3a) used to obtain area/animal of upper opening (outlet) from av
weight of animal in bldg and total bldg floor area/animal (including
passages). Lower (inlet) area twice this. Ifdifference in height between
inletsand outlets different from1 000, areas multiplied by height factor
obtained from—(3b).
Example 1: 30 x 100 kg calves in bldg 750 x 10000 with 2000 h
difference between inlets& outlets
floor ar/calf 75/30 = 2.5 m2
outletar 0.042 x h factor 0.7 = 0.03 m2/calf
inlet ar double this = 0.06 m2/calf
Example 2: 100 x 400 kg cattle in bldg 10 x 30 m, 2500 h difference
between inlets& outlets
floor ar/animal 300/100 = 3 m
outletar 0.087 x hfactor 0.57 = 0.05m2/head
inlet ar doublethis = 0.1 m2/head
Design procedures also available for bldg with single openings, eg
open-fronted bldg, and slotted roofs (—+Bibl08). Type of ventilation
opening can be chosen suit method of construction and size required.
Simplest has continuous opening at eaves and open ridgeformed by
omitting ridgecapping—(4).
Mechventilation should notbeneeded ifnaturalventilation designed for
in newworkorconversions. If required, provide capacityof 1.4 m3/h kg
live weight= 0.39 I/s kg live weight. Design openings to provide inlet
speed of0.5—1 rn/s.
Animal handling&veterinarysystems
Efficient handling systems essential for speedy and safe restriction of
animals for veterinary, breeding or management purposes. Important
elements ofcattle handlingand controlsystemsare shown—p299.

E
S
E
'0
t0
S
0
1 Dimensionsoftractorwith fore-endloader&of forageself-emptywagon

hd,ffe(er'ceinIe&outlet

3 a arofridgeopeningasdetermined byweightofanimal &stocking

density; bhfactorforcalculationofventilationopenings

+24t

t/////////////Z '/,'2'

2 Turningspacesforfeedingmachinery 4 Open ridge:USA ventedridgepreferred

 tff
Industry 299

Farm buildings
CATTLE
8000

''
race
________ Animal handling(cont)
Isolation pens forveterinary treatment,disease diagnosisetcshould be
33°E1____ provided. Pens (3000 x 6000) should be bedded: feed should be
330[H____
__________ delivered totrough fromoutside pen; for dairy cows milking line should
torcingpen 255El __________
l75:1 _____
IiII
iii iiii
iiIi
' I

it IiIi
IiLi
beinstalled. Drain separatelyfromother animal areas.
Calving pens should be separate from main resting area; floor should
be bedded; tractor access for mucking out required. Pen size 4000 x

I2I
Li II
Li U 4000adequate.
Holding pens space requirements: beef cattle 0.95—1.4 m2/beast mm
______________ adult cattle 1.7m2/beast
:TT60 cows and cattle 1.85 m2/cow and calf
catwalk Forcing penleads fromcollecting pen to race;should befunnel-shaped
crush & vetgates and should hold not less than 12 cows plus calves or 15 adult cattle.
vet Single sided splay preferable, with 30 angle.
gates —
Race(chute): 18mlong 680 wide internallyand 1 680 totop rail will hold
race crush 10—12 cattle. Catwalks should be provided on both sidesof race 760
J_______ J ______
pen2 above ground level and not less than 300wide.
3—way shedder pen 3
Crush (squeeze chute): race terminatedbycrush which may be metal
race proprietary make orconstructed in timber. Weighcratesometimes used
ascrush. There should be goodaccess at bothsidesto head,neck, feet,
underflanks and rear ofanimal. Crush should beunder cover with good
daylight and artificial lightand provisionforhosing down whole area.
Shedder gate: should be installed after crush wherever need to sort
recircijlationalley animals for weighing, separation for pregnancy, loading etc. Gates
catt race should be installed at far end of all holding pens allow recirculation of
groups or individual animals. Dimensions of cattle handling systems
1 Cattle handlingsystems: dimensions —v(1), typical Iayout—*(2).

Milking
In loose housing systems cows milked in parlour. Milking in cowsheds
using bucket or pipeline not practised in new dairy units because of
hygieneand high labour requirements both in milking and cleaningeqp.
Examples oftypical milking parlours—v(3).
access

Basic considerations which will determine type and size of milking

parlour:
max size of herd (allowing for future expansion)
time allowance formilking (max2hours)
max mean peakyield
concentrate feeding policy
use of dairy labour (1 or 2 men)
capital available
Automatic cluster removal essential in 1-man operated rotary parlours
toavoid serious overmilking ofcows. In UKsecondoperatorconsidered
wasteful of labour since not fully occupied during milking. In USA
second operator required forhandstripping.Selectingnumber ofmilking
2 Cattle handling systems: typical layout units complex matter: for advice consult local agricultural advisory
service.

Design of parlour pit for operator should respect ergonomic limitations

of operators. Location of milking jar should not hinderroutine tasks or
obscure viewofcows.
3 Typesofmilkingparlour

abreast

hernngbone

I II
LI
tandem
III

1
chule tandem
300 Industry

Farm buildings
CA1TLE
length'A'
Milking (cont) noof
Pit depth —(1 )(D) ideally 950 for tall milker, false floor being used for cows
6 6050
shortermilkers: compromise depth of750oftenused. 8 7050
8050
Pit width—.(1 )(C) for2stalls/unit mm 1 515, for 1 stall/unit 1 515 mm for 10
9050
12
1 operator and 1 828mm for 2operators. 14 10050
11050
Use only high-level jars in pits less than 1 515 mm. 16
18 12050
Parlour length —e(1)(A) 3050 + 500/rn standing. 20 13050
22 14050
24 15050
Rotary pariourdimensions vary between individual manufacturersas well
as with type and number of standing.—n(2) gives guide; use manufac-
turer'sdata fordetailed design.
Collecting area: before milking cows moved from resting and feeding
area tocollecting areanext milking parlour.Space allowancein collecting
area should be 1.35 m2/cow, but 1.1 m2 usuallyadequate with straight
herringbone parlours where initial batch of cows removed almost
immediately. In rectangular yardswidth usually equal that of parlour.
Cows should enter at farther end so that all movement in 1 direction.
Circular yards make backing gate easier install: usually either full or
three-quarter round. Capacityshould be coordinatedwith size of herd
orgroup. When at grazing in summer herd maybegrouped differently or
not atall.
Dairy: normally attached milking parlour reduce length of pipe runs.
Should be sitedso that rear of milk tanker can be parked within 3000of
door; adequate tanker turning space must be provided.900clear space
should be left all round bulk milk tank(s) (mm 600). Space must be
provided for working and for eqp as required: washing troughs, water
heater, cupboard, cleaning products etc. Ifexpansion of herd may take
place space should beprovided for replacementoftank by largerone, or
installationof second tank. 2600mm ceiling height may be required for
use of tank dipstick. Wide external doorway (2000—2500) with no
astragal should be provided for installationor replacementoftank.
Tank capacity can be calculated by taking av daily yield and adding
40—50% to contain fluctuations and possible future yield increases.
Alternatively, workfromfigures of 181 asdaily yield, to which 20% may
be added to allow forall cows reaching peak yield at same time.
Internal finish of dairy must be smooth and easily cleaned eg walls
cementrendered and paintedwith chlorinated rubber or epoxy paint to I Herring-bonemilkingparlourdimensions
height of at least 1 400; non-slip concrete floor draining to trapped
gulley; rooflinedon underside ofjoistssothatitcanbekept freeof dust type numberof standings approxdia (m)
and cobwebs.
tandem 8 7.6
Dairy must be lightand airy: windows one-tenth of floor area; opening tandem 16 13.5
windowsorventilators fly-proof; illuminationof 100 lx required. In USA herringbone 12 7.0
reg require screened openings; lobbytype entryalso necessaryprevent herringbone 18 9.2
flyspraymist contaminatinganimals' feed or utensils. abreast 14 6.1
abreast 20 7.7
Motor rm should be separate from dairy, area 3.5—4 m2. Provision for abreast 30 11.4
tractor pto to operate vacuum pump in power emergencies may be
required. 2 Rotary milkingparlours: approxdia
Office to accommodate table, wall charts etc should be sited with clear
viewofparlour and area next to unit. Modern dairy unitshould have wc,
changing rrn and rest rm for staff.
Feeding: concentrate often fed in parlour from automatic dispenser,
oftenfeed stored in loft over parlour. Sometimes bulk bin set outside
and feedstransported to parlourbyauger.
Footbath:provide forfootbathfarenough away from parlourexit prevent
slow flow of cattle leaving parlour. In such situation footbath does not
require to be more than 1 200 wide butto be effective should be at least
3000 in length and have drain outlet. Possiblearrangementof services
in 120-cow dairy unit—*(3).

3 Servicesin 120-cowunit
 Industry 301
Farm buildings
CAULE :3
Bull pens C
(I)
Pen can be sitednear collecting areasothat cows ontheirwaytomilking
parlour may see bull. Stockman can thus observe cow behaviour and
look formanifestation of heat' or readinessto mate.
Feeding and watering of bull mustbecarried out from outsidepen. Wall,
gatesand feedersmust beofsubstantialconstruction. Cowservice area
should be incorporated within pen layout. Dry lying areashould slope to
drain, usually raised by 50 from concrete floor and well bedded with
straw or sawdust. Feeder should be provided with strong trapping yoke
to restrain animal for routine veterinary treatment or restriction during
cleaning. Refuge' must be installed ineach corner of pen—.(1). Tethering
ringenables bulltethered independently ofyoke.
Exercising yard (unroofed) oftenprovided next to bull pen (20—35 m2).
Service pen should include foot rests to take weight of heavy bull
especially when used with young heifers. Footrests are 2sloping timber
ramps 225—300 wide, fitted to inside of pen walls. Length of rests
approx1 500, height 530atrear to900 at cow'sshoulder. Typical layout
and dimensions for twin bull pens —n(2).

External wastestorage
Slurry sto —ep295 304 requiredfor wastefrom scrapedareas in cubicle
1 Bull pen refuge detail units oras extrasto for slatted units with shallow channels. Slurrysilos or
tanks (above and below ground) lose moisture ony by evaporation.
Dungsteads and middens designed drain off excess liquids and used
for more solid waste, or help solidify semi-solid wastes(not used USA,
where muck collectedbycontractors). Examples—n(3).

Dairy cow housing

Examples ofdairyunits—r(4).

2935

2 Bull pens:typical layout&dimensions 4 Dairyunits:typical layouts

lagoon

dependson lagoon
Capacity

310 300 core

IT I 4—
/110ramp ///////// /
/ butylsheet

channei\

,.f//fl/7 \ 25 spacing

/////Z/ZZt7f///Zi/Z/////////
ramp

// flZ/ ///Z.
melden

tank

3 Externalwastesto
302 Industry
Farm buildings
CATTLE
Beefcattle housing
Beef cattle normally housed in slatted, bedded or part-bedded pens,
occasionally in cubicles. Linear plans usual, with pens arranged either
side feeding passages. Pen depth determined by ratio of floor space
—np294(5) 295(2) to feed trough length animal —.p297(2). Typicalplans
-a(1).
In some low rainfall areas possible house and fatten cattle in roofless
unitson sheltered sitesorwith sheltered wall. These units have slatted
pens or sometimes cubicles. Slurry sf0 must have additional capacity
for rain falling on unit.
Ifentiremale cattle (bull beef) kept pens must berobust with divisions at
least1 600high: cubicles should notbeused. For safety ofstockmen all
fittings, eg waterbowls, should be accessible from outside pens and
goodanimal handling and loadingarrangements(race (chute) etc) must
be provided: example of bull beef housing —.(2).
Sucklercow housing
Calf production from suckler cows usuallyrelies onsmall, early maturing
cow,well adaptedsevere environments.Provisionofcalf creep (nursery)
pens (where calves receive food without competition from cows and
rest)major design point of difference fromother formofbeefhousing.
Cows housed in cubicles, bedded pens or slatted pens. In slatted pens
allow 2.5—3 rn2/cow. Cowareas communicate with calf creep pens by
creep gate through which only calvescan pass.Creep pens dimensioned
according avsizeof calf, which depends on calving date—o(3).
Should be visual contact between cows and calves in creep; inspection
of and access to creep pen for supervision, feeding, cleaning water-
bowls and mucking out (in bedded pens) should be good. Provide 1
waterdrinkerforevery12 calves.
If cows tocalve indoors, provide separate calvingarea, preferably straw
bedded pen.
Typical arrangements of suckler cow housing—.(4).

NB: beef cattle not normally housed in USA apart from loafing Calf housing
barns—.(6) General arrangement of calf housing units—.(5).

I,

126
tM14 4
5400 3000

I 1.... i,
36
_____
1 Beef housingunits:typical layouts

Vslattedpens j J I

I 'L J cainp
creep J pen

4 Suckler cow bldg: typical layout

2 Bull beet unit layout

calvingdate bedded pen slattedcreeppen

(m2/calf) (rn/calf)

springcalving 1.1 1.0

continuouscalving 1.4 1.2
autumn calving 1.7 1.4

3 Sizes ofcalf creeppens

385 — .1•

kiI
space tractoraccess

1f,anei r 81

6 Loafingbarn 5 Calf housingunits:layout

 Industry 303
Farm buildings
:3
PIGS: BASIC DATA Pig husbandrydata-check list: a-
age atfirst parturition 403days
Thermalrequirements litters/sow/year 2.0 (n
Outside thermoneutral range of tempanimals either too hot, or will be number/litter born alive 10.5
wasting feed keeping warm because too cold. Thermoneutral range of number/litter at 3 weeks 9.0
different classes of pigs depends on level offeeding, type offlooring, avweightof piglet at 3 weeks 5.9 kg
number of pigs/pen and air velocity. —(1) shows ambient air temp number ofpigletsstillalive at 8 weeks 8.7
related to 3 floor types, 3 times maintenance level of feeding and air avweightat 8 weeks 18.2 kg
velocity not exceeding 0.15 m/s. total weight ofweaned pigs/sow/year 300kg
Thermoneutral zone of sows pregnant for 112 days, live weight of 140 farrowing index = daysbetween birth of 1 litter & next
limit to larrowing index 133 days
kg undersame conditions as above: 11—25° for thin and 7—25° for fat national avof farrowing index 195 days
animals.
10% ofUK producers with farrowing index 230 days
Pigs on low feeding levels should be kept at2—3°C higher airtemp than length of lactation = anytime upto85 days
thoseon high levels. —*(2) shows relationshipsbetween feed,floorand
mm airtempfor65 kg pigs. pigsfattened as
porkers 40—90 kg
Thermalinsulation—p393—4 baconers 90 kg
Animal dimensions heavy hogs 120kg; USA 147—180 kg
—°(3) givesbodydimensions ofdifferent classes ofpigs.
Illumination
Behaviour:buildingimplication Keep pigs in dim light: but at least 5 lux —4p25 should be provided for
Eliminatory: pigs defecate in discriminatory fashion,iewithin selected management and servicing tasks.
area usually determinedby location of water drinkers —p304. Every pig
tends defecate in own area within eliminatory zone. Important allow Feeding systems
enough space ineliminatory zone, sothat atleast3pigs maydefecate at Pig can be fed wet or dry meal either in ad/lb or rationed form. Typical
same time. Should less space be given likelythat some excreta will be systems shown in following scheme:
deposited elsewhere, eqin lying orfeeding area. ,bags—hoppers---trough
Sexual: newly weaned sows should be housed near boar in orderto ry m wheelbarrow—+handscoop—trough
encourage sexual behaviour. Partition between sows and boar should
ea\
automatic conveyor—÷hoppers-—trough
be perforated, allowing visual and bodily contact. / "automatic conveyor—+hopper/dispenser-—*floor
Trough-{
Resting, eating & general movements: piglets spend approx 10— 1automaticpiped—*trough
20% of time suckling (15—25 times/day). Fattening pigs on dry ad/lb
rations spend 5% of time feeding (8—12 times/day). On wet feeding
et
meaLm0be
\ tank—.trough
closecircuit communaltrough
only 3% of time spent at trough (4—8 times/day). In general fatteners "(river feeding)
(75 kg) would spend 80—85%of time lying, 15—17% moving about in
pen, 3—5%eating. Waterconsumption
Adequate supplies of fresh water should be available at all times.
Abnormal behaviour: aggression amongst growing pigs manifested Following waterallowances should begiven:
bytailand earbiting, sometimescannibalism.Savagingmore predominant Growing pigs il/dayat15kg liveweightincreasingto51/dayat
among adult sows. Bldg designer can influence behaviour pattern by 90 kg liveweight
changes in stocking rate, group size or housing systems. Abnormal sows non-pregnant 51/day
behaviour can be also caused by nutritional factors, genetic suscepti- sowspregnant 5—8 I/day
bility, disease states, teething problems etc. sows lactating 15—201/day
2 days sto ofwatershould be providedto ensure continuity ofsupply in
emergencies.

floor type thermoneutralrange(°C) forvarious live animal 1(m) w(m) h(m) rumpto approx breed
weights(kg) shoulder(m) weight(kg)

1.5 20 40 60 100 boar 1.95 0.32 0.85 1.1 135 Iargewhite

concrete 34—5 17—30 13—29 11—29 10—28 sow 1.5 0.35 0.75 1.1 135 landrace
perforated 31—5 16—30 13—29 12—29 11—28 1.85 0.4 0.85 1.2 158 largewhite
bedded 30—5 10—30 7—29 5—29 4—28
fattener 1.28 0.3 0.7 0.95 77 largewhite
1 Thermoneutralzoneofpigs
weaner 0.9 0.2 0.42 0.7 50 largewhite
13 weeksold
0.72 0.17 0.33 0.58 40 argewhite
11 weeksold

piglet 0.4 0.09 0.22 0.23 2.5 7daysold

3 Approx pig sizes

2 Feed—floor —airtemprelationships for65kgpig

304 Industry

Farm buildings
PIGS: BASICDATA (cant) but also sawdust, peat, woodshavings etc, to faeces and urine. In
general housing systems based on solid waste (farmyard manure)
Watering demand more labour for bedding tasks but no problems should occur
Forvarious typesof drinkers and theirrespective water wastage—*(1). where access, sto areaand run offdrain properly designed.
There should be 2 drinkers/pen in case 1 gets blocked. In general 1 Bedded systems
drinker/6 pigs required. Bowl type drinkers should be sited where Straw bedding oftenused for pregnant sows (1.0 kg/day), boars and
faeces contaminationminimised.Pig-operatedflapscan be used prevent weaners (500 g/day)
contamination.
Bedded pensshould be at least3000wide.All internal partitionsshould
Variation on trough drinker sometimes used: 50—75 pvc pipe set in be removable to allow tractor access for mucking out.
raised concrete floor and top cut open, discharging water into shaped
concrete within concrete floor: water supply controlled with ballcock Floors should be sloped 1:20 towards drain leading to sumpat side of
valvelocated atbeginning of line. bldg accessible for slurrytanker.
Some bedded unitshave chain and paddle manure conveyor including
loading elevator at one gable end. Manure removed twiceweeklyinto
PIGS: WASTE muck spreader and then tofieldsor sto(not usualinUSA).
Wasteproduction Slurrysystems
Pigs fed dry meal with adfib water produce quantities ofwaste asgiven Pigs housed on perforated floors, eg slats, expanded metal ormesh; or
dunging area onlyeither perforated orregularly scraped toholding tank.
Faeces and urinestored inchannels below perforated floors. Channels
Wastehandlingsystems emptied eithercontinuously oronce in 3months intoexternal slurrysto.
Typicalsystems —(3). Channels emptied periodically have sluice gateand receiving pit.
Solidwastes produced byadditions of bedding material, usually straw,
Flushing system where liquid fraction of slurry pumped into tipping
type ofdrinker % of waterwastage buckets holding several hundred I sometimes used. Flowremoves solid
faeces and feed residuals intoexternal sto. Some slurrychannels have
indirectnipple (bite type) 46 sump at end directly emptied with vacuum tanker. This system not
directlyoperatednipple 56 recommended as oftendifficult remove solid sedimented at far end of
bowl 6 1 channel. Continuous emptying ofslurry channels intoexternal storelies
Waterwastageof
trough 12
drinkers on hydrostatic pressure gradient which causes slurryto slide over lip
into pit. Only narrow (1 000) channels not longer than 20 m should be
used. Depth determined fromequation given —(4).
animal live waste
weight produced
kg kg/day

piglet 15 1.04
weaner 30 1.9
growing—finishing 70 4.4
growing—finishing 90 5.8
drysow 125 4.03 2 Waste (urine &
sow&litter 170 14.9 faeces)producedby
boar 160 4.9 pigs
4 Continuousoverflowslurrychannel

6 1 1 y 2
slurry handlingsystem
lending
system I
a b c d e I g S

2 1 2 2
I

38 1 1:
2 2 7(Th

24
3

I
iv
51 22 <
fendingsystems: dry feedingon floor IIdryfeecting fromautomatic
trough&bowls dry feedingfrombowls Vdry feeditrg fromtroughs
15

feeders Illliquidfeedingfronr
40

manureremovalsystems a partfyslattedIloor overslurry channelbdoabledungnigpassages

with sohdfloors ccentraidungung passagewithsolidfloor dservicepassageovercentralscraper
I
channel epartlyslattedfloor(gaps:251 overcentralscraperchannel partlyslattedfloor (gaps:
25>over sidescraperchamels 9partlyslatted floor (ranied 100>oversidechannels hpartly slatted
fkjor(raised 100>over centralscraperchanrid

3 Typicalwastehandling &feedingsystems
 Industry 305
Farm buildings
PIGS: MANAGEMENT Sow & boarhousing
—(3)(4) showexamples ofdry sow housing and service bldg. C
Ventilation Sow stalls:
Forced orfan ventilation should be designed according to mm and max (I)
w: 600—650 (if divisions open to 150 above floor level) or 700—750 (if
ventilation rate required, inlet air speed and subsequent air jet and air divisions solid fromfloorlevel)
distribution pattern withinbldg. Free airoutput offans can be found from I: 2000, with orwithout trough according todesign
manufacturers' data sheets. Allowance should be made for resistance h: 900
of ventilation ducts, usually 0.5—0.7 of their free air output. Inlet air gate forentryand exit ofsow: usuallyat rear
speed or jets can be used to determine air movement within house: floor:rear halfusually slatted.
specialised technique and assistanceofspecialist should be sought. Boarpens:
Pressurised systems usually blow air into roof space and use false should extend to at least9 m2; 1 side of pen should be approx 2500
ceiling ofglassfibresupported on netting foreven distribution ofair. Air long; divisions should bevertical tubular railing 1 400 high, allowingboar
outlet often below slat level thus removing most air pollutants. In air observe other animals and general activities within bldg; vertical
extraction systems fans housed in central shafts terminating above arrangement of railing prevents boars from climbing and jumping on to
divisions.
apex or alternatively in side walls suitably baffled and terminated in
neutral pressure area to minimise effect of wind. Location, area and Farrowing:
numberof air inletswill determine air distribution and air velocities in —a(5) shows farrowing crate and creep area for piglets. Function of
bldg. Manufacturersoffans who specialisein animal housingapplications farrowing crate prevent piglets from getting injured orcrushed bysow.
oftenprovide design assistance. Creep for piglets ofupto5weeks ofage should be 1.3m2 mm and from
5 to 8 weeks 1.75 m2. Mostof farrowing accn designed for weaning of
Mm ventilation rateshould be0.000052 m3/s per kg liveweight, summer piglets at5weeks ofage. Approx 1.0m2ofcreep areashould beheated.
ventilation rate 0.0003 12 m3/s per kg of live weight. Max airvelocity at Farrowing house —*(6).
pig level to be 150—200rn/s.
Withnatural ventilation systems air inlet area should betwice as largeas
air outletarea. Air outletcan be either open ridgeor several chimney-
typeextractors withflatcapping. Air enters through baffled inlets round
wall, at least 1 000 above pigs. Ventilation extraction area should be
3.6 cm2/kg live weight. Air inlet area should be 7.2 cm2/kg live weight.
Typical ventilation systems—(1).

Handling
Pigs, particularly fatteners, regularly weighed, usually by mobile crate/
weigherin feed passage. Some arrangements have permanentservice
area for weighing, cleansingand veterinary tasks with holding area. Pig
movement should be controllableby 1 man. I
Pigs canwalkthrough 600 widepassage.With 700 baconerswill be able 30.5
turnaround. Mature sows and boars require 1250—1 450wide passages
to turn round. Corners should be wider (900).Wherever pigs, particularly
sows, required reverse round corners passageshould be increased by
300—.(2).
3500
For loading and unloading into animal road transporters provide ramp
(1:7) with battens or deepgrooves toprevent slipping. 250

4 Dry sow housewith boarpens&food sto

I r 0
heated

3
Cr]_,

ii 600 950 j 1200

LJ U 2750

1 Typicalventilationsystemsforpig housingunits 5 Fan-owing pens:dimensions&layout

HI iii JiHHI
-•
I

I HI
11.6
I 4200
ih111I
11.6

1450

2 wofpassagesforsows 3 Drysow housewithboarpens 6 Farrowinghouse

306 Industry

Farm buildings
PIGS: REARING& FATTENING
liveweightkg totalarm2 daily consumption of beddingkg

0.75 0.3
Group size & pen shape
10—30 Formation of stable social hierarchydesirable. Fattenerson ad/lb floor
30—90 11 0.5
sows 2.5 1.2 feeding should be kept in groupsof 15—20. Pigs lying down should
coverfloor area, so that excreta will be deposited elsewhere (dunging
1 Individualspaceallowances &strawconsumption area). With part-solid, part-slattedfloors, pen should be twice as long as
widewithapprox900 wide slatted dunging area.
08 c
Troughspace
07 B Trough space/pig for ad lib feeding should be 100 and for rationed
feeding300.
.—

..
O
— .—. .—-..-D Spatial requirements
o .—- .—.. —.(1) shows individual space allowances for bedded systems, ie total
2 —-
-_ —.. floor areadividedbynumber ofanimals occupying it;—.(2)shows space
0, 04 .—
6 allowances for systems with solidfloorand slatted dunging area.
-.....
03
—.(3)(4)showexamples of rearing and fattening houses.
02
.... —. .—

01
,
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 00 110 20 130 140 (kg)
IveweiglrI

A oplimuni tourcoverageby 5019pigsitattenersi12-18 caIrtemp. B loose

ett
coverage 01 floor
12—18 c& duringsummertempup1026c c floorcoveragedurrngtemp
aboveabove26 c
0:floorcoveragebelow 12 c
note dunqlngarentraat0 15—02 rn'/pg
I an
Outlet
2 Spaceallowancesforfatteningpigs

4
wallsto
_— ceIlIng --.-,
a 1
__
__L20
tng
ar 4900
_________ ________

I 1800 1000 1800

l500
___k1
leedpassage

00
.

01L
6000 6000

200k

000 j) 2O0,
3000

[IHili
1100 1100 1200
1200

3 Rearingaccn 4 Fatteninghouseforpigs
 Industry 307
Farm buildings
SHEEP Feeding
Hayracks and concentrate troughs required. —v(3) shows rec-
Housing ofsheep prevents poachingofland, allows better management ommended trough length. Simplewooden trough with hayrack —÷(4)
and labour use, can lead toincreased stocking rate on land, may release sufficient.
pasture for cropping and can reduce lamb mortality during lambing
period.These potential benefits are offsetby high cost of housing as Water
well as costof providing additionalfeed. Sheep prefer running fresh water. This can be provided by trough
equipped with overflow to drain: 600 x 300 water trough surface
Space requirements sufficientfor up to80ewes.
Individual floor space allowances forsheep —v(1).
Ventilation
Solid floor Natural ventilation system based on 450 open ridge and 1200 deep
Sheephoused on bedded floor seem to have more foottroubles than spaceboarding with 100 boards and 25 gaps satisfactory. Sheep in
those kept on timber slatted floors. Solid floor should be well drained open-fronted bldg can be protected bystraw bales.
consolidated hardcore with 150 ofstraw.
Illumination
Slatted floor Illumination of20 lx—.vp25 required during lambingperiod.
Pressure treated timber slats rangefrom63 x 32to38 x 25with 20gap
forlarger sheep and 16gap forsmallerbreeds. Slatsusually arrangedin Feedstorage
removable floorsections 1200 x 2400. Slattedpanelscanbesupported Feed sto area at gable end or close by should be provided to minimise
on dry blocks for easy removal and so allow easy tractor access for handling time.
mucking out. Floor panel joists 75 x 50should besplayed foreasierself
cleaning and set at 450 centres. Depth of500 issufficient for 1 housing Sheep housing
season waste sf0. Example ofslatted pole barn type sheephouse for 320 ewes—v(5).

Layout
Ewes preferlamb in groups rather than individual pens. Creep area for
lambs after lambing can be provided. Feeding should be carried out in
pen passages. —v(2) shows 2typical layouts.

type spaceallotment (m2)

slatted floor solid floor

largeewe (68—70kg) 0.95—1.1 1.2—1.4

largeewe&lamb 1.2—1.7 1.4—1.85
smallewe (45—69kg) 0.75—0.95 1.0—1.3
smallewe&lamb 1.0—1.4 1.3—1.75
ewe hogg 0.45—0.75 0.65—0.95

1 Floor spaceforsheep
4 Troughforfeeding 675
.1'

Dutchbarn hay&concentrate

polebarn

slaa
spaceboarding

ding 9500
1600

frOugh

i
a
—

— I
I

//
I

individualpens

2 Typicallayoutsforsheephousing

typeofsheep trough1*

largeewes
smallewes
475—500
375—425
4800
1200
1 L 4800
4800
21.6
12
4
hoggs 350—400

* onself-feed silage100—250
adequate for allsheep 3 Recommendedtrough I 5 Slattedpolebarn sheephousefor320 ewes
308 Industry

Farm buildings
SHEEP (cont)
Sheepshedder Sheep handling
j
1

Handling eqp usually constructed from 950 high, 125 x 125 timber
5000 900
(splitter)
1-
posts set at 1 500 centres with either complete dressed boarded sides
46O or4 x 100 wide timberrails. Should consist of following:

8
staggeredshedding(spieer)gates --_________ holdingpen: spaceallowance/eweand lamb 0.65 m2
shedder (splitter): width 460 and length 3000—5000; should have 2

[th
1800 2100 anti-wavegroove A staggered gates —v(1).
deco

Sheep dip
Sheep dip bath and swim-around dipper often used when sheep enter
bath on side-slideprinciple and walkout on ramp. —v(2) shows dimen-
thu1?ifi
3bath controlisland ft
—
-Jllffii sionsand layout of such dips.

appros
dimensions 0 Drainingpen
capacityQ) A B C 0 E F 2draining pens required side by side with shedding entryand guillotine
955 610 1168 381 2743 1219 305 exit gates —v(3).
1090 686 1168 381 2743 1219 305
1365 686 1245 381 3200 1372 229
Forcingpen
2 Sheepdip 2 forcing pens or circular pen leading to dip with exit shedder gate
required. Forcing pen usually8000 long and 900 wide with solid sides.
6700
Footbath race(trough)
Footbath race should be 10—12 m long, 900 wide at top and 350 wide at
bottom —v(4).
Typical layout for handling 200 ewes and lambs —a(S).
3 Sheepdrainingpen 4 Sheepfootbathrace

--
/ I drattingpen /_

taading pen pens

race& tootbath
holdingpes -

5 Typicalsheephandling layout

POULTRYHOUSING
Poultry houses should be well insulated (0.6 W/m2°C), equipped with
fan ventilation, feeding,watering and mechanicalwasteremovalsystems.
Deeplifterhouses suitable foralldomestic fowl. Layers normally kept in
cages. .—a(6)shows typical designs for poultry houses.

Light requirements
Light levels of 0—20 lx —ap25 required; for most poultry control eqp for
manipulation of artificialday length required.
Ventilationrates

category weight max rate mm rate

kg nit/h bird rr?/h bird

pullets&hens 1.2 10 0.8—1.3

tkrorhosse 2.5 14 1.5
pertorated
3.5 15 2

f -7600 broilers 0.05 0.1

0.9 0.8
1.8 10 12
22 14 1.7
6 Typicaldesignsofpoultryhouses
turkeys 0.5 6 0.7
2.0 12 12
5.0 15 1.5
tan 11.0 27 2.7

naturalventilation eatractventilationsystem Ventilation systems &controls

pentorated cmimg gabletan pertorated pvcdad Poultry house ventilation systems consist of light-prooted airinlets, air
distribution, outlets, fans and controlgear.—a(7) shows typical ventilation
_1'"<11_ .t"lii(k
orate __________ __________ outlet
arrangements.

7 Typicalventilationsystems, poultryhouses
 Industry 309

Farm buildings
POULTRY Space requirements: hens a-
deeplitter 0)
system density(live weightper unitof qualifications
floor ar)

rearing birdsfor laying 19.5kg/rn2 floor artoincludethat occupied

(age 16—20 weeks) byfeeding&wateringeqp

laying birds
upto3.2kg liveweight
over 3.2 kg live weight
broilerproduction units
14.7kg/rn21 floor artoincludethat occupied
17.1 kg/rn2J byfeeding&wateringeqp
34.2 kg/rn2 floorartoincludethat occupied
byfeeding&wateringeqp

cages

system density(liveweightper unitof qualifications

floor ar)

rearingbirdsfor laying 39.1 kg/rn2 densityrelates to cage floor ar

adult batterybirds
3or more lightweightbirds/cage 39.1 kg/rn2
3or more heavierbirds/cage 44 kg/rn2 densitiesrelateto cagefloor ar:
2birds/cage 29.3 kg/rn2 rnintroughspace 100/bird
singlebird cages 19.5kg/rn2

strawyards

system density(liveweightper unitof qualifications

floor ar)

rearingbirds forlaying 9.8 kg/rn2 floorarto includethatoccupied

byfeeding& watering eqp
layingbirds 8.3 kg/rn2 floorarto includethatoccupied
byfeeding& watering eqp

Space requirements: turkeys

rearing

system density(liveweightper unitof qualifications

floor ar)

broiler-typehousing 39.1 kg/rn2 floorartoincludeany aroccupied

byfeeding&wateringeqp
tierbrooders 19.5kg/rn2

carry-oncages, hayboxes 34.2 kg/rn2

raisedonwire orslats,
verandahs

pole barns 24.4 kg/rn2 floorartoincludeany aroccupied

byfeeding&watering eqp
enclosedrange ar 10m2/bird (987birds/ha)

breeding

system density(liveweightper unit of qualifications

floor ar)

on floors
hens kept for insemination, hens 19.5kg/rn2 floor arto excludeanyfloor nest
&maleskept togetherfor natural boxesbutto includeallothereqp
mating
maleskeptforartificial 0.84 rn2/bird
insemination

in cages
hens 29.3 kg/rn2 hensshouldbe housed
males 0.84 rn2/bird individually
in enclosed range ar 16.7 rn2/bird (617 birds/ha)
310 Industry
Farm buildings
SMALLDOMESTICANIMALS:DOVES hayracksshould notexceed 20.Metal orceramictroughs used forwater
and grain concentrate: should be fixedto prevent overturning. Trough
Specification frontage 50—60/rabbitsufficient.
space requirements 0.4—0.5m2/pair Pens
dry and clean
Fur rabbits often kept in pens (2 m2/pair) constructed fromgalvanised
protected fromexcessive sunshine, windand rain
safe from predators netting —÷(3). Side netting should be sunk about500 belowground level
demountable forcleaning to prevent rabbits from burrowing out. Pens should have sidesabout
600 high and be covered over with netting. At 1 corner of pen box
goodaccess for keeper
consisting of 2 compartmentsforfeeding and nesting.In some instances
Location penscan beraised 800above ground.
on SE-E facing wall, usually underprojecting eaves behind perimeter
walland in roofspaces. DOGS
Construction Domestic kennels should be roomy enough allow dog stand upand turn
Dressed T&G boardingwith waterproofroof, internally2compartments, round. Construction usually dressed timberwith waterproofroofing, eg
1 with nest. Partition between compartments with 40 wide top for
roofing felt. Kennel should be demountable for easy cleaning. Floor
roosting. Floor level 100 below entrance to prevent young fromfalling should be raised 60—100 above ground level, often bedded with straw
out. —(1) shows layout and dimensions ofdovecots. or wood shavings. Floor and roof can project in front of entrance,
forming sheltered lying area. —.(4) shows typical design for medium
RABBITS sizedog.
Professionalkennels—*p31 1
Spacerequirements
SMALL POULTRYHOUSES
breed spacear hofcage
Poultry houses for layers should be situated in sheltered locations
small 0.56 500 surrounded by fenced area allowing 15—20 m2/layer.
medium 0.72 550
1.2 650 Internal space of 1 m2 sufficient for 3—4 layers. Volume of 0.65 m3
large should beprovided per hen, with at least200 oflinear space on roosting
rail. Rail should besituated about 1 600 high with gaps between rails of
Design ofcages 400. Below roosting rail is waste collecting board which is periodically
Depth should be 800 for easy cleaning or catching rabbits. Cages cleaned. Nests should be 300 wide and 350 deep; often located in
usually arranged in 3tiers, raised fromground level by 150. Single tier groups along wall. Nests bedded with straw; if production
cages should be800above ground level. Height oftop floorshould not control required, folding, self-trapping flapsfitted tonests
exceed 1600. Floorshould beslattedwithtimberslats,30wide with 10gap:
waste collected on sloped floor underneath, urine stored in collecting Feeders &waterdrinkers
tank or bucket. —(2) shows details of 2-tier rabbit cages. Cages for Hoppers or feedingtroughs with wire above trough to prevent hens
nesting should have front half of floor area solid. Frame and walls of defecating into feed. Drinkers usually heavy containers 400 high with
rabbit cages usually dressed timberprotected with timber preservative. rail round.
Felted roofshould have good overhangsforweatherand sun protection.
Construction
Feeders & waterdrinkers Hen houses oftentimber-built with felted roof and resting on concrete
Hay racks with small trough below usually fixed on front gates but base with DPC throughout. Structure should be insulated; provide
should not occupymore than 1/3 of gate area to maintain good lighting proper opening for air inlet and outlet for natural ventilation. Typical
and ventilation. To prevent young escaping gaps between wiresand layout and dimensions ofsmall poultry house —.(5).

.—\
k
hay
i

j
II
'IS _______
________ S

550 2000

Ji, ______
1000 1000 840 pen

L_J°° 4 hay water

1 Layoutofdovecots 2 Tierrabbitcages 3 Furrabbitcages

f
sheltered
Ing
art) I
td I ______
Li 850 __j bed

4 Dog kennels S Smallpoultryhouse

 Industry 311

Farm buildings
KENNELS concreteblock
sto I
Professional kennels include sleeping quarters in conjunction with
adequate exercise runs. Area of individual runs varies according to
breedand size of dog.
I

gutter
LI IT[1d09 _______

fioorriraunU

Where individual independentdog housesused in each run construction

should be wood with demountable roof (centre-hinged if large) for
sanitary purposes. Floor should bewood mm 75 above ground with full
Iift !

}(}4
..
ventilation between ground and floor. Burlap bags provide washable
bedding and may be stuffed with cedar wood shavings for severe
weather protection. Dog house entrance should be baffled against
directwind draughts and driving rain, snow.
run

1220
fUfl
. run
t
run run
I
run run run
•
run

Kennels with common shelter bldg, perhaps incorporating grooming tredraln

concretewalk gutter
and minor med services can be constructed economically of concrete * ittgatesoperatebyinteriormechanism
blockwith poured concrete floor, which should be sloped to gutter and __________________________________________________________
drain, providing easy wash down. Wood pallets with loose washable Layoutplanofkennelswithcommonshelterbldg

;-
rugs serve as beds in eachenclosure—n(1 )(2). __________________________ ___________________________

Fencing for exercise runs mm 1680 high should be fully fenced across

4__
top unless sides 8440 high. Gravelsurfacepreferedforruns but concrete

IH
more easilymaintained and offers better sanitation. All exercise runs
should have full man gate with patentedkennel hardware. Mm run 1 070
wide and 3050 long. Food and water dishes stainless seamless steel
mounted on runfencing with steel bands.

BEEHOUSES

Though bees normally kept in hives beehouses equipped with sto and
_____ Lj4I
honey extraction and bottling rm sometimes constructed. In general 30
and more bee colonies would justify provision of sto and processing
area. Sto area3000 x 4000should benext tocovered loadingentrance 2 Kennelswith commonshelterbldg aelevation bsection
or patio. Honey processing area (6000 x 7000) should have outside
door. Layoutofworksurfaces—n(3).
7000
Example of timberbeehouse set on stoneor concrete foundations for 1L
small bee-keeper —(4). Beehouse could be insulated for operator
comfort.
°hy workbench

DUCKS
honeynpening
&bottling

§
— '
]
______ _______
I

Ducks sleep on floorswhichshould be dryand sloped todrain foreasy

cleaning. Floor should be damp-proofed, lightly bedded with straw and Sb

open drain covered with timber slats 40 wide with 20 gaps. Space
allowance of 1 m2 required for 3—4 ducks: 1 duckhouse should house ru extrac/_lJ
_______________
nomore than 20ducks and 4drakes. Entranceintohouse should be300 __________________________________________________________
wide and 400 high. Ducks must have accessto water. Nests should be 3 Layoutofsto&honeyprocessing rmforup to 100 beecolonies
x
450 450 with 300 high partitions and placedonfloorwith no bottom so __________________________________________________________
that ducks do not damage eggs as they enter nest. Good natural
ventilation and lighting required. Water trough should be located near
slatted drain. Structure maybe insulated.Typical layoutand dimensions
of duck house—n(S).

GEESE

Design similar to houses forducks: space allowance of 0.4 m2/goose

required. Floor should be sloped to drain, damp-proofed and lightly
bedded. Nests should be 600 x 650 and nest partitions 300 high.
i 2700 6300
JlOOO
2300

Entrance should be 500 x 500 equipped with doors orcurtain. Layout

and dimensions of goose house for 30 geese or 3 geese and young
4 Beehotisefor20beecolonies

sleepingar

6 Housefor30geese
—/
5
I
I
nests

Housefor20ducks
3000
I
I
I

—
312 Industry
Farm buildings: crop storage
GRASS
Towersilos
Glass coated steelorconcrete,hermeticallysealed sto torshortchopped
(10—12) wilted grass (35—50% moisture content). Rapid tilling and
emptying possible using blower-loader, cutter unloader, auger and
delivery conveyor belt. Av density ot silage 1.2 m3/t. Estimated losses
10—15%. Silo dimensions vary from 5500—9000 dia and 12 to 21 m
height. Site requirements: adequate soil load-bearing capacity, space
for dump-box, access for tilling and turning of tractors, trailers and
elevator loaders. Animal handling, feeding and waste removal should
not be affected by tower filling operating. Space for future expansion
may berequired.
Clamp silos
Usually openconcrete pools withdrainage ofslurry liquor topitholding
150 I/f of silage. Walls capable of withstanding lateral pressures of
unwilted shortorlong cutgrass. Lateralwallsofrailwaysleepers (orties)
held by vertical steel shores or columns, mass reinforced concrete or
sloped timber. Detailed designs should be by structural engineer. Cut
grass deposited onconcrete apron stackedwith tractor mountedloaders
and compacted by tractor: compacted density 1.1 m3/t. Silage depth
2000for self-fed cattle upto3500fortractor cut-and-cart to cattle.—u(1)
shows examples ofopenclamp and towersilos.
STRAW
Baled straw avvolume 1.4m3/t; bales 1 000 x 600 x 500 weight 22—27
kg.Simple open-sided Dutch barns with dry floors positioned near
livestock bldg with vehicular access adequate. Sometimes bale stacks
orroundbig bales leftoutside. Loosestraw can be blown into barnswith
space-boarded open sides. Mechanisation of handling difficult: av
volume of loose straw 23 m3/t.
HAY
Bale sizessimilarto straw. Av volume 9 m3/t; loose hay 12 m3/t. Dutch
barn or pvc heavy duty sheeting required protect hay from rain. Good
ventilation and moisture content below 2S% required prevent spon-
..eutemaichute
topcutter—auger
unioader
biower
ioad
conveyorbeft
E
8
0
Ca
".>_siiaeiiuortank
tO—40m 1
TI I I
1 Tower &openclampsilos
taneous combustion. Mechanisation of hay feeding difficult unless
chopped, driedand ted as processed teed with other components of
ration.
Barndrying: cold or hot air reducing moisture to 20% used to ensure
good quality hay during rainy weather. Hay in bales or blown loose
stacked on wooden slats ormesh over main and lateralair ducts (600 x
800). Overall height ofdriedhayupto 3500in barnswith space boarded
sides.
POTATOES
Bulk store
Bldg usually portal frame, 4800toeaves, insulatedto 0.5W/m2 °C with
thrust-resistant wallsforbulk sto. Concrete floor with DPCstrong enough
support heavy vehicles; doors normally sliding, insulated (4500 x
4500) with personnel door. Ventilation system based on under-floor
lateral ducts(350 x 350) at2000centres running at right angles to main
air ducts. 75thick spaced timber slats used to coverducts. Surface 'A'
frameducts cheaper but inconvenientduring unloading.Fanstosupply
air flow of0.02 m3/s pert stored including mixing chamber for recircu-
lation and thermostatic control system required. Bulk sf0 volume 1.5
m3/t; height up to4000.
Pallet box store
Suitable for sf0 of different lots, varieties or seed crop potatoes. If
potatoes harvested directintoboxes less handlingdamage totubers.
Bldg specification similar bulk sf0 but6000hightoeaves and of narrower
span. Because nothrust on walls, timber frames and panels oftenused.
Ventilation based onfloor level ducts forair distribution and extractfans
located at 1 gable end opposite air intakefan. Recirculation duct required
to maintainair recirculationduring periods oflowventilation rate: usually
of plywood suspended from ridge, fitted with adjustable apertures.
f
Ventilation rate of 0.01 m3/s per stored adequate. Pallet box 1 200 x
1 800 x 900deepwill hold it. Boxes often stacked 6deep. Allow 3000
freefloorspace at 1 gable end.
Goodsf0 management required to minimise:
bacterial rot& loss of colour
moisture loss
loss due tosprouting
loss ofcooking qualify, and
to prevent frostdamage
—u(2) shows examples of bldg forbulkand pallet methods of sf0.
recircuiation
§
j .11 : 1 4i2.O +
2 Bulk &pallet boxpotatosf0 bldg
 Industry 313
Farm buildings: crop storage
GRAIN
lop top
c(I)
evator
I
—
conveyor

1 1 —r
outlets
elevatoi
L_
-,
--
[conveyor portabie
augerin
tube
Sto: wheat 13, barley 14, oats 2 m3/t.
(i) bulk: withinthrust-resistant walls, usually steel, approx 2500 high,
plus asbestos-cement sheets to eaves 1 200; waterproof floor, with
grain coned upat30°to centre ofbldg; normal spans 14—18 m; filledby
I_______________________ [T n S
h1 blower-auger or overhead conveyor and emptied by portable auger;
uninsulated roof; small gable vents; artificial lighting; doors 3700 x
3700.
bottom (ii) bins: (mostly for small quantities orvery mechanised units) —(1),
conveyor(in trench:binoutletsover)
square or circular thrust-resistant steel ortimbersides seton3500grid
longitudinalsections and 3800 high; usually bins support roof; filled byconveyor under ridge,
(alternativegrainflow)
emptied by gravity and shovel into below ground conveyor or by floor
sloped at35°.
top conveyorwith outletstoeachbin (iii) hermetically sealed bins: using glass-fused steel or reinforced
plastics rings for wet grainof 25% moisture content; 9 dia x 12 m
high (sometimes 18 m); reinforced waterproof concrete base; filled by
blower throughtop dome, emptied by bottom outletauger.

Drying
bottomconveyorin trenchorlunne (i) insitu: forbulk, in principle generally asforpotatoes —vp3l 2; for bins
crosssections(binsmay nothavesloped floors) —v(2) (more normally predried) 4500 high; slotted metal floor over
plenum chamber approx600 deep (special slots canblowairtoliftgrain
withoutmanual workintobottom conveyor)connected tofan rm(eloroil
fired) by airduct, usually combined with bottom conveyor. Some circular
bins have perforated sidesand central plenum vertical duct of < 1 000

i) dia —v(3).
(ii) predrying: mostly by continuous floworbatch driers (el or oilfired)
for < 10 t/hr. Former may need 10000 x 3000 x 2500 high plus
perimeter access and Iatter3000 x 2500 x 4000 high. Intakepit—v(4)
(from bulk tanker truck) slopes to elevatorwhich raises wet grainto drier
(possibly through pre-cleaner) and/or to sto. Work space for drierand
eqp may need 80—lOOm2. Elevator will need 2000abovetop conveyor,
probably as penthouse (vented). Driers need dust extract pipe(s); intake
trench trench
doors should be 3500 x 4500high.
circularbins (iii) refrigerated: betterquality ifgrain kept at 4.4cCbymeansofcoldair
squarebins square bins
blown through bulk or bin sf0. Most layouts similar to warm airdrying:
some have lateralducts at 3000centreswith external mobile refrigerator/
blower connected to each in turn.
Layoutsforgrainsto bins

nomial mm normalmax
3000x3000 , 4575x3800

asbestosi
roof

3 Grain drying&sto: radialflowbins inbarn

2 Grain drying&sto: nestof binswith roof: section

4 Intakepit
314 Industry

Farm buildings
MACHINERY& IMPLEMENT STORAGE

Circulationroundstationery machines Machinerysheds

automotive machinery space allowanceto side 1000 Open-fronted shedsadequatefor simple implement sto. Tractor, com-
high machinery " " toside 600 bineharvester and self-propelled machineryrequiring some daily main-
low machinery " toside 500 tenance should be kept in sheds equipped with sliding door, el light,
all machinery " " tofront 500 watersource and preterably concrete floor.
all machinery " " to rear 500
Workshop
Static space requirements offarmmachinery Fully enclosed, insulated bldg 4000 to eaves, equipped with sliding
door, watersource, el light and power points, forge with chimney or
description h w I point torel forge, operating pitwith gantry beamover, racks abovework
benches. Outside concreted drained turning area and floodlight
tractor 2600—3000 1800 3200
trailer 1 400 2200 4000—6000 Fuel store
manurespreader 1 800 2200 5500 Oil-tanks to workshop and turning area, raised on concrete walls to
crawler 2300 2300 3800 allow gravity filling ot machinery. Catchpit holding content of tanks
combineharvester 4000 3500 9500 desirable. Fuel stored in separate sf0 complying with conditions of reg
truck 2900 2500 8600 and codes—*(1) shows example ofmachinery shed and workshop.
slurry spreader 2200 1 800 3600
baler 2600 2800 6000
drill 2000 3200 2800
mountedplough 1 200 1 400 2400
disc harrows/roller 800 4300 2400
hayturner 1200 2800 2500

concreted
turningar

1 Stofortractor & implements with workshop

Farmbuildings references:
—÷Bibliographyentries 108115118137288325333334335340341 347
348351 352 356357358359360363364365 415 582 589 601 646
 Leisure 315

Sport
STADIA:GENERALDESIGN CD

C')
Sportsdata on following pages compiled with C
help ofBritishSports Council TechnicalUnit for
Sport: basic technicalinformationgathered from CD
governing bodies ofsports and gamescovered.
Activities divided into 3 categories: outdoor;
those which can beplayedin common spaces
indoors; thosewhich essentiallyneedseparate
orexclusivespace. Governingbothèscommonly
specify dimensions for 3 standards of play:
international and national; county and club;
recreational. In some instances standard
dimensions available for olympic competition 1 USA: segmental 2 Amsterdam:semicircular
and forsports fordisabled:forthese dimensions
forall standardhave not been included; unless
specified they are inadequate for national
standards.

Several sports subject tostatutory requirements

for lighting, temp, playingsurfaces and eqp:
always refer to Technical Unitfor Sport and to
governing body.

NB for UK stadia, terrace and seating

design, reference must be made to Guide
toSafety at Sports Grounds (Football)

Combined soccer pitchwith running track roundit 3 Rotterdam: sides& corners curved; 4 Budapest:horseshoe shapeabouttransverse axis
conforming to recognised international athletics forfootball only
standards may determine size of sports area:
basic shape ellipse—(6).
Stadium usuallypartexcavated:earth so gained
built up all round. Combination of grandstand
with changing rm, shower, first aid rm and pro-
vision for police, fire service, admin, press,
broadcasting now usually avoided (economy
and hygiene). Dormitories fortraining courses
in separate bldg.
Townplanning: stadia should be well integrated
with surroundings, with easyaccess for traffic
and supplies (rail station, bus stops, car parks
etc). Neighbouring industries with smoke, smell
and noise undesirable.
5 U-shaped plan
Group together covered and open-air instal-
lations for different sports: if possible in town's
greenbelt.

6 StadiumatHanover Arch Hillebrecht Goesmann

316 Leisure

Sport: stadia
SIGHT LINES
In Europe axes of stadia usually NE-SE —(1) ensure most spectators
havesun behind them. According toVitruvius (1st century BC) rowsof
seats and standing terraces should rise atsteady rate 1:2 for acoustic
reasons also.Today useofamplifiers makes good viewonlycriterion for
tiering. For staggered seat arrangement every other back row should
look over heads of corresponding front rows: gives parabolic curve
—(26)starting with rise of 380 and ending with rise of 480. Best
views on long sideswithinsegment; hence stadia of this shape, first
built by Hadden (USA), whichgive new and convincing impression.

2 Designforgrandstandofstadium for100000spectators(Nervi) asection

bconstructionofsightlines 1 Visibilitydetermines sizeofstadium

2rows 2 rows
— -4- -1
a b
150 for peoplewithhats
100 for peoplewithout hats

edge of
arena
+22.3

constructionof
sighttinesfor(a)
+12.7

+6.7

TRAFFIC
Stadia should be near traffic arteries, accessible by road and rail, with To determinestair wtoevacuategiven numberof spectatorsfromstadium
projecting turnstiles sothat spectators candivide intostreams fordiffer- withingiventime: stair w =
number of spectators
ent entrances. These usuallyat half heightofgrandstand, giving access departure time ins x 1.25
to rows higher and lower by ramps or stairs —(2). Calculate widths of Stairs and corridorsflow times—p407—8
passages and stairs according number ofspectatorsleaving stadium as
all leave at same time in contrast to gradual arrival. According van Check applicable codes and standards.
Eestern's investigations 5000spectators at Amsterdam stadium need
420sto leave by 9500stairways (Los Angeles 720s Turin 540s).
9500x420s= 0.8sor
1 spectatoroccupiesl000stairwin
5000
in 1 S = 1.25spectatorsoccupyl0000fstairwayw.
95O002o

Heisinki

Rio deJaneiro Fiorence Arezzo

3 Circulationroutesin stadia
 Leisure 317

Sport: stadia
Standing terraces: proportion w: h400:200—v(4)—(9) CD

Seatingterraces:proportionw: hfrom 800 : 480—v(11)—(1 7) C,)

After5 steps firm railings (crush barrier)

CD
Lower passageway all round 1 250wide
Doubleand treble standing terraces nolonger built

natural
spectatt_
_____________ ground level
3 Sectionthroughstadiumwith
1 SectionthroughOlympicstadium Berlin ArchMarchBrothers partialexcavation,earthmound&
superstructure

-
SEATINGTERRACES
— 900

11 Woodenbencheswith plank
- 8000
-
-- 6370 4- 6860
— 29.44 -—_______
-. 6860 -4 step

4— 780 —4 i— 780 —i
2 SectionthroughViennastadium
31 0 470

STANDING TERRACES

43304450 400
4—1250-—.-—4-—I
400
12 Woodenseatsonconcrete 13 SlopingRC deckwith stepsin
uprights concretetopping

Ox70 I— 760 —4 I— 700 —4

4 Steps withtimber reinforcement 5 1 per person 4-260-4---440 —.

I —-
330-450 330—
450

14 Seatingtiers:d750 h450 15 On timberframe asatStuttgart

w 500

I— 760 —I
6 Angle steps 7 Movableconcreteunits

330—450l
I330—4504

9. 16 On metal bracketsset in
concrete
17 Seatingwith backs

8 Reinforced concretewith fallsto 9 PrefabricatedRC unitsonsteel

drain joists GRANDSTANDSECTIONS

--i i20—.-72O--72O

_______________________________________________________ 18 Normalrise,upper steps 19 Normalrise, lowersteps

10 Standingramp,slope 10%,6P/i 000 mm2 USA risers 152—460, treads610—762(660 usually satisfactory)
 318 Leisure

Sport centres
CD ORGANISATION
(I)
crcuiar
track
CD
7—

1 Dispositionofspectators 2 Spatial patterns &circulationindrysportscentre

large large medium medium small small

scale scale scalewet scale sports community
sports & sports &dry dryonly centre provision
leisure/rec centre sports/rec sports/rec
centre (wet& centre centre
dry)

pools S.
o
••
o
••
50m
25m
20m
• . 0
0
tree shape
learner
diving
••0 .. 0
0
sportshall(s) ..
• .• •.
0
S.
0
.5 ..
large
medium
small o
S
o
0
5 . S
small community S
ancillaryindoorsportsaccn
practiceha
•• S•
•• ••
. ..
.0 0
0
weighttraining/conditioningrm •0 o
0
0 0
projectileha
squashcourts
climbingwall
•0 •o •0 .0 S •
indoor bowls 0
billiards/snooker 0 0
ice rink 0
theatre/multi-purposeha 0
ancillaryaccn
changing
••
•• •• ••
SI ••
•.
•. •. .•
S. •S
0 0
spectatorseating: fixed
informalviewing
occasional •
5
S
•
S
•
I• . .
club meetingrm 0 0 0
firstaid IS IS 55 0
firstaideqp
crechesto • 55
0
••
0
•1 •• •I
creche(alternative use, sto) 0 0 0
saunasuite 0 0
refreshments 55 IS ..
•• .0 I
cafeteria
bar
vendingmachine
I0
S
I0
S S
5
0 o
0
I 0S
staff& management
reception •5
S.
••
•• •S
•• ••
S•
SS
• ••
off
staffrest rm
staffchanging
..
• 5. 0
. 0
0
0
S

outdoorgrounds
grasspitches 0 o 0 0
hard porous/syntheticpitches 0 o 0 0
floodlitpitches 0 o a 0
tenniscourts 0 o a 0
3 Mainfeaturesrequiredfor6sizes of sports
key: SI essential S typical/desirable bldg:general recommendations onlyallbldgbeing
0 possible influencedbyarserved,population &other
resourcesavailable
 Leisure 319

Sport centres
EXAMPLES

bowlsha

iti
-J
1 Dry &wet leisurecentreonschoolsite DunstableEngland

Sports centres for disabled —Bib639

2 SportscentreBridgnorthEngland:circulation &socialspacesspatially well

conceivedegin entrance haglazedscreenallowsviewsintoswimmingpool,
betweensportsha&squashcourtsglazed bridgeoffersviewintoeitherar

3 LargecomplexHarrowEngland comprises indoor&outdoorsportscentre,withpoolalongside&outdoorbowlsground

320 Leisure

Sporthalls
USE OF UNDIVIDEDSPACE
—'(1) shows number of sport playing courts or other spaces which fit
into various sizes ofsports orcommunity halls. Number ofspaces given
foreach sportoptimum willfitintoundivided hall spacefor3 standardsof
play:N internationaland UKnational;CUKcounty orclub;R recreational.
Required mm space allowed for each takes intoaccount not onlyactual
playing area but: necessary run-outor safety margins, team bench and
officials'space round playing space which amount to overall areasused
forassessment; where practicalsome overlapof marginbetween parallel
courts of same kind;critical heights which in some instances degrade
standard for which otherwise floor space adequate; need for some
additional tree circulation space inside hail entrance.
For most sports possible provide spaces for mix of 3 standards; in
practice several differentactivities may beprogrammed at same time.
Fire: check fr reg and max component value; in UK halls 7000 m3 or
over need DoE waiver; 'volume' can include unenclosed structuralroof
space.

large ha mediumha small ha communityha

36.5x32x 32x26x 29x26x 32x23x 32x17x 29.5x16.5 26x16.5x 22.5x16.5 17,0—20.Ox 17.0x8.5
91 7.6—9.1 7.6—9 1 6.7—9.1 67—76 x 6.7—7.6 6.7—76 67—7.6 156 6.7 x 67
1168 m2 832 m2 754 m2 736m2 554 m 486.7 m2 429 m2 371.25 m2 265.2—321 m2 144,5m2
)120x105 (105x85x )96x85x )105x75 (105x56x )97x54x )85x54x )92x54x )56—65x41 )56x28x
x 30if) x 25—30 If) 25—30 tt) 25—30 if) 22—25 if) 22—25 if) 22—25if) 22—25 if) x 22 if) 22It)
12600ff2 8925ft2 8175if2 7770ff2 5880ff2 5238ff2 4590ff2 3995ff2 2850—3455ft21555if2

sports nostandard nostandard nostandard nostandard nostandard nostandard nostandard no standard nostandard nostandard
4 N 4 N 4 N C 2 N 2 N 2 N 1 N 1 N —
aikido 2
6 C ±3)1*) R 3)1*) n 2 A

archery )l of shoot) 3Om

25m 525m 525m 525m
18m 18m 18m 18m 18m iBm iBm 18m
2Oyd 2Oyd 2Oyd 20yd 2Oyd 2Oyd lSyd lSyd — —

badminton 8 N 5 Nt 3/4Nt/c 4 N 4 C** 3 C** 3 C'' 3 n 2 nt 1 A+t

6)2')A 4 A' 6 A 4 A'

basketball 2 N 1 N 1 N I N 1 C** 1 C'' 1 C" 1 A' — — —

2 C'/A 2 R* 1 miniBB 1 miniBB — —

7 A 5 A 5 A' 4 A 3 A 3 A* — — — — — —
bowls)portablenon-
competitive rinks)

boxing)trainingr'ings) 9 N 6 N 4 N 6 N 3 C 3 C 2 C 2 C 2 C 2 A
12 A 12 A 9 R 8 A 6 A 5 A 5 A 4 A 4 A

crickef6-a-side 1 N 1 C — — 1 C 1 A — — — —
pitches 2 C
cricketnets 8 N 6 N 6 C S N 4 C 4 C 4 A — — — — — —

fencing )pistes) 12 N 3)3*) N 7 N 6 N 3/4 N/C 3/4' N/C 3/4* N/C 3 N 3 C 2 A

14 C 9 C 8 C 8 C 2/3 A' +2 A' +1 A 4 C'

5-a-sidetootball 1 N 1 C 1 A' 1 C 1 A' 1 A' 1 A' 1 A' 1 A' —

2 A' 2 A'

gymnastics)olympic)
— N — C — P — C — P — P — P — P — P — —

handbat 1 N* 1 C 1 A' 1 C 1 A 1 A* — — — — — — — —
mini-handball 1 C 1 C 1 C 1 A* 1 A*

C' 1 A 1 A A 1 A A 1 A 1 A — — — —
hockey 1 1 1

judo 4 N 2 N 1 N 2 N 2 N 1 N 1 N 1 N 1/2 A — —
6 A 4 C 4 C 4 A 3 A 2 C 2 A 2 A

karate 4 N 2/4N/C 2 N* 2 N 2 N 2 N'/C 1/2N/C 1 N 1 N 2 A*

A 6 A 4/6C/A 6 A 6 A 3 A A 2 A
/ /
12 A' 3 2

keeptitmovement
I V 1 1 7 / 7
& dance;Yoga
kendo 4 N 2 N 2 N* 2 N 2 N 2 N' 1 N 1 N 1 A — —
6 A* 4 C 4 C 4 A 2 C 2 C 2 A*

lacrossetemale 1 N 1 C* 1 A 1 C* 1 C* 1 A — — — — — —

lawntennis 1 N' 1 A' — — 1 A' 1 A' — — — —

2 A
microkorfball 1 C 1 C 1 C 1 C 1 A' — —

netbat 1 N 1 A — — 1 A 1 A — — — —
2 C'/A

tabletennisc/c 10 N 6 N 6 N 6 N 7/9 C/C 7 C/C 6/7 C/C 4 C/C 3—6 C/C 4 A'
15/21 C/C 10/15 C/C 10/12 C/C 10/12 C/C 14 A 12 A 10 A 8 A 6—8 A

trampolining 12 N 8 FtP 8 Nt 4 Nt 4 C" 4 C'' 4 C'' 4 A 2 A 1 A

12 A 8 C'/A 6 A

tug-ot-war — N — C — A — C — C — A — — — — — — — —

voteybat 2 N 1 Nt 1 Nt 2'Nt/C 1 C'' 1 C" 1 C'' 1' C'' 1 A' — —

2 C
3 A 3 A' 2 A 2 A

1 Definitionofscales:max numberofcourtsrelatedtostandardsofplay:(forkey & footnotes—tp321(1))

 Leisure 321

Sporthalls
USE OF UNDIVIDEDSPACE(cont)
largeha mediumha small ha communityha
36.5x32x 32x26x 29x26x 32x23x 32x 17x 29.5x16.5 26x 16.5x 22.5x16.5 17.0—20.Ox 17.0x8.5
9.1 7.6—9.1 7.6—9.1 6.7—9.1 6.7—7.6 x 6.7—7.6 6.7—7.6 6.7—7.6 15.6 x 6.7 6.7
1168n,2 832m2 7Mm2 736m2 554m2 486.7m2 429m2 371.25m2 265.2—321 m2144.5m2
(120x105 (105x85x (96x85x (105x75 (105x56x (97x54x (85x54x (92x54x (56—65x41 (56x28x
x 30It) x 25—30 if) 25—30 if) 25—30 if) 22—25 if) 22—25if) 22—25 if) 22—25if) x 22if) 22 It)
12600ff2 8925ft2 8175ff2 7770ff2 5880ff2 5238ff 4590ff 3955ff 2850—34551f 1555ff

weight lifting contests — N — N — N — N — C — C — C — C — C — —

wrestlin 4 N 2 N 6 C 2 N 2 N 3 C 2 C 2 C 2 C 2 R
12 C 6 C 6 C 3 C 8 R 6 R 6 R 4 A

Key:
N international/national standard
C county/club standard
A recreational standard
P practice aronly
C/C forfable tennis2gradesofmm spaceallowances forinter-county/inter-club standardsof play
ns no standards have yetbeenlaid down
S arbehind shooting line belowsafety standardrecommended;acceptablespacecan beprovidedbyslightlengthening ofha; oresisting
spaces may be usedforpractice
belowmm space standard recommended bygoverning body concernedbut capableofproviding purposeful & enjoyable activity
recreational standard where ha is less than7600clear hforbadminton & trampolining orless than7000forbasketball & volleyball;
6700 hsuitable formini-basketball & mini-volleyball
t county/club standard whereha less than 9000clearh

1 Continuation of —.p320(1) definition of scales

NB UK standards subject to revision. Current details availablefromSports Council Information

Centre

STORAGE
ha sto ar m2 h access waccess
Inadequate sto space for sporthalls very common fault. Allow for full
rangeof eqp needed. As eqp must beaccessible sto must be shallow large 112 7000 4500
(say 5000 max)and ideally placed along side of hall. Recommended medium 75 2700 4500
mm requirements for3catagoriesofhall —v(2). Check list—v(3) small 50 2250 3600

2 Mm sf0 requirementsfor3cate9onesha

sportsha fixed movable sportsha fixed movable

ceiling walls
protectionfor lighting •
• scoreboard
. ..
Climbing ropes& trackway wall protection/padding
climbingpoles&trackway • .
speakers
track systemfordivision nets
•
•
seating fixings/recesses
fire eqp . .
protectionto services/heating S
cricket • wallspeakers S
golf •
archery • floors
volleyball • courtmarkings •
5-a-side-soccer • sockets&plates(fixed to floor orsub-floor) .
basketball ancillaryha
ceiling mountedbackboards &goals • • ceiling
(manual oreloperation) tracksystemforcurtains •
wallmountedbackboards & goals • • lightingsystems
(manual oreloperation)
activities
gymnastics
• • judo & martial arts (mats,wallpadding)
snooker
.• .
asymmetricbars
pommelhorse • • tabletennis •
vaulting buck • .
vaulting horse • • fencing
.
horizontal bars •• • boxing
boxingtraining .• ..
rings weight/fitnesstraining
• • •. •
trampolinespotting rig
parallel bars . .• weightlifting
S
springboards,floors
wrestling
movement& dance(barre, mirrors) .
floor
boxing
. . •
ring sockets/fixings
markings
movablefloors/platforms
. .
gamesapparatus
tennis ..
volleyball
badminton
5-a-sidesoccer
..
indoor hockey •
handball •
netball .
3 Sportseqp checklist
322 Leisure

Sport: outdoor
PITCHES
True
-
110—155 m (120—i
-
70yd) 4.57m 48.8m 4.57m
(15ft) (16011) (1511)

V
'........
8 I

I H
E I
I--
C',

I--- r..
I
-J

8 Football,Australian 9 Football,American
1 Orientationdiagram:for
purposesofthischartseasonsfor 76.8—91.5
variousgainestakentobeasfollows (84-100yd)
68m)74yd)
-
(southernhemisphereexcepted):
associationfootball&rugbyfootball
1 Sep—30 Apr; hardcourt tennis,
V
basketball,netballallyear round;
cricket,baseball,grasscourttennis 8
0 N
1 May—i 5Sep; pavilionsshould
avoid SW-NWaspect (225°—3150) E
6
t '0

rn-00 000
L

)
I 1Dm
0
se&end margins6m(20ft)
20m 2Oyd(18.288)
10 Football,Gaelic 11 Football,rugbyleague

Ir'i
30m 3Oyd(27.432) E
40ydl36.576l
II 40m
SOyd(45.72)
55-65m (60—70 yd) 54.9m(6Oyd)
,
50m
6Oyd(54.864)
I
E I
I 70m 70ydl64.008)
8Oyd(73.152) wrunen

l
I 90ydl82.296)
6
I 90m lOOyd(91.44) 8

I Li
Isalety 1wai6ng men
11
line

--
Archery,target 3 Archery,clout
12 Handball 13 Hockey:forcounty&club
54.9-73.15m(60-8Oyd) matchesrecommendedpitch90 x
55(98½ x 60 yd),overallspace95
x 60(104 x 66Y2yd)
---c 7m 69n1(76yd) T 59.47m(66yd)

HI;
I E
ItI;
IS
N
lI;l
lt
60m(66yd) LL E1
—
E

4 Baseball(Littleleague2/3 size)

91—110 m(110—126yd)
5 Bicyclepolo

73(4590)m
f L J
I

,.. side&endmargins6m(20ft)
14 Football,rugbyunion 15 Football,Canadian

l1Li
6rn (195—225It1nUSA( 6,,i

E 1
'0
40m(44yd(

H Hill 0
0 T

6
7
Camogie

Football,association:National E
p S
11
N
"C
0
S
PlayingFieldsAssociation 8
recommendssizes:seniorpitches
96—100 x 60—64(105—109 66½— x
70yd);juniorpitches90 46—55 x E
(98½ x 50—60 yd); international a, L
x
100—110 64—75(109—120 70— x
82yd) 16 Hurling 17 Korfball
 Leisure 323

Sport: outdoor
PITCHES
110m(l2Oyd)
lOOm(lO9yd(

1 Lacrosse,men 2 Lacrosse,women:groundhas
nomeasuredormarked out
boundaries

IIi
27.5m 27.Sm
275m (300yd) 3043m1
I
1
ii1
Ic (ii
I
I
I

L
II
In0
I E
, II) IL'
LL
33m135yd)
\1I

ix
0

alllines 1600
3 Polo 4 Netball E 50 wide 4.—

H
-1-

'
I
I
/ / \\\

//
,
q
3

IrI II Ii

(l2
600 in
frombad
lineto
supportpo
1000
recommen
tree throw
line
( ••\

150
7
800
radius
restricted

850
**
inbetween
E

Li" 2m 128—183 m (140—200yd) m extension

,
17m(l9ydl
mm marginatsides& ends1000;where
5 Rounders 6 Shifty spectatorsprsserttmix2000;dimensions
aretoinsideoflines

7
rope
off

Tug-of-war
-
E.-
46m(bOyd(

I
4

Ii,
8
_T__i___I]i
Curling
42.1 m (46yd)

I 15 Basketball

91.44m(lOOyd)

160m1175yd(

///
/
20m(22yd1 Si

I L1
V
I
U
I-.
E
16 Mini-hockey

9.14 m(30ft) 73m(240ft)

11 111

\\\\\\ ]1EIilhII
9 Cricket 17 6-man football
18 Softball
m(30—60 yd)
1 -*
27.43—54.86

usully about36.6 m(4yd)

}:::::::::::::::::::: El I 6
I
.............v..... ___
risesiii ng
I
L IE
middle 1.Sm(5tt(
13.4m(44tt)
11.9m(39ft(
i 1 E
203—457 mm
doubt s" 12.2tn(4Ottl
doub '\.pJnior3.2m(10ft6in)
sen,or:4m(13ft(
EE
Ii Bowls,crown 19 Decktennis 20 Paddletennis
324 Leisure

Sport: outdoor
ATHLETICS

c:: I
867gm min9m wnway45m
126.52w
minim rnin4om

7lanesat
122 85m landingar(sandpit)
S
65m
pm

7 Longjump: NBlandingarat bothendstoavoidadversewind

straight25.01m straig6ct40.04m

2 300mrunningtrack 7.3m tIm (senior) runway45m spInjump

1 200mrunningtrack manrunup43m(47 yd)
9m (junior)
EJ__________________________
I landingar(sandpit)
min4om
-- , E

81.6w

8 Triplejump(senior junior) &

radius70 m

/o,
/ mnn65m

I ...—

; I
—
—

\
—
\ .—
—
176.91 m
\\—--- —

9 Discus& hammer:discusbase2500hammerbase2135

mingm 11 m (senior) runway45m

I:]
I
9m(junior) mm 40 m

Ik 1i?
ar
I landing (sandpit) 75w

10 Combinedtriple & long jump

84.3gmstraight radiussatetyboundary80-95 m runway365 m

4 400 mstandard7-laneclub running trad: for6-laneall-weathersurfaces

reduceoveralldimensionsby2440(approx overallsize 179 x 106m (193 x
116yd)); majorcompetition&regionaltracksrequireBall-weatherlaneswilh
---
10-lane sprintstraight:increaseoveralldimensionsby2440 (approx overall
size 181 xlii m(198x l2iyd)
2F
-------
' *-*
t._ 4m
I /i
I
Ii Javelin
El
> Sm iunway45m

crilI
4
\
S
\- -
, —s---

radius20-25m
f 38.8 m
.
ii
L4_d
landingar(airbed)
mIn4Om

ssm

5 Shot 6 High jump 12 Polevault

 Leisure 325

Sport: indoor
PITCHES

:
lI
r E
SE
U) a) I—IS
i3
FO
Q o
Fc(
I

0 0
a,

E -1-a
1—3m 1—3m
36m(ll8ft)

L______m ______ -J
353 n—9 59in) E

6 Lacrosse,female:pitchformalegame(not 1—2 m
II 27—60 (89—20011) 1—2m
It
S shown)46—48 x 18—24m(151—158ftx 60—79if)
a, 11 Micro-korfball
12 m(411)
(I 6lrn)2Olt) 36m(118 5)
1m 9—lOm(30—331t) 1 m)3tt3in)
6
Badminton: mm h 7600(25 if) 1
floorexercise — '
a
C

a
(4011 square)

— 5w
7
I
E
a,

msquareH•
CU
Cs
3m n,

11J_
asyrnetricT
bars _____________
)9ft9in(

ID()
14 m
Eti
CU

2omrunup)66ft) 4m(l3tt(
runoti

I I
L J 7 Gymnastics,female
irn -- 262m(86ft) in,

Basketball:mm h7000(23 ft)—nalso p323(15)

o4
a,
lie 16—18m(52—Sgttl
I IS
reboundwallsallround 'r

HC
to2000(1220mm) .6 Ia
12 Judo
3
2-3m
I $
18m)6Olt(
4$
— —
B Volleyball I —

mmn3Ornmax36m(99-ll8lt)
I 13 Tug-of-war
3 5-a-sidefootball
i7m(559in)
a,

S
0.3ft)
'a
L
a

(2
(
Cs
a,
I.)
a,

z S
a,

____________— I 65m 4m(l (2

6.5m)21 ft4mn) 20mrunap(6f1) )5lt5in) runon
E
C-2
4 A-i
Gymnastics,male: mm h 7600 (25 if) Cs

i.5—3m)5—lOlt) 15—3m)5—i0ft( 9 Wrestling(N nationalCclub Rrecreation)

36-44m(39-48yd) I

=1
L

5 Hockey:teamsizesadjustedaccording to size
ofpitchavailable Li
in 30—40m(98—131
\\
It)
14 Americanbowlingalley
(mayhave anynumber
lanes:usual mm 8)
15 Shuffleboard

10 Handball,7-a-side
326 Leisure

Sport: indoor
PITCHES(cont)
E
0i

g I
•::•:•:•: raised •:•:•:•:•::i

i
E I

7 Boxing:forcompetitioninaddition to ring&

.F
1 Tennis E spectatoraccnfollowing needed: medexam rm,
weighing rm, gloving-uprm, admin, lightingabove
ring, watersupplytoeachcomer
E •:•:•:
°r
'— :::• rI•:•:•:•
.•:•:•: ,:•.•.•.,
.- 0)

I I
F

14m(46ft) 15—2n

L1IJ
(41111 in)

5 Fencingpistes
2 Netball
I
10-ibm
2.5(8ft)
6 ê
9m(301t) (3'/o—Sfi( 8 Karate

(6'hfty-
I t
(911)
4
305m flhifl2m
(II ft6in)
3 Trampoline 6 Aikido 9 Kendo
ATHLETICSTRACKS 60 m hurdlesshall include 5 hurdles, h 1 060; 13.72 mfromstart line to
first hurdle; 9140between hurdles; 9720fromlast hurdle to finishline.
Resources for indoorathletics fall into 2 main categories:
Female: 50 m hurdles shall include 4 hurdles, h 844; 13.0 m from start
competition: provide forfull range ofcompetitivedisciplines; will provide line to first hurdle;8500 between hurdles; 11.5 m from last hurdle to
for spectators finishline.
training: (a) with some limited competitive use; (b) purpose built; (c)
adaptations ofexisting sports halls. 60m hurdles shall include5hurdles, h844; 13.0 m fromstart line tofirst
In USANational Collegiate Athletic Association(NCAA) rules forcollege hurdle;8500between hurdles; 13.0 m fromlast hurdle to finish line.
athletics, forotheramateur events Amateur Athletic Union (MU);some Events
track and field events still measured in yards, feet and inches; many Runwaysfor long&triple jump & polevault: 40 m long and 1 220
present tracks still in such measurements; new layouts generally in wide.
metresorotherSI units.
Landingareaforjumps:in high jump and pole vaultlandingareasshall
European AthleticAssociation (EAA) specifies forindoor events: be in accordance with IAAF rules 201 (e) and 3 (d). In long jump and
Arena triple jump they shall measure 6000 long and 2500wide and shall
consistof 300 in depth ofwet sand on synthetic track base.
Shall be covered and heated and shall consist of track circuit, sprint
straight, runways for4jumps, siteforshotputt. Putting theshot: sector shall be 450 but may be reduced bytechnical
delegate ifnecessary to meetlocal conditions.
Natureoftracks
Tracks andrunways surfaced with woodor suchothermaterialasallows Othertechnical installations: all other technical installationsshall be
normal use of spiked shoes; number of spikes shall comply with Inter- strictlyinaccordance with IAAF rules.
nationalAmateur Athletics Federation rule 142 (4).

Circulartrack
1 lap oftrack shall measure 160 m 200m in length. Eachbend shall consdecsurroundingindoorcyclingtrack
be 35 min length and banked atanangle 100 18°. Eachstraight —
, 4or6nesat1 or mm w. 1.22or prefered

'
35m.Where no raisedborder, measurementshall betaken 200 outward
from inner edge of track. Track shall be 4000 6100 wide; shall
include 4 lanes.
/
Sprinttrack
'
Sprint straight shall have
beyondfinishing line 15m.
Hurdleraces
6 lanes: width of each 1220; extension

Male: 50mhurdlesshall include4hurdles, h 1060. There shall be13.72

45or40m bends
m fromstart line tofirst hurdle; 9140 between hurdles; 8860fromlast
hurdletofinishline. 10 Requirementsforindoortrack
 Leisure 327

Sport: indoor
ATHLETICSTRAIMNG CD
Provision for athletes training indoors, with limited competitive use, Needs of athletes should be considered at planning stage of sports (1)
neednot includeexpensive 200 m banked tracks. Many events can be centresso that this maior spectator and participantsportcan gain some C
simulated if briefthought out inadvance with consideration of needsof of benefits fromindoor provision other sports have received —*(1) CD
athletes.

a b 4'—236in(77 tt6in)—4-.--.--———-—--428
m(140116cr)
12
badminton
2
gymnasiucs
:
poie vaufl
ihrowingpactice 1
:•
345
badminton(2courts) :
athietics—longjump
—Sprint
:
pole vault
hurdies 0

-4.-
13m(14¼ yd) longjump tnpieJump
maxrunup 55 in(60yd) maxrun up 43m(47yd)

combatsports basketbafl—training
iectures gym & 2badminton :
demonstraiions tennis
5-a-side football I
. I —— \ maxrun
14 : I —— up 39m
volleyball I •
basketball badniinlon : —
—
\ throwing:
ootball
5sid&oolball
1 2 hiumpt8mH diushot
netball I /
• I polevaull -''--_./
rnaxrunup58m

L 3j•5•,,_ 4
I
ngjump
I

/'\rnau
(63¼yd)
longjump
run up 55 m
triplelump
maxrunup 43 m

badminton(2courts) pole vault

throwingpractice long jump
34
II
I I throwing

25
basketball
Sprintstarts
hurdles

poe maxrurup37in
/ "Tjçh s
urn
practice
cage
sdiscus. shot
hamme

/
tennis vault'
5-a-sidetootbail 2
E
volleyball N
ba&ninton —

i run outi - I —
——

= i doorfor
4

L lanes
-

3I 4 Sf'

1 SportsstadiumtraininghaGateshead England: apermutations ofpossible activities bpermutationsof

possibleathleticstraining

WEIGHT& FITNESSTRAINING

multi gym
multi gym abdominal shoulder multi-purpose blackboard
squat unit conditioners conditioner betch squat racks -. [199 multi gym 12 Stationwith
7complete weight stack
doordtscJ
rack 11N fl -r II II cycle
transportarack leg
fIam dual I

i
I
press
multigym-1
[1
.L. [1 [chine rowing
Units
, C) barbell
rack
fl_purpose
bench
Fiiin!
'ackboard OtH
or
bench press or
iiceboard

*
I
8
L d
ng ar
multi
purpose hyperextension

,
Wristroller 8 8
0
..wallto platform
irergometers cx Lt)

Er
bench

I Cc
[1
trolley transports
0)
oor ymar I
I I,)

-.4--.-——
bench
rackj
_________ 15m(49ft3tn) flex
ra,L'
leg extension
step up bench racks

dlck 6000(lgft9in) —5
T
[rcise
olympicplate
—- —- - —
12! board
UUUIflb fl)
1 I
racks

2 FitnessrmatleisurecentreCramlington England 3 Conditioning&weighttrainingrmBunyanrecreation centreBedford

England
328 Leisure

Sport: indoor
SPORT NEEDINGOWN PITCHES/SPACES
303m
ia - 303(loott)- -- b 20 18288m(SOtt)

SeCtion
!+ arar
I
i0 E
-:
S
a

i1 section

[ tiiTighne
425m(141t) targetzonel05m(3ftS4r)4
'0 firingline
1
plan
- 425rn
4N
303(1005)- —•— targetzone1.0m

H sectIon
JE[
'0
b_
tiringhne

L
425rn)141t) largetzonel05m(3ft6in)
plan

Projectile ha section & plan asmall bmedium Clarge

10 Rackets asection bplan

mlI ILP 2archersshootto
9.754m(32lt)
eachtargetboss —-:iiiii
stopnet shooting waiting
targethoe line line
S
N

l
2ni (65610) range

ll
—'0
2 Archery:international&nationalshootsrequire aE
rangesof3025& 16m &20yd; forclub &
recreationalshoots 13.716(15 yd)willdo: mm 6 Squash asection bplan: dimensions & S
N
ceiling h3000 surfacefinishescritical;referto governingbodies

mm 32 m(105It)desirable3749m(123It) 37m(12ft3w1( b 11 Billiards& snooker,agreedstandardstable:

I t 3500x 1750 playingat
rolldowncarpetlstoneeded)

14m(4fl6un( 67 600(211)
3 Bowling:singlerinkinprojectile hall 225
1185m6086
7 Rugbyfives asection bplan
1 5m 125(4ft9iii>
33m(tOItlt)
- 125 1Sm
IrE E
na I
mat
__________
pumng
1— 33.6O4rnl10tt3in( ____carpet
si_I] =
I

liD
C.,

I I? 12 Golfpractice

8 Real tennis: dimensionsofcourtatHampton

II
Court England 33.5 m)llOIt)

IIIl:E.
_______
9.lSm(30ft)
I
ujj
20.117m(66tt)
4 Bowling:4rinksmittforrecreation, 6 for
toumamerits
13 Cricketpracticenets; h3.650(12ft)
303m(99531n) -

a 9 Cycling

11
b hnngline

5
425m
4—-f

Shooting,target, small bore a section bplan

targetzone 4_f
1.05m

U+Itbifll
j 14 Ice skating
 Leisure 329

INDOORPOOLS
Location: central, good public transport connexions. Rough guide to
provision: dispersed population (rural areas) 20—25 x 11—13 m within
25 minutes travel of 30000 people; partially concentrated (surburban
areas and free standing towns) 25 x 11 m pool + learner pool within
15—20 minutes travelof30000people; concentrated population 25 x
13 m pool + learner pool within 12 minutes walking time of 30000
people.Usage/head ofpopulation: medium and small towns 3.5times/
year;cities 1.3—2.5/year.
Sport: swimming
Waterarea—*(1)
changing nn—p336—7: accessible from hall,separated bysex; notinside
pool area; 1 do unitll—1.5 m2 pool area; common changing rm as extra
space.
Pre-cleanse:barefootpassage pastwctoshowers; 1 sho/8dospaces:
sho space required 1.35—2.15m2; in some countries (eg Switzerland
USA) use of cleaning passages with sho activated by floor contact or
light beam.Throughshormto swimmingand teachingpools—*p335.
Toilets: mm 2wc; male 1/15—20female 1/7—10; urinals 1/15—20 male.

type of b coveredspace
changingrm changingrm
2floors 1 floor

m3 m3
small 30—40 40—50
av 40—55 50—65
large 50—70 60—80

1 Ratio of enclosed spaceto1 m2water ar

public access
2 Circulation&groupingofelements

3 Baths at Hanover-Linden Germany(design

HochbauanttHanover):indoorbseparatedfrom
outdoorbby 3submersibledoorswithfootbasins
and 6 sti infront
indoorswimmingb:
pool 12.5 x 25m
training pool6 x 12.5 m
openairswimmingb:
free-shapegeneralpurposepool 20 x 25 m
divingpoolwith 10m stage 20x 20m
changing:indoor49change-overcubicles, 600do
& 5groupchanging rm;outdoor36change-over
cubicles&1320cIa

exercise

sectiona-a

4 Leisure&poolcomplexRoxburyYMCA
III
o 36
176
II 9 12m
ft
USA Arch TheArchitectsCollaborative
330 Leisure

Sport: swimming
INDOORPOOLS(cont)
Heating & ventilation: water temp recreational pools 27°C, learner
pools 28°—30°, diving pool 28°; airtemp 1—2°abovewatertemp: changing
rm, pre-cleanse, clothes sto not less than pool water; air changes:
a volume flow rate of0.15m3/m2/s ofpool water plus wet surround.

_L Waterpurification plantfor heating,filtering, disinfection. Watercircu-

lation: main pool 3 hr (if veryshallow withheavy bathing load every 2
hr); learner pool 11/2 hr; diving pool 6 hr; pH near aspossible 7.7 or
bh 7.6, never outsiderange 7.2—8.0.
Pool: width, length —*(3); water depth: non-swimmers 900—1 250,
swimmers 1 250—3500,learnerpool 500—900. Mm depth forswimming
900.
Internal finishes: floors easy-grip and slip-resistant finish, glazed
ceramic tiles, smallsize mosaic; pool surrounds slip-resistant flooring;
pool bottomand walls: tiles, wallsurround upto2000tiles orwaterproof
paint; upper wall areas and ceiling sound absorbent materials. Metal
parts rust and condensationproofencased,no heattransmissionbridges.
Plastics generally suitable. All fixings and fittings ideally made from
corrosion resistant metals, egstainlesssteel, bronze, certainaluminium

e i.l r
r—-'
ij r1
L_J
r—'
L..J
r 25m

8.5 m(4lanes)
10.5m(5lanes)
13m(6lanes)

17 m(8lanes)

f rL_J1 r'°'
L_.J r
.___J
r'
L.._l
r°- r"T
i___ L__I 33.33m

I d
Typicalpool profiles: a&bfor 'in ground' pools c& for'aboveground'
f
pools e 'in ground'steeltank 'aboveground'steeltank
13m

inter- national! local recrea- 17m

national regional pool tional/
pool pool leisure 21 m
pool

pool waterar SOm

50 m main pool S •0 5
25 m main pool
freeformshapepool
S
a •
separate deepwaterdivingpooi S
separate teaching/training pool
1 000 springboardmain pool
• 5 0
0
0
recreational divingchutes 0 5 17m
wave machine a 0 21 m(8lanes:lullOlympicstandards)

spectatorseating
fixed rakedspectatorseating S
0
•0 • •
25m
occasional spectatorsat poolside
10-12 m(7ni mx)
informalviewing
viewingaroverlookingpooi 0 0 0 0
I I I

•0
refreshments 600 stepsupto 600 600
cafeteria •0 0 5
0 lanero posunound I 7m

bar
vendingmachines • S • • laneropepombOn 2m

firstaidrm S • • S 900
16¾m
900 I 900
2m

sauna suite a a a 20m

•Odefinite provision
possible provision

2 Poolfeatures 3 Mainpool sizes:mostcommonsizesshownin heavierlines

 Leisure 331

Sport: swimming
INDOORPOOLS(cont) Waterpolo CD
Playing area: for national/international events 1 800 deep; district! U)
countyevents 1 500 mm; club/Amateur Swimming Association events C
in UK 1200mm. Dimensions—(2).
CD
Swimmingpools for disabled —*8ib639
Poolsforleisure
Main features of pools specifically created for indoor leisure and rec-
reational swimming: lively, warm, gay interior; good quality materials;
shallow waterwith beach edges; wavemachines; water chutes; artificial
sun bathing; plants, trees, seating, refreshment areas forswimmers.
Private indoor poo1s—p115—6

S
E
N

1 Commonwealth poolEdinburgh Scotland asection bplan Arch Robert

MatthewJohnsonMarshall& Partners
4 Typical'leisure' freeformpoolWhitleyBayEngland; plan Arch Gillinson
Barnett& Partners

2 Dimensions forwaterpolo

F— 20.0

50.85 H

3 IndoorbWuppertalGermany:section Arch Hetzelt 5 Indoorpool BottrupGermany Arch Heinz Kisler

332 Leisure

Sport: swimming
INDOORPOOLS (cont)

a b 1.-I.
/ %

//

T'LI4 -1500-

I hydraulic 7 Pooledgedetail
liftingplant
I—i 500-1
F1600
L
1 Springboard hydraulically adjustable 1000—3500 a plan bsection

4800 —I
pO$selehand-grip

drainage
charerel

500 600

2 Springboarddetail 3 Deck-levelpool: edgesection 8 Pooledgewith Wiesbadentypeoverflow: restingledge &gangway in

multi-purposepool

9 Longitudinalsectionof25mpoolwith9underwater lights

x
500 500mmmm surface ar
max slope 10
b

10 Diagramof startingplatform:
cable to timingeqp only built-inin
4 Moveablefloorstypicalinstallation a in raisedposition b lowered major poolcentres
11 Underwaterlightingin
swimming,diving&multi-
purposepool

- IF-i
sechona—b

:..:
a--''_IHEE,
150

5 Recessedshapedsteps 6 Glazedceramicsteps

L9i
ogood viewing
o badviewing
1 Viewingconditionsforend &side positiondivingboards
2 D'Albaroopenairbat GenoaItaly
3 Layoutofalpine bGloggnitzAustria
4 Open airbinFrankfurtGermany
Leisure 333
Sport: swimming
OPEN AIR POOLS
Location: sunny, not down wind of industrial plants, nuisance from
smoke or noise.
Season:depends on climate. For NW Europe:
100—120visits/year, of which
40—60 busydays, of which
10—15 peak days
Perhead of population (depending on climate):
1 .5—3 visits/year.
1—2 m2 overall site area
0.1—0.2 m2 water area
Pervisitor 0.6—1 m2 water area
Changing rm for5—8%of population
Non-swimmerspool: separate in largeinstallations;depth 800—1 250;
easy-grip steps for sitting at shallow end; floor surface of pool nottoo
slippery.
Paddling pool: access by gentlyfalling ramp; free shape; depth 100—
400; floor surface of pool nottoo slippery.
Waterchute:-_*p337(5)
Pool construction: dense vibrated concrete or RC; inside finishfrost
resistant tiles, paint (epoxy resin orother).
Expansion jointsdepending on construction
Steps (a) corrosion resistant metal in 600—1 000 wide recesses (b)
special shaped ceramic glazed unitsbuilt in—p332.
Distance apart ofsteps 10 m; distancefromdiving tower 8000
Starting platforms: —p332
Guide line: vertical below starling platforms.
Diving line: on pool floor, 250—300wide.
Walk-through pool:3000 x 4000—4000x 6000: depth 300—400 with
overflow.
Walkway round pool: 2000; 5600 near diving stages and pool
access.
Water circulation: 6 hr turnover when bathing load infrequent; 3 hr
turnoverwhen load heavy. Water cleaning—*p337.
Ancillaries:
entrance with cash desk, centrallysituated
laundry issue& sf0
swimming instructors' rm
first aid rm (or doctor's rm)
staff rm, separate formen & women
eqp, swimming & sports gear, deckchairs etc, possibly with issuing
counter
changing rm, separate for men & women (communal changing rm,
changing cubicles, separate rmforclubs& schools); family change
wc sitedconveniently tochanging rm & pool
pre-cleanse showers hand & foot wash basins
plant rm: watercirculation & purification:boilers
telephone, loudspeaker & clock systems with signaldevice
adequate parking space
admin off
Showers, lavatories—vp335; changing rm—ap336
Desirable:roofed rest rm, sales rm, manager'sflat, broadcastingsystem.
Garden swimming pools —*p114
334 Leisure

Sport: swimming
DIVING POOL DIMENSIONS
a

100
+F +
IJo
J

mel
E
-I-
7500
p

5000

p
A-A4

1 FédérationInternationalede Natation Amateur(FINA) international

standardsof diving:diagrams alongitudinal section bcrosssection a

springboards fixedboards

A board h fromwater im 3m Sm 7.5m lOm

B boardI 4.8 4.8 5.0 6.0 6.0
C boardw 0.5 0.5 2.0 2.0 2.0
D d of water at plummet 3.0 3.5 3.8 4.1 4.5
E distanced D 5.3 6.0 6.0 8.0 10.5
maintained forward
F distancedD 2.2 2.7 3.0 3.0 3.0
maintained to sides
G clearanceforward 7.5 9.0 10.25 11.0 13.5
w01srround necessary wdh 1000 springboard H clearanceto sides 2.5 3.5 3.8 4.5 4.5
I distanceto adjacent board 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
J clearancebehind 1.5 1.5 1.25 1.5 1.5
L clearanceoverhead 3.0
+M •
4.6 4.6 3.2 3.4
M clearanceoverhead
maintained tosides 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75
N clearance overhead 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 6.0
maintained forward

plummet Notes: 1 tableincorporateslatestdimensionsrecommendedbyASA;includes

column ofdimensionsfor7500platformh (considereduseful forhigh board
training) 2 ± 100 tolerancepermissibleonnominalboardh: alldimensions
should relate to centralpoint atfront end of diving board(s) 3platform
thickness should not be 200 at Itsfront 4designersshould consider
H, current standardsspecifiedbyFINAifpoolto be used fornational/international
standard events; recommendedthat divingpool beseparatefrom mainpool:
where not possible boardhotspringboardshould be confinedto 1000 and
wheninuse arconcerned should be ropedoffto avoid swimmerscausing

sectiotmof divingpoolstobe readin association with

'F' b
safety hazard

a
tables & 5

2 StandardsfordivingboardsapprovedbyAmateurSwimming Association A board hfromwater 1 m 1 m 2m 2 m 3m 3m 5m

B boardl 0.75 1.75 0.75 1.75 0.75 175 5.0
(UK) table a competitivedivingtable brecreational diving(firmboards) C board w 075 0 75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 2.0
0 d of waterat plummet 2.6 26 3.0 3.0 325 3.25 3.8
E distanced 0 3.0 4.0 3.0 4.0 3.5 4,5 6.0
maintainedforward
F distanced D 2.2 2.2 2.4 2.4 2.6 26 30
maintainedto sides
G clearanceforward 45 5.5 5.5 6.5 6.5 7.5 10.25
H clearancetosides 2.5 2.5 3.0 3.0 3.5 3.5 3.8
I distance to adiacent 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 25 2.5 2.5
board
J clearancebehind 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25
K clearancebehindboard 0.8 0.8 08 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
to wall
L clearanceoverhead 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
 Leisure 335

Sport: swimming
SLIPPERBATHS,SHOWERS CD

Slipper baths: in separate units; number approx 0.1 x pooi size (m2); (0
changing rrn
sizesaccording todemand and number ofvisitors —o(4);space required C
CD
Centrepassage width 3000.
Side passage width 1600.
Clotheshooks inside on freewall or inside door.
Window cillabove bath 1 300 above floor level.

Washable walls 1 800 abovefloor level.

Hard finishon solid floorwith drainage; all corners and skirtings coved;
all metal parts heavily galvanised; alltimberpainted 3undercoats and 1
finishing coat.
Steam baths: individual cubicles, box baths or shared baths (steam
1 Arrangementofsho&wcwithcirculationroutes
baths), separate for men and women,orused at differenttimes. Separate
rest rm 22°C, massage rm 30°, sho rm 25°with warm bath 22°and cold
bath 100. Shapes ofbenches for lying on—o(6).
Turkish bath —o(7): warm airrm 45—50°C, hotairrm 55—60° and sweat
rm 65—70°, adjoining rest, sho and massage rm as above. Outer walls
doublewith heated aircavity; ceiling slopes towardsoutside todrain off
condensation. All fittings rustproof. Windows with treble glazing. El
fittingswater tight.
Saunas—*(5)(6)—p1 17338

U,

I—
- 650
1000
-- HI
f-i 000 -
23 Sho passagesection&plan

I—2000—i I— 2700 —i —1900-1

2Ii (?)
-

1-2000--i 1-2000-1 i—2000-l

4 Cubiclesizes

1200—.- - 1000
F- -+—

rr -
'j......,400 4.. 400

Jo
T1H 420 Functionaianaiysisof healthb
340
bathr layout—o(4) — vesitibule + vestibule (1000)
mrii2 mm2

6 Bench typesforsteamb ab& bench 3800 5600

accordingto Finnish standards: bb&couch 5120 7800
12000;steps& benchesofwooden cbasabove 5220 7120
battensnailedfrombelowsothat d—easabove 7600 9600
5 StandardFinnish saunastove lasabove 7600 9600
with boiler (alsosuitableforwashing bodydoes nottouchhotnail heads
clothes) 8 Spaceneededforbath cubicles—.(4)
336 Leisure

Sport: swimming
POOLCHANGINGROOMS
i500'- 1000 1250 *- 1250 i- 1-.- 1250 —. Individual cubicles —v(lb): 1/visitor; size 1000 x 1000—1200;gross
area ofchanging rm/cubicle 3—4 m2.
Cubicles to be used in turn: (a) with locker —a(la)(2)3—4 lockers!
: cubicle; (b) with supervised central do —v(3)(4); size and area as for
cub,c'es cubicles individual cubicle; desirable ratio approx 53%. (Very economical: itfew
visitorscubicles can beusedsingly.)
Bath cubicles—ap335(4)(8)
Common changing rooms: (a) with central handing-in do —v(4);
a b space required/place 0.5—0.8 m2; (b) with locker —e(5b); space require-
loot washbasins mentas (a) + locker area, 3—4lockers/seat; locker size: 300 x 500—
400 x 600desirable ratio approx 26%; (c) without locker, with clothes
hooks—v(5a); for groups supervision desirable; space requirement as
1 Cubicleswithoutseparate shod &barefootpassages: ainterchangeable (a); desirable ratio approx 14%.
with locker bindividual
Heightofchanging rm 2800.

ventilation
shodpasage
-r
8
C,
— I —— ±
0 0
+
/\ fj J_ 1_i (_\ j_ -' 8
Oi
±

(\
f/ f\ /\
fi /\
,' 4.
,\
-4-

-4-
8
LI:'....

±
---4 4----;---4 f---1
8

I I
TWWThHH
400
F t *4004
F 1500 400 1500 •4
400
400

2 Interchangeablecubicleswith lockers 5 Commonchangingrm: awith clotheshooks bwith lockers

:
lernales lemales
—1300 11000 -l300-4 1— 1300 +1000-l--1300—

I..,.I.11111111
I
1_ """ii","
i_j I

iiiii—
:::....: I I

_: ,i. ,uslll,iuil.ui .1.

3 interchangeablecubicleswithcentralattended do
males

I—.- 4000 .—+—- 4000 —4

'F UUiUiffltlJ
,500
t3°°0
I common
504'

4.
clothesissue ______________________

clothesreceiving& issuing
] changing
rm

C, 1000
-
a, interchangeable 1.
cubicies

key

tool washbasin availabletofemaies outofuse

______________

availabletomales CiO5edslidingdoor

4 cubicles&common changingrmwithcentralsupervised
Interchangeable 6 Changingarplannedsothat2centralspacescanbeusedat different times
do by eithersex
 Leisure 337

I-130O-i-1000-1300--+- 2200
Sport: swimming
POOLCHANGINGROOMS
-1
Forpublic bldg essential find most economic staffing solution. Division
of interchangeable sections by sex can be varied by use of sliding
partitions —ep336(6) or byswitching notice boards.
Av visitors 60—70%men 30—40%women
Clothes sto: individual lockers orattendant supervised basket—.(4)sto
1 Cubiclewith supervised do;
—sp336(3)(4)
interchangeablecubiclesformen &
women;indicatorboard 0canbe Space requirements —(2)(3):
switchedaccordingtodemand
500 bench/adult
F—750H-—750 —H 400 bench/child
] T.S
foldingbench
' bench h 375; bench w 300
In open-air bathsper changing rm 40 users per section or area20 coat
hooks on run of board forcoat hooks 3000.
m -r
shoes,

j30O 29
Ratio of total changing/clothes sto space per user approx 1 .75 m2.
Cubicles and clothesstand of timberor corrosion resistant metal with

L
hooksfor
clothes proprietary panels —(3).
Include changing needs ofdisabled users: 2000 x 2000 cubicle.

Coatstandsfor interchangeable 3 Cubicleswith proprietarypanels

cubicledo inbaths atNordeneyGermany WATERCLEANING
Purification, flocculation and disinfection ofswimming pool water: hygi-
enically essential turnover period forindoor public pools:
swimming pool 3hr
learner pool 1/2 hr
diving pool 6 hr
Purification of river, surface and pooi water chemically byflocculationof
organicsubstances to induce coagulationfollowed by filtration. Filterrm
sizes—÷(6).
Disinfection usually bychlorination.
In asymmetrical pools arrange outlets so that complete through flow
possible and no watercan stagnate in corners. For cleaning pooi floor,
specially in open-air pools, remove sediment with brushes and suction
sediment pump.

4 Basketcoathangerwithshoebagforinterchangeable cubicles

capacity/hr aroffilter rm clear h

offilterrrn
m3 m2 m

20—40 20—30 3.5

60 40 3.5
80—100 50 3.5
150—200 60 3.5
250 65 3.5
300 70 3.5
400 80 4.5
6 Spacerequiredforfilter
installation;foropenairadd 50%

120 120
polishedterrazzo I- t— 600 —t--i

h— 800 —

I— 2030

5 Water chute BadKissingenGermany

338 Leisure

Sport
SAUNAPLANNING
fresh
Domestic saunas—xpl 17
exhaustair exhaustair ax
sauna ussr
Bathing time: 3 x 8—12 minute sessions, total for 1 bath 120 minutes.
entrance/exit under

• t airb
Rm forcooling (sho, hose, plunge) —x(2)(3)(9)(1 0)and airbath—x(3)(12).
I Natural cold waterpleasanter: lake orsea inlet (or snow).
Air bath: breathing in fresh cool air as offset to hot air, cooling down
body. Provide protection against peeping; seating; water cooling by
freshairrmH hose withoutrose or/and plunge of approx 1 000 m3. Warm footbwith

hosean she_a bI warn,fool

1 Privatesaunadiagram
warmfootb essentiai,plungeboptional
2 Domesticsauna—xpl17
seating required.
Changing area: cubicles (oropen) fortwice number ofvisitors at peak
times —(13); also ancillary rest and massage rm —x(12) for approx 30
visitors, 2 massage points; 1 rest rm for 1/3 bathers apartfromstaff.
Room temp: undressing 20—22°C; pre-cleanse 24—26°; cooling
(coldwater) rm 18—20°; massage rm20—22°.

J —400
swlrmningpooi
-850

I— 900 - 450

3 Saunain swimmingha 9 Plungeb 10 Section—x(9)

2000 I

11 Publicsaunasuite Ashton-

±t.h
under-Lynepool England
4 Planl—3P 5 2—4P 6 3—5P Arch TechnicalUnitforSport

OT 500- 500 p600

S 1—600--I 1 refreshments
2 changingml
3 pre-cleanse
4 hoserecess
5 piungeb
6 warn,footb
7 sauna

I l—.-—3750 —Ii-—-4280 —-41.2000 11— 4250 —44-.-— 4000 1

8 freshairb
9 restrm
10 massage
11 cash desk

7 Saunafor1—3Pt section

12 Saunafor 30Pt plan

IP nTlsizesegfor30P

changingrm 0.8—1.0m'IP changingmi 24—30 xi'

pre-cieanse& wc 0.3—0.5m'/P pre-cleanse 9—15 rn'
sauna 0 5—06m'/P sauna 15—18rn'
coolingmm 1.0-1.5 m'/P coolingIn, 30-45rn'
restrm 03—0.6m'/P massage 12—iBm'
restm, 9—lBrmi'
freshair 0.5 m'/P
6—Bm lob, iav,corr 99—144m'
massage +21—35m'
air b 20—50m'
bench 120—17gm'

8 Saunawith indirectheating (Bemberg):section 13 Arrequiredper P& mi sizes

 Leisure 339

Sport: tennis
COURT REQUIREMENTS
Playing space needed for court—(1): h of net at centre 915, at posts
10970
1 060; netting enclosure h 4000; 2.5 wire 40 mesh. Artificial lighting
10 m h at long sides. Scale of courts to population: regular players av
1370
2% oftotal; ratio courts/players 1:30 to 1:35 very good, 1:45orover
poor; new courts 1:30. Additional space amounting to 25% ofplaying
spaceneeded forcar park,children'splay area, paths,bldg etc.
Surface: exceptionally smooth, hard and pervious to rain: must attract
very little dust and be dazzle free; materials: grass, cinders, plastics.

3 Drainageplansfortenniscourts

end margin

enclosure h= 11.0
9000
enclosure dimensions international&national county & club recreational
relating to standards officialchampionships recommended 7000
of play

minendmargin 6400 6400 5490

h
mm sidemargin 3660 3660 3050

mm enclosure 36580x 18290 36580x 18291 34750x 17070

size for 1 cOurt
—6400 11.89 1
wiorcourts 33530 31700
in 1 enclosure
4 Coveredcourt h
waddedloreach 15240 14630
additionalcourt

Playingspace neeoed forcourtsofdifferent standardsaccording to

requirementsof(UK) LawnTennisAssociation I 14.0
2000I 10.0 i'2000.i

10.97-

-
fl!
—36.57- 16.27
'f
I neth800

(TeTh a
:.:.:.z.L.:.;:.:!:!r:..t.:.J.:.:.:.:

2 Dimensions& shapesforcoveredcourts—(4)sections alongitudinal 5 Children'scourt

bcross
340 Leisure

Sport
SKI JUMPINGSLOPES

pian

1
/
Sketch forconstructionofskijumpslopes

Following symbols should be used:

P datum point Djstance fromparapet of lower referee's cabin ofhorjzontal 'd' beneath
TP table point
edge of platform: D x tg 16°—20°. Cabins should be located stepped
K critical point (end of Slowingdown section & startof runoutslope) along diagonals formed by line fromplatform edgetoend of point 'D'.
B endof landing runforvaulting Upper sideof floor of individualcabins lies 1 000—1 200 beneathparapet.
M slowing-down section (distancefromPlo K) Diagonal oftowertoaccess oftrack should be7°—i0°sothatreferee can
Mi distance from P to B properly observe entire flightand landing.
L distance fromedgeof slope to P
Li distance fromedge of slope to K As manystarting pointsas possible should be locatedon run up distri-
H verticaf projectionof L buted evenly along length E15 whose distance should amount to about
N horizontal projectionof L 1 000vertically. Bottom starting point: E — E/5.
H:N ratio ofverticalsto horizontals Mm widthofjump-offtrackat K: L1/7 + 4m.
a slopeof platform
b slopeof jump-off trackat datum point(P)upto criticalpoint(K)
C run upslope
Ri radius of bend fromrunupto platform
R2 radius of bend fromlump-off to run Out
Remarks
All slopesgivenin oldgrading (360°). If transfersparabolic, thenRi and
R3 radius of bend fromplatformto jump-offtrack
P2 smallest curves on thoseparabolas.
I Iofplatform
U partof runupinwhichspeed no longerincreases Withnatural runup, sections mainlyused should be marked every2000
E partof runupinwhichspeed increases to help locate starting point precisely.Gradients on platformand several
F OveralllOfrunup(F=U±E+I) pointsin curve between run upand platformend should be recorded on
A lofrunout both sidesbyfixedbuilt-in profiles so that even non-experts can deter-
Vo speed at platformedge in rn/s mine correctand precise profile when jump being worked.
D horizontaldistancefromplatformedge to lower part ofreferees
Profile markings should be applied along jump-off profile both sides
tower
down torun-out, allowingexact snow profileto bedeterminedparticularly
0 distancefromjump offtrackaccessto referee'stowerfront edge
in deepsnow. Jumps with L more than 5Dm should not normallybe built
Standardsforchiefparts of platform: with Vo of less than 21 m/s. Jumps with Lover 90 m not approved by
H:N 0.48—0.56 Fédération internationale deski (FIS) (except foraerial skijumps).
Datum point of platformcan bedetermined:
P Li —M, wherestandardsforMare:
M 0.5—0.8Vo forplatforms up toP= 70m
M 0.7—1.1 Vo forplatformsuptoP = 90m
Mi 0—0.2Vo medium &largejumps
Ri 0.12Vo2—0.i2Vo2+ 8m
R2 0.14 Vo2—0.14Vo° + 2Dm E L
R3 profile selectedforfront structurewhich best meetsangleof flight
I 0.22Vo
C C C 9—12 8—10 €a

U 0.02Vo2 D 0.5—0.7x Li to loweredge oftower 3O 35' 4O U I Vo 056 0.54 0.52 05 0.48 b .1.

A 4—5Vo on horizontalrunOut 0 0.25—0.50x Li

62 52 44 8.8 46 21 53.0 51 0 35—37
smalljumps
71 58 49 9.7 48 22 65.3 630 60.8 58.5 562
E L
80 65 54 10.6 5.1 23 71.5 69.0 665 64.0 61.5 36—30°
c c C 8—10 7—9 6—8
89 72 60 114 53 24 77.7 750 722 695 66.7
30° 35' 40 U T Vo =0.5 0.48 0.46 0.44 0.42 0.4 0.38 b .1. 99 80 67 125 5.5 25 840 81 0 780 750 72.0 37—30°

25 23 21 4.5 3.3 15 20.0 19.5 19.0 18.5 18,0 17.5 170 30—34 111 90 74 140 5.7 26 902 870 837 805 77.2

32 28 25 5.1 3.5 16 25.5 24.8 24.0 23.3 22.5 21.8 21 0 3O—35 124 100 81 150 5.9 27 96.3 930 895 860 82.5 38—40°

39 32 28 5.8 3.7 17 31.0 300 29.0 28.0 27,0 26.0 250 33—30° 137 110 88 16.0 62 28 915 87.7

46 37 32 6.5 4.0 18 36.5 35.3 34.0 32.8 31.5 30.3 29.0 33—30°
3 Dimensionslargerslopes
52 43 37 7.2 42 19 42.0 40.5 39.0 37 5 36 0 34.5 33.0 34—37 Example: accordingtoterrainfollowingdataapplyto LI &H:NegH/N =0.54;
C = 35°; L = 87m; intableyouwillfind L = 87&incolumn to left Vo=26; at
59 49 42 8.0 4.4 20 47 5 45 8 44.0 42.3 40.5 38.8 37.0 34—37W
somelevelbeneathc=35°,E=gOm,U=14&T=5.7;F=E+ U+T=
90+ 14 + 5.7 = 109.7m: skijumpwith dimensionsdifferingfromabovecan
2 Dimensionssmall slopes beapprovedbyFIS but in suchcasesdesignermustgive writtenreasons
 Leisure 341

Sport
SKIJUMPING SLOPES
5
a

if"
I
I
juniorlumP

LI
4 _
Olympicjump

5
I
,
!6
___________________

0 6 12 18 24m

b
40 40 40 ott

m vi
Olympicjump

1 Skijumpsat aGarmisch-
Partenkirchen Germany
b HolmenkollenNorway: 1 start
2 run up 3take-offplatform 4 run
out 5grandstand 6umpires towers

ICE RINKS Standard racetrack: 1300m, 333.3 m,standard400m: measured500

Hosed ice rinksinsomecountries ontenniscourts, rollerskating rinks
and similar large areas (surrounding wall h approx 100—150); water
layer20; drainage forletting out water.
Artificial ice rinkswith refrigeration system 25 below screed. Pump
system with deep freeze salt solution or cold air chambers (usually
ammonia compression method) —e(3)—(5).Sometimes combination of
rollerskatingrink summer (Mar—Nov) and ice rink winter (Dec—Feb).
Refrigeration system25—50 below top of rink surface (not possible on
terrazzo).
in fromedgeoftrack—e(2). In double track system each track 3000 w
5000. Ice hockey—ep342.
Bobsleigh runs with pronounced camber madeofice blocks atcurves.
Spectators preferably oninside curves, otherwise protective mounds of
snoworstraw bales.
Toboggan runssitutated on N-NW-NE slopes, preferably in hollow: I
1 500—2500m; incline 15—25%;w 2000.FIat finish orrise inopposite
direction, camber at curves, obstacles protected with straw bales or
snowmounds. Walk-up alongside noton run.

400mracetraclc
2xosntralaxis= 2x111.94= 223.88m
innercurve =25.5x3.1416= 80.11m
25 oulercurve =30.5x3.1416= 95.82m
111.94 CrOSSIng
—20.97 70 P/
startls0Om
7.957.76 innerlane
20.97—1O00m
41 3000m //i!
,-5000 m_/'/'/
) JcringPxtradsw from70m
=0.18m
----.- crossingstraight

2 Standardracetrack 400mI

100

seamlesspipes
distrbution rods
in 75 endline
concretemd
trios-salt
insul--—
ahon
_.....f
sub-concrete

concrete
elf
felt
prig
steel
reinforcement 2'
m
crease
protectiveordIe
radius2000
gravel

3 Artificialice rink: layoutof 4 Detail ofsurfacepipes 5 Detail ofembeddedpipes 6 Longcurlingground

refrigerationsystem(brine)
342 Leisure

Sport
ICE RINKS (cont)
Curling —(1): ground 42 m; w 4000 (30 x
m-nee 0 l() 3000also possible); intermediatetracks(strips)
targetground
1 m; pitch ends 600. Starting and aiming
areas surrounded with easily crossed wooden
run-ott— barrier on3 sides.
sideline —— Scottish curling—e(2): field 142m;target area
I
1000 (tee) 03650. Tocentre pointoftee 38.35 m. If
ice poor, reduce to 29.26 m. Curling stone:
0 .LI weight19.958 kg, circumference 914,h
ofcircumference.
1/8
—I
.Le5aO
Icehockey—o(3): ground 26 x 56 m, 30
x 61 m. Goal1830w, 1220h; may be played
around back. Pitch requires wooden barrier
1200h—u(3).

a Figure skating: rectangular rink 26 x 53 m

30 x 60 m. Combination ofrollerskating rink
in summer (Mar—Nov) and ice rink in winter
(Dec—Feb).Cold pipe system 25—50 beneath
track surface —*p34l (5).

ROLLERSKATINGRINKS
2 Scottishcurling rink
1 Sportstracks
rollerskating hockey—.(4)15 x 30—
20 x 40 m
figureskating 25 x 50 m
2 Play tracks lOx 10—
20 x 20m.
Impact board 250 h, 30 above track, 800 para-
pet along allsides, 2000chain-linkgrid at narrow
end (to catch ball), surrounding walking areas
1200; 50—100 deeper. Joints 5—6, slope
0.2%. Surface wateringuttersorditches, frost
protection layer 200 —*(4).

Construction
Asbestoscement panels 15; laid on squared
timberor on sand bed. Concrete tracks, 100—
150 according to type of bed, jointless ifposs-
ible, but imitation joints may be incised 2—3
wide.Space jointsevery 25—30 m, gap width
15.

Hard concrete screed, 8 on fresh concrete

base (20 mortar if possible to take up stress
1000—2000 I between screed and concrete base).
.+_5400-÷--5000_1
Cementscreed withadditives 1—10.
Terrazzo, polished, 15, joint rails of brass,
I I
1
1215 1000
centre
ptnalt4
point I
a Ib E
o
Cs
metalalloyor plastics, only forindoor tracks.
Castasphalt trackson fixed base, as normal.
2
jj
I

I
200

Iu
I

30-40m

4 Rollerskatinghockey

rollerskatetrack
Thnx\n
30m

N9
cxi,
teamchangingrm

L=rr
vc
5 ArtifIcialice& rollerskatingtrack
 Leisure 343

Sport: golf
SITE
Courses generally cover between 40 and 60 ha. Most popular those Fairways
amongsand dunes or on heath land, neither hilly norflat. Well-drained Width normally 30—40 m. Start 100 m from men's tee. Playing width!
arable land generally suitable; in UK government grants may enable hole: 60 m (90 m on boundaries).
more expensive works beconsidered if derelictortipped land reclaimed.
Rough
Golf holes need proper safety margin: should not pass closeroads or Carry rough:tee to fairway
throughnarrow tongues between houses.
Marginal rough: to either side of fairway,generally with mown band of
LAYOUT—(1) semi-rough' of approx 10 m before trees, shrubs etc.

9 holes while Bunkers

Normally 18 holes: often prudent start with providing
future extension. Sand areas averaging perhaps 100 m2 but of all shapes and sizes. To
influence play determineoptimum line, provide options and penalise
Site round club house 1stand 10th tee, 9th and 18th green (preferably mistakes.
infull view), putting green, practiceground, car parks,members entrance
and serviceaccess. Ifprofessional's shop separate,place onway to first
tee.
Area dictates total length absolutely; contour, natural features and
obstacles affectitmarginally.
Expect about 5300 m from40ha
6220 m from60 ha
Par is rating of av professional performance and yardstick by which
measure skill, errors and course difficulty: applied to each hole and
totalled for 18—.(2).

Tees
May be combined on av length course but may be separated into
championship, medal, club, ladies at progressively shorter distances.
Allow300 m2 (400 m2 at par 3 holes).
a
Greens —(4)
Size tosuit approach shotand need to spread wear by changing holes:
say400 m2 to 600m2.

3 agolfclub b golfbag
Cgolftrolley

1 Golf courselayout(GolfDevelopment Council)

strokes par

par! usuall 75 72 71 67 67
hole m

3 110—1921—2 3 4 5 4 4
4 290—410 1 1 2 9 11 13 12 10
5 440—500 1 2 2 6 3 0 1 4

avm 6310 5580 5120 5120 6760

2 Parvalues 4 Typicalgreen: 59m2
344 Leisure

Sport: equitation
INDOORSCHOOLS
Location
Preferably attownedges directily connected bybridlepathtowoodland,
pasture, heath-land orotherhacking-out —v(1).
In past ridingschoolsusually grew round existing bldg, eg adding to
stablesof old house, building asbestos-clad barn structure over riding
area to provideall-weather teaching.

Siting & access

1 Countrylivery stables& riding school
size ofopen trackwi
frontofschool:70.0>' 100.0
clearhot largeschool:11.2
clearhot smallschool 8.0
Essential requirements for anysite:
goodaccess for heavy vehicles aswell ascars
access toopencountry and/or bridlepaths
adequate el supply
adequate watersupply, possibly including fire hydrants
loose boxes should be protected fromprevailing winds
low-lying sites whichcatch water and are usually frostyin winter to be
avoided
stable smells sited awayfrom adjacenthouses
turning space for horsebox trailersand for loweringramps side and rear,
with space to load and unloaddifficulthorses;tuming space also required
formuck lorry —vp345(1)(2)
access for fire appliances; requires roads mm 3600 wide capable of
supporting pumping appliance laden weightapprox 101, with mm turn-
ing circle17 m dia
mm clearance height 3600, forhay lorries 4500: all gate openings mm

-. If' >partrmabove width3000clear

douhie>'andsclosed space to convert barn or erectpurpose-designed indoor school; nun
0 inatapprox5600 above land requirementwith outdoor installations —vp3454ha.
both gangways&stan
arwith lanternround
top
hot bldgabovestandings
Planning& layout
Planning of installations breaks down into 3 main groups: instruction,
2400, gangways4600;
litbylanternabove horse management,admin—vp345.
increasedhover
gangways Traditional plan usually arranges loose boxes looking inwards to court-
yard with only covered way in front of each box. Later development:
totally enclosed loose boxes arranged either side of corridor enabling
themtobeserviced bytractorand trailor circulatingthrough block—v(3):
disadvantage extra cost, including extrafire precautions; horses can
become bored withoutoutside view. However, betterworking condi-
tions forstable girls;ventilation can becontrolled toeliminatedraughts;
easier tomaintain even temp; quieterconditions canbeadvantageifsite
near road or railways.
Othergeneral principles:
preferable school not so near stables that voice of command from
instructors canbe heard and sodisturb horses atrest;
riskoffire in stables necessitates special planning consideration: straw
sto requires mm 1 hrfr from other parts of bldg, or fire break at least
4500recommended.
Consult relevantcodes and standards.

Spacerequired
Size of indoor school dictated by ability of fast moving horse turn
10.0—11.0mø. Many differentstandardsofcovered school. UK National
Equestrian Centre has riding area 61 x
24.4 m, large enough contain
international size arena and hold dressage and showjumping events,
with seating for300along 1 side.At other end ofscale possible provide
suitable area underDutch barn, ofwhich sidesonly clad for 3000from
— eaves, with wattle hurdles enclosing floor.Whatever standard of bldg
_____________ essential indoor ridingspace be 42 x 22 m to give40 x 20 m clear
20 19 floor space required forelementary dressage, allowingfortiltedkicking-
seroce
18
-
17 boardsurrounding walls.
hay
sto yard 16
i_ yard wof school floorfor single circuit accordingly: 12.0 m
14 13 wof school floorforgroups: 15.25 preferably 20.117 m
12 11 I ofschoolfloor ratio 2:110w eg40.0:20.0
10 I can be increased: 20.0 x 60.0—80.0
x
military school: 18.29 54.86m
h ofbldg: 4000—5000
muck
container
-
Information based on requirementsof British Horse Society (BHS), British Show
feed -
2 Jumping Association(BS,JA) and Fédération d'EquitationInternationale(EEl)

II n ii
tack

Ii
im —I
Ueichange

-r
entrance
ue=amity box
3 Plan of Lea Bridgeriding schoolLondon Lee ValleyRegional Park
Authority Arch J M VBishopMGQuinton
 Leisure 345

Sport: equitation
RIDINGCENTREPREMISES
10.0 7.O(7.0
I 2500
t6.01.11.o i0.O Vehicle and loading areas—+(1 )(2)
landrover I
&trailer horse box
I
Instructional: indoor school and areas—u(3)(4); outdoor manege—e(5);

fl7.oI
1 Clearancerequiredfor 2
6.0
manure container

Clearancerequiredfor
grass paddocks (mm 8000 m2); outdoorshow jumping ring; outdoor
dressage area; cross country training area; clubrm/lecture rm/canteen;
sf0 forjumps, cavaletti etc(approx 5% activity area).
Horse management:stables (loose boxes —a(6)and stalls); utility box:
manoeuvringhorsesintotrailer/box manoeuvringlargecontainertruck grooming, clipping, shoeing, washing, treatment of cuts etc (size as
loose box but without fittings except tie rings); sick box (approx
3500 x 4500): should be away fromother boxes but within sight of
62.0 other horses; door should be in 2 leaves for horse to look out or be
60.35 enclosed if requires complete quiet; sling suspended frombeam with
42.0 block and chain may be needed: 1 250 kg max loading (for heavy
40.234 draught horse); larger establishments may need completely isolated
boxfor infectious diseases.
Feed sto —u(7), feed rm, tack rm—u(8)(9), tool sto; hayand straw sto:
Dutch-barn type structure; size depends on number of horses and
— ====1 method of buying: year's supply of hay most economic way to buyas
I I ..L
JL-_ I
mm

riear_
riding space I

temahona
I
price rises steeply during winter; straw price not affected so much
therefore sto less critical. Datato determine size required: for 1 horse
approx 9 kg hay/day, 1/2 bale straw/day; weight: 1 bale hay approx 23
kg, 1 bale straw approx 18 kg; bale size approx 900 450 x 450: x
approx 10% extra volume should beallowed ontotal storequired forair
3 Ridingschoolar: mm hneeded forjumping4000, 5000 preferable;
doorw 2300in twinsliders;ifspectatorseating needed will beadditional to circulation and remaining stock when newload arrives.
riding ar; judgesbox &collection/mounting aralso needed Mucksto: traditionally openbunkers with brickorblock wallson4sides
with opening approx 900 wide on 1 side: concrete floor should drain
33.2 towards this opening with gully outside. Size depends on number of
f—18.3-4 horses and management.Allow approx 5.6m3/horse/week. After month

-
volume reducedapprox two-thirds. Skip-type containersrecommended:
various sizes depending onnumber ofhorsesand frequency ofremoval.
01
manege
E J
365
ring
&
rail Veterinary sto: bandages may be kept in cupboards or pigeon-hole
1' fence racks. Leg bandage measures 127 wide and approx 75dia. Medicines
101a surround
and poisons should be kept inseparate cupboardsand clearly labelled.
C
at
Smithy: possibly 10—15 m2 in large centres otherwise space to park
ra
C mobile blacksmith.
48.8- 5 0 cinder
57.81 •
tm
E
all-weather
welldrained
Administration; reception off; manager's off; staff rm; first aid rm;
lavatories; changing rm; garaging for horse boxes, tractors and trailers;
I a surface
resident accn formanager; residentaccnfor grooms and/or stable girls;
plant rm (boilers, el switchgear etc); workshop.
5 Manegering
entrancefrom stables
—24.4—25.9-—'f 3500 3500
4 Indoorshowjumpingarenawithcollectingnng,warm-up&practicejump
space:formounting/collecting ar allowfor20—30 horsesat 3.5—5 m2each
r_-4&oboiIe°
iJ_
racks

Jo ii
8 'feedsto 1200
I

L_1 j•x900
______
x skunitL
7 Feed sto:size
Ivanisedmetal screen 2hatterhooks
metal channel protective
I _______
.—i
_________

shelfoer hot & cold

dependson numberof
horses &methodof
buying feed (sacksor
______
ca ping to door
entrancefromyard
bucket
bulk); each bin capableof

j{ taps over holding 101 kgoats, 76kg

11tiering
fallonmanger
floor /
painted brickwork
straphinges

b
kick-overlatch gulley
bran, 178kgcubes

r
a halter
hooks enirancefromyard 8 Planoftypicaltack &
clean rm; in larger
- mange e
bridleracks
ceilinghung
ce4nghung
dr'jing rack
iop
with units establishmentsseparate
hayrack bridlecleaning+ + 3500 cleaningrm desirable;
r—49000451) BHS recommends1 tack
holders saddlehorse
tie ring forhay net hooksfor
ullnose\ rm/15 horses;valueof
brick
girths ragchesfS.f1 ffsosk tack requires rrnspecially
tiering for horse ----8500 cleanrm draining
securefrom burglars
automatic
o
drinking trough or
[___///
150O saltlickholder
3500 r 9 Eqp storedintackrm includes:
C
saddleson racks anotlowerthan700
fromfloor nor higherthan 1800,600
6 Typicallayoutforloosebox: mm intemaldimensionsponies 3000 x centres;stirrups& leathers;bridleson
3000, horsesbelow 16handshigh3000x 3500, horsesabove16hh3500 racks b 1 600abovefloor;head
x 4000; recommendedh approx3000—4000; ifinternal corrneeded mm w collars,girthsonhooks 1 800 above
3000recommendedfor usebyservicing vehicles&as means of fireescape; floor;blankets, rugs,sheetsusually
stallsmm 12700,mm w 1 800; mm passage betweenstalls1 800 asection storedingalvanisedsteelchests(may
belevation Cplan a b be kept in generalsto)
346 Leisure

Sport: marinas
DEFINITION
Marina's main role provide shelter from wind, waves and swell of
passing craft; access to moorings at all states of tide with space for
manoeuvre; tieing-uppoints for boats with services, eqwater, el, tele-
phone, television, refuse collection, fire fighting, sanitation, public
address system; sanitary needs and amenities for yachtsmen, eq wc,
sho,changing and drying rm, entertaining,sporting activities,shopping;
water
Liwater
car parking; eqpforlaunching, lifting, manoeuvring, repairing, maintain-
d / land ing boats; other bldg directly relatedto boating.

bJFJJW TYPES OF DEVELOPMENT

Landto water relationship —'(1): land locked —'(4), built-in —'(5),

1
®eO
Landtowater relationship: a land-locked bbuilt-in csemi-recessed
semi-recessed, offshore, island (constructed in open water: special
case).
Tidal situation:
non-tidal: variations ofwaterlevel 1000; usually easy for people and
trolleysand simple connexions between onshore and offshore service
d offshore e island systems;
tidal: substantial changes of water level; difficult connexion between
a ////////// pontoons and land for people and services; construction difficulties
almost inevitable.
N
Site selection factors:legalproblems; transport systems; potential for
L1!IJJ future extension; construction options and methods; geological,
b%'////////// hydraulic, climatic; soil and sub-soil; orientation, physical features,
erosion, possibility offlooding; engineeringnetwork onshore; materials
stability; tides, currents, navigational requirements; pollution control;
labour sources; effect of marina on existing environment during
construction periodand after completion.
0 125 250375 500w
4J0 800120016005
2 Energy-absorbing slopesinside 3 Pontoonlayouts: astretching OFFSHOREBOAT HARBOUR COMPONENTS
HantsholmharbourDenmark from land bstretchingfrom
breakwaters cstretchingfrom Area needed: craftsizesvary: I 4.8—21.3m (USA 4.3—24.4m), beam
floatingelements 1.8—6.0m (USA 2—6m); areas ofwatercalculatedon basis ofplanned
numberand sizeof craft moored, pontoon layout, types ofberth.
Depth ofwater: mm 600 (USA 610) plus max draft ofvessel at lowest
astronomical tide, 300 reserved for stilting, 300 for clearance, If too
shallow atlowest tidedredging necessary.
Channel: leading to entrance 20—30 m wide; main channel within
harbour area depends on number and sizes of craft passing through at
any 1 time, mm w 18 m.
Entrance:protectionrequired from ingress(waveenergy tobeabsorbed
before choppy conditionsarise inyacht basin)—'(2); suitableprotection:
spending beaches, rocks or concrete blocks moulded to appropriate
shapes, piles.
Pontoon layouts: well selected layout very important; main choice
limited to pontoonsstretching from a land, b breakwaters, c floating
elements —'(3).

9
50 10 150 200w Berth types—'(6): a stern toquay, iettyorpontoon bowsto piles (poor
150 300 450 6006 for embarking); b same but bowsmoored to anchors or buoys (notfor
tidal marinas); c alongside finger piers or catwalks, 1 craft each side
4 Yacht basinChichesterEngland: land locked, 1000berths (convenient for embarking); d alongside quays, ietties or pontoons,
single banked; esame upto 3 or4abreast (disadvantageofyachtsmen
on outer climbing overinnercraft); fstar finger.
central

k
square

kb
5 MarinaPort GrimaudFrancebuilt onreclaimed
marshland:900 flats each withberth 6 Types ofberth
Hto a
 Leisure 347

Sport: marinas
COMPONENTS(cont)
1
CD
sand) resting on sea bed; circular shaped cusps between units, positive (I)
contribution towave energyabsorption;
Locks: oftenhave more than 1 compartment; should maintainconstant C
water level on 1 side,other side varying withtide; capacity decided by
floating: usually considered for sites with great depth of water and
peak use; waiting pontoons either side lock recommended. relatively mild conditions; sometimes act as secondary protection or
CD

Pontoon design: often used to carryservices and to support lighting
units, lockers, refuse collection points, fire fighting devices; service
bollards oftenprovided: boats/bollard 2—6;sewage collection points for
boats recommended either as holding tanks or as outlets connected
with vacuum sewage system leading to onshore network. Mm w main
access pontoons 2000with fingers 500 wide;if total pier I over 100,
2500wmoreappropriate; mm wfloating pontoon 2500.
Pontoon types: fixed: for non-tidal marinas; fixed deck (timber,
aluminium, plastics decking) resting on structural supports (piles most
common);serviceducts usuallyunderdeck;
floating:for tidal marinas or where structural difficulties occurand sup-
portson bed not feasible (eg deep water, geological conditions); deck
fixed tofloating unitsand so kept at required level above water; floats of
steel, plastics, timber, concrete, polystyrene, filled with lightweight
material (eq polystyrene) or left hollow; pontoons held in position by
dolphins; in exceptional cases may be anchored to bed; connexion to
land byhingedbridge,ramps, lifts, hoists, collapsible steps.
Breakwaters: rubble mound: mainly forsites with relatively small tidal
variations; alternative concrete blocks moulded to shape: not appro-
priate for more extensive structures; with relatively shallow slope (1:2
to 1:3) rubble mound occupies largewater area otherwise available for
craftor otheressential uses;
vertical face: concrete walls (constructed in open sea conditions as
mass concrete or buttress structures): efficient when built, difficult
constructand maintain;
caisson type: precast concrete cylinders (either hollow or filled with
primary barrier, reducing sea impact before waves reach main sea
defence.
Fuellingpoints:considered desirable but not required by authorities
(UK); floating tanks not usually accepted. NB fire risk prevention at
pointsofflexibleconnexions between tanks and floating pumps.
Pollution control: in non-tidalmarinaswater circulationcertainlyrequired
but hard to achieve. Sanitary accn for yachtsmen essential (travelling
distance 100 m); provide refuse disposal units close to craft as
possible; pollution culverts may alsobe needed.
Onshore elements:
car parking: ratio cars: boats 1:1—1:2; not too farfromcraftforyachts-
men and their eqp;
sanitary accn; recommended mm either 1 wc and 1 shoeach sexper20
berthsor 1 wc, 1 urinal, 1 hb, 1 shoper25men, 1 wc, 1 hb, 1 shoper25
women (max occupancy of harbour estimated 6O%; suggested ratio
men towomen 2:1);
yacht clubs: floor ar/P 1.0—5.0 m2: club rm, lay, drying rm, bars,
restaurants, meeting rm, indoorsports, off, information centre, sleeping
accn, caretaker's flat:
hard standing, boat sf0, repair shop and other elements related to boat
maintenance and handling; should have suitable device for boat lifting
and launching and easy connexion toroads; freeareas formanoeuvring;
to fuel tanksoftensitedclose to boatyards;
ancillaries may include customs, coastguards, lock keepers, insurance
brokers, car hire, travel agent oft.

a
-l—l-
[DDfl .I
njjiiii_j.I

4 Boat sto with hoist

1 MarinaentrancedesignBrightonUK

5 Stoforsmall motor boats

Sto

bar

lecturerm club

2 Main componentsof lock

ter
d
6 Floatingjetty with housing superstructure 7 Clubhousedesign StokesBay sailingclub
Brightonmarina: section Gosport UK: aWelevation bgroundfloor cfirst
floor dsecondfloor

Sportreferences:
—Bibliography entries003006 046 083 183 205 212 297 355 384 388
3 Slidingcaisson& dockentrance 475514515516517537538549585586587588639
348 Leisure

Theatres
REGULATIONS
street
-- passage

i:I
overt Reg concerning theatre and cinema bldg and schemes not rigid inUKor
1•passage
v
audience
> '1' USA:concern public safety; must becomplied with to obtainnecessary
otherwise court
a9o4 licence; should be discussed with licensing authority atearliest stage.
stage Principles applicable world wide;main task ofarchitectachieve balance
between commercial, artistic and spectator requirements, and design
passage >40
-& I
street
!ih1:
4O
scheme which complies with 'means of escape' and differential detail
safety reg.
40 Street For consents required in UK in addition to theatre or cinematograph
licence—.Bib300 301 328 329 346 347 361 363 591 598 599
1 Distanceto adjoiningbldg if 2 Distanceiftheatreparallel
theatre Ito
street tostreet For USA—e local bldg codes

Organisation
Theatres may bedividedinto 3 parts—e(4):

reception: entrance, booking hall, foyer, cloaks etc

auditorium
stage: main stage, wings, back of stage, scenery sto, workshops,
dressing rm, rehearsal rm etc
Parts vary in content and size depending on type of theatre: opera,
drama, revieworcinema.
Situation: Bldg for public entertainmentmust be sited allow audience
leavearea more rapidlythan requiredleavepremises.Check requirements
3 Distanceiftheatreliesbetween 4 LayoutofViennaStateOpera at earliest stage.
blocks
—v(1)(2)(3)for typical dimensions.
concert . .
revtew cinema
opera Audience arrival times —s(5) extend from 15—30 minutes, departures
5—20 minutes.
Pwaitingin booking ha 6% 10% Car parks —vp248—50. Capacities usually determined by planning
Pbookingwithin20mm before 8% 20% 100%
authority. Site vehicle entrance away from theatre entrance. Include
performance covered areaforsetting down passengers.
queuingforadvance booking 2—15mm 2—15 mm —
ticket control 1 mm 1 mm 1 mm Exits mustall openoutwards and comply with requirementsfornumbers
time, ifarrivingbycar 4—12 mm 6—9 mmr 2—5 mm and travel distance. General rule for numbers (UK) 1600 width for250
seating 4 mm visitorsor partthereof with mm of2exits —.(6)(7).Ramps not toexceed
% ofPleavingseatsat interval 75 50 —
time requiredfor leavingseatto 10% in UK; can be limited to 5% incontinental Europe.
foyer 4 mm 4 mm —
— Cloakrooms—v(7) Modern systems include self-service lockable coat-
time intoilet 6 mm
hangers orlimited length counters with mm number attendants.
1 mm
time fromseattodrive,excludingdo 5mm 6 mm —
waitingfor taxisortransport 1—15mm 1—15 mm — Stairs—v(8) —°p408 Must complywith exitwidths requirements.Ifwidth
more than 1 800 should be designed as double stairs with central
S Tableafter Burns-Meyer& Cole(—oBibi52) giving% ofP&time inmm handrail, 2 x 1100 ie 2200 wide. Risers not exceed 150, treads mm
needed reachorleaveseats,asmeasured inUSA 280.

Foyers fortheatres can be 100—500 m2/P;for cinenias space required

for circulation and exitonly,unlikely be more than 100 m2/P.

EU
111111 JI cio/P
Toiletsin accordance with licensing requirements; also —eBibO92.
USA reg for exits, stairs etc vary: example—a(1 0).
v'l000for2OP
befler2000&more

direct
imght&
oecitiiation +
1100—l_00

IAI
6 Corrw: llOOforuptolOOP, 7 Exit&clo
1600forup to 250 P
capacitylP/unit ofwI
maxtravel ramps
distance corr,
within safe ar,
assembiy doorsoropenings exd
refreshment rim
fire-proofwail space Im) aisle passage-
occupancy & from from stairs ways
group pri- Secon- cross assembiy safe &
classification mary dary aisle space Sr escalators

f-la 26 38 80 50 100 60 80
ffJ

L/1
30 38 90 80 125 80 100
f-2 53 76 400 400 500 320 425
'unit 560
/corr i-ia: enclosed theatreswithstagesthat mayhave scenicelements,i-lb.enciosed
theatreswhichprohibit use of scenic elements onorabove stage: f-2, outdoor
assembly spaces

8 Stairs:llOOforuptolOOP; 9 Providelob betweensmoking& 10 Determinationof exit&accessrequirements: extractfromNewYorkCity

1600 forupto 250 P; centre non-smokingar: doorsto openin bldgcode
handrail requiredover 1800w directionofexit
 Leisure 349
Theatres
CD

SIGHT LINES C')

C
Typical seated spectator—(1) CD
Eye height: 1120± 100
Tread of seating tier (rowspacing) 1: 800—1150
Head clearance C:
C1 = 65: mm clearance/row, assuming spectator will see between
heads row infront (every-other-row vision)
C2 = 130 allows av spectator see over head av specator in front
(every-row vision)
Rise R —*(2): difference in height between adjacentseating platforms
Floor slope:
Arrival point of sight(APS) —(2)(3): intersection of highest sightlmneat
focal planepositioned 50above stage platform
Distance: horizontal distance from eye ofseated spectatorto APS
D1 = distance fromeye offirst row toAPS
= distance fromeye ofgiven rown toAPS
Elevation: vertical height ofeye ofseated spectatorabove focal plane
E1 = vertical height ofeye offirst row abovefocal plane
E = vertical height ofeye ofgiven rownabove focal plane
= 0 establishes max stage height allowable, ie 1 060
Constant rise floor slope —(2): sight lines from rows parallel; APS
determined by intersection of sightlinefromlast orhighest row at focal
plane:
T T
R=-E1+(N—1)+C D1=—E1+(N—1)C
E1
=t(R—C)—C(N—1)
N = number ofrowsin seat bank.
Iscidomal floor slope —(3): exponential shape of floor slope results
from generation of sightlines fromsingle focal point orAPS; iscidomal
floor slope makes more efficient use ofgiven total rise:

2 Constantrisefloor slopes
Type and scale of performance will dictate range of performing area
sizes —*(4). May be desirable enable performing space accommodate
variety of performing area sizes. Containment of audience within130°
angleperipheral spread of vision from performer at point of command
will help promote maxvisual and auralcommunicationbetween performer
and spectator.

Largest performing area should fall within boundary defined by 130°

angle of peripheral spread of vision from seats at ends of front rows
—(5). Limitofcentreof action defined by 60°angle of normal, accurate,
polych romaticvisionfrom seatsatends of front rows. Pointofcommand
should logically fall within centre ofaction.

Boundary limit of seating area ofauditorium might be defined by given

constant angle of peripheral spread of vision to sides of given stage
opening. Limits ofboth30°and 60°angles of peripheral spread of vision
tovarious openings illustrated —(6).
3 Iscidomalfloor slopes

A 8.5m
B 10.7m
C 12.8m
D 14.9m
E 17.Om

4 Rangeofperformingar 5 Relationstiipbetween 6 Viewinganglefields fromstageopening

performingar&seating
350 Leisure
Theatres
movable (flying &/or hinged)
auditorium ceilingcan beused
tovary seating capacity insingle ha
AUDITORIUM
Auditorium longitudinal sections shown —.(1 )—(6) have same numbers
of rows. Max D:H balcony overhang proportion recommended: 1:1 for
concerts, 2: 1 foropera, drama. Flying balcony may allow greater D : H
ratio by allowing reverberant energy reach rear seats frombehind. Last
rows should have clear sightline to central speaker cluster. Balcony
overhangs positioned clear of projection beam. Max sight line angle
frombalcony to stage: 300
Convexand irregular surfaces aid sound diffusion. Domes, vaults and
other large concave surfaces may cause acoustic problems. Higher
ceiling for longerreverberationtime asrequired forconcerts; typical hall
volume: 20.5 m3—35 m3/audienceseat. Lower ceiling forshorter rever-
beration time as required for drama, speech; typical hall volume: 7.5
m3—14 m3/audience seat. In halls used for concerts treat stage and
audience seating as 1 volume. In multiple-use halls this condition
achieved with hard orchestra shell which must be demountable for full
useofstage forscenery. Acoustic requirementsmay dictatethat reflective
surfaces at ceiling of orchestra enclosure extend out above audience
seating.
6 3flying baic
traprm seatwagon sb
ar/musician
1—1.5 m2
7 Typicalorchestrapitliftdetail
max seats: 12—17(l4typ) USA
18—30 modifiedcontinental
14—22 UK
8 Multipleaisle seating
max seats permittedperrow: 49;unlimited
incremental increase in row I sometimespermitted
asfunction ofincremental increaseinrow spacing
9 'Continental'seating
 Leisure 351

I- 840—1000H
I Allseatsfixedtip-up chairs
(exceptinboxes);armchairseating
needs1400 x 750spaces
Theatres
SEATING
Sizesdepend on type of chair and determine chair spacing. Decide on
chair style at outset. Traditional chairs require mm spacing at 840 and
are 500 wide—*(1);mostcommon USAdimension 530. Modern chairs
vary considerably: can need1 400 spacing and width of 750. Standing
space —+(2) formerly normal not usual in modern theatres. Seating
usually laid out in straight or curved rows; in some theatres angled
seating tried —e(3). Seating radius centre point best established by
trying alternative positions. Short radius enables whole audience face
centre of stage but this must be drawn to ensure adequate circulation
2 Standingroom, unusualin spaceat front stalls sides.
modem theatres
BALCONIES
r— 2000 —1 Theatres with 1 balcony (frequent in USA) —*(5) can give better sight
lines than multiple —*p350, reduce staff requirements, simplify exits,
increase spectatorconvenience. Sometimesmovableceiling.Very deep
stalls under balcony .—(5) tend to limit upward sight line. Multiple
auditoria have become common —e(7). Containment of sound in each
auditorium major problem.
:

3 Angledtip-up seatsgive elbow
room
FLEXIBLESEATING—aIsop135
Divisionofauditoria intosmaller rm bysliding folding partitions common
H— 2400 — in conference centres; more difficult in theatres with stepped floors.
Consider closing off areas of seating to provide smaller capacity; to
4 Boxesmay have 10chairs& provide full flexibility folding seating areas can slide away to expose
clear way toexit level floor —spl35(4). Loose seating used on flat floor gives very poor
sightlines:musthave temporary fixing. Stoaccnforloose seating must
be provided;1 000folding chairs need 20—36 m2stospace.

9 8 1 24m
5 5 15ft

24 m

25 50 75 ft
PUIHHHIIIH0011_
5 Section rough auditorium ofAmerican1-balcony theatrewith
ambulatory&view intorear stalls: equal seatvaluesostandard prices
possible
6 HamiltonPlaceOntarioCanada aorchestrafloor b1St balconyfloor 7 Concertha Helsingborg Finlandwith 2ha1 aboveother a longitudinal
Arch Garwood-Jones section bplan of large ha Arch S Markelius

key
6 upperlob
7 upperpart studio
theatre
8 meetings
9 orchestrastage
10 dramastage
11 reCeiving
12 ott& entrance
13 dressingrm
14 rnecheqp

0 3 6 9 12m
10 20 30 40ft
352 Leisure

Theatres
STAGETOWER
mm normal max
Dimensions governed by stage machinery, increasingly complex to
m m rn speed scenery handling and changes. Small stage withoutside and
drama 8 10 12
backstage —(2a). Shifting scenery by hand with trained staff 3 mm;
review 11 14
10 with 'jacknife'trolleys15sec—9(2b); ifsideand backstagewith traverse
musical 10 12 15
opera 12 18 25 trolleys10sec—(3).
Revolvingstage
1 Stagew Discwith 2—3 sets—(3)
2 discswith contact at stage centre
Reciprocating segments —*(2c)
Ring stage withcentreupstage—(2d)
Ring stage withcentrein house—*p353

I r--t—l Stage tower

2A i Widthofstage twicestage opening —÷(3).
I
Depthof stagefromfire curtain 3/4 stage width, height to rigging loft
i

L_i underside medium height of auditorium + height of stage opening

Fireman's rm 800wide,2200 high scenery at each side of stage,with

a viewandexittostage; escape route also required.
c d
Diagramsshowingvariousways ofsetting&handlingscenery
Width of corridor at stage level 2200, otherwise 1 500. If stage
(without side and backstage) larger than 350 m2 width of corridors
increases by 150/50m2.
Exits fromstage areas should beplanned provide readyegress from all
parts. Include at least2 exits ofwhich 1 must lead to openairthrough
unventilated lobby. Mm widths should comply with reg. Exit require-
ments frombasement and dressing rm areas similar, ito be indepen-
dent of stage area and 1 from dressing rm should also lead directto
openair.
Workshops(locksmith, carpenter,paint shop) connectedbyfirelobbies
to corridors.
Scenery sto atstage level 1O% ofstage area.
Heightof scenery stoapprox6000—10000.
Rigging loft: space overstage used for hanging scenery and lighting
eqp. Between loft and roof construction allow 2100 head room.
Adequate ventilation equal to 10% stage areatobeprovided by haystack
lanternabove loft. Varies fromcode to code USA.
Fire curtain:stage must be separated fromauditorium by fire proof
curtain ofwire-woven asbestos clothstretched between top and bottom
steelpipes, asbestos plates fixed tofireproofsteelframe orsheetmetal
fixed to fire proof steelframe. Hand release to operate fire curtain and
drencher system over. Both automaticand hand releaseusuallyrequired
in USA.
Curtain must be in 1 piece; should move vertically and should close
completelyin 30 seconds.

3 Diagrammaticplan of stage towerwithtypicaldimensions Diagrammaticsectionofstagetowerwithtypicaldimensions

 Leisure 353
Theatres
MULTI-FORMTHEATRE
Ring stagewithcentre inhouse-.-(1)—(5)Aimsatintimateconnexion
of audience and actor; brings play amongst audience in contrast to
peep-show' stage. These methods call for modern stagecraft. Actor
playssurrounded by his audience —(2)(4)(5) without curtain and with
little scenery. Auditorium may be round, square or rectangular —(4).
Instead ofsceneryuse canbe made offilm projection.Revolving stages
—(2)(3). Revolving auditorium —*(2)(3).'Theatre in the round' (arena
type)where common stage omitted —(5).
Combined 'arena' &'peep-show' stageAsarena theatresidewalls of
auditorium have rolling orsliding outpanels which line upwith cyclorama
and thus enclose space. As 'peep-show' theatre proscenium arch put
between auditorium and stage.

1 Arenastage:groundfloorplan 2 'Total theatre' withrevolving

Arch Kreisiinger& Rosenbaum centre: plan shows bothpositions:
after Gropius Theatre references:
—4Bibliographyentries 015 034 113 114 152266298309340343350
351 352361 408409413475556572626

3 NewLondonTheatreDrury LaneLondon: revolving stage&frontstalls

with adjustableh seating; canbe eitherin theroundorproscenium
Arch Tvrtkovic& KennyChew&Percival

I KleinesHausTheater Mannheim (Germany)with adjustable seating

6 Circle level Olivierauditorium National TheatreLondonEngland Arch
a peep-show'stage withorchestra bdouble-sidedarena stage carena DenysLasdun
stage allround ArchG Weber

5 Arena StageTheaterWashingtonDC USA upperlevelplan Arch Harry Plan at balc level TyroneGuthrieTheater(three-quarterarena)
Weese MinneapolisUSA Arch RalphRapson
354 Leisure
Cinemas
—also theatres p348—53

Techniques& regulations
Very similar to theatres. Old requirements (UK) for open space round
cinemas stillapplicable—(1 )(2);architect mustdiscuss requirements at
earliest stage. Use of courtor mall access becomes more common in
comprehensive schemes, but unless courtfully fire protected may not
countas exit—(3).
Consultrelevant codes and standardsfor all details.
Doors & corridors
Widthsmust match exitrequirements. Doors toopenoutwards against
exit flow in corridor and to be free of fastenings except panic bolts.
Projections forhandrailsup to75allowedintoexitwidths butdoors must
provide clear exit dimension measured fromdoor face to frame when
standing open. Doors generally required to befr and selfclosing —'(5).
Srcases
Must also match exit requirements —p348, clear width being
measuredbetween walls orwalland balustrade—*(6). Not less than 3
risers permitted; not more than 16 risers in straight flights. Max of 2
successive flights without turn allowed provided number of risersre-
duced to 12. Landings attop, bottomand between flights should equal
width required. Stairrisers(UKcode) not to exceed 150, treads atleast
280; USAcodesvary.
Stairs —'p408
Seating
Layoutssimilar totheatres—*p349—50,except seatblocks donotnormally
exceed 14 chairs. Spectator convenience improved for continuous
performances; salesofconfectioneryimprove when accessfrom seating
increased. Modern chairs, some of which have nottip-up seats, need
greaterspacing, Distance fromscreen to front rowofseats determined
bymax allowable anglebetween sightline fromfirst rowtotop ofscreen
and perpendicular to screen at that point: max angle 30°—35° recom-
mended. Limitto sightangleof35° above horizontal produces distance
to screen on centre line of 1.43 x height fromfront roweye level totop
of picture—*p357(4).
Seat sizes finally determine layout dimensions —*p350—1. Vertical sight
lines determined in similar way as for theatres—p349 except that each
spectatorshould have clear viewto bottomofpicture. Side seating at front
limited byangles ofsightto screen —p355(6).
Accesstoauditorium
In stepped seating can be from beneaththrough vomitory orfromrear,
each to crossoveraisle. Side and rear aisles add toease ofaccess and
supervision ofaudience.
Multipleauditorium
Now often considered necessary in commercial cinemas. Various
theoriesusedto divide total seats needed. Ratios of 1:2or2:3 fordual
cinemas; ratiosof1:2:3 fortriple cinemas; progressionofseat totals for
larger multiples. Basicrequirement: givevisitor choice of programmes
andenableoperator judge business potential of each film soas showit
in auditorium ofcapacity to match public demand. If film playing to half
capacity audiences can be transferred to smaller auditorium or vice
versa.
Seating capacities vary between 100—600 chairs: generally regarded
(UK) asmm and max auditorium sizes—(7).
Sales, staff, projection and service arrangements can be as for single
cinema —*p355—7.
Ventilation andacoustic separation must be provided. Single projection
rm to link all auditoria preferred but automation and closed circuit tv to
monitor programmes make possible separate eqp in conversion of old
properties.

•i\\
0
!
street

t1o
:i.;:;;II;I.1i1r...
6OL120
1courttotaketotal
tierofspectators
street
1 Cinemas
with morethan 2000 Cinemaswith less than2000
seatsshould haveexits on more seats shouldhaveexits on public
than 1 publicroad,orbesituatedin road; maybe incourts—(3);for
courts passages—(4)

i3i3 street

pa11t1
: I: court.
1

ii!
3 Cinemascanbesituatedoff
street butmayrequirealternative
exits

direct
slope1:1O. radiatorsin light&
—ventilation
tire
proof
rise

audi-
eys
door'must
's15O
tread
1.1

1.

tonum openoutward

5 Door&corrwtocornplywithreg 6 Wofstairstoequaiexitw
—p348:doorstoopenagainstexit —p348:flightsnotlessthan 3 risers 7 CinemaPutneyLondon: multipleauditona; partofcommercialbldg,
flow not morethan16, l2if2flights with high levelcommonprojectionrm
without turn
 Leisure 355
Cinemas
Cloakrooms CD
Not standard requirement inUKcinemas: ifprovided should beplanned (/)
notto obstruct exits or normal circulation—*(1)—sp348. C
1.1
• Projectionrooms CD
1.6 column Used to be divided into separate compartments for rewinding and
F::::::::•:•::-::::::::•::::::: ::...:.-.::::-:::•::.......g ......•..... projecting film with dimmer rm, battery rm, switch rm, spotlight rm,
workshop and staff and storm, each 6—10 m2forming suite—e(2)(3).

1 Arrequiredfordocounter —vp348:notusualinmodern cinemas Modern automated systems take about same space and require rewind
bench to giveoperational flexibility.

portholesassmall Type of eqp to be used should be established at outset tofinalise detail

amplifier &
tapedeck
1 P\
2 Diagramofprojectionrm; ifwindow installed ensuredaylightcannot
reachscreen aplan bsection
3 Projectionrmingallerystructure,
observationthroughmirrors:with
35 mm also projectthroughmirrors
arclampextract
switch gear rm
canopy dimensions. Provided non-inflammable (safety)filmonlyused exits can
beinternal —n(4): if inflammabletimused 1 exit mustleadtoopenairand
haystack lantern must be provided, with opening area of 0.19 m2for
each 640 m of film used and stored in rm. Exit to public area must be
through ventilated protected lobby. Circulationspace for servicing and
access must be provided round eqp; front wall length of 5500 x rm
depth of 3500is av size. Plan staircase and door widths to allow for
access of eqp; risersshould not exceed 190 treads at least250.
Mirror projections and observationused where space limited, and before
automation became available —(3). With mirrors 1 projection rm can
serve multiple cinemas located vertically; but as general rule better
avoid mirror projection. Picture ratios vary with film systems: operator
mustdecide whatrequired —n(S).Advance techniques employ variable
height and width pictures; as size of arc lamp used determined by
picture area max effectobtained byusing differentratios ofequal areas.
Using70 film makes possible bigger area screens. Normally accepted
max screen widths:for 70film 20 m, for35film 13 m.
Screen sizeshould be largeas possible up tothese maximaorwidth of
seating whichever least; ratios ofwidth to max viewing distance should
befrom 1:2to 1:3—v(6). Advisable inverysmall cinemasaccept ratio of
1:2 to enable standard focallength lenses to be used and avoid very
4 small pictures. Wider pictureswould requirespecial lenses. Tocalculate
Internalprojectionrmwith
mech ventilation picture widthobtainablefromgiven lens:
film frame apperture w x throw
w=
focal Iof lens

Inanamorphic (Cinemascope) projection same formula used multiplied

by2.
1:1.37 normal Curved directional screens originallydeveloped to overcome dispersion
1:1.66paramount
1:3.25 i of reflected light from flat screen. Modern cinema with betterscreen
1:I.75mgm
cinerama material able to use curve of screen to reduce amount of apparent
1:1.B5columbi
distortion to sidesightlines. Too much rise onchord cangive problems
1:2.2 todd ao (70mm)
1:2.34cinemascope with focus over whole picture area. Screen radius usually between
75—100% of projection throw; rise on chord should not exceed 10—
12% ofchordwidth.
5 Commonfilm ratios:useadjustable maskingto screentosuitpicturesizes

with vertex
perboia
\/ zoneii
\—asyniptote flatscreen—seatingzonelimits curvedscreen—seating zonelimits
zone i: y= ±(0.5W—yO.33x'

ii'
— iso-deformationzonelimit tinesmost
H')
pointonScreen
iso-defo,rTlatlon zonelimit lutes
zonei: y=0.3x'—H'
zoneii: =
y H=screenh
zoneii:y= ±(0.5W— Vii)
where, \/0.75W'+3H'
where, 0.25W' +3H'
easily plottedbygraphicalmethod:
plotiso-deformationhyperttoiaIronpoint
on screen& rotateaxesaboutcentre
ofscreencurvature
6 Filmprojectionplanning:
viewing pointonscreen:line of iso-deformation =boundaryof seatingarfor seat placedhere:
which spectatorswillseesame apparent distortion: hyperbolashapedefined viewing flatscreen: seatingarrepresented by arcommon to spacewithin 2
in planbyasymptotesfrompointon screen; zoneIdistortion existsbutnot hyperbolas;arinzone Iforwide projectedimages lessthanzone Iforpointon
noticedfromseatsfallingwithin hyperbola: mm horizontal distancefrom screen;seatingarforzone IIforwide imageonflat screen maycorrespond
vertexof hyperbolatoscreendeterminedbylimitationof verticalanglefrom approxtozone Ipoint onscreen
eye of firstrowtotopofscreento max of 30°—35°;zoneIIdistortions noticed but viewing curvedscreen: zoneI arforgrvenscreenwcanbeincreased by
toleratedfrom seatsfallingoutsidezone I;zone Ill (seating placed beyondlimit curvingscreen;appropriatecurving willcause overlapof hyperbolasdrawn
ofzone II) distortionsof projected imagenottolerated&viewerwillrefuse from sidesofprojectedimagesoastodefinegreatercommonseating ar
356 Leisure
Cinemas
Generallayout
In addition topublic areas must include staff and service areas:
m2 m2
boilerhouse 25—30 plenum chamber 20
el substation 28—38 kiosk stockrm 10—15 or

ice-cream sto 20 manageroffsuite 38

staffrm 45 3 sto rm 28
projection rm 19—25 switch, battery,
workshop &staffrm 40

Lighting systems
Provideinaccordance with detail licensing requirements:
decorative lightingand anyrequired spotlights toauditorium dimmed to
showfilm, otherpublic areasmaintainedwhile spectators use bldg;
cleaner'slighting to auditorium and foyers: auditorium system used as
emergency lighting under managementcontrol; USA emergency lighting 2 Cinema in Oslo:groundfloorplan showing circulationinlateral
operates automatically if main fails; arrangementwith double-sideddo ArchBlackstad& Dunker
maintained lighting to auditorium and exit boxes throughout bldg:
designed provide illuminationofseatingareasand gangwaysduring film
programme (no light to fall on screen or walls); New York City code
requires aislesand crossings have mm 5.35 lx at all times;
safety lighting to all public, key staff areas and exit boxes throughout
bldg: must be kept on as part of maintained system; should main el
supply fail safety system must be able provide sufficient light allow
public and staff leave bldg safely; N American and continental Europe
practice provide separateemergencylightingsystem which only illumines
on failure of main supply: notpermitted in UK.
other el systems includefire and burglaralarms, speakerwiring, internal
telephones, induction systems forboth deaf-aids and managementcall,
closed circuit tv, emergency public address and main switchgear for
controlofheating, ventilation, projection and stage eqp.
box
Heating—*pl 6385—9 oft

Ventilation&air conditioning—*pl5—16392—4
Heating and ventilation for public entertainment bldg developed as
licensing authorities required higher ventilation standards. In UK fresh
airventilation requirement basedon number of persons accommodated 3 CinemainMadrid:diagonallysituatedincorner bldg withmosteconomic
and varies from 70—93 m3/hr/P in auditorium and extract system for useofspace &goodshapeofauditorium; ground floor plan Arch Gutierrez
75% of input air. Where air-conditioning installed at least half this Soto
quantity must be fresh air, with up to 50% filtered and recirculated.
Foyer and toilet systems based on normally accepted standards
—xBlb347.Toilets affected bylicensing requirements.
staff
Incoming air must be heated; plenum system generally used with air cix
supply at screenend and extract divided in auditorium rear corners to
avoid vitiated airbeingilluminated by projection light ray. General parts
ofbldg can be heated by lowpressure hot water system.
Filmdisplay
In schools, universities, hotels and other bldg 16 eqp used; when
approved this does not require separate projection rm, provided clear
space maintained round eqp. Regulationsfor space requirement vary
from 900 to 2000. Picturewidths up to6000possible with suitable light
source; anamorphic (Cinemascope) ratio varies from 35 to 1:2.66.
Commercial cinemas in USA and UK have used 16 eqp but in UK
picture and printquality notgoodenough.
—xalso lecture theatres p135

:J1fl
projection I

exit

cio-l- sidegangway
't wc

stair to
exit gaiiery
.

stage podium
screenJfl auditorium
- LI
4—
(orchestraLfil I
artists

exit

cix-4--
[ I
-

sidegangway
.

exit
j, .
fresh-
stairto
gatery
secondaryentry
& stair toprojection 4 Cinema in Turku Finland: 590seats ArchBryggman
street I

1 Circulationdiagram: stageaccnnotnormallyneeded; exitstosuit seating

capacity
 Leisure 357

Cinemas
Screensystems
Cinema screen in past titted into adapted theatre; today increased
a picture size (Cinemascope, Cinerama,Todd AD, Circarama, IMAX,for
small cinemas closed circuit tv) determines interior design. Traditional
cinemas—.(1a)had small pictureswhereas3-projectororiginalCinerama
system .—°(lb) involved spectator with 30.5 m screen. This surpassed
by new single projector IMAX system with 70 film used horizontally to
enlarge frame size and provide 36.5 m picture, seating being placed
closescreen preventing whole picture being seen without both vertical
and horizontal movement of head; callsforspecial projector and audi-
torium; used in Canada and USA.
Circarama system using 11 projectors gives full involvement but no
seating practicaland handrails necessary prevent audience tailing over
—°(3): used very successfully at Disneyland.
Further development used in theme parks and now in Experience
theatres world wide: audio-visual technique ofautomated multiple pro-
jection of still pictures with auditorium effects and multi-track magnetic
sound systems. Closed circuit projection tv system feasible with elec-
tronic line enhancement; gives picturesof 2430x 1 830. With Eidophor'
screen sizes up to 9 m x 12 m possible. Development in progress in
USAand UK.
Sound systems
1 atraditionalcinema bfororiginalCineramasystem Have developed considerably; problems of handling magnetic sound
recordings on film being answered by Dolby encoding optical system.
Stereo across screen and to front and rear provided on 70 film with 5
rear screen speaker tracks and 6th track forauditorium speakers. Wide
screens and side sound sources can produce acoustic problems: gen-
erally for cinemas reflected sound paths should notexceed directpaths
by more than 15 m—.p18395—7.

3 Circarama:screencircular
2 Civiccentre in centralrestricted position forces placingofhaforvarious (370°);11 synchronised projectors
uses (cinema,concert,exhibition, museum, theatre)aboveone another: producecoherentpicture;
spaciouscentrallob,foyer&stairsshared Arch Cassandra Athens example;Expo Brussels

yroihonray cenireiune
betternot toeeceedtO

I +
—keepeyepoinitor
saeen
frame

sighthnesfromrearsears
tobottomofyiciure sight tine angiesvary

raker

t v
to screen= .43 hfromfront
.f_.___distaflce
eye ieneitotopofscreen

4 Basicrequirementsforauditorium levels; rakenotnecessarily limited to 10% & 5% in USA

358 Leisure
Drive-in cinemas
Curved layouts give maxof360 carspaces and
individual speakers foreach car. Usual layouts
on principle of amphitheatre forboth individual
and multiple schemes. —(1 )(3).
Sizesover 1000 carsunusual.Multipleschemes
more acceptable to operators. Some original
situations in N America rebuilt to include dual,
tripleorquadruple layouts.
Situation on highways usuallyaway from resi-
dential areas. Should be sited so that lights
frompassing traffic donot disturbspectators or
throwlighton screen.
Layout should provideview of picture at not
more than45°from screencentre; rampsshould
be designed so that spectators can see over
cars in front —*(2). Distance from screen to
front rowwith large screen often more than 50
m. Carholding areasavoid trafficjams on high-
way. 2 double ticket booths normal mm: 500
cars need mm 20minutes toenter. Exitsshould
be away from entrance. Cars may leave and
entersimultaneously between programmes.
Screen size varieswith overall capacity: 30.4
x 13 m normal max, 20% of distance to rear
cars normal mm. Should face between E and 5,
making possible earlier evening performances.
Heightabove ground depends on site profile,
determines angles ofcar ramps.
1 Drive-incinemainfanshapewith singleramp, shownforright-handdrive traffic;projection bldg
obstructsviewfrom2rowsto rear Children's playground and outside seating
provided in NAmerica. Surface waterdrainage
catchment pooi oftensitedin front ofscreen.
sightlines to bottomof screen—cars titledupto Projection bldg in centreor at rear, includes
maximise viewthrough windscreen&over cars infront
- —- -- workshop, sto, switchrm, soundand projection
- — system. Can includepublic toilets, restaurant
and office. Max projection throw 137 m nor
0 • 0 lessthan2 x screen width.
pole with loudspeakers
&elheaters
6100
2OO 1 o
3400
increases with steeper carramps
Sound reproduction best with speaker taken
into car from poles spaced at 5000 centres.
El fan heaters may also be on poles. Some N
2 Dimensionsfordoubleramplayout: singlerampscommoninUSA American operators also have air-conditioning
by underground ducts with flexible car con-
nexions.

Floodlighting provided for intermission;

hooded roadway lighting maintained through
performance.

Cinema references:
3 Dual drive-incinema:1 projection rmfor bothscreens makes possiblestaggered startingtimes;all —Bibliography entries 084 098 099 113 114
other services(eg ticket off,bar,lay) used jointly 129328329339 347 426 598 599
 Leisure 359
Museums
ROOMS CD

Forshowing worksofartand obiects ofculturaland scientific interest rm C',

restoration
Irecepton must:
registry sto CD
ensure protection against damage, theft, fire, damp, aridity, strong
curator sunlight and dust;
research showworks in best light(in both senses ofterm): normally achieved by
lecture rm gallery dividing collection into
objectsforstudy(egengravings, drawings) kept in portfolios and stored
check-in in cupboards (with drawers) about 800 deep and 1 600 high;
entrance
objectsfordisplay (eg paintings, frescoes, statuary,ceramics, furniture)
Exhibits must be so placed as to be seen without effort: calls for
selective and spacious arrangement, with variety and suitable rm shape
and sequence.
1 Layoutdiagram 2 Sectionofgallery litfrom 1 Side
only, bottompartindirectly, So faraspossible each group of pictures in 1 rm orsequence ofrm and
attenuatedlighting each picturea wall to itself: ie number of small rm. These also provide
morewall space in relation to ground area than large rm, necessary for
big pictures: rm size depends on picture size. Normal human angle of
spotlight vision (54° or 27°up fromeye level) achieved with well lit pictures 10m
away = hanging height of4900above eye level and about 700 below it
—(5). Only withlargepictures isthere needforeyetotravel from bottom
of frame up above angleof vision. Best hanging position for smaller
pictures: point of emphasis (level of horizon in picture) at eye level

space/picture m
3—5 hanging surface
space/sculpture 6—10 m2 ground surface
space/400 coins 1 m2cabinet space
3 Installlightingsothat anglesof 4 Typicalcross-sectionfor
incidencecorrespondwith natural museumofnaturalhistory Calculations formuseum lighting highly theoretical: quality of light what
light matters. Experiments carried out in America therefore more important
(—÷Bib561). In recent times continuous increase in use of artificial
lighting, instead of constant variations of light experiences even with N
ribbed glass
frosted glass screen , largest lighting —*p360.

N' N S
hanging
surface
GENERALLAYOUT
best

_____ __________
" 5.6 hanging
surfaces
No continous circularitinerary butwingsleadingoutfromentrance. Side
rm forpacking, despatch, transparencysection, restorationworkshops,
k>1
j
I- 100 -
between
950&3.6
lecture rm. Museums sometimes in bldg originally designed for other
purposes.

1)
5 Well-lit exhibitionhabasedon 6 Ideallylitrmwith uniform lighting
Bostonexperiments front both sides,asworkedoutby
S HurstSeager(-.Bib561) 1001 (Th
i
>
I27/'
900r
iLl 27°
T1
2.0 1.0 1000
1.5 500e 10 Paintingstowithdetachablesteelmeshframesonwhichpictures can
a behungasrequired&be readyforremovalatanytimeforstudy
h 0.1 0.5 0.6 0.75

7 Field ofvision:h&distance 8 Size & distance

outerwallof glass optional
J.

AAAA1iAWA1,AI
—,
I
ox+iöo-+io.o'

11 Exhibitionrmwith side lighting: 12 Exhibitionrm withsuccessful

suitablehangingsurfacebetween
300 &600 with mih of6700&dlih
2130forpicturesor3040—3650for
sculpture,ascalculatedfrom
9 Exhibitionrmwith folding screens(designK Schneider) allowsgreat Bostonexperiments
variety ofrmarrangements
useofavailablespace:panels
betweencentralpillarscanbe
rearrangedbetweensupportsas
needed;ifouterside-wallof glass
installedwindowarrangementof
innerwallcanalso bevaried
360 Leisure
Museums
LIGHTING

Daylight as lightsource givesmm overheads.

Overheadlighting: advantages,independentof orientation, not affected
by overhanging trees or neighbouring bldg, easily regulated (lamella
ceiling), little reflection, light more widely spread over exhibit area;
disadvantages, strong heat build-up, risk of damage from water and
condensation, only diffused light.
Window lighting: viewout (relaxing), rm easily aired and kept ateven
temp, better light on groups and individual exhibits, illumination of
showcases fromback.

4 Main floor Wallraf-Richartz-Museum CologneGermany

Arch R Schwartz&Bernard
key 1 rest rm 2 rm reaching to overheadlight inupperstorey 3side-litrm
4side-lit recess
1 Section& light sourcesMuseumofWesternArtTokyoJapan
Arch LeCorbusier

a
lightsource

a-a b-b
2 Section &light sourcesMuseoCiVKOTurin Italy ArchBassi& Boscheth
5 Joan Miro FoundationBarcelonaSpain hasrampextendinground all4
sides ofsculpturerm allowing worksto beviewed fromvarying heightsand
b
aspects;note useofskylights-.section afirstfloor plan sections Arch
Sert Section
key 1 sculpturerm 2 ha 3print mi 4balcover groundfloor 5 telwith
sculptures 6ha 70ff 8director'soff 9restm, lOprintarchives

3 Section&light sourcesMuseumofModem Art Rio deJaneiroBrazil

Arch Reidy
 Leisure 361

Museums
EXAMPLES 2 VancouverMuseum
Canada Arch ArthurErickson
key
1 entrance
2 lob

TTjm1'
3 off/seminarrm
4 rampedgallery
5 greatha
6 small objectgallery

14 7
8
9
theatre
visiblestoar
lounge
10 outdoorcourt

[1] [III [Ii LII [Ii

r-i r1 r,
[111
n-i r —

gairer' : :
L. L
r-

-r - - r1 gallery
- - -t
: :
0 __________ _____

EEEJ L.
b

W4EEI1.
gallery
L apaceanum

F4iii vvvvv jJ
auditorium

vvvvv[

I ri L1 im
ir'wri Ia..rJI

I—I rii
'v"" I

3 Air &Space MuseumWashington USA asecond floor b firstfloor C

C groundfloor Arch Hok

1 CenterforBritishArtYaleUSA asectionatB—*le bthirdfloor csecond Museumsreferences

floor d firstfloor egroundfloor ArchKahn —*Bibliographyentries 040318385476612
Page blank
in original
 363

Components
INTRODUCTION

Components bringstogether various categories ofconstruction practices are presented in detail in Ramsey& Sleeper/American
data intended asan aid to the userofArchitects' Datainapplying Institute of Architects Architectural Graphic Standards —Bib
the principlesand examples given throughout the body of the 549.
book. Underthe general heading Services' are guidelines on
the spaces needed to install, operate and maintain systems of
distribution, heating, ventilation, thermal and sound insulation, Conversions
lighting. Thereafterfollow practicalcriteriaforcertaincomponents: As anaid to readers whodo not workin metric units ofmeasure-
doors, windows, corridors andramps, stairs, escalators, elevators. menta listofconversion factors and a setof42conversion tables
introduce the pages on services systems.
Data here presented are based on the latest Britishand European
research and are not directly applicable by those working in
non-metric units of measurement. The material presented and Materials
the approach to its presentation are thought to be of general Values to be given to physical characteristics ofcommon building
interestto architects in America as in other continents; but USA materials have been brought together inatable which follows the
practices differ in somerespects from what is given here. Such conversion tables and precedes 'Services' .—p384(1).
364

Conversions
FACTORS
metric 'imperial'/US metric 'imperial'/US
length mass/unit area
1.0mm 0.039 in 1.0g/m2 0.003 oz/ft2
25.4 rnrn (2.54cm) 1 in 33.91 g/m2 1 oz/yd2

304.8 mrn (30.48cm) 1 ft 305.15g/rn2 1 oz/tt2

914.4mm lyd 0.011 kg/rn2 1 cwt US/acre

1000.0mm(1.0 m) 1 yd 3.4 in (1 .093yd) 0.013 kg/rn2 1 cwt imp/acre

20.117rn 1 chain 0.224 kg/rn2 1 ton US/acre

1 000.00rn (1 km) 0.621 mile 0.251 kg/rn2 1 ton imp/acre

1 609.31 m 1 mile 1.0 kg/rn2 29.5oz/yd2

4.882 kg/rn2 1 lb/ft2
area 703.07 kg/rn2 1 lb/in2
lOOrnm2(1.Ocm2) 0.155in2 350.3 kg/km2 (3.503 kg/ha; 1 ton US/mile2
645.2 mm2 (6.452 cm2) 1 in2 0.35g/m2)
929.03cm2 (0.093 m2) 1 ft2 392.3 kg/km2 (3.923 kg/ha; 1 ton imp/mile2
0.836rn2 1 yd2 0.392 g/m2)
1.0m2 1.196yd2(10.764ft2)
0.405ha (4046.9m2) 1 acre
1.0ha (10000m2) 2.471 acre density(mass/volume)
0.593 kg/rn3 1 b/yd3
1.0km2 0.386 mile2
2.59 km2(259 ha) 1 mile2 1.0kg/rn3 0.062 lb/ft3
16.02kg/rn3 1 lb/ft
volume 1186.7kg/rn3(1.187 t/rn3) 1 ton US/yd3
1 328.9 kg/rn3 (1.329 t/rn3) 1 ton irnp/yd3
1004J mm3 (1.0cm3; 1.0 ml) 0.061 in3
16387mm3 (16.387cm3; 0.01641; 1 in3
27680.0kg/rn3 (27.68 t/m3; 1 lb/in3
27.68 g/cm3)
16.387 ml)
1.01(1.0 drn3; 1000cm3) 61.025in3 (0.035 ft3) specific surface (area/unit
0.028 rn3(28.32 I) 1 ft3
mass)
0.765 m3 1 yd3 0.823 rn2/t 1 yd2/ton
1.0 m3 1.308 yd3(35.314 ft3) 1.0rn2/kg 0.034 yd2/oz
29.493rn2/kg 1 yd2/oz
capacity
1.Ornl 0.O34flozUS area/unitcapacity
1.0 ml 0.035 fI ozimp 0.184m2/l 1 yd2/gal
28.41 ml 1 fI oz imp 1.0 rn2/l 5.437 yd2/gal
29.57 ml 1 fI oz US
0.473 litre 1 pint (liquid) US concentration
0.568litre 1 pint imp 0.014 kg/rn3 1 grain/gal imp
1.0 litre 1.76 pint imp 0.017 kg/rn3 1 grain/gal US
1.Olitre 2.ll3pintUS 1.0 kg/rn3 (1.0g/l) 58.42 grain/gal US
3.785 litre 1 gal US 1.0kg/rn3 (1.0g/l) 70.16 grain/gal imp
4.546 litre 1 galimp 6.236 kg/rn3 1 oz/gal imp

7.489 kg/rn3 1 oz/gal US

100.0 litre 21.99 gal imp
100.0 litre 26.42 gal US
159.0 litre 1 barrel US mass rate offlow
164.0 litre 1 barrel imp 0.454kg/s 1 lb/s

1.0kg/s 2.204 lb/s

mass
volume rateofflow
lOg 0.035 oz (avoirdupois) 0.063 I/s 1 gal US/minute
28.35g 1 oz (avoirdupois)
1 lb
0.076 I/s 1 gal irnp/minute
454.0 g (0.454 kg) 0.472 I/s 1ft3/rninute
1000.0g(1 kg) 2.205 lb 1.01/s (86.4 rn3/day) 13.2 gal imp/s
45.36kg 1 cwtUS
1.01/s 0.264 gal US/s
50.8 kg 1 cwt irnp 1.0 1/mm 0.22 gal imp/mm
907.2 kg (0.907 t) 1 ton US
1000.0kg (1.0 t) 0.984 ton irnp 1.0 1/mm 0.264 gal US/mm
3.785 I/s 1 gal US/s
1000.0kg(1 .0 t) 1.102ton US
1 ton imp 4.5461/s 1 galimp/s
1016.0kg(1.016 t) 28.32 I/s 1 ft3/s
0.0038rn3/rnin 1 gal US/mm
mass/unit length 0.0045rn3/rnin 1 gal imp/mm
0.496kg/rn 1 Ib/yd
1.0 rn3/s 183.162 gal US/s
0.564kg/rn (0.564 t/km) 1 ton US/rnile
1.0 rn3/s 219.969galimp/s
0.631 kg/rn(0.631 t/km) 1 ton irnp/mile
1.0rn3/h 35.31 ft3/h
1.0kg/rn 0.056 lb/in (0.896 oz/in) 0.0283m3/s 1 ft3/s
1.116kg/rn 1 oz/in
1.488 kg/rn 1 lb/ft
velocity
17.86 kg/rn 1 lb/in 0.005 rn/s 1 ft/minute
0.025 rn/s 1 in/s
length/unitmass 0.305 rn/s 1 ft/s
1.0rn/kg 0.496 yd/Ib 1Dm/s 3.28ft/s
2.016 rn/kg 1 yd/Ib 1 000.0 rn/hr (1 krn/hr) 0.621 rnile/hr
1 609.0 rn/hr (0.447 rn/s) 1 mile/hr
 365

Conversions

metric 'imperial'/US metric 'imperial'/US

fuelconsumption refrigeration
1.0I/km 0.354 gal imp/mile 3.517 kW 12000 Btu/hr = ton of
1.01/km 0.425 gal US/mile refrigeration
2.352 I/km 1 gal US/mile
2.824I/km 1 gal imp/mile illumination
1 lx (1 lumen/rn2) 0.093 ft-candle (0.093 lumen/ft2)
acceleration 10.764 lx 1.0 ft-candle (1 lumen/ft2)
0.305rn/s2 itt/s2
1.0 rn/s2 3.28 ft/s2 luminance
9.806 m/s2 = g (standard g = 32.172 ft/s2 0.3183cd/rn2 1 apostilb

acceleration 1.0 cd/rn2 0.000645 cd/ft2

due to gravity) 10.764 cd/rn2 1 cd/ft2
1 550.0 cd/rn2 1.0cd/in2
temperature
X°C (X+32)°F force
x(X—32)°C X°F iON 0.2251bt
1.0 kgf (9.807 N; 1.0 kilopond) 2.205 Ibi
temperature interval 4.448 kN 1.0kipf(1000lbf)
0.5556K 1°F 8.897kN 1.OtonfUS
1K=1°C 1.8°F 9.964 kN 1.0tontimp

energy force/unitlength
1.OJ 0.239calorie 1.0 N/rn 0.067 lbf/ft
1.356J 1 ftlbt 14.59 N/rn 1.0 lbf/ft
4.187J 1.Ocalorie 32.69 kN/m 1.0 tont/ft
9.807 J (1 kgfm) 7.233 ftlbf 175.1 kN/m (175.1 N/mm) i.Olbf/in
1 055.06J 1 Btu
3.6 MJ 1 kilowatt-hr moment offorce(torque)
105.5MJ 1 therm (100000 Btu) 0.li3Nm(113.ONrnm) 1.Olbfin
1.ONrn 0.738lbfft
1.356 Nm 1.0 lbf ft
power (energy/time)
0.293W 1 Btu/hr 113.ONrn 1.Okipfin
1.0W 0.738ttlbf/s 253.1 Nm 1.Otonfin
1.163W 1.0kilocalorie/hr 1356.ONm 1.Okipfft
1.356W 1 ftlbf/s 3037.ONm 1.Otonfft
4.187W 1 calorie/s
1 kgf rn/s (9.807W) 7.233 ft lbt/s) pressure
1 horsepower
1.0Pa (1.0 N/rn2) 0.021 bt/ft2
745.7W 1.OkPa 0.1451bf/in2
1 metrichorsepower (75 kgf 0.986 horsepower 100.OPa 1.Omillibar
rn/s) 2.99kPa 1 ftwater
3.39 kPa 1 in mercury
intensity ofheat flowrate 6.9 kPa 1.0 lbt/in2
1 W/m2 0.317 Btu/(ft2hr)
i0O.OkPa 1.Obar
3.155 W/m2 1.0 Btu/(ft2 hr)
101.33 kPa 1.0 standardatmosphere
107.25 kPa 1.0 tonf/ft2
thermal conductivity 15.44 MPa 1.Otonf/in2
0.144 W/(rn.K) 1 Btu in/(ft2hr°F)
1.OW/(m.K) 6.933 Btuin/(ft2hr°F)

thermal conductance Metric systemreferences:

i.OW/(rn2.K) 0.176 Btu/(ft2hr°F) —Bibliographyentries010012 127135228473479494495531 610
5.678 W/(m2.K) 1.0Btu/(ft2 hr°F)

thermal registivity
1.0m K/W 0.144 ft2 hr°F/(Btu in)
6.933 rn K/W 1.0 ft2 hr°F/(Btu in)

specific heat capacity

1.0 kJ/(kg.K) 0.239 Btu/(lb °F)
4.187 kJ/(kg.K) 1.0Btu/(lb°F)
1.0 kJ/(rn3 K) 0.015 Btu/(ft3°F)
67.07 kJ/(m3 K) 1.0 Btu/(ft3°F)

specificenergy
1.0 kJ/kg 0.43 Btu/lb
2.326kJ/kg 1.0 Btu/lb
1.0 kJ/m3 (1 kJ/l) 0.027 Btu/tt3
1.OJ/l 0.004 Btu/gal
232.1 J/l 1.OBtu/gal
366

Conversions
TABLES

Listoftables
1 millimetres toinches 24 cubicfeetto litres
2 decimals ofinch to millimetres 25 litresto gallons imperial
3 inches & fractions ofinchto millimetres 26 gallonsimperial to litres
4 feet &inchesto metres 27 litresto gallons US
5 metres tofeet 28 gallonsUSto litres
6 feettometres 29 kilograms to pounds
7 metrestoyards 30 poundstokilograms
8 yardstometres 31 kilograms per cubic metre to pounds percubicfoot
9 kilometres tomiles 32 pounds percubicfootto kilograms percubicmetre
10 milesto kilometres 33 metresper second to miles per hour
11 square centimetres tosquare inches 34 milesper hour to metres persecond
12 square inches to square centimetres 35 kilograms forcepersquare centimetre to pounds forceper square
13 square metrestosquare feet inch
14 square feettosquare metres 36 poundsforceper square inch tokilograms forceper square
15 square metrestosquareyards centimetre
16 square yards tosquare metres 37 kilonewtons persquare metre topounds force persquare inch
17 hectares to acres 38 poundsforceper square inch to kilonewtonspersquare metre
18 acresto hectares 39 wattsto British thermal unitsperhour
19 cubiccentimetres tocubicinches 40 Britishthermal unitsperhour to watts
20 cubicinches to cubiccentimetres 41 wattspersquare metrekelvin to Britishthermal unitspersquare foot
21 cubicmetrestocubicfeet hourdegree F
22 cubicfeettocubicmetres 42 British thermal units per square foot hour degree F to watts per
23 litresto cubicfeet square metre kelvin

th
TABLES
mm 0
In
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

millimetres to inches 0 0.04 0.08 0.11 0.16 0.2 0.24 0.28 0.31 0.35
10 0.39 0.43 0.47 0.51 0.55 0.59 0.63 0.67 0.71 0.75
20 0.79 0.83 0.87 0.91 0.94 0.98 1.02 1.06 1.1 1.14
30 1.18 1.22 1.25 1.3 1.34 1.38 1.41 1.46 1.5 1.57
40 1.57 1.61 1.65 1.69 1.73 1.77 1.81 1.85 1.89 1.93
50 1.97 2.00 2.05 2.09 2.13 2.17 2.21 2.24 2.28 2.32
60 2.36 2.4 2.44 2.48 2.52 2.56 2.6 2.64 2.68 2.72
70 2.76 2.8 2.83 2.87 2.91 2.95 3.0 3.03 3.07 3.11
80 3.15 3.19 3.23 3.27 3.31 3.35 3.39 3.42 3.46 3.5
90 3.54 3.58 3.62 3.66 3.7 3.74 3.78 3.82 3.86 3.9
100 3.94 3.98 4.02 4.06 4.09 4.13 4.17 4.21 4.25 4.29
110 4.33 4.37 4.41 4.45 4.49 4.53 4.57 4.61 4.65 4.69
120 4.72 4.76 4.8 4.84 4.88 4.92 4.96 5.0 5.04 5.08
130 5.12 5.16 5.2 5.24 5.28 5.31 5.35 5.39 5.43 5.47
140 5.51 5.55 5.59 5.63 5.67 5.71 5.75 5.79 5.83 5.87
150 5.91 5.94 5.98 6.02 6.06 6.1 6.14 6.18 6.22 6.26
160 6.3 6.34 6.38 6.42 6.46 6.5 6.54 6.57 6.61 6.65
170 6.69 6.73 6.77 6.81 6.85 6.89 6.93 6.97 7.01 7.05
180 7.09 7.13 7.17 7.21 7.24 7.28 7.32 7.36 7.4 7.44
190 7.48 7.52 7.56 7.6 7.64 7.68 7.72 7.76 7.8 7.83
200 7.87 7.91 7.95 7.99 8.03 8.07 8.11 8.15 8.19 8.23
210 8.27 8.31 8.35 8.39 8.43 8.46 8.5 8.54 8.58 8.62
220 8.66 8.7 8.74 8.78 8.82 8.86 8.9 8.94 8.98 9.02
230 9.06 9.09 9.13 9.17 9.21 9.25 9.29 9.33 9.37 9.41
240 9.45 9.49 9.53 9.57 9.61 9.65 9.69 9.72 9.76 9.8
250 9.84
 367

Conversions
in 0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 2
decimals ofinchto
mm millimetres
0.0 0.0254 0.0508 0.0762 0.1016 0.127 0.1524 0.1778 0.2032 0.2286
0.01 0.254 0.2794 0.3048 0.3302 0.3556 0.381 0.4064 0.4318 0.4572 0.4826
0.02 0.508 0.5334 0.5588 0.5842 0.6096 0.635 0.6604 0.6858 0.7112 0.7366
0.03 0.762 0.7874 0.8128 0.8382 0.8636 0.889 0.9144 0.9398 0.9652 0.9906
0.04 1.016 1.0414 1.0668 1.0922 1.1176 1.143 1.1684 1.1938 1.2192 1.2446
0.05 1.27 1.2954 1.3208 1.3462 1.3716 1.397 1.4224 1.4478 1.4732 1.4986
0.06 1.524 1.5494 1.5748 1.6002 1.6256 1.651 1.6764 1.7018 1.7272 1.7526
0.07 1.778 1.8034 1.8288 1.8542 1.8796 1.905 1.9304 1.9558 1.9812 2.0066
0.08 2.032 2.0574 2.0828 2.1082 2.1336 2.159 2.1844 2.2098 2.2352 2.2606
0.09 2.286 2.3114 2.3368 2.3622 2.3876 2.413 2.4384 2.4638 2.4892 2.5146
0.1 2.54

in 1/16 1/8 /16 1/4 /16 3/ /I8 1/2 /16 /8 11/16 3/4 13/16 /8 15/16 3
inches &fractions of
mm inch to millimetres
1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 7.9 9.5 11.1 12.7 14.3 15.9 17.5 19.1 20.6 22.2 23.8
1 25.4 27.0 28.6 30.2 31.8 33.3 34.9 36.5 38.1 39.7 41.3 42.9 44.5 46.0 47.6 49.2
2 50.8 52.4 54.0 55.6 57.2 58.7 60.3 61.9 63.5 65.1 66.7 68.3 69.9 71.4 73.0 74.6
3 76.2 77.8 79.4 81.0 82.6 84.1 85.7 87.3 88.9 90.5 92.1 93.7 95.3 96.8 98.4 100.0
4 101.6 103.2 104.8 106.4 108.0 109.5 111.1 112.7 114.3 115.9 117.5 119.1 120.7 122.2 123.8 125.4
5 127.0 128.6 130.2 131.8 133.4 134.9 136.5 138.1 139.7 141.3 142.9 144.5 146.1 147.6 149.2 150.8
6 152.4 154.0 155.6 157.2 158.8 160.3 161.9 163.5 165.1 166.7 168.3 169.9 171.5 173.0 174.6 176.2
7 177.8 179.4 181.0 182.6 184.2 185.7 187.3 188.9 190.5 192.1 193.7 195.3 196.9 198.4 200.0 201.6
8 203.2 204.8 206.4 208.0 209.6 211.1 212.7 214.3 215.9 217.5 219.1 220.7 222.3 223.8 225.4 227.0
9 228.6 230.2 231.8 233.4 235.0 236.5 238.1 239.7 241.3 242.9 244.5 246.1 247.7 249.2 250.8 252.4
10 254.0 255.6 257.2 258.8 260.4 261.9 263.5 265.1 266.7 268.3 269.9 271.5 273.1 274.6 276.2 277.8

4
In
feet& inches to
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 metres
m
ft
0 0.0254 0.0508 0.0762 0.1016 0.127 0.1524 0.1778 0.2032 0.2286 0.254 0.2794
1 0.3048 0.3302 0.3556 0.381 0.4064 0.4318 0.4572 0.4826 0.508 0.5334 0.5588 0.5842
2 0.6096 0.635 0.6604 0.6858 0.7112 0.7366 0.762 0.7874 0.8128 0.8382 0.8636 0.889
3 0.9144 0.9398 0.9652 0.9906 1.016 1.0414 1.0668 1.0922 1.1176 1.143 1.1684 1.1938
4 1.2192 1.2446 1.27 1.2954 1.3208 1.3462 1.3716 1.397 1.4224 1.4478 1.4732 1.4986
5 1.524 1.5494 1.5748 1.6002 1.6256 1.651 1.6764 1.7018 1.7272 1.7526 1.778 1.8034
6 1.8288 1.8542 1.8796 1.905 1.9304 1.9558 1.9812 2.0066 2.032 2.0574 2.0828 2.1082
7 2.1336 2.159 2.1844 2.2098 2.2352 2.2606 2.286 2.3114 2.3368 2.3622 2.3876 2.413
8 2.4384 2.4638 2.4892 2.5146 2.54 2.5654 2.5908 2.6162 2.6416 2.667 2.6924 2.7178
9 2.7432 2.7686 2.794 2.8194 2.8448 2.8702 2.8956 2.921 2.9464 2.9718 2.9972 3.0226
10 3.048
368

Conversions
5 m
metrestofeet ft
0 3.28 6.56 9.84 13.12 16.40 19.69 22.97 26.25 29.53
10 32.8 36.09 39.37 42.65 45.93 49.21 52.49 55.77 59.06 62.34
20 65.62 68.9 72.17 75.45 78.74 82.02 85.3 88.58 91.86 95.14
30 98.43 101.7 104.99 108.27 111.55 114.82 118.11 121.39 124.67 127.95
40 131.23 134.51 137.8 141.08 144.36 147.63 150.91 154.2 157.48 160.76
50 164.04 167.32 170.6 173.89 177.17 180.45 183.73 187.01 190.29 193.57
60 196.85 200.13 203.41 206.69 209.97 213.25 216.54 219.82 223.1 226.38
70 229.66 232.94 236.22 239.5 242.78 246.06 249.34 252.63 255.91 259.19
80 262.46 265.75 269.03 272.31 275.59 278.87 282.15 285.43 288.71 292.0
90 295.28 298.56 301.84 305.12 308.4 311.68 314.96 318.24 321.52 324.8
100 328.08 331.37 334.65 337.93 341.21 344.49 347.77 351.05 354.33 357.61
110 360.89 364.17 367.45 370.74 374.02 377.3 380.58 383.86 387.14 390.42
120 393.7 396.98 400.26 403.54 406.82 410.1 413.39 416.67 419.95 423.23
130 426.51 429.79 433.07 436.35 439.63 442.91 446.19 449.48 452.76 456.04
140 459.32 462.6 465.88 469.16 472.44 475.72 479.0 482.28 485.56 488.85
150 492.13 495.41 498.69 502.0 505.25 508.53 511.81 515.09 518.37 521.65
160 524.93 528.22 531.5 534.78 538.06 541.34 544.62 547.9 551.18 554.46
170 557.74 561.02 564.3 567.59 570.87 574.15 577.43 580.71 583.99 587.27
180 590.55 593.83 597.11 600.39 603.68 606.96 610.24 613.52 616.8 620.08
190 623.36 626.64 629.92 633.2 636.48 639.76 643.05 646.33 649.6 652.89
200 656.17 659.45 662.73 666.01 669.29 672.57 675.85 679.13 682.42 685.7
210 688.98 692.26 695.54 698.82 702.1 705.38 708.66 711.94 715.22 718.5
220 721.79 725.07 728.35 731.63 734.91 738.19 741.47 744.75 748.03 751.31
230 754.59 757.87 761.16 764.44 767.72 771.0 774.28 777.56 780.84 784.12
240 787.4 790.68 793.96 797.24 800.53 803.81 807.09 810.37 813.65 816.93
250 820.21

7 m 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
metresto yards
yd
0 1.09 2.19 3.28 4.37 5.47 6.56 7.66 8.75 9.84
10 10.94 12.03 13.12 14.22 15.31 16.4 17.5 18.59 19.69 20.78
20 21.87 22.97 24.06 25.15 26.25 27.34 28.43 29.53 30.62 31.71
30 32.8 33.9 35.0 36.09 37.18 38.28 39.37 40.46 41.56 42.65
40 43.74 44.84 45.93 47.03 48.12 49.21 50.31 51.4 52.49 53.59
50 54.68 55.77 56.87 57.96 59.06 60.15 61.24 62.34 63.43 64.52
60 65.62 66.71 67.8 68.9 69.99 71.08 72.18 73.27 74.37 75.46
70 76.55 77.65 78.74 79.83 80.93 82.02 83.11 84.21 85.3 86.4
80 87.49 88.58 89.68 90.77 91.86 92.96 94.05 95.14 96.24 97.33
90 98.43 99.52 100.61 101.71 102.8 103.89 104.99 106.08 107.17 108.27
100 109.36 110.46 111.55 112.64 113.74 114.83 115.92 117.02 118.11 119.2
110 120.3 121.39 122.49 123.58 124.67 125.74 126.86 127.95 129.05 130.14
120 131.23 132.33 133.42 134.51 135.61 136.7 137.8 138.89 139.99 141.08
130 142.17 143.26 144.36 145.45 146.54 147.64 148.73 149.83 150.92 152.01
140 153.1 154.2 155.29 156.39 157.48 158.57 159.67 160.76 161.86 162.95
150 164.04 165.14 166.23 167.32 168.42 169.51 170.6 171.7 172.79 173.89
160 174.98 176.07 177.17 178.26 179.35 180.45 181.54 182.63 183.73 184.82
170 185.91 187.0 188.1 189.2 190.29 191.38 192.48 193.57 194.66 195.76
180 196.85 197.94 199.04 200.13 201.23 202.32 203.41 204.51 205.6 206.69
190 207.79 208.88 209.97 211.07 212.16 213.26 214.35 215.44 216.53 217.63
200 218.72 219.82 220.91 222.0 223.1 224.19 225.28 226.38 227.47 228.57
210 229.66 230.75 231.85 232.94 234.03 235.13 236.22 237.31 238.41 239.5
220 240.56 241.69 242.78 243.88 244.97 246.06 247.16 248.25 249.34 250.44
230 251.53 252.63 253.72 254.81 255.91 257.0 258.09 259.19 260.28 261.37
240 262.47 263.56 264.65 265.75 266.84 267.94 269.03 270.12 271.22 272.31
250 273.4

9 km 0 3 4 5
kilometres tomiles 1 2 6 7 8 9
mile
0 0.62 1.24 1.86 2.49 3.11 3.73 4.35 4.98 5.59
10 6.21 6.84 7.46 8.08 8.7 9.32 9.94 10.56 11.18 11.81
20 12.43 13.05 13.67 14.29 14.91 15.53 16.16 16.78 17.4 18.02
30 18.64 19.29 19.88 20.5 21.13 21.75 22.37 22.99 23.61 24.23
40 24.85 25.47 26.1 26.72 27.34 27.96 28.58 29.2 29.83 30.45
50 31.07 31.69 32.31 32.93 33.55 34.18 34.8 35.42 36.04 36.66
60 37.28 37.9 38.53 39.15 39.77 40.39 41.01 41.63 42.25 42.87
70 43.5 44.12 44.74 45.36 45.98 46.6 47.22 47.85 48.47 49.09
80 49.7 50.33 50.95 51.57 52.2 52.82 53.44 54.06 54.68 55.3
90 55.92 56.54 57.17 57.79 58.41 59.03 59.65 60.27 60.89 61.52
100 62.14
 369

Con versions
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 6
m feet tometres
0 0.31 0.6 0.91 1.22 1.52 1.83 2.13 2.44 2.74
10 3.05 3.35 3.66 3.96 4.27 4.57 4.88 5.18 5.49 5.79
20 6.1 6.4 6.71 7.01 7.31 7.62 7.92 8.23 8.53 8.84
30 9.14 9.45 9.75 10.06 10.36 10.67 10.97 11.28 11.58 11.89
40 12.19 12.5 12.80 13.1 13.41 13.72 14.02 14.36 14.63 14.94
50 15.24 15.54 15.85 16.15 16.46 16.76 17.07 17.37 17.68 17.98
60 18.29 18.59 18.9 19.2 19.58 19.81 20.12 20.42 20.73 21.03
70 21.33 21.64 21.95 22.25 22.56 22.86 23.16 23.47 23.77 24.08
80 24.38 24.69 24.99 25.3 25.6 25.91 26.21 26.52 26.82 27.13
90 27.43 27.74 28.04 28.35 28.65 28.96 29.26 29.57 29.87 30.18
100 30.48 30.78 31.09 31.39 31.7 32.0 32.31 32.61 32.92 33.22
110 33.53 33.83 34.14 34.44 34.75 35.05 35.37 35.67 36.0 36.3
120 36.58 36.88 37.19 37.49 37.8 38.1 38.41 38.7 39.01 39.32
130 39.62 39.93 40.23 40.54 40.84 41.15 41.45 41.76 42.06 42.37
140 42.67 42.98 43.28 43.59 43.89 44.2 44.5 44.81 45.11 45.46
150 45.72 46.02 46.33 46.63 46.94 47.24 47.55 47.85 48.16 48.46
160 48.77 49.07 49.38 49.68 49.99 50.29 50.6 50.9 51.21 51.51
170 51.82 52.12 52.43 52.73 53.04 53.34 53.64 53.95 54.25 54.56
180 54.86 55.17 55.47 55.78 56.08 56.39 56.69 57.0 57.3 57.61
190 57.91 58.22 58.52 58.83 59.13 59.44 59.74 60.05 60.35 60.66
200 60.96 61.26 61.57 61.87 62.18 62.48 62.79 63.09 63.4 63.7
210 64.01 64.31 64.62 64.92 65.23 65.53 65.84 66.14 66.45 66.75
220 67.06 67.36 67.67 67.97 68.28 68.58 68.89 69.19 69.49 69.79
230 70.1 70.41 70.71 71.02 71.32 71.63 71.93 72.24 72.54 72.85
240 73.15 73.46 73.76 74.07 74.37 74.68 74.98 75.29 75.59 75.9
250 76.2

yd 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8
m yardsto metres
0 0.91 1.83 2.74 3.65 4.57 5.49 6.4 7.32 8.23
10 9.14 10.06 10.97 11.89 12.8 13.71 14.63 15.54 16.46 17.37
20 18.29 19.2 20.12 21.03 21.95 22.86 23.77 24.69 25.6 26.52
30 27.43 28.35 29.26 30.18 31.09 32.0 32.92 33.83 34.75 35.66
40 36.58 37.49 38.4 39.32 40.23 41.15 42.06 42.98 43.89 44.81
50 45.72 46.63 47.55 48.46 49.38 50.29 51.21 52.12 53.04 53.95
60 54.86 55.78 56.69 57.61 58.52 59.44 60.35 61.27 62.18 63.09
70 64.0 64.92 65.84 66.75 67.67 68.58 69.49 70.41 71.32 72.24
80 73.15 74.07 74.98 75.9 76.81 77.72 78.64 79.55 80.47 81.38
90 82.3 83.21 84.12 85.04 85.95 86.87 87.78 88.7 89.61 90.53
100 91.44 92.35 93.27 94.18 95.1 96.01 96.93 97.84 98.76 99.67
110 100.58 101.5 102.41 103.33 104.24 105.16 106.07 106.99 107.9 108.81
120 109.73 110.64 111.56 112.47 113.39 114.3 115.21 116.13 117.04 117.96
130 118.87 119.79 120.7 121.61 122.53 123.44 124.36 125.27 126.19 127.1
140 128.02 128.93 129.85 130.76 131.67 132.59 133.5 134.42 135.33 136.25
150 137.16 138.07 138.99 139.9 140.82 141.73 142.65 143.56 144.48 145.39
160 146.3 147.22 148.13 149.05 149.96 150.88 151.79 152.71 153.62 154.53
170 155.45 156.36 157.28 158.19 159.11 160.02 160.93 161.85 162.76 163.68
180 164.59 165.51 166.42 167.34 168.25 169.16 170.08 170.99 171.9 172.82
190 173.74 174.65 175.57 176.48 177.39 178.31 179.22 180.14 181.05 181.97
200 182.88 183.79 184.71 185.62 186.54 187.45 188.37 189.28 190.2 191.11
210 192.02 192.94 193.85 194.77 195.68 196.6 197.51 198.43 199.34 200.25
220 201.17 202.08 203.0 203.91 204.83 205.74 206.65 207.57 208.48 209.4
230 210.31 211.23 212.14 213.06 213.97 214.88 215.8 216.71 217.63 218.54
240 219.46 220.37 221.29 222.0 223.11 224.03 224.94 225.86 226.77 227.69
250 228.6

mile 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
km milesto kilometres
0 1.61 3.22 4.83 6.44 8.05 9.66 11.27 12.87 14.48
10 16.09 17.7 19.31 20.92 22.53 24.14 25.75 27.36 28.97 30.58
20 32.19 33.8 35.41 37.01 38.62 40.23 41.84 43.45 45.06 46.67
30 48.28 49.89 51.5 53.11 54.72 56.33 57.94 59.55 61.16 62.76
40 64.37 65.98 67.59 69.2 70.81 72.42 74.03 75.64 77.25 78.86
50 80.47 82.08 83.69 85.3 86.9 88.51 90.12 91.73 93.34 94.95
60 96.56 98.17 99.78 101.39 103.0 104.61 106.22 107.83 109.44 111.05
70 112.65 114.26 115.87 117.48 119.09 120.7 122.31 123.92 125.53 127.14
80 128.75 130.36 131.97 133.58 135.19 136.79 138.4 140.01 141.62 143.23
90 144.84 146.45 148.06 149.67 151.28 152.89 154.5 156.11 157.72 159.33
100 160.93
370

Conversions
Area cm2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
11
j2
squarecentimetres 0 0.16 0.31 0.47 0.62 0.78 0.93 1.09 1.24 1.4
to square inches 10 1.6 1.71 1.86 2.02 2.17 2.33 2.48 2.64 2.79 2.95
20 3.1 3.26 3.41 3.57 3.72 3.88 4.03 4.19 4.34 4.5
30 4.65 4.81 4.96 5.12 5.27 5.43 5.58 5.74 5.9 6.05
40 6.2 6.36 6.51 6.67 6.82 6.98 7.13 7.29 7.44 7.6
50 7.75 7.91 8.06 8.22 8.37 8.53 8.68 8.84 9.0 9.15
60 9.3 9.46 9.61 9.77 9.92 10.08 10.23 10.39 10.54 10.7
70 10.85 11.01 11.16 11.32 11.47 11.63 11.78 11.94 12.09 12.25
80 12.4 12.56 12.71 12.87 13.02 13.18 13.33 13.49 13.64 13.8
90 13.95 14.11 14.26 14.42 14.57 14.73 14.88 15.04 15.19 15.35
100 15.5 15.66 15.81 15.97 16.12 16.28 16.43 16.59 16.74 16.9
110 17.06 17.21 17.36 17.52 17.67 17.83 17.98 18.14 18.29 18.45
120 18.6 18.76 18.91 19.07 19.22 19.38 19.53 19.69 19.84 20.0
130 20.15 20.31 20.46 20.62 20.77 20.93 21.08 21.24 21.39 21.55
140 21.7 21.86 22.01 22.17 22.32 22.48 22.63 22.79 22.94 23.1
150 23.25 23.41 23.56 23.72 23.87 24.03 24.18 24.34 24.49 24.65
160 24.8 24.96 25.11 25.27 25.42 25.58 25.73 25.89 26.04 26.2
170 26.35 26.51 26.66 26.82 26.97 27.13 27.28 27.44 27.59 27.75
180 27.9 28.06 28.21 28.37 28.52 28.68 28.83 28.99 29.14 29.3
190 29.45 29.61 29.76 29.92 30.07 30.23 30.38 30.54 30.69 30.85
200 31.0 31.16 31.31 31.47 31.62 31.78 31.93 32.09 32.24 32.4
210 32.55 32.71 32.86 33.02 33.17 33.33 33.48 33.64 33.79 33.95
220 34.1 34.26 34.41 34.57 34.72 34.88 35.03 35.19 35.34 35.5
230 35.65 35.81 35.96 36.12 36.27 36.43 36.58 36.75 36.89 37.05
240 37.20 37.36 37.51 37.67 37.82 37.98 38.13 38.29 38.44 38.6
250 38.75

13 m2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
squaremetresto ft2
squarefeet
0 10.76 21.53 32.29 43.06 53.82 64.58 75.35 86.11 96.88
10 107.64 118.4 129.17 139.93 150.66 161.46 172.22 182.97 193.75 20451
20 215.29 226.01 236.81 247.57 258.33 269.1 279.86 290.63 301.39 312.15
30 322.92 333.68 344.45 355.21 365.97 376.74 387.5 398.?7 409.03 419.79
40 430.56 441.32 452.08 462.85 473.61 484.38 495.14 505.91 516.67 527.43
50 538.2 548.96 559.72 570.49 581.25 592.02 602.78 613.54 624.31 635.07
60 645.84 656.6 667.36 678.13 688.89 699.65 710.42 721.18 731.95 742.71
70 753.47 764.24 775.0 785.77 796.53 807.29 818.06 828.82 839.59 850.35
80 861.11 871.88 882.64 893.41 904.17 914.93 925.7 936.46 947.22 957.99
90 968.75 979.52 990.28 1 001.04 1 011.81 1 022.57 1 033.34 1 044.1 1 054.86 1 065.63
100 1 076.39 1 087.15 1 097.92 1108.68 1119.45 1130.21 1140.971151.74 1162.5 1173.27
110 1 184.03 1194.79 1 205.56 1 216.32 1 227.09 1 237.85 1 248.61
1 259.38 1 270.14 1 280.91
120 1 291.67 1 302.43 1 313.2 1 323.96 1 334.72 1 345.49 1 356.25
1 367.02 1 377.78 1 388.54
130 1 399.31 1 410.07 1 420.84 1 431.6 1 442.36 1 453.13 1 463.89
1 474.66 1 485.42 1 496.18
140 1 506.95 1 517.71 1 528.48 1 539.24 1 550.0 1 560.77 1 571.53
1 582.29 1 593.06 1 603.82
150 1 614.59 1
625.35 1 636.11 1 646.88
657.64 1 1 668.41 1 679.17 1 689.93 1 700.7 1 711.46
160 1 722.23 1
732.99 1 743.75 1 754.52
765.28 1 1 776.05 1 786.81 1 797.57 1 808.34 1 819.1
170 1 829.86 1
840.63 1 851.39 1 862.16
872.92 1 1 883.68 1 894.45 1 905.21 1 915.98 1 926.74
180 1 937.5 1
948.27 1 959.03 1 969.8
980.56 1 1 991.32 2002.09 2012.85 2023.62 2034.38
190 2045.14 2055.91 2066.67 2077.43 2 088.2 2098.96 2109.73 2120.49 2131.25 2142.02
200 2 185.07 2 195.84
2 152.78 2 163.55 2 174.31 2206.6 2217.37 2228.13 2238.89 2249.66
210 2260.42 2271.19 2281.95 2292.71 2303.48 2314.24 2325.0 2335.77 2346.53 2357.3
220 2368.06 2378.82 2389.59 2400.35 2411.12 2421.88 2432.64 2443.41 2454.17 2464.94
230 2 475.7 2 486.46 2 497.23 2507.99 2 518.76 2 529.52 2 540.28 2 551.05 2 561.81 2 572.57
240 2583.34 2594.1 2604.87 2615.63 2626.39 2637.16 2647.92 2658.69 2669.45 2680.21
250 2 690.98 2 701.74 2 712.51 2 723.27 2 734.03 2 744.8 2 755.56 2 766.32 2 777.09 2 787.85
260 2 798.62 2809.38 2820.14 2830.91 2841.67 2852.44 2863.2 2873.96 2884.73 2895.49
270 2906.26 2917.02 2927.78 2938.55 2949.31 2960.08 2970.84 2981.6 2992.37 3003.13
280 3013.89 3 024.66 3035.42 3 046.19 3056.95 3067.71 3078.48 3089.24 3 100.01 3 110.77
290 3121.53 3132.3 3143.06 3153.83 3164.59 3175.35 3186.12 3196.88 3207.65 3 218.41
300 3 229.17 3 239.94 3 250.7 3261.46 3272.23 3282.99 3 293.76 3 304.52 3 315.28 3 326.05
310 3336.81 3347.58 3358.34 3369.1 3379.87 3390.63 3401.4 3412.16 3422.92 3433.69
320 3444.45 3455.22 3465.98 3476.74 3487.51 3498.27 3509.03 3519.8 3530.56 3541.33
330 3552.09 3562.85 3573.62 3584.38 3 595.15 3605.91 3616.67 3627.44 3638.2 3648.97
340 3 659.73 3 670.49 3 681.26 3692.02 3 702.79 3 713.55 3 724.31 3 735.08 3 745.84 3 756.6
350 3 767.37 3 778.13 3 788.9 3799.66 3 810.42 3821.19 3831.95 3842.72 3 853.48 3 864.24
360 3875.01 3885.77 3896.54 3907.3 3918.06
3928.83 3939.59 3950.36 3961.12 3971.88
370 3982.65 3993.41 4004.17 4014.94 4025.7
4036.47 4047.23 4057.99 4068.76 4079.52
380 4090.29 4101.05 4111.81 4122.58 4133.34
4144.11 4154.87 4165.63 4176.4 4187.16
390 4197.93 4208.69 4219.45 4230.22 4240.98
4251.74 4262.51 4273.27 4284.04 4294.8
400 4305.56 4316.33 4327.09 4337.86 4348.62
4359.38 4370.15 4380.91 4391.68 4402.44
410 4413.2 4 423.97 4434.73 4 445.49 4 456.26 4467.02 4477.79 4488.55 4499.31 4 510.08
420 4520.84 4531.61 4542.37 4553.13 4563.9 4574.66 4585.43 4596.19 4606.95 4617.72
430 4628.48 4639.25 4650.01 4660.77 4671.54 4682.3 4693.06 4703.83 4714.59 4725.36
440 4736.12 4746.88 4757.65 4768.41 4779.18 4789.94 4800.7 4811.47 4822.23 4833.0
450 4 843.76 4 854.52 4 865.29 4876.05 4 886.82 4 897.58 4 908.34 4 919.11 4 929.87 4 940.63
460 4951.4 4 962.16 4 972.93 4983.69 4994.45 5005.22 5015.98 5026.75 5037.51 5048.27
470 5 059.04 5 069.8 5 080.57 5091.33 5 102.09 5 112.86 5 123.62 5 134.39 5 145.15 5 155.91
480 5166.68 5177.44 5188.2 5198.97 5209.73 5220.5 5231.26 5242.02 5252.79 5263.55
490 5274.32 5285.08 5295.84 5306.61 5317.37 5328.14 5338.9 5349.66 5360.43 5371.19
500 5381.96
 371

Conversions
j2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 12
cm2 squareinches
to square
0 6.45 12.9 19.36 25.81 32.26 38.71 45.16 51.61 58.06 centimetres
10 64.52 70.97 77.41 83.87 90.32 96.77 103.23 109.68 116.13 122.58
20 129.03 135.48 141.94 148.39 154.84 161.29 167.74 174.19 180.65 187.1
30 193.55 200.0 206.45 212.9 219.35 225.8 232.26 238.71 245.16 251.61
40 258.06 264.52 270.97 277.42 283.87 290.32 296.77 303.23 309.68 316.13
50 322.58 329.03 335.48 341.94 348.4 354.84 361.29 367.74 374.19 380.64
60 387.1 393.55 400.0 406.45 412.91 419.35 425.81 432.26 438.71 445.16
70 451.61 458.06 464.52 470.97 477.42 483.87 490.32 496.77 503.23 509.68
80 516.13 522.58 529.03 535.48 541.93 548.39 554.84 561.29 567.74 574.19
90 580.64 587.1 593.55 600.0 606.45 612.91 619.35 625.81 632.26 638.71
100 645.16 651.61 658.06 664.51 670.97 677.42 683.87 690.32 696.77 703.22
110 709.6 716.13 722.58 729.03 735.48 741.93 748.39 754.84 761.29 767.74
120 774.19 780.64 787.1 793.55 800.0 806.45 812.9 819.35 825.81 832.26
130 838.71 845.16 851.61 858.06 864.51 870.97 877.42 883.87 890.32 896.77
140 903.22 909.68 916.13 922.58 929.03 935.48 941.93 948.39 954.84 961.29
150 967.74 974.19 980.64 987.1 993.55 1 000.00 1 006.45 012.9
1 1 019.35 1 025.8
160 1 032.26 1 038.71 1 045.16 1 051.61 058.06
1 1 064.51 1 070.97 077.42
1 1 083.87 1 090.32
170 1 096.77 1103.22 1109.68 1116.13 1122.58 1129.03 1135.48 1141.93 1148.38 1154.84
180 1 161.29 1167.74 1174.19 1180.64 1187.09 1193.55 1 200.0 1 206.45 1 212.9 1 219.35
190 1 225.8 1 232.26 1 238.71 1 245.16 1 251.61 1 258.06 1 264.51 1 270.97 1 277.42 1 283.87
200 1 290.32 1 296.77 1 303.22 1 309.67 1 316.13 1 322.58 1 329.03 1 335.48 1 341.93 1 348.38
210 1 354.84 1 361.29 1 367.74 1 374.19 1 380.64 1 387.09 1 393.55 1 400.0 1 406.45 1 412.9
220 1 419.35 1 425.8 1 432.26 1 438.71 1 445.16 1 451.61 1 458.06 1 464.51 1 470.96 1 477.42
230 1 483.87 1 490.32 1 496.77 1 503.22 1 509.67 1 516.13 1 522.58 1 529.03 1 535.48 1 541.93
240 1 548.38 1 554.84 1 561.29 1 567.74 1 574.19 1 580.64 1 587.09 1 593.55 1 600.0 1 606.45
250 1 612.9

ft2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 14
m2 square feetto
square metres
0 0.09 0.19 0.28 0.37 0.46 0.56 0.65 0.74 0.84
10 0.93 1.02 1.11 1.21 1.3 1.39 1.49 1.58 1.67 1.77
20 1.86 1.95 2.04 2.14 2.23 2.32 2.42 2.51 2.6 2.69
30 2.79 2.88 2.97 3.07 3.16 3.25 3.34 3.44 3.53 3.62
40 3.72 3.81 3.9 3.99 4.09 4.18 4.27 4.37 4.46 4.55
50 4.65 4.74 4.83 4.92 5.02 5.11 5.2 5.3 5.39 5.48
60 5.57 5.67 5.76 5.85 5.95 6.04 6.13 6.22 6.32 6.41
70 6.5 6.6 6.69 6.78 6.87 6.97 7.06 7.15 7.25 7.34
80 7.43 7.53 7.62 7.71 7.8 7.9 7.99 8.08 8.18 8.27
90 8.36 8.45 8.55 8.64 8.73 8.83 8.92 9.01 9.1 9.2
100 9.29 9.38 9.48 9.57 9.66 9.75 9.85 9.94 10.03 10.13
110 10.22 10.31 10.41 10.5 10.59 10.68 10.78 10.87 10.96 11.06
120 11.15 11.24 11.33 11.43 11.52 11.61 11.71 11.8 11,89 11.98
130 12.08 12.17 12.26 12.36 12.45 12.54 12.63 12.73 12.82 12.91
140 13.01 13.1 13.19 13.29 13.38 13.47 13.56 13.66 13.75 13.84
150 13.94 14.03 14.12 14.21 14.31 14.4 14.49 14.59 14.68 14.77
160 14.86 14.96 15.05 15.14 15.24 15.33 15.42 15.51 15.61 15.7
170 15.79 15.89 15.98 16.07 16.17 16.26 16.35 16.44 16.54 16.63
180 16.72 16.82 16.91 17.0 17.09 17.19 17.28 17.37 17.47 17.56
190 17.65 17.74 17.84 17.93 18.02 18.12 18.21 18.3 18.39 18.49
200 18.58 18.67 18.77 18.86 18.95 19.05 19.14 19.23 19.32 19.42
210 19.51 19.6 19.7 19.79 19.88 19.97 20.07 20.16 20.25 20.35
220 20.44 20.53 20.62 20.72 20.81 20.9 21.0 21.09 21.18 21.27
230 21.37 21.46 21.55 21.65 21.74 21.83 21.93 22.02 22.11 22.2
240 22.3 22.39 22.48 22.58 22.67 22.76 22.85 22.95 23.04 23.13
250 23.23 23.32 23.41 23.5 23.6 23.69 23.78 23.88 23.97 24.06
260 24.15 24.25 24.34 24.43 24.53 24.62 24.71 24.81 24.9 24.99
270 25.08 25.18 25.27 25.36 25.46 25.55 25.64 25.73 25.83 25.92
280 26.01 26.11 26.2 26.29 26.38 26.48 26.57 26.66 26.76 26.85
290 26.94 27.03 27.13 27.22 27.31 27.41 27.5 27.59 27.69 27.78
300 27.87 27.96 28.06 28.15 28.24 28.34 28.43 28.52 28.61 28.71
310 28.8 28.89 28.99 29.08 29.17 29.26 29.36 29.45 29.54 29.64
320 29.73 29.82 29.91 30.01 30.1 30.19 30.29 30.38 30.47 30.57
330 30.66 30.75 30.84 30.94 31.03 31.12 31.22 31.31 31.4 31.49
340 31.59 31.68 31.77 31.87 31.96 32.05 32.14 32.24 32.33 32.42
350 32.52 32.61 32.7 32.79 32.89 32.98 33.07 33.17 33.26 33.35
360 33.45 33.54 33.63 33.72 33.82 33.91 34.0 34.1 34.19 34.28
370 34.37 34.47 34.56 34.65 34.75 34.84 34.93 35.02 35.12 35.21
380 35.3 35.4 35.49 35.58 35.67 35.77 35.86 35.95 36.05 36.14
390 36.23 36.33 36.42 36.51 36.6 36.7 36.79 36.88 36.98 37.07
400 37.16 37.25 37.35 37.44 37.53 37.63 37.72 37.81 37.9 38.0
410 38.09 38.18 38.28 38.37 38.46 38.55 38.65 38.74 38.83 38.93
420 39.02 39.11 39.21 39.3 39.39 39.48 39.58 39.67 39.76 39.86
430 39.95 40.04 40.13 40.23 40.32 40.41 40.51 40.6 40.69 40.78
440 40.88 40.97 41.06 41.16 41.25 41.34 41.43 41.53 41.62 41.71
450 41.81 41.9 41.99 42.09 42.18 42.27 42.36 42.46 42.55 42.64
460 42.74 42.83 42.92 43.01 43.11 43.2 43.29 43.39 43.48 43.57
470 43.66 43.76 43.85 43.94 44.04 44.13 44.22 44.31 44.41 44.5
480 44.59 44.69 44.78 44.87 44.97 45.06 45.15 45.24 45.34 45.43
490 45.52 45.62 45.71 45.8 45.89 45.99 46.08 46.17 46.27 46.36
500 46.45
372

Conversions
15 m2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
squaremetresto yd2
squareyards
0 1.2 2.39 3.58 4.78 5.98 7.18 8.37 9.57 10.76
10 11.96 13.16 14.35 15.55 16.74 17.94 19.14 20.33 21.53 22.72
20 23.92 25.12 26.31 27.51 28.7 29.9 31.1 32.29 33.49 34.68
30 35.88 37.08 38.27 39.47 40.66 . 41.86 43.06 44.25 45.45 46.64
40 47.84 49.04 50.23 51.43 52.62 53.82 55.02 56.21 57.41 58.6
50 59.8 61.0 62.19 63.39 64.58 65.78 66.98 68.17 69.37 70.56
60 71.76 72.96 74.15 75.35 76.54 77.74 78.94 80.13 81.33 82.52
70 83.72 84.92 86.11 87.31 88.5 89.7 90.9 92.09 93.29 94.48
80 95.68 96.88 98.07 99.27 100.46 101.66 102.86 104.05 105.25 106.44
90 107.64 108.84 110.03 111.23 112.42 113.62 114.82 116.01 117.21 118.4
100 119.6 120.8 121.99 123.19 124.38 125.58 126.78 127.97 129.17 130.36
110 131.56 132.76 133.95 135.15 136.34 137.54 138.74 139.93 141.13 142.32
120 143.52 144.72 145.91 147.11 148.31 149.5 150.7 151.89 153.09 154.28
130 155.48 156.68 157.87 159.07 160.26 161.46 162.66 163.85 165.05 166.24
140 167.44 168.64 169.83 171.03 172.22 173.41 174.62 175.81 177.01 178.2
150 179.34 180.59 181.79 182.99 184.18 185.38 186.57 187.77 188.97 190.16
160 191.36 192.55 193.75 194.95 196.14 197.34 198.53 199.73 200.93 202.12
170 203.32 204.51 205.71 206.91 208.1 209.3 210.49 211.69 212.89 214.08
180 215.28 216.47 217.67 218.87 220.06 221.26 222.45 223.65 224.85 226.04
190 227.24 228.43 229.63 230.83 232.02 233.22 234.41 235.61 236.81 238.0
200 239.2 240.39 241.59 242.79 243.98 245.18 246.37 247.57 248.77 249.96
210 251.16 252.35 253.55 254.75 255.94 257.14 258.33 259.53 260.73 261.92
220 263.12 264.31 265.51 266.71 267.9 269.1 270.29 271.49 272.69 273.88
230 275.08 276.27 277.47 278.67 279.86 281.06 282.25 283.45 284.65 285.84
240 287.04 288.23 289.43 290.63 291.82 293.02 294.21 295.41 296.61 297.8
250 299.0 300.19 301.39 302.59 303.78 304.98 306.17 307.37 308.57 309.76
260 310.96 312.15 313.35 314.55 315.74 316.94 318.13 319.33 320.53 321.72
270 322.92 324.11 325.31 326.51 327.7 328.9 330.09 331.29 332.49 333.68
280 334.88 336.07 337.27 338.47 339.66 340.86 342.05 343.25 344.45 345.64
290 346.84 348.03 349.23 350.43 351.62 352.82 354.02 355.21 356.41 357.6
300 358.78 359.99 361.19 362.39 363.58 364.78 365.97 367.17 368.37 369.56
310 370.76 371.95 373.15 374.35 375.54 376.74 377.94 379.13 380.33 381.52
320 382.72 383.91 385.11 386.31 387.5 388.7 389.89 391.09 392.29 393.48
330 394.68 395.87 397.07 398.27 399.46 400.66 401.85 403.05 404.25 405.44
340 406.64 407.83 409.03 410.23 411.42 412.62 413.81 415.01 416.21 417.4
350 418.6 419.79 420.99 422.18 423.38 424.58 425.77 426.97 428.16 429.36
360 430.56 431.75 432.95 434.14 435.34 436.54 437.73 438.93 440.12 441.32
370 442.52 443.71 444.91 446.11 447.3 448.5 449.69 450.89 452.08 453.28
380 454.48 455.67 456.87 458.06 459.26 460.46 461.65 462.84 464.04 465.24
390 466.44 467.63 468.83 470.02 471.22 472.42 473.61 474.81 476.0 477.2
400 478.4 479.59 480.79 481.98 483.18 484.38 485.57 486.77 487.96 489.16
410 490.36 491.55 492.75 493.94 495.14 496.34 497.53 498.73 499.92 501.12
420 502.32 503.51 504.71 505.9 507.1 508.3 509.49 510.69 511.88 513.08
430 514.28 515.47 516.67 517.86 519.06 520.26 521.45 522.65 523.84 525.04
440 526.24 527.43 528.63 529.82 531.02 532.22 533.41 534.61 535.8 537.0
450 538.2 539.39 540.59 541.78 542.98 544.18 545.37 546.57 547.76 548.96
460 550.16 551.35 552.55 553.74 554.94 556.14 557.33 558.53 559.72 560.92
470 562.12 563.31 564.5 565.71 566.9 568.1 569.29 570.49 571.68 572.88
480 574.08 575.27 576.47 577.66 578.86 580.06 581.25 582.45 583.64 584.84
490 586.04 587.23 588.43 589.62 590.82 592.02 593.21 594.41 595.6 596.8
500 598.0

17 ha 2 3 4 5 6 7
hectares toacres
0 1 8 9
acre
2.47 4.94 7.41 9.88 12.36 14.83 17.3 19.77 22.24

ha 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
acre
0 24.71 49.42 74.13 98.84 123.55 148.26 172.97 197.68 222.4
100 247.11 271.82 296.53 321.24 345.95 370.66 395.37 420.08 444.8 469.5
200 494.21 518.92 543.63 568.34 593.05 617.76 642.47 667.19 691.9 716.61
300 741.32 766.03 790.74 815.45 840.16 864.87 889.58 914.29 939.0 963.71
400 988.421 013.13 1 037.84 1 062.55 1 087.26 1111.97 1136.68 1161.4 1186.11 1 210.82
500 1 235.531 260.24 1 284.95 1 309.66 1 334.37 1 359.08 1 383.79 1 408.5 1 433.21 1 457.92
600 1 482.631 507.34 1 532.05 1 556.76 1 581.47 1 606.18 1 630.9 1 655.61 1 680.32 1 705.03
700 1 729.741 754.45 1 779.16 1 803.87 1 828.58 1 853.29 1 878.0 1 902.71 1 927.42 1 952.13
800 1976.84 2 001.55 2026.26 2050.97 2075.69 2100.4 2125.11 2149.82 2174.53 2199.24
900 2223.95 2 248.66 2273.37 2 298.08 2322.79 2347.5 2 372.21 2 396.92 2421.63 2446.34
1000 2471.05
 373

Conversions
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 16
yd2 1

m2 squareyards to
squaremetres
0 0.84 1.67 2.51 3.34 4.18 5.02 5.85 6.69 7.53
10 8.36 9.2 10.03 10.87 11.71 12.54 13.38 14.21 15.05 15.89
20 16.72 17.56 18.39 19.23 20.07 20.9 21.74 22.58 23.41 24.25
30 25.08 25.92 26.76 27.59 28.43 29.26 30.1 30.94 31.77 32.61
40 33.45 34.28 35.12 35.95 36.79 37.63 38.46 39.3 40.13 40.97
50 41.81 42.64 43.48 44.31 45.15 45.99 46.82 47.66 48.5 49.33
60 50.17 51.0 51.84 52.68 53.51 54.35 55.18 56.02 56.86 57.69
70 58.53 59.37 60.2 61.04 61.87 62.71 63.55 64.38 65.22 66.05
80 66.89 67.7 68.56 69.3 70.23 71.07 71.9 72.74 73.5 74.4
90 75.25 76.09 76.92 77.76 78.6 79.43 80.27 81.10 81.94 82.78
100 83.61 84.45 85.29 86.12 86.96 87.79 88.62 89.47 90.3 91.14
110 91.97 92.81 93.65 94.48 95.32 96.15 96.99 97.83 98.66 99.5
120 100.34 101.17 102.0 102.84 103.68 104.52 105.35 106.19 107.02 107.86
130 108.7 109.53 110.37 111.21 112.04 112.88 113.71 114.55 115.39 116.22
140 117.06 117.89 118.73 119.57 120.41 121.24 122.08 122.91 123.75 124.58
150 125.42 126.26 127.09 127.93 128.76 129.6 130.44 131.27 132.11 132.94
160 133.78 134.62 135.45 136.29 137.13 137.96 138.8 139.63 140.47 141.31
170 142.14 142.98 143.81 144.65 145.49 146.32 147.16 148.0 148.83 149.67
180 150.5 151.34 152.18 153.01 153.85 154.68 155.52 156.36 157.19 158.03
190 158.86 159.7 160.54 161.37 162.21 163.05 163.88 164.72 165.55 166.39
200 167.23 168.06 168.9 169.73 170.57 171.41 172.24 173.08 173.91 174.75
210 175.59 176.42 177.26 178.1 178.93 179.77 180.61 181.44 182.28 183.11
220 183.95 184.78 185.62 186.46 187.29 188.13 188.97 189.80 190.64 191.47
230 192.31 193.15 193.98 194.82 195.65 196.49 197.33 198.16 199.0 199.83
240 200.67 201.51 202.34 203.18 204.02 204.85 205.69 206.52 207.36 208.2
250 209.03 209.87 210.7 211.54 212.38 213.21 214.1 214.89 215.72 216.56
260 217.39 218.3 219.07 219.9 220.74 221.57 222.41 223.25 224.08 224.92
270 225.75 226.59 227.43 228.26 229.1 229.94 230.77 231.61 232.44 233.28
280 234.12 234.95 235.79 236.62 237.46 238.3 239.13 239.97 240.81 241.64
290 242.48 243.31 244.15 244.99 245.82 246.66 247.49 248.33 249.17 250.0
300 250.84 251.67 252.51 253.35 254.18 255.02 255.86 256.69 257.53 258.36
310 259.2 260.04 260.87 261.71 262.54 263.38 264.22 265.05 265.89 266.73
320 267.56 268.4 269.23 270.07 270.91 271.74 272.58 273.41 274.25 275.09
330 275.92 276.76 277.59 278.43 279.27 280.11 280.94 281.78 282.61 283.45
340 284.28 285.12 285.96 286.79 287.63 288.46 289.3 290.14 290.97 291.81
350 292.65 293.48 294.32 295.15 295.99 296.83 297.66 298.5 299.33 300.17
360 301.0 301.84 302.68 303.51 304.35 305.19 306.02 306.86 307.7 308.53
370 309.37 310.2 311.04 311.88 312.71 313.55 314.38 315.22 316.06 316.89
380 317.73 318.57 319.4 320.24 321.07 321.91 322.75 323.58 324.42 325.25
390 326.09 326.93 327.76 328.6 329.43 330.27 331.11 331.94 332.78 333.62
400 334.45 335.29 336.12 336.96 337.8 338.63 339.47 340.31 341.14 341.98
410 342.81 343.65 344.48 345.32 346.16 346.99 347.83 348.67 349.51 350.34
420 351.17 352.01 352.85 353.68 354.52 355.35 356.19 357.03 357.86 358.7
430 359.54 360.37 361.21 362.04 362.88 363.72 364.55 365.39 366.22 367.06
440 367.9 368.73 369.57 370.41 371.24 372.08 372.91 373.75 374.59 375.42
450 376.26 377.09 377.93 378.77 379.6 380.44 381.27 382.11 382.95 383.78
460 384.62 385.46 386.29 387.13 387.96 388.8 389.64 390.47 391.31 392.14
470 392.98 393.82 394.65 395.49 396.32 397.16 398.0 398.83 399.67 400.51
480 401.34 402.18 403.01 403.85 404.69 405.52 406.36 407.19 408.03 408.87
490 409.7 410.54 411.38 412.21 413.05 413.88 414.72 415.56 416.39 417.23
500 418.0

acre 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 18
acres to hectares
ha
0.4 0.81 1.21 1.62 2.02 2.42 2.83 3.23 3.64

acre 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ha
0 4.05 8.09 12.14 16.19 20.23 24.28 28.33 32.37 36.42
100 40.47 44.52 48.56 52.6 56.66 60.71 64.75 68.8 72.84 76.89
200 80.94 84.98 89.03 93.08 97.12 101.17 105.22 109.26 113.31 117.36
300 121.41 125.46 129.5 133.55 137.59 141.64 145.69 149.73 153.78 157.83
400 161.87 165.92 169.97 174.02 178.06 182.11 186.16 190.20 194.25 198.3
500 202.34 206.39 210.44 214.48 218.53 222.58 226.62 230.67 234.71 238.77
600 242.81 246.86 250.91 254.95 259.0 263.05 267.09 271.14 275.19 279.23
700 283.28 287.33 291.37 295.42 299.47 303.51 307.56 311.61 315.66 319.7
800 323.75 327.8 331.84 335.84 339.94 343.98 348.03 352.07 356.12 360.17
900 364.22 368.26 372.31 376.36 380.41 384.45 388.5 392.55 396.59 400.64
1 000 404.69
374

Conversions
Volume 5 6 7 8 9
19 in3
cubiccentimetres to 0.06 0.12 0.18 0.24 0.31 0.37 0.43 0.49 0.55
cubicinches

cm3 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
j3
0 0.61 1.22 1.83 2.44 3.05 3.66 4.27 4.88 5.49
100 6.1 6.71 7.32 7.93 8.54 9.15 9.76 10.37 10.98 11.59
200 12.2 12.82 13.43 14.04 14.65 15.26 15.87 16.48 17.09 17.7
300 18.31 18.92 19.53 20.14 20.75 21.36 21.97 22.58 23.19 23.8
400 24.41 25.02 25.63 26.24 26.85 27.46 28.07 28.68 29.29 29.9
500 30.51 31.12 31.73 32.34 32.95 33.56 34.17 34.78 35.39 36.0
600 36.61 37.22 37.83 38.45 39.06 39.67 40.28 40.89 41.5 42.11
700 42.72 43.38 43.94 44.55 45.16 45.77 46.38 46.99 47.6 48.21
800 48.82 49.43 50.04 50.65 51.26 51.87 52.48 53.09 53.7 54.31
900 54.92 55.53 56.14 56.75 57.36 57.97 58.58 59.19 59.8 60.41
1000 61.02

21 0 2 3 4 5 6 7
m3 1 8 9
cubicmetresto
cubicfeet ft3
0 35.31 70.63105.94 141.26 176.57 211.89 247.2 282.52 317.83
10 353.15 388.46 423.78459.09 494.41 592.72 565.04 600.35 635.67 670.98
20 706.29 741.61 776.92812.24 847.55 882.87 918.18 953.5 988.81 1 024.13
30 1130.07 1165.38 1 200.7 1 236.01
1 059.44 1 094.75 1 271.33 1 306.64 1 341.96 1 377.27
40 1 412.59 1 447.91 483.22 1 518.53 1 553.85 1 589.16 1 624.47 1 659.79 1 695.1 1 730.42

50 1765.73 1801.05 1836.36 1871.68 1 906.99 1942.31 1977.62 2012.94 2048.25 2083.57
60 2 118.88 2154.192189.51 2224.82 2260.14 2295.45 2330.77 2366.08 2401.4 2436.71
70 2472.03 2 507.342542.66 2577.97 2613.29 2 648.6 2 683.91 2 719.23 2754.54 2789.86
80 2825.17 2860.49 2895.8 2931.12 2966.43 3001.75 3037.06 3072.38 3107.69 3143.01
90 3178.32 3213.63 3248.95 3284.26 3319.58 3354.89 3390.21 3425.52 3460.84 3496.15
100 3 531.47 3 566.78 3602.1 3 637.41 3672.73 3708.04 3743.35 3 778.67 3 813.98 3 849.3
110 3884.61 3919.93 3955.24 3990.56 4025.87 4061.19 4096.5 4131.82 4167.13 4202.45
120 4237.76 4 273.07 4308.39 4343.7 4 379.02 4414.33 4449.65 4 484.96 4 520.28 4 555.59
130 4590.91 4626.22 4661.54 4696.85 4732.17 4767.48 4802.79 4838.11 4873.42 4908.74
140 4 944.05 4 979.37 5 014.68 5050.0 5 085.31 5 120.63 5 155.94 5 191.26 5 226.57 5 261.89
150 5297.2 5332.51 5367.83 5403.14 5438.46 5473.77 5509.09 5544.4 5579.72 5615.03
160 5650.35 5685.66 5720.98 5756.29 5791.61 5826.92 5862.23 5897.55 5932.86 5968.18
170 6 003.49 6038.81 6074.12 6 109.44 6 144.75 6180.07 6215.38 6250.7 6286.01 6321.33
180 6356.64 6391.95 6427.27 6462.58 6497.9 6533.21 6568.53 6603.84 6639.16 6674.47
190 6709.79 6745.1 6780.42 6815.73 6851.05 6886.36 6921.67 6956.99 6992.3 7027.62
200 7062.93 7098.25 7133.56 7168.88 7204.19 7239.51 7274.82 7310.14 7345.45 7380.77
210 7416.08 7451.39 7 486.71 7522.02 7557.34 7592.65 7627.97 7 663.28 7 698.6 7 733.91
220 7 769.23 7 804.54 7839.86 7 875.17 7910.49 7945.8 7981.11 8 016.43 8051.74 8087.06
230 8 122.37 8 157.69 8 193.0 8228.32 8263.63 8298.95 8334.26 8369.58 8404.89 8440.21
240 8475.52 8510.83 8546.15 8581.46 8616.78 8652.09 8687.41 8722.72 8758.04 8793.35
250 8828.67

23 litre 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
litresto cubicfeet
ft3
0 0.04 0.07 0.11 0.14 0.18 0.21 0.25 0.28 0.32
10 0.35 0.39 0.42 0.46 0.49 0.53 0.57 0.60 0.64 0.67
20 0.71 0.74 0.78 0.81 0.85 0.88 0.92 0.95 0.99 1.02
30 1.06 1.09 1.13 1.17 1.2 1.24 1.27 1.31 1.34 1.38
40 1.41 1.45 1.48 1.52 1.55 1.59 1.62 1.66 1.7 1.73
50 1.77 1.8 1.84 1.87 1.91 1.94 1.98 2.01 2.05 2.08
60 2.12 2.15 2.19 2.22 2.26 2.3 2.33 2.37 2.4 2.44
70 2.47 2.51 2.54 2.58 2.61 2.65 2.68 2.72 2.75 2.79
80 2.83 2.86 2.9 2.93 2.97 3.0 3.04 3.07 3.11 3.14
90 3.18 3.21 3.25 3.28 3.32 3.35 3.39 3.42 3.46 3.5
100 3.53
 375

Conversions
in3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 20
cubicinches to
cm3 cubiccentimetres
16.39 32.77 49.16 65.55 81.94 98.32 114.71 131.1 147.48

jfl3 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
cm3
0 163.87 327.74 491.61 655.48 819.35 983.22 1147.09 1 310.97 1 474.84
100 1638.71 1802.58 1966.45 2130.32 2294.19 2458.06 2621.93 2785.8 2949.67 3113.54
200 3277.41 3441.28 3605.15 3769.02 3932.9 4096.77 4260.64 4424.51 4588.38 4752.25
300 4916.12 5079.99 5243.86 5407.73 5571.6 5735.47 5899.34 6063.21 6227.08 6390.95
400 6554.83 6718.7 6882.57 7046.44 7210.31 7374.18 7538.05 7701.92 7865.79 8029.66
500 8193.53 8357.4 8521.27 8685.14 8849.01 9012.89 9176.76 9340.63 9504.5 9668.37
600 9832.24 9996.11 10160.0 10323.9 10487.7 10651.6 10815.5 10979.3 11143.2 11307.1
700 11470.9 11634.8 11798.7 11962.6 12126.4 12290.3 12454.2 12618.0 12781.9 12945.8
800 13 109.7 13273.5 13437.4 13601.3 13765.1 13929.0 14092.9 14256.7 14420.6 14584.5
900 14748.4 14912.2 15076.1 15240.0 15403.8 15567.7 15731.6 15895.5 16059.3 16223.2
1000 16387.1

ft3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 22
m3 cubicfeetto
cubicmetres
0 0.03 0.06 0.08 0.11 0.14 0.17 0.2 0.23 0.25
10 0.28 0.31 0.34 0.37 0.4 0.42 0.45 0.48 0.51 0.54
20 0.57 0.59 0.62 0.65 0.68 0.71 0.74 0.77 0.79 0.82
30 0.85 0.88 0.91 0.93 0.96 0.99 1.02 1.05 1.08 1.1
40 1.13 1.16 1.19 1.22 1.25 1.27 1.3 1.33 1.36 1.39
50 1.42 1.44 1.47 1.5 1.53 1.56 1.59 1.61 1.64 1.67
60 1.7 1.73 1.76 1.78 1.81 1.84 1.87 1.9 1.93 1.95
70 1.98 2.01 2.04 2.07 2.1 2.12 2.15 2.18 2.21 2.24
80 2.27 2.29 2.32 2.35 2.38 2.41 2.44 2.46 2.49 2.52
90 2.55 2.58 2.61 2.63 2.66 2.69 2.71 2.75 2.78 2.8
100 2.83 2.86 2.89 2.92 2.94 2.97 3.01 3.03 3.06 3.09
110 3.11 3.14 3.17 3.2 3.23 3.26 3.28 3.31 3.34 3.37
120 3.4 3.43 3.46 3.48 3.51 3.54 3.57 3.6 3.62 3.65
130 3.68 3.71 3.74 3.77 3.79 3.82 3.85 3.88 3.91 3.94
140 3.96 4.0 4.02 4.05 4.08 4.11 4.13 4.16 4.19 4.22
150 4.26 4.28 4.3 4.33 4.36 4.39 4.42 4.45 4.47 4.51
160 4.53 4.56 4.59 4.62 4.64 4.67 4.7 4.73 4.76 4.79
170 4.81 4.84 4.87 4.9 4.93 4.96 4.99 5.01 5.04 5.07
180 5.1 5.13 5.15 5.18 5.21 5.24 5.27 5.3 5.32 5.35
190 5.38 5.41 5.44 5.47 5.49 5.52 5.55 5.58 5.61 5.64
200 5.66 5.69 5.72 5.75 5.78 5.8 5.83 5.86 5.89 5.92
210 5.95 5.98 6.0 6.03 6.06 6.09 6.12 6.14 6.17 6.2
220 6.23 6.26 6.29 6.31 6.34 6.37 6.4 6.43 6.46 6.48
230 6.51 6.54 6.57 6.6 6.63 6.65 6.69 6.71 6.74 6.77
240 6.8 6.82 6.85 6.88 6.91 6.94 6.97 6.99 7.02 7.05
250 7.08

ft3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 24
cubicfeetto litres
litre
0 28.32 56.63 84.95 113.26 141.58 169.9 198.21 226.53 254.84
10 283.16 311.48 339.79 368.11 396.42 424.74 453.06 481.37 509.69 538.01
20 566.32 594.64 622.95 651.27 679.59 707.9 736.22 764.53 792.85 821.17
30 849.48 877.8 906.11 934.43 962.75 991.06 1 019.38 1 047.69 1 076.011104.33
40 1132.64 1160.96 1189.27 1 217.59 1 245.91 1 274.22 1 302.54 1 330.85 1 359.171 387.49
50 1 415.8 1 444.12 1 472.43 1 500.75 1 529.07 1 557.38 1 585.7 1 614.02 1 642.331 670.65
60 1 698.96 1 727.28 1 755.6 1 783.91 1 812.23 1 840.54 1 868.86 1 897.18 1 925.491 953.81
70 1 982.12 2 010.44 2 038.76 2067.07 2 095.39 2 123.7 2 152.02 2 180.34 2208.65 2 236.97
80 2265.28 2293.6 2321.92 2350.23 2378.55 2406.86 2435.18 2463.5 2491.81 2520.13
90 2548.44 2576.76 2605.08 2633.39 2661.71 2690.03 2718.34 2746.66 2774.97 2803.29
100 2831.61
376

Conversions
25 litre 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
litresto gallons
imperial gal imp
0 0.22 0.44 0.66 0.88 1.1 1.32 1.54 1.76 1.98
10 2.2 2.42 2.64 2.86 3.08 3.3 3.52 3.74 3.96 4.18
20 4.4 4.62 4.84 5.06 5.28 5.5 5.72 5.94 6.16 6.38
30 6.6 6.82 7.04 7.26 7.48 7.7 7.92 8.14 8.36 8.58
40 8.8 9.02 9.24 9.46 9.68 9.9 10.12 10.34 10.56 10.78
50 11.0 11.22 11.44 11.66 11.88 12.1 12.32 12.54 12.76 12.98
60 13.2 13.42 13.64 13.86 14.08 14.3 14.52 14.74 14.96 15.18
70 15.4 15.62 15.84 16.06 16.28 16.5 16.72 16.94 17.16 17.38
80 17.6 17.82 18.04 18.26 18.48 18.7 18.92 19.14 19.36 19.58
90 19.8 20.02 20.24 20.46 20.68 20.9 21.12 21.34 21.56 21.78
100 22.0

27 litre 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
litresto gallons US
gal US
0.26 0.53 0.79 1.06 1.32 1.59 1.85 2.11 2.38
10 2.64 2.91 3.17 3.43 3.7 3.96 4.23 4.49 4.76 5.02
20 5.28 5.55 5.81 6.08 6.34 6.61 6.87 7.13 7.4 7.66
30 7.93 8.19 8.45 8.72 8.98 9.25 9.51 9.78 10.04 10.3
40 10.57 10.83 11.1 11.36 11.62 11.89 12.15 12.42 12.68 12.95
50 13.21 13.47 13.74 14.0 14.27 14.53 14.8 15.06 15.32 15.59
60 15.85 16.12 16.38 16.64 16.91 17.17 17.44 17.7 17.97 18.23
70 18.49 18.76 19.02 19.29 19.55 19.82 20.08 20.34 20.61 20.87
80 21.14 21.4 21.66 21.93 22.19 22.46 22.72 22.96 23.25 23.51
90 23.78 24.04 24.31 24.57 24.83 25.1 25.36 25.63 25.89 26.16
100 26.42

Mass
kg 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
29 lb
kilograms to pounds 0 2.21 4.41 6.61 8.82 11.02 13.23 15.43 17.64 19.84
10 22.05 24.25 26.46 28.66 30.86 33.07 35.27 37.47 39.68 41.89
20 44.09 46.3 48.5 50.71 52.91 55.12 57.32 59.52 61.73 63.93
30 66.14 68.34 70.55 72.75 74.96 77.16 79.37 81.57 83.78 85.98
40 88.18 90.39 92.59 94.8 97.0 99.2 101.41 103.61 105.82 108.03
50 110.23 112.44 114.64 116.85 119.05 121.25 123.46 125.66 127.87 130.07
60 132.28 134.48 136.69 138.89 141.1 143.3 145.51 147.71 149.91 152.12
70 154.32 156.53 158.73 160.94 163.14 165.35 167.55 169.76 171.96 174.17
80 176.37 178.57 180.78 182.98 185.19 187.39 189.6 191.8 194.01 196.21
90 198.42 200.62 202.83 205.03 207.24 209.44 211.64 213.85 216.05 218.26
100 220.46 222.67 224.87 227.08 229.28 231.49 233.69 235.9 238.1 240.3
110 242.51 244.71 246.92 249.12 251.33 253.53 255.74 257.94 260.15 262.35
120 264.56 266.76 268.96 271.17 273.37 275.58 277.78 279.99 282.19 284.4
130 286.6 288.81 291.01 293.22 295.42 297.62 299.83 302.03 304.24 306.44
140 308.65 310.85 313.06 315.26 317.47 319.67 321.88 324.08 326.28 328.49
150 330.69 332.9 335.1 337.31 339.51 341.72 343.92 346.13 348.33 350.54
160 352.74 354.94 357.15 359.35 361.56 363.76 365.97 368.17 370.38 372.58
170 374.79 377.0 379.2 381.4 383.6 385.81 388.01 390.22 392.42 394.68
180 396.83 399.04 401.24 403.45 405.65 407.86 410.06 412.26 414.47 416.67
190 418.88 421.08 423.29 425.49 427.68 429.9 432.11 434.31 436.52 438.72
200 440.93 443.13 445.33 447.54 449.74 451.95 454.15 456.36 458.56 460.77
210 462.97 465.18 467.38 469.59 471.79 473.99 476.2 478.4 480.61 482.81
220 485.02 487.22 489.43 491.63 493.84 496.04 498.25 500.45 502.65 504.86
230 507.06 509.2 511.47 513.6 515.88 518.0 520.29 522.4 524.7 526.9
240 529.1 531.31 533.5 535.72 537.9 540.13 542.3 544.54 546.7 548.9
250 551.16 553.36 555.57 557.77 559.97 562.18 564.38 566.59 568.79 571.0
260 573.2 575.41 577.61 579.82 582.02 584.23 586.43 588.63 590.84 593.04
270 595.25 597.45 599.66 601.86 604.07 606.27 608.48 610.68 612.89 615.09
280 617.29 619.5 621.7 623.91 626.11 628.32 630.52 632.73 634.93 637.14
290 639.34 641.55 643.75 645.95 648.16 650.36 652.57 654.77 656.98 659.18
300 661.39 663.59 665.8 668.0 670.21 672.41 674.62 676.82 679.02 681.23
310 683.43 685.64 687.84 690.05 692.25 694.46 696.66 698.87 701.07 703.28
320 705.48 707.68 709.89 712.09 714.3 716.5 718.71 720.91 723.12 725.32
330 727.53 729.73 731.93 734.14 736.34 738.55 740.75 742.96 745.16 747.37
340 749.57 751.78 753.98 756.19 758.39 760.6 762.8 765.0 767.21 769.41
350 771.62 773.82 776.03 778.23 780.44 782.64 784.85 787.05 789.26 791.46
360 793.66 795.87 798.07 800.28 802.48 804.69 806.89 809.1 811.31 813.51
370 815.71 817.92 820.12 822.32 824.53 826.73 828.94 831.14 833.35 835.55
380 837.76 839.96 842.17 844.37 846.58 848.78 850.98 853.19 855.39 857.6
390 859.8 862.0 864.21 866.41 868.62 870.8 873.03 875.2 877.44 879.64
400 881.85 884.05 886.26 888.46 890.67 892.87 895.08 897.28 899.49 901.69
410 903.9 906.1 908.31 910.51 912.71 914.92 917.12 919.33 921.53 923.74
420 925.94 928.15 930.35 932.56 934.76 936.97 939.17 941.37 943.58 945.78
430 947.99 950.19 952.4 954.6 956.81 959.01 961.22 963.42 965.63 967.83
440 970.03 972.24 974.44 976.65 978.85 981.06 983.26 985.47 987.67 989.88
450 992.08 994.29 996.49 998.69 1 000.9 1 003.1 1 005.31 1 007.51 1 009.72 1 011.92
460 1 014.13 1 016.33 1 018.54 1 020.74 1 022.94 1 025.15 1 027.35 1 029.56 1 031.76 1 033.97
470 1 036.17 1 038.38 1 040.58 1 042.79 1 044.99 1 047.2 1 049.4 1 051.6 1 053.81 1 056.01
480 1 058.22 1 060.42 1 062.63 1 064.83 1 067.04 1 069.24 1 071.45 1 073.65 1 075.86 1 078.06
490 1 080.27 1 082.47 1 084.67 1 086.88 1 089.08 1 091.29 1 093.49 1 095.7 1 097.9 1100.11
500 1 102.31
 377

Conversions
gallmp 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 26
Iftre gallonsimperial to
litres
0 4.55 9.09 13.64 18.18 22.73 27.28 31.82 36.37 40.91
10 45.46 50.0 54.55 59.1 63.64 68.19 72.74 77.28 81.83 86.38
20 90.92 95.47 100.01 104.56 109.1 113.65 118.2 122.74 127.29 131.83
30 136.38 140.93 145.47 150.02 154.56 159.1 163.66 168.21 172.75 177.3
40 181.84 186.38 190.93 195.48 200.02 204.57 209.11 213.66 218.21 222.75
50 227.3 231.84 236.39 240.94 245.48 250.03 254.57 259.12 263.67 268.21
60 272.76 277.3 281.85 286.4 290.94 295.49 300.03 304.58 309.13 313.67
70 318.22 322.76 327.31 331.86 336.4 340.95 345.49 350.04 354.59 359.13
80 363.68 368.22 372.77 377.32 381.86 386.41 390.95 395.5 400.04 404.59
90 409.14 413.68 418.23 422.77 427.32 431.87 436.41 440.96 445.5 450.05
100 454.6

galUS 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 28
litre gallons US to litres
0 3.79 7.57 11.36 15.14 18.93 22.71 26.5 30.28 34.07
10 37.85 41.64 45.42 49.21 52.99 56.78 60.56 64.35 68.13 71.92
20 75.7 79.49 83.27 87.06 90.84 9463 98.41 102.2 105.98 109.77
30 113.55 117.34 121.12 124.91 128.69 132.48 136.26 140.05 143.83 147.62
40 151.40 155.19 158.97 162.76 166.54 170.33 174.11 177.9 181.68 185.47
50 189.25 193.04 196.82 200.61 204.39 208.18 211.96 215.75 219.53 223.32
60 227.1 230.89 234.67 238.46 242.24 246.03 249.81 253.6 257.38 261.17
70 264.95 268.74 272.52 276.31 280.09 283.88 287.66 291.45 295.23 299.02
80 302.81 306.59 310.37 314.16 317.94 321.73 325.51 329.3 333.08 336.87
90 340.65 344.44 348.22 352.01 355.79 359.58 363.36 367.14 370.93 374.72
100 378.51

lb 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30
poundsto kilograms
0 0.45 0.91 1.36 1.81 2.27 2.72 3.18 3.63 4.08
10 4.54 4.99 5.44 5.9 6.35 6.8 7.26 7.71 8.16 8.62
20 9.07 9.53 9.98 10.43 10.89 11.34 11.79 12.25 12.7 13.15
30 13.61 14.06 14.52 14.97 15.42 15.88 16.33 16.78 17.24 17.69
40 18.14 18.6 19.05 19.5 19.96 20.41 20.87 21.32 21.77 22.23
50 22.68 23.13 23.59 24.04 24.49 24.95 25.4 25.85 26.31 26.76
60 27.22 27.67 28.12 28.58 29.03 29.48 29.94 30.39 30.84 31.3
70 31.75 32.21 32.66 33.11 33.57 34.02 34.47 34.93 35.38 35.83
80 36.29 36.74 37.19 37.65 38.1 38.56 39.01 39.46 39.92 40.37
90 40.82 41.28 41.73 42.18 42.64 43.09 43.54 44.0 44.45 44.91
100 45.36 45.81 46.27 46.72 47.17 47.63 48.08 48.53 48.99 49.44
110 49.9 50.35 50.8 51.26 51.71 52.16 52.62 53.07 53.52 53.98
120 54.43 54.88 55.34 55.79 56.25 56.7 57.15 57.61 58.06 58.51
130 58.97 59.42 59.87 60.33 60.78 61.24 61.69 62.14 62.6 63.05
140 63.5 63.96 64.41 64.86 65.32 65.77 66.22 66.68 67.13 67.59
150 68.04 68.49 68.95 69.4 69.85 70.31 70.76 71.21 71.67 72.12
160 72.57 73.03 73.48 73.94 74.39 74.84 75.3 75.75 76.2 76.66
170 77.11 77.56 78.02 78.47 78.93 79.38 79.83 80.29 80.74 81.19
180 81.65 82.1 82.55 83.01 83.46 83.91 84.37 84.82 85.28 85.73
190 86.18 86.64 87.09 87.54 88.0 88.45 88.9 89.36 89.81 90.26
200 90.72 91.17 91.63 92.08 92.53 92.99 93.44 93.89 94.35 94.8
210 95.25 95.71 96.16 96.62 9707 97.52 97.98 98.43 98.88 99.34
220 99.79 100.24 100.7 101.15 101.61 102.06 102.51 102.97 103.42 103.87
230 104.33 104.78 105.23 105.69 106.14 106.59 107.05 107.5 107.96 108.41
240 108.86 109.32 109.77 110.22 110.68 111.13 111.58 112.04 112.49 112.95
250 113.4 113.85 114.31 114.76 115.21 115.67 116.12 116.57 117.03 117.48
260 117.93 118.39 118.84 119.3 119.75 120.2 120.66 121.11 121.56 122.02
270 122.47 122.92 123.38 123.83 124.28 124.74 125.19 125.65 126.1 126.55
280 127.01 127.46 127.91 128.37 128.82 129.27 129.73 130.18 130.64 131.09
290 131.54 132.0 132.45 132.9 133.36 133.81 134.26 134.72 135.17 135.62
300 136.08 136.53 136.99 137.44 137.89 138.35 138.8 139.25 139.71 140.16
310 140.61 141.07 141.52 141.97 142.43 142.88 143.34 143.79 144.24 144.7
320 145.15 145.6 146.06 146.51 146.96 147.42 147.87 148.33 148.78 149.23
330 149.69 150.14 150.59 151.05 151.5 151.95 152.41 152.86 153.31 153.77
340 154.22 154.68 155.13 155.58 156.04 156.49 156.94 157.4 157.85 158.3
350 158.76 159.21 159.67 160.12 160.57 161.03 161.48 161.93 162.39 162.84
360 163.29 163.75 164.2 164.65 165.11 165.56 166.02 166.47 166.92 167.38
370 167.83 168.28 168.74 169.1 169.64 170.1 170.55 171.0 171.46 171.91
380 172.37 172.82 173.27 173.73 174.18 174.63 175.09 175.54 175.99 176.45
390 176.9 177.36 177.81 178.26 178.72 179.17 179.62 180.08 180.53 180.98
400 181.44 181.89 182.34 182.8 183.25 183.71 184.16 184.61 185.07 185.52
410 185.97 186.43 186.88 187.33 187.79 188.24 188.69 189.15 189.6 190.06
420 190.51 190.96 191.42 191.87 192.32 192.78 193.23 193.68 194.14 194.59
430 195.05 195.5 195.95 196.41 196.86 197.31 197.77 198.22 198.67 199.13
440 199.58 200.03 200.49 200.94 201.4 201.85 202.3 202.76 203.21 203.66
450 204.12 204.57 205.02 205.48 205.93 206.39 206.84 207.29 207.75 208.2
460 208.65 209.11 209.56 210.01 210.47 210.92 211.37 211.83 212.28 212.74
470 213.19 213.64 214.1 214.55 215.0 215.46 215.91 216.36 216.82 217.27
480 217.72 218.18 218.63 219.09 219.54 219.99 220.45 220.9 221.35 221.81
490 222.26 222.71 223.17 223.62 224.08 224.53 224.98 225.44 225.89 226.34
500 226.8
378

Conversions
Density kg/rn3 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
(mass/volume) lb/ft3
31
0 0.62 1.25 1.87 2.5 3.12 3.75 4.37 5.0 5.62
100 6.24 6.87 7.49 8.12 8.74 9.36 9.99 10.61 11.24 11.86
kilo9rams per 200 12.49 13.11 13.73 14.36 14.98 15.61 16.23 16.86 17.48 18.11
cubicmetre to 22.47
300 18.73 19.35 19.98 20.61 21.23 21.85 23.1 23.72 24.35
pounds per cubic 400 24.97 25.6 26.22 26.84 27.47 28.09 28.72 29.34 29.97 30.59
foot
500 31.21 31.84 32.46 33.09 33.71 34.33 34.96 35.58 36.21 36.83
600 37.46 38.08 38.71 39.33 39.95 40.58 41.2 41.83 42.45 43.08
700 43.7 44.32 44.95 45.57 46.2 46.82 47.45 48.07 48.7 49.32
800 49.94 50.57 51.19 51.82 52.44 53.06 53.69 54.31 54.94 55.56
900 56.19 56.81 57.43 58.06 58.68 59.31 59.93 60.56 61.18 61.81
1 000 62.43

Velocity mIs 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
33 mile/hr
metresper second 0 2.24 4.47 6.71 8.95 11.18 13.42 15.66 17.9 20.13
tomilesperhour 10 22.37 24.61 26.84 29.08 31.32 33.55 35.79 38.03 40.26 42.51
20 44.74 46.96 49.21 51.45 53.69 55.92 58.16 60.4 62.63 64.87
30 67.11 69.35 71.58 73.82 76.06 78.29 80.53 82.77 85.0 87.24
40 89.48 91.71 93.95 96.19 98.43 100.66 102.9 105.13 107.37 109.61
50 111.85 114.08 116.32 118.56 120.8 123.03 125.27 127.5 129.74 131.98
60 134.22 136.45 138.69 140.93 143.16 145.4 147.64 149.88 152.11 154.34
70 156.59 158.82 161.06 163.3 165.53 167.77 170.0 172.24 174.48 176.72
80 178.96 181.19 183.43 185.67 187.9 190.14 192.38 194.61 196.85 199.09
90 201.32 203.56 205.8 208.04 210.27 212.51 214.75 216.98 219.22 221.46
100 223.69

PreSSUre,stress kgfI
cm2 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
35 lbf/in2
kilograms forceper
0 1.42 2.84 4.27 5.6 7.11 8.53 9.96 11.38 12.8
squarecentimetre to 1 14.22 15.65 17.07 18.49 19.91 21.34 22.76
poundsforceper 24.18 25.6 27.02
squareinch 2 28.45 29.87 31.29 32.71 34.13 35.56 36.98 38.4 39.83 41.25
3 42.67 44.09 45.51 46.94 48.36 49.78 51.2 52.63 54.05 55.47
4 56.9 58.32 59.73 61.16 62.58 64.0 65.43 66.85 68.27 69.69
5 71.12 72.54 73.96 75.38 76.81 78.23 79.65 81.07 82.5 83.92
6 85.34 86.76 88.18 89.61 91.03 92.45 93.87 95.3 96.72 98.14
7 99.56 100.99 102.41 103.83 105.25 106.68 108.1 109.52 110.94 112.36
8 113.79 115.21 116.63 118.05 119.48 120.9 122.32 123.74 125.17 126.59
9 128.01 129.43 130.86 132.28 133.7 135.12 136.54 137.97 139.39 140.81
10 142.23

kN/m2
37 (kPa) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
kilonewlons per lbf/in2
squaremetre to 0 1.45 2.9 4.35 5.8 7.25 8.7 10.15 11.6 13.05
pounds forceper 100 14.50 15.95 17.40 18.85 20.30 21.75 23.21 24.66 26.11 27.56
squareinch 200 29.01 30.46 31.91 33.36 34.81 36.26 37.71 39.16 40.61 42.06
300 43.51 44.96 46.41 4V.86 49.31 50.76 52.21 53.66 55.11 56.56
400 58.01 59.46 60.91 62.36 63.81 65.26 66.71 68.17 69.62 71.07
500 72.52 73.97 75.42 76.87 78.32 79.77 81.22 82.67 84.12 85.57
600 87.02 88.47 89.92 91.37 92.82 94.27 95.72 97.17 98.62 100.07
700 101.52 102.97 104.42 105.87 107.32 108.77 110.22 111.68 113.13 114.58
800 116.03 117.48 118.93 120.38 121.83 123.28 124.73 126.18 127.63 129.08
900 130.53 131.98 133.43 134.88 136.33 137.78 139.23 140.68 142.13 143.58
1 000 145.03
 379

Conversions
lb/ft3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
32
kg/rn3
0 16.02 32.04 48.06 64.07 80.09 96.11 112.13 128.15 144.17
272.31 288.33 304.35 oot o
10 160.19 176.2 192.22 208.24 224.26 240.28 256.3 IC
336.39 352.41 368.43 384.44 400.46 416.48 432.5 448.52 464.54 iogramspercu
20 320.37 meLre
480.55 496.57 512.59 528.61 544.63 560.65 576.67 592.68 608.7 624.72
30
40 640.74 656.76 672.78 688.79 704.81 720.83 736.85 752.87 768.89 784.91
50 800.92 816.94 832.96 848.98 865.0 881.02 897.03 913.05 929.07 945.09
60 961.11 977.13 993.15 1 009.16 1 025.18 1 041.2 1 057.22 1 073.24 1 089.26 1105.27
70 1121.29 1137.31 1153.33 1 169.35 1 185.37 1 201.38 1 217.4 1 233.42 1 249.44 1 265.46
80 1 281.48 1 297.5 1 313.51 1 329.53 1 345.55 1 361.57 1 377.59 1 393.61 1 409.62 1 425.64
1 441.66 1 457.68 1 473.7 1 489.72 1 505.74 1 521.75 1 537.77 1 553.79 1 569.81 1 585.83
90
100 1601.85

7 8 34
mile/hr 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 g
milesperhour
rn/s to metresper
0.45 0.89 1.34 1.79 2.24 2.68 3.13 3.58 4.02 second
0
10 4.47 4.92 5.36 5.81 6.26 6.71 7.15 7.6 8.05 8.49
20 8.94 9.39 9.83 10.28 10.73 11.18 11.62 12.07 12.52 12.96
30 13.41 13.86 14.31 14.75 15.2 15.65 16.09 16.54 16.99 17.43
40 17.88 18.33 18.78 19.22 19.67 20.12 20.56 21.01 21.46 21.91
50 22.35 22.8 23.25 23.69 24.14 24.59 25.03 25.48 25.93 26.38
60 26.82 27.27 27.72 28.16 28.61 29.06 29.5 29.95 30.4 30.85
70 31.29 31.74 32.19 32.63 33.08 33.53 33.98 34.42 34.87 35.32
80 35.76 36.21 36.66 37.1 37.55 38.0 38.45 38.89 39.34 39.79
90 40.23 40.68 41.13 41.57 42.02 42.47 42.92 43.36 43.81 44.26
100 44.7

36
lbf/ poundsforceper
j2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 g
squareinch to
kgt/cm2 kilograms forceper
0 0.07 0.14 0.21 0.28 0.35 0.42 0.49 0.56 0.63 squarecentimetre
10 0.7 0.77 0.84 0.91 0.98 1.05 1.12 1.2 1.27 1.34
20 1.41 1.48 1.55 1.62 1.69 1.76 1.83 1.9 1.97 2.04
30 2.11 2.18 2.25 2.32 2.39 2.46 2.53 2.6 2.67 2.74
40 2.81 2.88 2.95 3.02 3.09 3.16 3.23 3.3 3.37 3.45
50 3.52 3.59 3.66 3.73 3.8 3.87 3.94 4.01 4.08 4.15
60 4.22 4.29 4.36 4.43 4.5 4.57 4.64 4.71 4.78 4.85
70 4.92 4.99 5.06 5.13 5.2 5.27 5.34 5.41 5.48 5.55
80 5.62 5.69 5.77 5.84 5.91 5.98 6.05 6.12 6.19 6.26
90 6.33 6.4 6.47 6.54 6.61 6.68 6.75 6.82 6.89 6.96
100 7.03

38
lbf/ pounds forceper
in2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
square inchto
kN/m2(kPa) kilonewtons per
0 6.9 13.79 20.68 27.58 34.48 41.37 48.26 55.16 62.06 square metre
10 68.95 75.84 82.74 89.64 96.53 103.42 110.32 117.22 124.11 131.0
20 137.9 144.8 151.69 158.58 165.48 172.38 179.27 186.16 193.06 199.96
30 206.85 213.74 220.64 227.54 234.43 241.32 248.22 255.12 262.01 268.9
40 275.8 282.7 289.59 296.48 303.38 310.28 317.17 324.06 330.96 337.86
50 344.75 351.64 358.54 365.44 372.33 379.22 386.12 393.02 399.91 406.8
60 413.7 420.6 427.49 434.38 441.28 448.18 455.07 461.96 468.86 475.76
70 482.65 489.54 496.44 503.34 510.23 517.12 524.02 530.92 537.81 544.7
80 551.6 558.5 565.39 572.28 579.18 586.08 592.97 599.86 606.76 613.66
90 620.55 627.44 634.34 641.24 648.13 655.02 661.92 668.82 675.71 682.6
100 689.5
380

Conversions
Refrigeration W 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
39 Btulhr
wattstoBritish 0 3.41 6.82 10.24 13.65 17.06 20.47 23.89 27.3 30.71
thermal units 10 34.12 37.53 40.95 44.36 47.77 51.18 5459 58.01 61.42 6483
per hour 20 68.24 71.66 75.07 78.5 81.89 85.3 88.72 92.13 95.54 98.95
30 102.36 105.78 109.12 112.6 116.01 119.43 122.76 126.25 129.66 133.07
40 136.49 139.91 143.31 146.72 150.13 153.55 156.96 160.37 163.78 167.2
50 170.61 174.02 177.43 180.84 184.26 187.67 191.08 194.49 197.9 201.31
60 204.73 208.14 211.55 214.97 218.38 221.79 225.2 228.61 232.03 235.44
70 238.85 242.26 245.68 249.09 252.5 255.91 259.32 262.74 266.15 269.56
80 272.97 276.38 279.8 283.21 286.62 290.03 293.45 296.86 300.27 303.68
90 307.09 310.51 313.92 317.33 320.74 324.15 327.57 330.98 334.39 337.8
100 341.22

Thermal W/
conductance (m2K) 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
41 Btu/(ft2hr°F)
wattsper square
metrekelvin to
Britishthermal units
i
0.0
.0
2.0
0.176
0.352
0.018
0.194
0.370
0.035
0.211
0.387
0.053
0.229
0.405
0.074
0.247
0.423
0.088
0.264
0.440
0.106
0.282
0.458
0.123
0.299
0.476
0.141
0.317
0.493
0.158
0.335
0.511
persquarefoot hour 3.0 0.528 0.546 0.564 0.581 0.599 0.616 0.634 0.652 0.669 0.687
degree F 4.0 0.704 0.722 0.740 0.757 0.775 0.793 0.810 0.828 0.845 0.863
5.0 0.881 0.898 0.916 0.933 0.951 0.969 0.986 1.004 1.021 1.039
6.0 1.057 1.074 1.092 1.110 1.127 1.145 1.162 1.180 1.198 1.215
7.0 1.233 1.250 1.268 1.286 1.303 1.321 1.34 1.356 1.374 1.391
8.0 1.409 1.427 1.444 1.462 1.479 1.497 1.515 1.532 1.550 1.567
9.0 1.585 1.603 1.620 1.638 1.656 1.673 1.691 1.708 1.726 1.744
10.0 1.761
 381

Conversions
Btu/hr 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40
British thermal
w unitsper hour
0 0.29 0.59 0.88 1.17 1.47 1.76 2.05 2.34 2.64
4.98 5.28 5.57 owa
10 2.93 3.22 3.52 3.81 4.1 4.4 4.69
20 5.86 6.16 6.45 6.74 7.03 7.33 7.62 7.91 8.21 8.5
30 8.79 9.09 9.38 9.67 9.97 10.26 10.55 10.84 11.14 11.43
40 11.72 12.02 12.31 12.6 12.9 13.19 13.48 13.78 14.07 14.36
50 14.66 14.95 15.24 15.53 15.83 16.12 16.41 16.71 17.0 17.29
60 17.59 17.88 18.17 18.47 18.76 19.05 19.34 19.64 19.93 20.22
70 20.52 20.81 21.1 21.4 21.69 21.98 22.28 22.57 22.86 23.15
80 23.45 23.74 24.03 24.33 24.62 24.91 25.21 25.5 25.79 26.09
90 26.38 26.67 26.97 27.26 27.55 27.84 28.14 28.43 28.72 29.02
100 29.31

Btu/(ft2. 42
hF) 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
Britishthermal units
W/(m2K) persquare foothour
0.0 0.057 0.114 0.17 0.227 0.284 0.341 0.397 0.454 0.511 degreeFtowattsper
0.1 0.568 0.624 0.681 0.738 0.795 0.852 0.908 0.965 1.022 1.079 squaremetre
0.2 1.136 1.192 1.249 1.306 1.363 1.42 1.476 1.533 1.59 1.647 kelvin
0.3 1.703 1.76 1.817 1.874 1.931 1.987 2.044 2.101 2.158 2.214
0.4 2.271 2.328 2.385 2.442 2.498 2.555 2.612 2.669 2.725 2.782
0.5 2.839 2.896 2.953 3.009 3.066 3.123 3.18 3.236 3.293 3.35
0.6 3.407 3.464 3.52 3.577 3.634 3.691 3.747 3.804 3.861 3.918
0.7 3.975 4.031 4.088 4.145 4.202 4.258 4.315 4.372 4.429 4.486
0.8 4.542 4.599 4.656 4.713 4.77 4.826 4.883 4.94 4.997 5.053
0.9 5.11 5.167 5.224 5.281 5.337 5.394 5.451 5.508 5.564 5.621

1.0 5.678
 382 Components
Materials
PHYSICALCHARACTERISTICSOF
COMMONBUILDINGMATERIALS material E-modulus tensile moisture thermal thermal
densi,
(kg/rn) (kN/mrn2) strength movement movement conduc-
(MN/rn2) (%) (per"Cx tivity
In selecting building materials architect needs 106) (W/mC)
take into account their significant physical
characteristics. This knowledge helps him masonry:
assess how manufactured products specified natural stone.clay bricks,terracoitablocks.caiciamsilicatebricks,concrete (block, slabOr cast).rieriseorhghtweight(aerated, ceilular,or

and constructions designed perform in use. lightweightaggregate), physicalcharacteristics dependondensity,shape, georiretrical arrangement, mortar, reinforcemeni;
lighterweight
rnateriais: betterthermaiinsuiation,soundabsorption, absorbmoisture&showdimensional change onwetting& loweriherrnalresistioity,
Precise values influenced by such factors as non-combushble
temp, moisture content, surface condition, naturalstone
internal structure. These usually determined granite 2600 20—60 slight 8—to 2.5
limestone 2000—2200 001 t.5
by means of standard tests, which may take
10—80 3—4
marble 2500 35 slight 4—6 2—2.5
into account conditions of use. Handbooks sandstone 2000—2200 3—80 007 7—12 1.3
issued by professional and other independent siate 2700 10—35 slight 9—11 1.9—2.0

organisations give precise values for many dense concrete

gravei aggregate 1800—2500 15—36 0.02—006' 12—14 06—20
common materials, with details on conditions limestoneaggregate 1800—2500 20—36 0.02—003' 7—8 08—2.0
underwhich values were determined. Manu- otherrock aggregate 1800—2500 15—36 0.03—01' 10—13 08—20
facturers'literature may also givevalues. no tines 1750
lightweightconcrete
—.( 1) brings together valuesfrommany sources: clinkeraggregate 1400—1600 8—10 0.03_0,06i 8—12 05—07
devised as aid for architects at early stages of sintered aggregate 1100—1400 8—10 003—0 06' 8—12 035—07
vermicuhte
design. In most instancesrange ofvaluesgiven. 400—500 0.1—0.2' 6—8 015—0 18
aerated (auto-ciaved) 400—900 1 4—3.2 0.02—0.03' 8 0 15—0.3
Designer must judgewhichappropriate to his
need. However, in some instances contractual bfldra
caicium siiicate 1500—1800 14—18 00—005' 8—14 05—I
orregulatory reasons may imposestandardised load-bearing clay 1 500—1800 4—26 0022 5—8 0 5—1
values, orvalues determined by standardtests. engineering 1800—2200 siight 4—6 0.7—1.3

cementsci'seds 1400—1500 20—35 002—0.06 iO—t3 0.5—0.6

Manufactured products may be combinations
of different materials, chosen and placed to asbestoscement 1400—1600 14—26 01—025 8—12 025—0.4

give desiredperformance. Innumerable com- gypsum:

asplasterorsiabs, biocks& paper-cooeredboards; maybe reinforcedwithlibrousmateriais, be namedorirlcorporaie light weight
binations available, some proprietary. Not aggregate, iowstrengthwhenwet,noncombustible
possible give their values here. Formany values denseplaster 1100—1200 16 18—21 04—045
may becalculatedusing recognisedprocedures. foamed piaster 850—900 025
For others information must be sought from plasterboard 950 16 18—21 0 16
manufacturers or obtained experimentally. metals&glass:
densemater,ais assheetsorthinseciions;physicalcharacteristics dependon composition, shapeSgeometricai arrangement, SirOitg bat
maybe brittle;no signilicantoiled ofchange in moisiureconteni
Characteristics
Table givesfollowing characteristics: castiron 7000 80—120 70—280 negligible 10 40
miidsteei 7800 210 400 50
Density (kg/rn3): enables mass of material be negligible 12
aiuminiurri&atoys 2300—2800 70—75 70—550 negiigible 24—29 160—230°
calculated; gives indication of many other copper&alioyo 8400—8900 95—130 120—400 neghgible 17—21 130—200°
lead 11 350 14 30
properties, eg generally light weight material zinc 7000 140—220
negligible
23—33
negligible 113
when dry gives good thermal insulation and glass 2500 70 30—170 negiigib)e 9—11 07—1
sound absorption but poor sound insulation wood:
naturalmaterial with considerable variat,oorisinphysicalcharacieristics accordingtospecies& condition, particularly moista,econtent
Modulus ofelasticity (kN/mm2) and Tensile
balsa
and impressive strength (MN/rn2)give indi- 100—250 005—0 06
softwood 300—600 55—12.5 considerable 4.Swithgrain 01—013
cationsof structural performance, modulus of hard wood 550—900 7—21 considerable 30—70across 0 14—0.17
elasticity indicating stiffness (veryheavywoods over 1 000) grain
plastics:
Moisture movementsexpressed aspercent- syntheticorganicpolymers'thermosetting remainhard on hardening,iherrnoplastic sohened on reheating,physical characteristics depend
ages. Generally lightweight and fibrous and oncomposition,modifiedbyfillers& piasticisers; natural& syntheticrubberssimilar; combustible, givingoilsmoke& ioniccombustion
some cement-based materials show dimen products;highcoetttcientofexpansion
sional changes when wetordry; suchneed be acrylic 1440 25—3.3 negligrbie 50—90 02
polycarbonate 1150 22—25 50—70 023
accommodated in design; movement may be 920 01—0.28
negligible
polyethylene negligible 160—200 035
reversible or onlyhappen on first use (iowdensity)
polyethylene 960 05—1 negligible t 10—140 05
Coefficient of thermal expansion(per 00 x (highdensity)
10-6): changes intempcause materialsexpand polyproplylene 915 0.9—1.6 negligible 80—110 0.24
polystyrene 1050 1,7—3.1 017
or contract; such movement again may need nyion 1100
negligible
negligible
60—80
100—120 03
be accommodated: expressed bycoefficient rubber 930 0007 negligible 0 16
asphalt 2300 negligible 30—80 1.2
Thermal conductivity —up393(2) expressed thermalinsulatingmaterials:
asWm/rn2°C,conventionallyW/rn°C. Forsome lightweight,tibrousorcellularin compoutiongivinggoodthermal insulation 650usdabsorbliorn butpoorsoundinsulation,
lowresistanceto
materials values greatly influenced bymoisture crushing;readilyabsorbmoisture, with increasein density&thermalcondachnity; montcombustible exceptmineral based,improvedby
cl'rernical additives
content
mineral baud
Sound apsorption coefficients—vp397(2) expanded perlite 65 0.04—007
expanded vermiculite 100 0.7—01
glass tibre 25—100 00.4—0 07
mineral wool 50—150 0.04—007
asbestos orsubstitute 750—900 26—36 o 16—0.25 2 5—72 0 12—0 16
insulating board
cellular glass 175 5—8 85 0.06
01
wood-wool sfab 400—700 0.6—07 015—0.4 008—013
chipboard 500—800 2—28 035 015—0.2
tibreboard 250—350 04 005—0.07
—
corkboard

polystyrene bead
130—160

15—25 14—45
004—0.05

0035
pvc 40—70 35—50
1 Common building materials: valuesfor physical 0035—0 045
tuenwd
characteristics
urea-formaldehyde 8—15 9 003—0.04
notes: nitiai irreversibie shrinkage 2 initial irreversible polyurethane 30 2—7 0.03—0.07
expansion 3iowemissivity/high reflectivity ofbnghtsurtace ot
thesemetais againstheat radiation
 Components 383

Distribution system for services needs careful planningensure system
economical in both builders and specialistwork. System starts at point
ofentryofserviceto bldg orfromboiler and plant rm to all spaces being
served. Points of entry of services and plant rm location should be
determined at early stage.
Services: Distribution
VENTILATION
Some ducts may require ventilation to limit temp rise or because of
service contained, eq natural gas. Where floor construction carried
through, vent each floor topand bottom. Ifductcontinuous,vent at ends
(—.Bib111).

DISTRIBUTIONMEDIUM
WALKWAYS—+(1 )(2)
Heating distribution may be byhot water,steam, orwarm air.Water may
be at low pressure under boiling point or at high pressure above boiling Retain clear working space 700 wide x 2000 high after all services
point depending on quantity of heat to be distributed. Air inefficient installed. Large takeoffs and expansion loops may require additional
means ofdistribution but required for ventilationorairconditioning. width. Accessfromends —boiler rmorplant rm. Intermediateaccess to
changes ofdirection and lunctions by removablecovers mm 450 x 600.
Example: in 100 tube transfer capacitiesare: Access openings should allow length of pipe (6000) be installed or
low velocity air 072 kW removed.
high velocity air 2.16 kW
low pressure hot water 525 kW
high pressure hot water 2385 kW CRAWLWAYS—(3)
DISTRIBUTIONLAYOUTS Clear working space 700 wide x 1 000 high after all services installed.
Accessbycovers mm 450 x 600 atintervals of 10—15 m.
In multi-storey bldg distribution pattern may be:
(a) primarily horizontal with secondarydistribution upor down through
floors;
(b) primarily vertical with secondary distribution along floors. heat loss heating A B
uptokW f&rsize w h
(a) more common especially for low bldg or those with dissimilar flow
plans but system may occupy greater building volume by increasing 6 pipes 6 pipes with hangers with rollers
floorto tloor height of all floors. on 1 on both
(b) more suitable forhigh bldg with repetitive floor plans. side sides

35 40 10€ 1430 2010 2000

64 50 1140 1 580 2055 2000
PRIMARYHORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION 153 65 1180 1660 2130 2000
255 80 1235 1770 2230 2000
Whether primary distribution atground level orroot level willdepend on 423 100 1330 1960 2370 2000
location of boiler or plant rm At ground level may be in walkways or 956 125 1425 2150 2515 2000
1432 150 1505 2310 2665 2000
crawlways underground slab provided these do not conflict with foun-
dations.
1 Walkways:dimensions(f&r= flow &return)
At roof level distribution may be in pitched root void or in extra deep
ceiling void.Horizontal distribution above root level difficult protect from
weather, complicates root drainage.

PRIMARYVERTICALDISTRIBUTION

Primary vertical distribution is by vertical duct spaces through bldg.

Direction ofhorizontal connexion atfloor slab level should notbe limited
byadjacent stairwells, liftshafts, orflues. Trimming beamsmay also limit
horizontal connexions.
-f
INTERCONNEXION VERTICAL& HORIZONTAL

Interconnexion between verticaland horizontalduct critical:ducts should

not be in samevertical plane and vertical duct should be long sideonto
horizontal duct to givegreatest common interconnecting area.

ACCESSTO DUCTS

Access to ducts should be adequate for maintenance work and for

renewal of pipes etc, which have shorter life than that of bldg. Access
either through duct —walkways, crawlwaysand large vertical ducts —or
-A-
2 Walkways& crawiways—.(1 )(3)
through access panels in sideortop of duct.
heat loss heating 3 pipesoneachside
uptokW f&rsize
FIREPRECAUTIONS A B
w h
Either firestops atfloor level orfr construction and access panels. with hangers with rollers

SOUNDTRANSMISSION 35 40 1430 1070 1 000

64 50 1580 1095 1 000
153 65 1660 1140 1000
Floor construction carried through at or near floor level. All pipe pen- 1770 1 205
255 80 1 000
etrations sealed airtight. Access panels of adequate sound reduction 423 100 1960 1280 1000
and sealed airtight. 956 125 2150 1360 1000
432 150 2310 1435 1020

3 Crawlways:dimensions
384 Components
Services: distribution

B hwith TRENCH DUCTS—*(1)(2)

heatloss heating A
upto kW I r
& size w hwithout crossover
Pipe supports should be below pipes or on
crossover
sides to allow lengths of pipe be installed or
3 15 1350 230 320 removed. Allowspace under pipe supports and
13
6 20
25
1360
1395
235
240
345
375 slight fall for draining. Access through con-
24 32 1430 250 410 tinuous covers or covers at junctions and
35 40 1475 255 445 changes of direction and breakout screedcover
64
153
50
65
1520
1600
265
285
520
560 r whenrequired. Pipeson rollersallow expansion
movement.
255 80 1680 295 615 • A
423 100 1780 320 710
956 125 1920 345 805
1432 150 2070 375 885 HORIZONTALDUCTSAT CEILING
LEVEL—*(3)(4)
1 Trencnducts:dimensions(I&r=flow&return) 2 Trenchduct
Pipe supports above pipes for pipework to be
heatcapacity heating A B installed or removed from below. Crossovers
l&rsize w
may be above or below depending on venting
uptokW h

of pipework. Continuous access from below

LA
3 15 605 300

13
6 20
25
615
650
305
315
I through ceiling or panel. Add extra depth of
24 32 685 325 ceiling support system, recessed light fittings
35 40 730 330 etc. Drop rodsallow expansion movement.
64
153
50
65
775
855
340
380
r
255 80 935 425 SCREED DUCTS—*(5)(6)
423 100 1035 475
956 125 1175 555
150 1320 625 Chase formed by omitting floor screed. Useful
1432
for local hot and cold water connexions to
3 Space requirementsforhorizontalductat 4 Horizontalduct at ceiling level sanitary fittings and local heating pipework.
ceiling level (containingheatingflow & return,hot Floor finish carried over plywood covernailed
waterflow&return,coldwater service&coldwater to battens. Access by cutting floor finishand
main)
prising up cover. Pipe size usually limited to
20—22,otherwise screed ofuneconomic thick-
heatless pipesize A A B C ness. Oversized hole required for connexion
uptokW 1 pipe 2pipes d diaof hole
for expansion of pipework.
requiredfor
connexion

1.5 100 54.5 46.5

3
10
15 100
150
150 59.0 51.0
VERTICALDUCTS—*(1 1 )(12)
6 20 100 150 64.5 56.5
13 25 100 150 71.5 64.0 Onerow pipestoallow installationand removal
24 32 100 150 80.0 73.5 from front without removing other pipework
5 Screedducts:dimensions 6 Screedduct exceptcrossovers. Access through removable
panels or doors full floorheight on long side.
heat loss
uptokW
heating
f&rsize
w
A
withorwithout B
d
— B
Crossoversand clearance for valves increase
depth considerably. Diagonal takeoffs with 45°
crossover without with bend reduce depth but increase width by
increasing spacing ofvertical pipes.
crossover crossover

3 15 605 115 205

6
13
20
25
615
650
120
125
230
260
ESTIMATINGVENTILATION!
24 32 685 135 295 AIR-CONDITIONINGSIZES
35 40 730 140 330
64 50 775
153 65 855
150
170
405
445
For preliminary planning purposes ventilation!
255 80 935 180 500 air-conditioning ducts may be calculated from:
423 100 1035 205 595
956 125 1175 230 690 Lowvelocity:cross sectional arofductm2 =
1432 150 1320 260 770
floor ar servedm2
r Space requirementsforverticalducts 9 Vertical ductwith 750
(containingbeatingflow & return,hotwaterflow & crossover
return,coldwater service&cold watermain) High velocity:cross sectional arofduct m2 =
floor arserved m2
B 2250
heat heating A B
w dWtthOLit dwithcrossover Ductsshould notexceed 1:4 shorttolong side
loss f&r
upto size
—— ———— crossover
and bestsquare. High velocity ducts should be
kW 75 100 150 75 75 100 150 circular. Allowspace for insulation,flanges and
100 150
supports:100 on allsides.
soil soil soil soil soil soil
pipe pipe pipe pipe pipe pipe
— soil pipe soil pipe soil pipe

pvc copper pvc copper pvc copper

waste waste waste waste waste waste

3 15 815 840 895 173 205 255 295 350 320 375 370 425 socket
6
13
20
25
825 855 905 173
860 885 940 173
205
205
255
255
295
295
350
350
320
320
375
375
370
370
425
425 I) socketexternal
exiemai
dia
pipe
24 32 895 920 975 173 205 255 295 350 320 375 370 425 ) nsuiation
35 40 940 965 1020 173 205 255 295 350 320 370 425 5pesupport
64 50 985 1015 1065 173 205 255 295 350 320
375
375 370 425
— pipeinsulation
pipesupport
A r channel
channei
153 65 1060 10901140 173 205 255 295 350 320 375 370 425
255 80 1145 1170 1225 180 205 255 295 350 320 375 370 425
423 100 1245 1270 1325 205 205 255 295 350 320 375 370 425 )
956 125
1432 150
1385 14152875 230
1530 1555 1610 260
230
260
255 295
260 295
350
350
320
320
375
375
370
370
425
425
)
—B-.

10 Space requirementsforverticalduct including soiupipe(containingheatingflow & return,hotwater 11 Vertical ductwith 12 Verticalductwith

flow &return,cold water service,cold water main&soil &wastepipes) soil pipe soilpipe &crossover
 Components 385
Services: Methods of heating
Decision on type of heating emission in individual spaces depends on
anglevstves,sideconnexions, top & bottom requirements ofthermal comfort inrelationtothermal responseofbldg.
size A B C
mm
15 115 115 THERMALCOMFORT-+(4)
20 125 120 25
25 140 135
—vpl6
straight valves, bottomconnexions
15 130 130
High standard ofthermal comfort requires:
20 150 140 surrounding surface temphigher than airtemp
25 160 155
_____________________ airtempat head lower than atfloorlevel: low tempgradient
Ifradiator underSI elf, clearance of twice air movement justperceptible butvariable and with nodraughts
cifromfaceofradiatorto waftrequired hum not very important except at tempabove 21°C: should not exceed
aboveradiator: clearance of 1½ timesd
requiredunderradiator 70% norbe less than30%

1 Space forradiatorvaIves—(2) THERMALRESPONSEOFBUILDING

Thermal response ofbldg depends on:
area and orientation of glazing: largeareas of glazing facing sun give
quickresponse
reflectivityof external surfaces where exposed to sun: high reflectivity
reduces heat gain fromsunand reduces response
mass of bldg structure and position of thermal insulation: mass inside
insulationgiveslong responsetime; lightweightbldg haveshortresponse
time
Quick response bldg will give economy in heating cost but be hotterin
summerandmoredifficult heat comfortably.

TYPES OF HEAT EMITTERS

*—c'A Low temperature radiant panels: heated by embedded el cables or
heating water pipework. Surface preferably floor for low temp gradient
2 Space forradiatorvalves—°(1) butwall orceiling surfaces can beused.
Floor surfacetemplimited to 29°C.
Emission: 50% radiation 50% convection.
Mediumtempradiant panels:flat steel orcast iron plates with water-
wayscast in or welded tobackofplate. Surface tempgenerally 75°C.
Emission: 50% radiation 50% convection.
Radiators: generally made fromsheet steel; may be 1, 2 or 3 panel or
with finson backto increase outputfor given face area. Surface temp
75°C.
Radiant: convection emission depends on number of panels, fins etc;
single panel approx 25% radiation75%convection.
If radiators in corner or recess allow space for valves and for air flow

Natural convectors: may becontinuous casing orindividual casing of

3 Buildersworknaturalconvector—(1)
type ofheat emitter
floorheating
mediumtempradiantpanels
panel radiators
naturalconvectors
fanconvectorsorductedwarm air 5
pressed steelcontaining finned tube heater. Heatoutput depends on
size offinned tubeand height ofconvector.
Surface templower than radiator: about35°C. Saferwithyoung children
ordisabled people.
Emission: 10% radiation 90% convection.
Natural convector cases often made ofbuilders workfor better appear-
anceand robustness —(3). Opening atbottomAshould notbeless than
width of finned tube. Inside depth of casing B should only allow mm
clearance (6)forfinned tube.Grilleat top should have atleast70% open
area.
Fan convectors: similar tonaturalconvectors except that aircirculation
byfan. High outputforsmall sizeand independent ofheight of casing.
Heatoutputeasilycontrolled byfanspeed. May bepositioned overhead
iffanadequate toblow hotairdown.
Emission: 100%convection.
order of thermal approxorderof Ducted warmair:forheating similartofan convectors. Difference is in
comfortunder response method of heat distribution and in space occupied in rm. Used in
steadyconditions domestic installations but in large bldg only when mech ventilation
1 5 required.
Emission: 100% convection.
2 4
3 3
4 2
1

Forthermal comfortsurface tempofsurroundings better if higher

thanairtemp;someradiant emission required, proportiondepending
onthermal insulation
4 Order ofthermalcomfort&speedofresponsefromheatingemitters
 386 Components

Se,vices: Heating systems

C)
0 In choosing heating system 3 decisions to make:
fuelto be used meter w d h doorw doorh
2 means ofdistributing heat fromcentral source size kW
-a method ofheatemission in individualspaces
0 373 1980 1170 1530 1220 1450

560 2060 1220 1680 1370 1520

CD CAPACITYOF INSTALLATION
I-.. 933 2290 1370 1830 1680 1680
C') Approxcapacity of installationcan be calculated—(1).
Example: 4-storeybldg 13 x 70 x (shallow plan bldg) 1400 2590 1450 1830 1680 1830
ventilation rate2 air changes
1867 2750 1450 2220 1680 1830
groundfloorl3x7Ox79 = 71890
intermediatefloors2x 13 x 70 x 72= 131040 2800 2900 1710 2360 1830 1830
top floor 13 x 70 x 86 = 78260
total heat loss = 281190 3733 3050 1730 2520 1830 1830
= 280kW
ventilationrequired:upto1 867 kWventilation arto be4% of floor ar
Bldg with intermittent heating need overload capacity: thisdepends on of meterrm dividedbetween high & low level;over 2800kW
heat uptime. Normally 20% butmay be 100% excess capacity. ventilationartobe 6% of floor ar

2 Gas meter rmmm dimensions

small bldg shallowplan deep plan bldg
bldg
ELECTRICITYTARIFFS
number ofair changes 2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6
2 basic types of tariff for el heating: restricted hours tariff, with el
groundfloor 102 146 192 79 121 167 62 104 150
intermediatefloor 92 135 181 72 115 161 57 100 146 available at night onlyatcheap rate; normaltariffs,with elavailableat any
topfloor 106 148 194 86 128 174 71 113 159 time but at 2—3 times restricted hours rate.
117 159 205 92 134 180 75 117 163 With restricted hours tariff heat generated must be stored during night
singlestorey
for use next day. Heat may be stored in structure of bldg, particularly
1 Heatloss W/m2 concrete floors, in vessels containing waterunderpressure, or in well-
insulated high-density cores ofthermal stounits. Storing heat in form of
hot watermostflexible arrangement.
GAS SUPPLIES Direct el heating by radiant or convective emitters, often in form of
individual portable appliances.
Distribution
Gas distributed through high pressure nationalgrid system toall regions.
Oilstorage
The main: provision and maintenance of main gas supply in UK 4 main types ofoil stotanks for industrialand commercial oil fuels:
responsiblity ofBritish GasCorporation. mild steelwelded
Service pipe: where laid in public ground, British Gas Corporation mildsteelsectional
responsible for provision and maintenance of service pipe between cast iron sectional
main and inlet side of meter. Where part of service pipe laid in private reinforced concrete
land provision and maintenanceusually responsibilityof user. Most widely used: mild steelwelded; usually horizontal, cylindrical or
Internal installation pipes from meter to appliances responsibility of rectangular. If ground space limited vertical cylindrical tanks may be
bldg owner. No service pipe may be installed inunventilatedvoidspace used.
orduct.
Protection ofpipes:gaspipes must beprotectedagainstcondensation,
damp, freezing and corrosion. Capacities
Flues andair supply for gas appliances(—÷Bibl 19). Mm net sf0 capacity (—Bib130) can be calculated in 2 ways (use
largest):
Themeter 3 weeks supply at max rateofconsumption
Primary metersshould be situated closeas possible point of entryof 2 weeks supply at max rateofconsumption plus usual quantityordered
servicepipe and allow easy accesswithout disturbing consumer.Meters for 1 delivery.
should not beexposed to:
possibilityofphysical damage
Ifmax weeklyoffiake less than 9001,stocapacitystillshould notbe less
continuous damp orwet than 2950 Itoaccept 22701 deliveries.
excessive changes oftemp Desirable provide more than 1 tank in many circumstances, each of
possibilityofcontact with flame or elsparks. capacity accept at leastfull delivery, each tank having separate filling
Gas meters mustbe separatedfromel meters byfrpartition. pipe, unless situated next each otherwhere common filling point can be
Domestic meters require space 330wide, 360deep, 660 high. used, with isolating valves. Different grades must bestored in separate
tanks.
Gas metersin larger installationsrequireseparate rm—(2).

SITING
Should if possible be installed aboveground. Site should not be sublect
extremesoftempand not beintrusive. Clearance should be allowedfor
withdrawal offittingssuchassteam coilsand immersion heaters.
If underground installation unavoidable, should be in specially con-
structed brickorconcrete chamber, with access to drain valve etc: dry
ground and finished structure madewatertight.
Sump must be provided in floor at 1 endand floor must slope towards
sump.
Buried tanks should not be indirectcontact with soil: almost impossible
avoid corrosive attack.
 Components 387
Services: Heating systems
OILSTORAGE(cont)
Supports
Horizontal tanks on brick or reinforced concrete cradles. Downward
slope of 1:50 fromdrawoff towards drain. Cradles should not be under
-A C)
0
9
-o
0
jointsorseams of tank plates; layer of bitumenised felt between cradle
and tank. Height of tank supports should provide at least 400 space B CD
between drain valve and ground level to allow access for draining and
painting.
.3
mm 150forsteelcradles C,)
Verticaltanks
Up to 2750 dia may bedirectly erected on BC foundation. Base of tank
with bitumen-based seal between tank and concrete. Largerdiatanksto
be assembled on site should be erected on self-draining foundation 4 Cylindricaloilsto tank —.(3)
with base plated on bitumen and sand or bitumen-macadambase.
BOILER ROOMS
Catchpit
Where overfilling or leakagewould be fire hazard or contaminatedrains
Space round eqp required for making pipe and el connexions and
catchpit required. Made of brick or concrete with oil-tight lining and
sealed to concrete base under tank supports. Capacity should be 10% dismantling eqp for servicing. Goodmaintenanceofall plant essential
for proper performance, fuel economy and max life.
greaterthan capacity of tank or tanks. Catchpit should have facility to
remove waterbut no permanent drain. Boilers and associated eqp heavy and noisy. Generally best position on
ground slab. Boiler rmshould not benext spaces that are toremain cool
Manholes —vpl 3 orquiet.
Every sf0tank should have manhole in accessible position,preferably at
top. Circular: notless than 460 dia;ovalorrectangular: not less than 460 Accessfromroad toboilerhouse must be adequate forlargest piece of
long, 410 wide. Vertical tanks over 3650 high should have additional eqpto be replaced. Boilers require airforcombustionand boiler houses
manhole at base for maintenanceand cleaning. need good ventilation reduce internal temp. In large boiler houses
separate flue desirable for each boiler, rising directlyto highest part of
Storagetemp bldg.
For size of boilerrm, access and ventilation requirements —vp388(1)—
oilclass BS classification mm temp mm tempat (4). Dimensions allow all layouts. Solid fuel boilers may need larqer
sto °C outhow fromsto boiler house for fuel handling eqp. If pressurisation eqp or chillers
&forhandling°C to be included boiler rm must belarger.
lightfueloil E 10 10
mediumfueloil F 25 30 ciear h access door ventilation Iouvres
heavy fueloil G 35 45
ioadkW I w w h inlet outlei
1 Oilsto temp (low level) m2 (highievei) m2

SOLID FUEL upto200 7900 5300 3500 1500 2000 048 0422
200—600 9800 7900 4300 1700 2300 1.44 1.22
Delivery
About 7 to 8 t capacity. Delivery vehicle dimensions similar to 7 t long 600—1800 16900 12200 5300 3400 3000 4.32 3.709
wheelbase tipping vehicle. Conveyor delivery vehicles can stack to 1800—6000 19100 18200 7300 3400 4200 144 11.646
2500above load level: ordinary delivery 1400. Factors:
bulkdelivery foreconomy 6000—20000 26800 26000 9300 4400 5800 48 0 3668

stocapacity mm 11/2 x capacity ofdelivery vehicle

goodsf0 heightsaves space
5 Boilerrrndata
plan for mm manual handling eggravity feed fordelivery point to sto
Where boilerfiredfromfront fuel should be stored in front orgravitateto
front fromsto at higher level. Magazine type boilers should befed from
fuel sto above hopper attop ofboiler.
CalorificValue& Density

fuel calorificvalue MJ/kg densitykg/rn3

anthracite 35 330
bituminous
coal 30 800
coke 28 400

2 Calorificvalue& density

capacityI lengthA diaB capacity length A dia B

1140 1655 990 18185 5260 2135

2275 1705 1375 22730 5870 2290
2730 2010 1375 27280 6175 2440
3410 2165 1375 31825 5590 2745
4550 3150 1375 36370 6505 2745
5455 3760 1375 40915 7420 2745
6820 2900 1830 45460 8030 2745
9095 3305 1985 54555 9550 2745
11365 3940 1985 68190 12195 2745
13640 3965 2135 81230 12195 3050
15915 4880 2135 90920 13720 3050

3 Oilsto: dimensionsof cylindricaltanks—.(4)

388 Components
Services: heatingsystems
BOILER ROOMS(cont)

emergency exit

pumps

1 to4 Boiler houselayouts;technicaldata-.p387(5)

CALORIFIERROOMS
Calorifier rmis heating substation where heatinwater(orsteam) athigh
pressure and tempchanged to heat atlow pressure and temp. Several
calorifier rm may befed from1 boilerhouse in large installation.
In districtheating schemes with distribution at high pressure and temp, c 0 H
rating A B D E F weight flue
calorifier rmrequired at intake. h w d space space space space space lull l/D
at at on left on above kg
Calorifier rm should notbe next tospaces that are to remain cool. front back side right
side
Access required fromroad through bldg tocalorifier rm forlargestpiece
75 500 115 102
ofeqp to be replaced. upto 915 500 610
535
610
10
150
75
150 680 220 150
35 915 500 600 10
1020 560 840
610 155 160 160 810 270 178
Calorifier rm must be ventilated to reduce internal temp. 35—
100 1320 845 1130
960 250 160 160 840 680 225
Calorifierrm —(5) contain 2 hot watersto calorifiers, 2 water to water 100— 1605 775 1525
960 510 200 510 900 980 254
1
300 1605 640 1525 1180 510 200 510 990 1750 2x 254
non-stocalorifiers, pumps and controls. 300— 1605 2230 1525 1180 510 200 510 990 2520 460
900 1765 2230 1885 1550 510 200 510 990 3350 2x356

ATMOSPHERICGAS BOILERS
Smaller gas boilers burn gas at low pressure, do not have forced 6 Atmosphericgasboilerdata:dimensions fortop&bottomofrangeof each
draught; quieterthan pressure let boilers butless efficient. rating; I/O = internaldia
Boilersuptoabout35kWcapacity availablewitheither balancedflue or
front elevation sideelevation
conventional flue.

Spacemustbeallowedatfrontforwithdrawalofburners and atsideand

backfor connexions —(6)(7)p389(l )—(4).

loadWI I w clearh access door ventilation louvres

w h inlet outlet
110wlevel) m2 (highlevel) m2

up to200 6900 4800 3500 1100 1950 0.422 0422

200—600 10100 6500 4300 1500 1 950 1.22 1.22

600—1800 12000 7000 5300 1600 1950 3.709 3.709

F4HB+4 G4 —---E
5Calonfiermidata 7 Atmosphericgasboiler
 Components 389
Services: heatingsystems
A B c D E F 0 H
PRESSUREJET GASOR OIL BOILERS
rating weight flue
kw h w d space space space space space kit l/D
with at st onlett on above kg
On pressure jet boilers burner forced-draught fan assembly projects
burner front back side right considerably from front. Assembly often hinged for access to boiler
side shell for maintenance.
35—100 1195 640 1450 610 500 160 460 540 890 200 In largersizes considerable space required at backfor easybend flue
1470 1310 2005 940 1310 400 560 765 1690 200
100—300 1550 1310 connexion —'(1)(2)(3).
3060 940 1310 700 1210 765 2915 254
1780 1465 3160 1100 1400 700 1210 800 2915 432
300—900 2060 1830 3520 1000 1500 1425 1210 1000 4850 432
2490 2080 3890 1415 1500 1425 1210 1000 6095 432
900— 2490 2080 4350 2290 1640 1505 1230 1500 6095 432 STORAGECYLINDERS
3000 3560 2770 5645 3250 3835 1655 1375 1500 30990 660
3000— 3785 2980 7040 2760 4370 1655 1375 2000 30990 710 Domestichotwatercylinders
10000 5095 4115 8435 4130 6225 1655 1380 2000 49490 1016 Domestic hot water cylinders must be installed with enough space
make and unmake connexions to fit or remove cylinder —÷(4)—(6)
1 Pressurejetgasboilersdata:dthension fortop&bottomofeachheating p390(1). In rectangular cupboard connexions on diagonal save space
range —'(3) -'(7).

A B C D F 0 Largeindirect cylinders
rating B H weight flue Indirectcylindersneed only low primary circulation pressure and will
kw h w d space space space kill lID
operatewithgravity flowifcorrectly placed in relationto boiler.
space space
with at at onleft on above kg
burner front back side right
side Large indirect cylinders have bolted head to allow internal annular
heater to be withdrawn and replaced. For withdrawal space required
upto35 950 550 845 800 400 150 205 200 185 152
950 550 925 800 400 150 205 200 230 152 —'p390(3). Indirect cylinders may be vertical or horizontal —÷p390(2)—
35—100 1195 640 1005 800 500 150 205 200 260 203 (5). Horizontal useful if headroom limited but vertical more efficient in
1470 1310 2005 1215 1310 155 355 200 1380 204 preventing mixing ofincoming coldwaterwith remaining hot.
100—300 1550 1265 2930 1215 1310 700 1000 1000 2915 254
1780 1465
300—900 2060 1830
2930
3150
1220
1220
1320 700 1000 1000 4675 255 Inspection opening oftenprovided insideofcylinder.
1320 700 1425 1000 4675 350
2490 3170 3945 1450 1415 700 1505 1000 6100 400
900— 2820 3170 3965 2290 1415 1505 1505 1500 9755 400
3000 3655 3180 6535 3050 3535 1655 1550 2000 30990 710
3000— 3950 3180 7045 2880 4370 1655 1550 2000 30990 710
10000 5250 4115 8435 3695 6225 1655 1550 2000 63100 1016

Pressurejetoil-filled boilers data:dimension fortop &bottomofeach

heating range—'(3)

capacityA B 0 D D- E
I hwfth diawith spacefor space space space round
insulation insulation connexions above for aboveto overmsu-
opposite connexions withdraw Istion for
sides flnersion handaccess
hester

I
78 990 510 115 115 840 100
101 990 560 115 115 840 100
119 1145 560 115 115 995 100

CD
91 765 610 115 115 615 100
103 840 610 115 115 690 100
115 915 610 115 115 765 100

E c 127
151
175
990
1145
1295
610
610
610
115
140
140
115
140
140
840
995
1145
100
100
100
238 1295 685 140 140 1145 100
307 1295 760 155 155 1145 100
I Pressurejetgas&oil-filledboiler—.(1)(2) 414 1675 760 155 155 1525 100

4 Domesticverticaldirect cylindersdata—'(6)(7)

capacityA B C D 0 B
I hwith diewith space for space space apaceround
insulation insulation connexions abovefor aboveto overWiau-
opposite connexions withdraw ladenfor
Sea flnerafon handacoess
MS
114 1145 560 115 115 995 100

-I 100
123
145
170
840
990
1145
1295
610
610
610
610
115
115
140
140
115
115
140
140
690
840
995
1145
100
100
100
iuo
215 1345 660 155 155 1195 100

C B -
255
332
418
1550
1450
1830
660
760
760
155
185
185
155
185
185
1400
1300
1680
100
100
100

6 Domesticverticaldirectcylinder 7 Domesticverticalcylinder: 5 Domesticverticalindirectcylindersdata —'p390(1)

—'(4) connexionsondiagonal—'(4)
390 Components
Services. heatingsystems
STORAGECYLINDERS(cont) STORAGECALORIFIERS
Sto calorifiers serve same purpose as indirect cylinders except that
heater is tubularbattery in side requiring pumped prrnarycirculation.
Vertical withdrawal space not required. Sto calorifiers may be vertical
.—*(6)(8) orhorizontal —*(7)(9). Vertical more efficient.

I Domesticverticalindirectcylinder 2 Vertical indirectsto cylinder—.(3)

—.p389(5)
capacity A B C C D E
E
I diawith hwith front front back space
capaotyA B C D F
insulation insulation spacefor space for spacefor above for
diawith hwith space for space for space space connexions withdrawal connexions connexions
insulation insulation connesions connexions abovefor above for
connex,ons withdrawal 200 715 1335 315 720 155 455
250 715 1590 315 720 155 455
100 600 940 115 115 385 465 3(X) 815 1415 315 820 155 455
150 600 1255 115 115 385 700 350 815 1590 315 820 185 485
200 650 1335 115 155 455 760 400 815 1765 315 820 185 485
250 650 1590 115 155 455 950 450 815 1945 340 820 185 485
300 750 1415 115 155 455 820 500 915 1685 340 920 185 485
350 750 1590 115 185 485 950 600 915 1945 340 920 85 485
400 750 1765 115 185 485 1080 700 965 1925 340 970 215 540
450 750 1945 140 185 485 1215 800 965 2205 355 970 215 540
500 850 1685 140 185 485 1020 900 1065 1995 355 1070 240 595
600 850 1945 140 185 485 1215 1000 1065 2185 435 1150 240 595
700 900 1925 140 215 540 1200 1200 1115 2305 47- 1200 240 595
800 900 2205 155 215 540 1410 1350 1115 2535 470 1200 305 595
900 1000 1995 155 249 595 1 252 1500 1265 2185 470 1350 305 595
1000 1000 2185 155 240 595 1 395 1800 1265 2535 470 1350 305 595
1200 1050 2305 185 240 595 1 485 2100 1365 2505 520 1470 305 595
1350 1050 2535 185 240 595 1 660 2500 1415 2705 520 1520 305 595
1500 1200 2185 185 240 595 1395 3000 1415 3145 560 1560 305 660
1800 1200 2535 185 240 595 1 660 3500 1565 3075 560 1710 305 660
2100 1300 2505 215 240 595 1635 40(9) 1565 3415 560 1710 305 660
2500 1350 2705 215 240 595 1 785 450(1 1565 3365 560 1710 305 660
3000 1350 3145 215 305 660 2115
3500 1500 2995 215 305 660 2005 note: aspaceof300 required forgeneral access &500foraccess 10 inspection
4000 1500 3335 215 305 660 2260 opening
4500 1600 3285 215 305 660 2220
6 Vertical sto calonfiersdata—.(8)
note: space of300 required brgeneral access & 500foraccess to inspection
Opening
capacity A B C C D E
3 Vertical indirectsto cylinders data —.(2)
I hwith (with front frontspace back space
insulation insulation space for forcoil space for abovefor
connexions withdrawal connexions connexions

2(X) 745 1325 315 1330 85 455

250 745 1580 315 1585 85 455

f 3(9) 855 1405 315 1410 85 455

350 855 1580 315 1585 85 485
4(X) 855 1755 315 1760 85 485

I
D.---- B s -C 4 Horizontalindirectstocylinder 800
450
5(X)
6(X)
7(X)
855
955
955
1005
1005
1935
1675
1935
1915
2195
340
340
340
340
355
1940
1680
1940
1920
2200
85
85
85
85
85
485
485
485
540
540
—.(5) 900 1120 1985 355 1990 125 595
10(X) 1120 2175 435 2260 125 595
1200 1170 2295 470 2380 125 595
capacity A B C D E 1350 1170 2525 470 2610 125 595
I hwith with front back space 1500 1345 2260 470 2260 125 595
insulation insulation space for space for abovefor 1800 1345 2580 470 2610 125 595
withdrawal connexions connexions 2100 1445 2510 520 2600 160 595
2500 1495 3040 520 2800 160 595
100 630 865 465 80 385 3000 1495 3135 560 3280 190 660
35(X) 1645 3220 560 3130 190 660
150 630 1180 700 80 385
40(X) 1645 3325 560 3470 190 660
200 680 1260 760 95 455 4500 1645 3540 560 3420 190 660
250 680 1515 950 95 455
300 790 1340 820 95 455 note:aspace 01 300 required forgeneral access & 500braccess toinspection
350 790 1515 950 115 485 opening
400 790 1690 1080 115 485
450 790 1870 1215 115 485 7 Horizontalsto calorifiers data—. (9)
500 890 1610 1202 115 485
600 890 1870 1215 115 485
700 955 1850 1200 140 540
800 955 2130 1410 140 540
900 1080 1920 1255 155 595
1000 1080 2110 1395 155 595
1200 1130 2230 1485 155 595
1350 1130 2460 1660 155 595
1500 1280 2110 1395 155 595
1800 1280 2460 1660 155 595
2100 1380 2430 1635 155 595
2500 1430 2630 1785 155 595
3000 1430 3070 2115 185 660
3500 1590 2920 2005 185 660
4000 1590 3260 2260 185 660
4500 1690 3210 2220 185 660

note: aspace of 300 required forgeneralaccess&500foraccessto

inspectionopening D.5- A- -S.C D- B

S Horizontalindirectsto cy'indersdata—.(4) 8 Vertical sto calorifier—.(6) 9 Horizontalsto calorifier—.(7)

 Components 391

Services: Heating systems

kW A B C D NON-STORAGECALORIFIERS
spacefor
hwith diawith space for pipework spacefor
insulation insulation pipework on on3rd withdrawal Non-sto caloritiers used to change heating water temp or pressure
2 opposite side without mixing. Horizontal calorifiers more usual than vertical but in
sides smaller sizes may take upmore space. Interiormay havetobewithdrawn
annually forinspection and space must be allowed—.(1 )(2).
100 880 395 160 85 575
125 1390 395 160 85 1185
150 1940 420 215 160 1490 TANK ROOMS
175 2550 420 215 160 2105
225 1725 470 280 215 1220 In all but smallest bldg should beat least2 cold water sto tanks—'(3) to
400 2640 470 280 215 2135 allow for draining down and maintenancewithoutinterrupting supply.
500 2100 525 375 280 1540
725 2710 525 375 280 2150 Morethan 2tanks may be necessaryforsto required bywater authority.
800 2225 575 480 375 1 560
Feed and expansion tank for heating system also generally installed in
1125 2835 575 480 375 2170
1250 2590 615 580 tank rm —.(4). Tank rm should be well above highest distribution pipe-
375 1880
workand outlets to give adequate headand flowrate.
note:calorifiers may beverticalor horizontal: space of500 required for A clear space of 500 round and above all tanks necessary for access,
accessonsides with pipeconnexionsand300 foraccess on side with additional space at entrance to tank rm. Mm dimension over tank
without connexions less than 450 I capacity 300. Access allow installation of replacement
tanks desirable. Otherwise old tank may be cut up, removed in pieces
1 Non-stowater to watercalorifiers data—. (2) and replaced with sectional tank. Cold water sto tanks may produce
condensation on outside oftank unless insulatedwith vapour barrier.
0 capacity tank dimensions
water Drip tray often provided prevent condensationdamagingceilings below.
I w d Tanks larger than those listed (3) either purpose-made or built up
from plate sections 1 000 squareor 1 200 square. Sectionaltanksrequire
475 305 305 500 clear space under tankand bearersshaped allow bolts be tightened
610 305 371 under jointsbetween plates.
610 406 371
610 432 432
610 457 482
686 508 508
736 559 559
762 584 610
914 610 584
914 606 610
1220 610 610
965 686 686
965 762 787
1090 864 736
1170 889 889
1520 914 813
1520 1140 914
1 830 1220 1 020
1830 1220 1220
C k B k 1>c 2440 1520 1220

2 Non-stowatertowatercalorifier 3 Cold water tanks, opentop

—.(1) rectangular,data

boileror nominal tankdimensions

water capacity
heater
ratingkW I I w d

up to 20 40 475 305 305

20—45 70 610 305 371
45—60 90 610 406 371
60—75 110 610 432 432
75—150 170 686 508 508
150—225 220 736 559 559
225—300 260 762 584 610
300—375 300 914 610 584
375—450 350 914 660 610
450—600 430 1220 610 610
600—750 550 965 762 787
750—1200 880 1170 889 889
1200—1500 1000 1520 914 813

4 Feed &expansiontanksdata
392 Components
Services: Venti/ation
ESTIMATINGCAPACITY OF AIR HANDLING PLANT will be necessary in addition to duct distribution system to individual
spaces.
Quality of air—p15 Fresh air inlet and exhaust openings noisy; fresh air should be taken
Forpreliminary estimatesofspace requiredforductworkand air handling fromwell above street level to be free fromdust and fumes.
plant rateof 8 airchanges adequate tocarryheating and cooling loads of Air handling plant rm generally positioned ontop ofbldg to reduce these
most bldg:
problems. Connexion to boiler and chiller rm by heating and chilled
Air handling unitcapacity will beapprox water pipework.
floorarofbldg x m3s1 Interconnexion between extractfanand freshairinletof air handlingunit
150 partly determines size of air handling plant rm. Generally extract fan is
Where otherairchange rates required capacity will be approx separate from airhandling unit—(2). Alternative isforextract fan to be
floorarof bldg partofair handling unit; this avoids interconnecting ductwork but com-
x n ACHm3s1 plicates fresh air inlet and exhaust outletconnexions to outside —(3).
1200
Silencers generally necessaryon supply and extractductwork toreduce
where n = numberof air changes
fan noise in distribution ductwork. Silencers should ideally be halfway
through plant rm wall or floor toreduce flanking sound transmission.
AIR HANDLINGPLANTROOMS Provide adequate space in plant rm towithdraw individual components
ofair handling unit: this requires spacealongside unitslightlywider than
unit. Elsewhere mm 500 access space should be provided —.(4)(5)
Air handling plant bulky but relatively light; considerable additional
space required in plant rm for duct connexions. Large fresh airinlet and Access route fromroadtoair handlingplant rm should allow for removal
exhaust openings required: foreconomy should lead directly tooutside. and replacement offan section and should be same cleardimensions as
Withinternal air handling plant rm largeduct connexions to outside air door opening —(1 )—(3).

air I air- I w h arof arof access door air lair- I w h Iofmix

volume conditioning ventilation freshair main volume1 conditioning ventilation box +fan
& exhaust ducts w h m3s 1 section2
openings

0.5 4330 2220 1200

1090 1470
m1s mm mm mm mm m2 m2 mm mm 1.0 4530 2420 1090 1670
1500
1.5 4530 2420 1090 1815
1500
0.5 9300 7200 3500 2400 0.4 0.067 1 300 1600 2 4805 3005 1700 1280 2125
1.0 10000 7900 3900 2400 0.8 0.13 1300 1 600
1900 1480 2125
3 5030 3005
1.5 10800 8700 3900 2600 1.2 0.2 1300 1600 4 5330 3220 2280 1780 2410
2 11500 9700 4400 2900 1.6 0.27 1500 1800 5 5330 3220 2635 1780 2410
3 11700 9700 4700 3300 2.4 0.4 1700 2000 6 6430 4220 2650 2080 3110
4 13100 11000 5500 3700 3.2 0.53 2000 2300 7 6430 4220 2890 2080 3110
5 13100 11000 6000 4000 4.0 0.67 2000 2300 9 6910 4640 3200 2200 3515
6 14700 12500 6500 4300 4.8 0.8 2300 2600 11 6910 4640 3200 2255 3515
7 15000 12800 6800 4600 5.6 0.93 2300 2600 13 7350 5080 3600 2520 3955
9 16400 14100 7200 4800 7.2 1.2 2400 2700 16 7530 5320 4000 2730 4210
11 16800 14500 7300 5300 8.8 1.47 2500 2800 20 7730 5520 4600 2930 4410
13 18400 16100 7900 5800 10.4 1.73 2700 3000
16 19600 17400 8700 6400 12.8 2.13 3000 3300 basedoncoil facevelocity of 2.5rn/s1
20 20400 18200 9900 6700 16.0 2.67 3200 3500 2tobeaddedto I of AHU if extract fanto be in unit

1 Airhandlingplant midata 4 Airhandlingunitsdata

airvolume I w h
m3s
0.5 785 655 775
1.0 850 775 915
1.5 850 775 915
2 1100 1010 1220
3 1180 1125 1375
4 1295 1240 1525
5 1850 1540 1890
6 1850 1540 1890
7 1850 1540 1890
9 1915 1650 1975
11 2070 1880 2255
13 2220 2110 2480
16 2680 2350 2820
20 2850 2580 3080
5 Extractfans data

2 Airhandlingplant rm withseparatefan 3 Airhandlingplantmiwith extract fanin

handlingunit
 Components 393
Services: Thermal insulation
element resistancem2 C1W HEAT TRANSFER
internal surtace of wall
Conduction: directtransfer ofheat through a material.
0.123
internal surface of ceilings & floors(downwardheat flow) 0.15
internal surface of ceilings & floors(upward heat tlow( 0.106
Thermalconductivity (k): property of materialalone.
outsidesurface of wall sheltered exposure 0.08 Convection: transport ofheat through fluidsbycirculation: affects heat
outsidesurface of wall normal exposure 0.055
outsidesurface of wall severe exposure 0.03 transfer throughairspaces and airmovement oversurfaces.
outsidesurface of roofsheltered exposure 0.09
outsidesurface of roofnormal exposure 0.045 Radiation: transfer of heat between bodies at distance by electro-
outsidesurface of roofsevereexposure 0.02 magnetic radiation.
unventilated airspace 5thick 0.11
unventilated airspace 20 thict ormore 0.18 Resistanceofwalltopassageof heatthrough itmadeupfrom resistance
loftspacebelowunsealed,tiledpitched root 0.11
loftspacebelowunsealed,tiledpitched roof withfeltbelowtiles 0.18
of each element of wall, eg resistance of brick wall will be sum of
air space behind tileson tilehungwall 0.12 resistance caused by conduction through brickand resistance through
airspaceincavitywall 0.18 convective and radiative transfer at outside surface. Plastered cavity
brickwall will include resistance ofairspace and plaster etc.
1 Surface&airresistances
Thermal transmittance (or U value) of bldg element: reciprocal of
resistance ie
material thermal material therma(
conductivity conductivity U=-— 1

(k)W/m C (k)W/m °C R Rsi+Rl+R2++Ra+Rso

where R51 = internal surface resistance
aerated concrete 0.21
=
R50 outside surface resistance
aluminium 160
gypsumplaster
hardboard
0.46
0.08 Ra = airspace resistance
asbestos cement 0.4 lightweight plaster 0.2 =
R1, R2,etc resistance ofcomponents
0.43 limestone 1.5
where I = thickness ofcomponent layer (m)
asphalt
brickwork,common 0.7 linoleum 0.22
carpet 0.05 plasterboard 0.16 k = thermal conductivity W/m °C
compositionflooring 0.44 rooflngfelt 0.19
denseconcrete 1.5 sandcement 0.53
0.035 slate 2.0 Units of U are W/m2 °C and heat flow through composite structure is
expandedpolystyrene
fibreboard 0.057 steel 50 given by U A(t1 — t0) where A isareaand t1 arid to are inside and outside
glass 1.05 thatch 0.09 temp.
glassfibre 0.035 timber 0.15
granite 2.5 woodchipboard 0.15 Valuesof inside and outside surface resistances and air space resist-
granolithic 1.16 woodwool 0.1 ances—v(1) and values of conductivity (k) for common bldg materials
—(2).
2 Thermalconductivities of commonbldgmaterials Example:Calculate Uvalue ofcavity wallconsisting of 105 brick outer
leaf with 25-render, 50 air space, internal leaf of 150 aerated concrete
construction UvalueW/m2'C blockwith 10 plasterboard lining on25 battens:
solid225brickwallunplastered inside surface resistance—+(1)= 0.123
resistanceof1Oplasterboard—.(2) = 0.01/0.16 = 0.063
2.3
solid225brickwallplastered 2.1
cavitywall2 x 105plastered on inside 1.5 resistance of airspace —÷(1) = 0.18
cavitywall105brickouterleaf100aeratedconcrete block resistance of 150 aerated concrete—*(2)= 0.150/0.21 = 0.714
innerleafplastered on inside
resistance of airspace—*(1)= 0.18
0.96
cavitywall105brickouterleaf100aeratedconcrete block
innerleafplastered on insidewith13 polystyrene incavity 0.7 resistance of 105 brick—(2)= 0.105/0.7 = 0.15
resistance of render —*(2) = 0.025/0.53 = 0.047
l50concrete 3.5
150concretewilh50 woodwool aspermanent shuttering,
plastered 1.1 outside surface resistance—v(1)(riormal)= 0.055
weatherboarding ontimberframing with10 plasterboardlining total resistance R = 1.1512 m2degC/W
&50glass fibreincavity 0.62
U = 1/A =0.66W/m20C
19 asphalt on 150denseconcrete roof 3.4
19 asphalt on 150aeraled concrefeslabroof 0.88
3tayer feltonprescreeded 50woodwool slabs with Uvaluesof some common structures fornormal exposure —v(3).
plasterboard ceiling 0.9
3layerfelt onprescreeded 50woodwool slabs with Condensation....vp394
plasterboard ceiling& 25 glass fiblre between joists 0.6
3layer felton 13 fibreboard onmetaldecking 2.2
3layer felton25polystyrene onmetal decking 1.1
pitchedroof, tileson felton boarding withplasterboardceiling 1.3
pitchedroof, tileson felton boarding withplasterboardceiling with
5Oglassfibre 0.5
internal 20timberboarded flooron joistswithplasterboard
ceiling 1.6
internal 150concrete floorwith50 screed 2.4
singleglazing anyweighttimber frame 4.3
singleglazing metalframe 5.6
double glazing anyweighttimberframes 2.5
double glazing metalframes withthermalbreak 3.2

3 U valuesforcommonbldg structures
394 Components

Services: Thermal insulation

CONDENSATION
outside
Moisture inside bldg arises from such sources asexternal air, breath of
occupants, cooking, washing, flueless gasand oil heaters.Warm aircan 6
hold more moisture than cold air —.(1) Warm air cooled becomes
saturatedat tempcalled dew point, which depends onamountofmoisture 5
initially in warm air. Condensationoccurs on surfaces with tempbelow
dew point 4

Condensation prevented by (a) ventilation: introduction of outdoor air 3

with lowmoisture content; (b) heating:raisessurfacetemp: (c) insulation:
temp
indirectly by increasing temp for heat output available. 2
Calculationot condensationrisk requires knowledgeottemp and moisture
differences between inside and outside air.
Example:
Unheated bedr at 6'C, outside air — IC, wall U value = 06 W/m2"C. 0
Ventilation rate 1 airchange/hr, rm volume 35 m.
moisture contentof saturated air at — iC = 0.0035 kg/kg
outdoorair in winterapprox 90% saturatedmoisture content = 0 90 ><
0 0035 = 0 0032 kg/kg —2

indoor airmoisture = outdoor air moisture + added moisture

assume moisture input from2 occupants at 0 040 kg/hr. 19 weatherboarding
outdoorairadded = airchangerate x volume = 35m2 = 35 x 1.2 = 42
kg,
2 xO,040
moisture added = _______= 0,0019kg/kg outside inside
42 6"C
indoorair moisture = 0.0032 -f 0.0019 = 0 0051 kg/kg
-"C
—.(t), indoorair dew point = 4 2"C
tempdistribution through wall in proportion to resistances. U value 0.6
dewpoint corresponds
gives resistance-O = 1 7, inside surface resistance = 0 123, temp tointernal
moisturecontent

difference insideto out = 7 C,surface is = USCbelow rm temp

1.7
ie 5 5' C. Condensation will not fake place condensation
cannot occur
Cold bridges
Wall of previous example bridged by concrete lintel U value 3.5W/m2
,C.
resistance = —= 0 286

surface
isx 7 = 3"C below rmtemp,
ie3'C: condensation will take place
vapourbarrier
Interstitialcondensation behind plasterboard
Assume wall with U value = 0.6 W/m2 "C consists of 19 weather-
boarding on timber studs, 9 plasterboard on studs with 50 glass fibre
between. Tempthroughwall obtained by proportioning total tempdrop
according to resistances —.(2):moisture contents of inside and outside
airtakenas previous example. Within partition moisture varies but will
be constant through air space and porous insulation. Dewpoint corre- 2 Occurrenceof interstitialcondensation & itsprevention by vapourbarrier
sponding tomoisture content isabovetemp in airspaceand condensation onwarm side ofinsulation
occurs. Vapour barrier on rm sideof insulant reduces moisture content
in cold sideofwalltothat ofoutdoor air,tempinwall willalways be above
dew point ofoutside airsocondensation cannot occur

0.010
0.009
0.008
'
i.., 0
0.007
— U.UOb ci
-..
— — — — —

0.004
-.; 0.003
0.002
0.001

10 9 8 4 21 —1 —2 —3

temperature C

1 Moisturecontentof saturated air

 Components 395

Services: Sound insulation

Sound measured in decibels (dB); increase of 10 dB gives approx
doubling in loudness. Sounds of equal level in dB but at different
frequencies (frequency roughly equivalent to pitch) not equally loud:
always necessary make frequency analysisofsound; 'overall' levels or
single figure measurements notrelated frequency little use.
SOUND REDUCTIONINDEX(SRI)
Measure ofsound insulationagainstairborne sound: difference in noise
levels between 2 spaces separated by wall or floor corrected for
acoustical conditions in quiet rm. Conversely, subtracting SRI of 1
element from noise level in 1 rmgivesafter correction noise level to be
expected in second rm caused by sound transmitted by that element.
SRI = L, — [2 — log S/A where L1 and [2 are noise levels in rm 1 & 2,
S is partition area, A is total sound absorption in rm 2
SRI depends on weight and will vary with frequency. Values for 1-leaf
homogeneous solid partitions can be calculated—.(1).
Method ofcalculation:
enterfigure at surface weightof panel and draw horizontal line in lower
partof figure
draw verticallinesthrough intersectionsofthis line with frequency scale
into upperpartof figure
read off SRI at intersections with graph for appropriate material: lower
partsofgraph identical forpanels of same weight; graphs change from
initial slope toflat 'plateau' atpointsindicated for each material
Example:
SRI of 100 conqrete: surface weight = 230 kg/m2
Example:
from—.( 1) SRI of 100 concrete (surfaceweight 230 kg/rn2)is46dB; SRI
of9 plywood (surface weight 4.5 kg/rn2)is 19 dB
difference between values of SRI is 27 dB; ratio of areasis 0.01
from (2) reduction is SRI: 8dB
SRI ofcomposite: 46 — 8 = 38dB
Effect ofsmall holes and gapsin and round partitions can befound using
—.(2)and taking SRI of hole as0dB: egitcomposite partition in previous
example with SRI dB at 500 Hzhasgaps of 1.5 wide down edges, ar of
gaps = 2 x 0.0015 x 3 = 0.009 m2; ratio of ar = 0.001; difference
between values of SRI = 38 — 0; soreduction in SRI partition will from
—..(2) be9dB, giving atotal of38 — 9 = 29dB: gaps, though small,more
significant than plywood infill panel. All structures intendei give sound
insulation must be sealed airtight to eliminate holes and gaps. Joints
between different materialsand round pipes and ducts etcmust be filled
with resilient sealant to eliminate opening of gaps from shrinkage,
differential thermal expansion, structural movement etc.
Adding sound absorbent tile or panel to wall orfloorwill have noeffect
on SRI except through negligible increase in weight. Sound absorption
will affectfinal levels in receiving rm through factor log S/A while sound
absorption insourcermwill limitbuild-up of reflected sound and there-
fore levelsthathave to be designed against. Rm level isonly reduced3
dB for doubling in absorption. Principal use of sound absorption is to
control character ofsound in rm.
Acceptable noise levels p18

--
frequency Hz
SRIdb
3125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
37 38 38 46 56 62 68 74
Formore complexstructuresSRI canbeestimated—p396(1).
35 - io.1(
7-

, - /- 7
From —.(1) can be seen that weight of partition must be doubled to
increase SRI by6dB below plateau regions. IfSRI too low forapplication 30
because of plateau, increase only possible without massive increase in 0.01 2
weightby changing material, egfrombreezeblocktobrick. °cD
25
iiU)
- -
20
Composite structure consisting of2elements ofdifferent SRI (eg wall >
ce,1,
0.001
with window) will have SRI closer to weakest element as found from
7 7 7
C 15
?
7—
— —

7 7 77
10
Method of calculation:
1 calculate ratio of areas of 2 elements and difference between values 5 ? ? —
of SRI at each frequency
2 entergraph on horizontal scaleat difference in SRI 0 (ilr —
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
3 draw vertical line to intercept curve appropriate to area ratio
4 read off reduction in SRI on vertical scale difference betweenvalues of soundreductionindex dB
5 subtract fromhigh SRI to give SRI of composite
repeat steps 2—5 for each frequency
2 SRI ofa 2ar composite structure

70

60

50
'C
a)
C 40
C concr
0 breezeblock plaster brick
0 30
— aluminium
glass
0
C
20
plywood
0
0, 10

12.5
25
50
100
200
400
800
1 Calculation of soundreductionof
frequency Hz
1-leafpartitionsof commonmaterials
 396 Components

Services:Sound insulation
9 SOUNDREDUCTION matarisi& construction thickness weight octave band centre frequency Hz

- kg/m2
INDICES ______________________________
31 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
-a
C 1. singlesheetmaterials
1.1 aluminium, corrugated 0.9 2.44 — — 33 31 33 33 42
1.2 asbestos insulation board onwoodframe 6 8.4 2 8 13 16 24 29 33
CD
1.3 chipboard on woodframe 0.9 16 4 11 17 18 25 30 26
1.4 fibreboard on woodframe 12 3.9 — — 13 17 21 25 30
U) 1.5 steelsheetl000x2000 16 129 6 10 16 20 27 32 37
x
steel sheet1 000 2000withstiffenem 1.8 12.9 6 14 17 18 23 30 36
1.6 plasterboardon woodframe 400centres 9 9.5 3 8 15 19 25 28 31
1.7 1&Gwood, jointssealed 25 14 5 12 21 17 22 24 30 36

2. laminated sheetmaterials
gypsum wallboard 2 x 12 thick
2.1 25 22 12 18 24 29 31 32 30 35
2.2 x
9plywoodpanel 1 000 213)0 9 4.5 — 2 7 13 19 25 19 22 32
2.3 2 no 9plywood panels as2.2 bolted together 18 9.0 — 5 15 18 22 24 30 30 43
2.4 gasbestos boardfaced 1.2 steel sheet 12 37 14 20 22 25 31 27 37 38
2.5 laminatedinsulation board faced bothsideswith
3hardboard 32 13 4 10 17 14 20 23 19 20

3 masonry
3.1 brickwork: plain 115 190 26 32 36 37 40 46 54 56
26 32 36 59
3.2 plastered 1 aide 125 210 36 38 48 57
3.3 plastered both sides 140 260 30 32 34 36 41 51 58 60
3.4 plastered both sides 255 465 35 40 41 45 48 56 58 60
3.5 clinkerconcrete blocks, 50 with 9plaster
bothsides 76 96 25 28 30 35 30 40 46 51
3.6 reinforced concrete 100 230 30 35 38 38 41 48 57 65
3.7 cellular concrete, plastered 1 side 220 220 20 22 22 34 43 51 56 58
3.6 hollowclay blocksplastered 1side 90 75 20 25 30 33 32 33 37 41
3.9 denseconcrete 150 300 38 38 38 48 58 65 71 78 85

4. singlepartitions ofcomples panels

4.1 2 x 12skinsof plaster loined byhoneycomb
webofplaster 70 47 — 24 26 24 24 26 28 34
42 dittowithcellsfilledwithtoamedplaster 100 58 — 18 18 25 28 29 33 38
4.3 2skinsofplasterboard 9loined bycardboard
58 19 — 18 18 24 30 32 30 32
egg-crate
4.4 ditto with 12 plasterboard 65 29 — 23 23 26 30 34 30
4.5 25polystyrene faced each sidewith3
hardboard on 9plasterboard 50 23 — 20 21 24 27 27 27 30
46 12plasterboard faces tocoreofparallel
packed straws 50 14 — 15 17 19 25 30 35 40
4.7 wood chipboard withverticalcylindrical holes
15 diaat38 centres 30 11 — 14 15 21 25 28 26 30

5. sludpartitions
5.1 lead plywood l2core20kg/m2on SOs 100
studsat400 centres 125 49 — 28 38 34 41 46 50 54 58
5.2 x
plasterboard 9.5on 50 100studs at
400centres 120 25 — 12 15 31 35 37 45 46 48
5.3 asabovebut plasterboard 127 125 29 — 20 25 32 34 47 39 50 52
5.4 asabove, 12.7 boards& with25 mineral
woolblanket between studs 125 29 — 20 25 37 42 49 46 59 63
5.5 x
6plywood on50 50studsat600 centres 65 7.2 — 10 10 14 22 28 42 42 44

6. doublemasonry
6.1 115brickwith 50cavitynoties 280 380 — 39 43 45 55 55 79 87 —
6.2 asabovebut plastered bothsidesto 12 300 420 — 43 39 48 58 57 77 86 —
6.3 asabovebutwith93.7 butterflyties 300 420 — 30 28 40 45 62 73 82 —

7. doublepartitions olsheetmaterials
x
7.1 asbestos board, 6,on separate 50 25 studs,
at300 centres spaced 12apart,studs
outermost 15 — 22 16 18 31 36 46 50
7.2 asabovebut tiledwithfinesand between
leaves 42 — 26 27 25 34 35 34 42
x
7.3 9plywood, 1 leafon 50 50 studsother
x
leaf on 25 50studsat1200centres spaced
Soapail 168 15 — tO 9 13 22 29 42 42

8. doublepartitions of ccrnples panels

6.1 plaster, 2leaves as4.1 with20slagwool
blanket incavity 300 310 36 40 38 45 50 56 61 61 62
8.2 plasterboard,2leaves as5.2 spared 50 apart
with25glasswoolincavity 290 50 25 28 28 38 44 49 52 56 58
8.3 12asbostce wallboard on 30 timber frame
spaced 200apart 282 32 20 21 22 36 45 49 58 64 64
8.4 as8.3 but 50 spacing 134 32 13 15 18 32 42 49 58 64 64

9. typicalfloorconstructions
9.1 concrete, 130 130 245 32 40 38 38 48 58 64 70 82
9.2 asabove but with50 floating screed 32 34 38 43 48 54 61 68 75
9.3 251& C boarding on oists at400centres,
12 plaster ceiling 10 14 18 25 37 39 45 48 48
9.4 as9.3 with50 asnd on ceiling 28 32 35 40 45 50 60 64 68
9.5 as9.4 withboards 'floating' on 25 glasswool
blanket across joists 28 32 37 42 47 53 64 68 74

10. typical windowconstructions

10.1 3glazinginusealed openable frames 3 7.3 — 16 15 17 19 22 18 22
10.2 dittoinweatherstripped openable frames — 16 18 16 23 26 21 23
10.3 +
3 3thermal glazing units in — 18
weatherstripped openable frames 23 19 21 25 24 25
10.4 6glazing inframes as 10.1 — 30 22 23 28 30 23 29
10.5 asto.1with additional frame150away glazed
with4glass, reveals lined withabsorbent 4 — 27 25 28 50 51 45 42
10.6 as10.5 but with4glass in both frames & sealed — 25 38 35 41 54 48 38
10.7 aslO.6bot6glass&200airspace 212 30 — 35 38 41 49 56 49 40
10.8 6glazing insealed frame 6 15 6 12 17 24 30 28 24 28 38
10.9 12 glazing insealed frame 12 30 12 18 24 27 27 27 29 41 48

1 TypicalSRI indB
 Components 397
Services: Soundinsulation
SOUNDABSORBENTTREATMENTS
Surfaces of rm partlyreflect and absorb sound
according tonature and constructionofsurface.
Proportion will vary with frequency. Result of
reflection is reverberant sound which merges
withdirect sound and affectsitscharacter. Period
ofsustained sound knownasreverberationtime.
Suitablereverberationtime dependson purpose
ofrmandisestablished fromexperience —( 1).
E
Reverberation time
0.16V
Can be calculated fromT =
A
whereVis rm volume m3 and Aistotal absorp-
tion in rm. A is found at each frequency by E
multiplying area (in m2)ofeach type ofsurface E
treatment by its absorption coefficient and 0.
0
summing over all different surfaces of rm.
Absorbentmaterials
May be classified into 3types:
(a) porousmaterials: absorbsound overwhole
frequency range, efficiency depends on
thickness;
(b) panel absorbents: panels over airspace
absorb sound over narrow frequency range mivolume m3
according to panel weight and airspacedepth;
useful for low frequency absorption: too much 1 Optimumreverbaration timesforrm of differentsizes &uses
absorption may be introduced by inadvertent
use of seemingly solid materials which can 125Hz 500Hz 2000Hz 4000Hz
only be fixedoveran air space;
(c) cavity resonators can be 'tuned' to give boarding (match) l5thickoverairspaceonsolidwall 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1
selective absorption over narrow frequency brickwork:plainor painted 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.05
range; of little practical importance as absorp- breeze block:unplastered, plain 0.2 0.6 0.5 0.4
tion obtained more efficiently using (a) or (b) pile carpet+ underfeltonsolidfloor 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.6
but canbe made from'non-acoustic' materials, pile carpet+ underfelton board & batten floor 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6
pile carpeton imperviousbacking onconcretefloor 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
egconcrete:design not easy. felted orwovencarpetonimpervious backingonconcrete
floor
Absorption coefficients concrete,plainortooledorgranolithic finish
0.05
0.01
0.1
0.02
0.2
0.02
0.2
0.02
For common materials given —.(2), for use in cork, linoleumorwoodblockfloor (orwall) 0.05 0.05 0.1 0.1
calculation of reverberation times. For absorp- curtains(mediumfabrics)hungstraight &closetowall 0.05 0.25 0.3 0.4
tion coefficients of proprietary acoustic tiles curtains(mediumfabrics)doublewidths infoldsspaced
refer manufacturers' literature; but make sure awayfrom wall 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.6
method ofmounting oftilessame fortest data 25thick hairfelt,coveredbyscrimclothon solid
as for intended application. Surface finish and backing o.i 0.7 0.8 0.8
treatment as well as subsequent redecoration fibreboard(soft) onsolid backing, 12nominal
will also affect absorption. Painting porous thickness 0.05 0.15 0.3 0.3
dittopainted 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.15
acoustic tile will destroyabsorption at middle fibreboard(12)overairspaceonsol,dwall 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
and high frequencies. dittopainted 0.3 0.15 0.1 0.1
floortiles, plasticsorlinoleum
Absorption of people and seats in auditoria 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.05
taken into account using absorption units/item, glass windowsglazed upto4 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.02
glass 6orthickerinlarge sheets 0.1 0.04 0.02 0.02
and air/cm3 of rm volume. glassorglazedtilesaswallfinish 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
glass fibre ormineralfibre 25thick onsolid backing 0.02 0.7 0.9 0.8
ditto 50thick 0.3 0.8 0.95 0.9
glass ormineralfibre 25 thickover airspace on solid
backing 0.4 0.8 0.9 0.8
plaster,lime orgypsumon solid backing 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.04
plasteronlath &plasterboard onjoists, or studs, air
space &solid backing 0.3 0.1 0.04 0.04
plasterboard on cellularcore partition 0.15 0.07 0.04 0.05
plywoodmountedsolidly 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
plywoodpanels mounted over airspace onsolidbacking 0.3 0.15 0.1 0.05
dittowith porous material inairspace 0.4 0.15 0.1 0.5
water, asin swimming baths 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
woodboardson joistsorbattens 0.15 0.1 0.1 0.1
woodwoolslabs,unplastered, 25thickonsolid
backing 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.6
woodwoolslabsditto75thick 0.2 0.8 0.8 0.8
woodwoolslabs,ditto 50thick 0.2 0.8 0.7 0.7
emptyfullyupholsteredseats(perseat) 0.12 0.28 0.31 0.33
emptyplastics+ metal chairs (perchair) 0.07 0.14 0.14 0.14
adultsinfullyupholsteredseats(perp) 0.18 0.46 0.51 0.46
adults in plastics + metalchairs (per P) 0.16 0.4 0.43 0.4
prosceniumopeningwithavstage set (perm3) — — 0.007 0.02

audienceorseating inany rm causes shading of floor:should beallowed forin calculating

reverberation times;suggestedsuitableadjustments infloorabsorption inconsequence of this
Services references: shadingare: reduceby 20% 40% 60% 80%
—Bibliography entries 090 111 119 130 133
143150151246377390416489490503593 2 Absorptioncoefficients
398 Components

Lighting
GENERALLIGHTING
typeof interior&illuminance lampcircuit efficac y(lm/W)
—also p25—6
35 45 50 60 70 90
Loading required to produce given av illuminance on horizontal plane
heavyindustry — — fromgeneral lightingmay becalculatedfrom lumen formula'.
avservice illuminance 200 Iux/R 15 7.0 6.0 50 4.0
/R 12 — — 8.0 7.0 6.0 4.5 If E is service illuminancerequired in lux over working place area A m2
av service illuminance 500 lux/R 15 —
—
—
—
18.0 15.0 13.0 10.0
lamps flux (L) =
ExA lumenswhereUF is utilisationfactordescribed
IA 12 20.0 16.5 14.0 11.0
MF UF
light industry above —p26.
avservice illurninance 200 IuxIR 15 12.0 9.5 8.5 7.0 — —
Wattage = ________________
JR 12 13.0 10.5 9.5 8.0 — — L
av service illuminance 500 IuxIR I 5 30.0 23.0 21.0 17.5 — — lamp circuit efficacy
JR 12 34.0 26.5 24.0 20.0 — —
Sources and luminaireswith highestpracticalefficacy shoudbeselected
commercial in conjunction with light decoration sothat wattage loadingis inlinewith
av service illuminance 200 IuxIR IS 14 5 11.0 10.0 8.5 — —
/R 12 17.0 13.5 12.0 10.0 — — targetsgiven —.(1).
avserviceilluminance500lux/R15 36.0 28.0 25.0 21.0 — — Iflightoutput ofeach lampis U then numberoflamps requiredto produce
IA 12 42.5 33.0 30.0 25.0 — —
L

1 Targetwattageloading: boxednumbers indicaterestricted range when

mostefficientsourcewithcompatibleotherparameterschosen Magnetic programmes available from RIBA and CIBSfor performing
thesecalculations on programmablehand calculators.

BUILDINGLIGHTING
High degree of uniformity of lighting can beprovided by indirect lighting
B = rmw
H=rmh fromcornices—*(2): inefficient in terms ofpower butmaybedesirable to
h = hoflightsource display ceilings of particulararchitectural interest.
H h' = eyelevel
mm distance = /8 B Edge of masking cornice should be high enough conceal lamps. To
H-h avoid dark areas between lamps tubesshould be staggered or over-
lapped —.(3). High reflectances on upperwalls and ceiling essential to
redirect lighton working plane.
More efficient overall lighting given by fluorescent lamps fitted above
'egg-crate' or otherformsof louvred false ceiling. Specially contoured
2 Cornicelighting plastics metallised louvre grids concentrate light downwards with low
brightness appearance of ceiling.
In air-conditioned bldg extract air should be drawn through 'air-
handling' luminaires so that heat can be removed from lamps and
control gear before enters rm. This heat may often be uselully recovered
foruse in perimeter areas.
Glare
Excessive brightnesscontrast infieldofview cancauseglare—.pl 732. If
source, eg window or unshaded desklamp, seen closeto visual task it
can cause disability glareand reduce task visibility; can also be cause of
discomfort; this can occureven when source is well away fromtask,eg
luminaires on ceiling, and is much more common danger. IES code
givesrecommendations forupperlimit ofdiscomfort glare index, which
is related to luminance and size of light sources, their number and
3 position in fieldof viewand luminance oftheirsurroundings. Calculation
Overlappingpreventsdarkar ofthis glare indexcan beperformedas described—.Bib382.

N\
Contrast
lumiriairesinthisarcan produce Objectsare seen bycontrast, either contained contrast orcontrast with
veiling reflections
their background: higherthe contrast the more visible the object. Visi-
bilityof printed orwritten matter depends oncontrast ofmarking material
with paper. This can be markedly dependent on lighting and viewing
angles evenif materials used notobviously glossy. Light sources should
be keptout of 'forbidden zone' indicated —(4): best position is to one
side of worker rather than in front.

Uniformity
Variation of illuminance overworking area should not normally be such
that mm is less than 0.8 of av. To ensure this manufacturer's rec-
ommended spacing/h ratio (ratio of horizontal distance apart, 5, to
mounting height above working plane, H) should not beexceeded.
N
N

4 Offendingzonewithinwhichreflections fromlight sourcewill degrade

contrastofflat task (about85% officetasksviewedbetween0° and40°from
vertical)

TASK LIGHTING
Calculations ofpower required for task lighting usuallymadeon basis of
directintensity.
Forfilament lamp desklights with diffusing reflectors inverse square law
can be assumed to hold and itwill befound that 500 lux can beobtained
at about 600 to 650 directlybelow 60 watt lamp in usualtype of reflector.
Forfluorescent lamps use hasto be made of 'aspect factor' method as
described —Bib383. This gives distances for 500 lux according to
I lamp wattage lampI distanced(foroffset0.5 h)
m m
I 40
65
1.2
15
10
13
I
L 85 1.8 15
1 Valuesofdirect distanceoffluorescent lamps intypicaldispersivemetal
reflectorluminairetogive 500 luxatpointopposite centreoflamp -.(2)
LIGHT SOURCES
Incandescent tungsten filament lamps still used extensively in home
and in display lighting where ease and cheapness of replacement,
provision for limited areas of warm colour light and very small effecton
life of frequent switching required. Standard life 1 000 hr and 'efficacy',
te efficiency of light production, varies from 10—18 lumens per watt
(lm/W); some manufacturers offer lamp lasting 2000hr for use where
concomitant drop in light output can be accepted as price of less
frequent maintenance.
Lamps with bulbs silvered for use as integral spotlight or floodlight
available; but betteroptical control and higher efficacy obtainablefrom
tungsten lamps with small quartz bulbs and halogen gas filling
Fluorescent lamps suitable forconcealed lighting in home —.(3)(4),for
kitchen lighting and for most industrial and commercial interiors of
moderate ceiling height. They can have efficacy up to 5 times that of
filament lamp with reasonablyacceptable colour rendering properties
and up to 3 times where particularly accuratecolour rendering needed.
Their normal life is 7500hr.
2 Tasklightingwithfluorescent lampindispersivemetalreflector: —.(1) gives
valuesofdto get 500luxatPfromvarious lampwattages
Components 399
Lighting
C)
0
2
0
0
• ____ CD
C,)
::
3
Li
Indirectrm lighting& direct 4 Illuminatedcurtain
lightingtoworkplace
Mercury discharge lamps, colour corrected by use offluorescent bulbs
(commonly designated MBF type) and/or introduction of metal halide
into arc tube (MBI and MBIF), acceptable for achieving high illumi-
nances in shops and in high-ceiling industrial areas. MBF lamps are
available in wattageslowas 50, which offers possibility of use to highlight
small areas. Efficacy can be 35—70 Im/W including ballast losses or
nearly 6times that offilament lamps, with life 7000—10000hr(to 70% of
initial output).
Low pressure sodium lamps (SOX or SLI) only suitable for outdoor
lighting because of monochromaticnature of light emitted; butoperation
athigherpressure (SON) broadens spectrum sothat lightis suitable for
industrial applications (in high bays) and some commercial uses. SON
lamps have efficacies 55—110lm/W, or upto 9 times thoseof filament
lamps, and SOXlamps upto 10times, with livesof10000 hours (to70%
of initial light output).
Colour appearance of light source not good guide to appearance of
coloursilluminated by it. Forclassification of lamps into three grades of
appearancesindependentlyofcolourrenderingproperties—p25(3).
All discharge lamps require control gear forstarting and limiting current
and capacitor for power factor correction. Mercury and sodium lamps
take several minutes toreach fulllightoutput and fromito 20minutesto
restrike after interruptionofsupply: some fluorescentor filamentlighting
should be provided in any interior where light is needed immediately
poweris restored.
100 cycle per second (Hz) fluctuation of light output from discharge
lamps on 50 Hz AC mains not normally disturbing, but if problems
encountered, eg with moving machinerylit by high pressure discharge
lamps atlow mountingheight, measuressuchasdividing lamps between
three phases, or locally lighting critical points by incandescentfilament
lamps, may be taken. Fluorescentlamps may be mounted in pairs with
'lead lag' control gear.
EMERGENCYLIGHTING
Provision ofemergency lighting legalrequirementformany bldg; consult
—*Bibl12.
OUTDOORLIGHTING
Architect will often be required make provision for lighting exterior
environment: may range from floodlighting whole bldg or feature to
amenity lighting of city precincts, car parks and gardens, orfunctional
lighting of railway, bus or air terminals. Wide variety of specialised
techn:quesis involved;guidancegiven—.Bib386.
400 Components
Lighting
INTEGRATIONOF ELECTRIC LIGHTING & DAYLIGHTING
Even in well daylit rm, el light has tobeused onwinterafternoonswhen
daylight fades. When side-litrm deep enough forworkrequiring illumi-
nance 500 lx to be carried out at distance from window greater than
height ofwindowhead above working plane, el light required for more
than 15% ofworking year as DFwill probablybeless than 10% —+p27—30.
This requirement increases to about 50%, at depth of 11/2_2window
headheight and to practically 100%,even with fullyglazed wall, ifdepth
greaterthan 5 x that height. Iftintedglazing used thesedepths greatly
reduced.
Therefore arrange general lighting luminaires in rows parallelto window
wall,each row switched separately.Switches should be locatedsothat
theycan beconveniently operatedby occupantsas requiredand sothat it
isclear which rows they operate.Often possibleprovidependantswitches
controlling individual luminaires with thin light cords which can be
reached fromstanding position.
Fluorescent lamps should be chosen from 'intermediate' colour range
—.p25(3)compatiblewith colour renderingrequirementsand with warmth
of lighting required at night. El lighting should be designed to provide
illuminance recommended forparticular tasks carried out in interior, but
not less than 30lx onavoverworking plane.
O.Bh 1.6h
Li
rarely needed: proportion frequently
useautomatic needed; use automatic
wall-washer
switching dimming top-up control
I I
O.Sh h 2h
1 Daytimecontrolofluminaures in relation to depthof interiorspace
Formax conservation of energy automatic control should be installed in
new bldg to switch off, or preferably dim, those rows of luminaires
lighting the working area (usually first 2 or 3) whichare not required
when daylight rises to provide illuminanceatthat depth suchthat full el
lighting not necessary—(1).
Under theseconditions windows need not be designed to achieve max
penetration ofdaylight; more attention can be paid to any requirements
for obtaining max benefit from exterior view, eg by providing wide
uninterrupted windows rather than high and narrow ones. Opportunity
can be taken to reduce contrast ofwall aboveor between windows with
exterior seenthrough thembymaintaininglightcolourand arrangingfor
somewallwashing byartificial lighting.
In top-lit interiors with sufficient glazing to provide an average DF of
10% over working area el lighting will similarly be required for 15% of
working yearfortaskson which 500lx required, and for longer than this
where higher illuminance required or lower OF provided. If there is
difference between activities carried out in different areas, requiring
different Iluminances ordifferent periods ofoccupation, el lighting may
be switched by areas. Otherwise whole installationcan be linked to 1
controller. This may be photo-electric switch or photo-electric dimming
controlwhere fluorescent lighting is used; but at the date ofwriting there
is little experience of application of such control to other types of
discharge lamps.
1.6h 1.6 h -J
high proportion frequently alwaysneeded:
needed: use automatic keep switchedon
dimming top-upcontrol while interior occupied
wp
3h 4h 5h 6h
distance fromwindow
Lighting references.
—.Bibliographyentries 112 124202271 367380381 382 383 384 385 386
387 397 449457 523
 Components 401

Doors
widthof stairs, corridors or lobbies which it serves. Exit doors must be C)
DIMENSIONS
labelled; in certain instancessign must have emergency illumination.
0
Recommended dimensions forwood internal and external door leaves
and frames —Bib145: doors to these dimensions cheaper than units
built to special sizes. Dimensionsfor steel frame doors and windows for FLOWCAPACITY 0
domesticpurposes—.Bib 138—.(1 )(2),
Where pedestrian traffic heavy rate at which people move through CD
internal doors external doors doorway determined by type of people (old/young, whether carrying
baggage etc) and by degree of congestion on each side of doorway.
Total rateatwhichpeople can move through doorway in both directions (1)
coordinatingh of doorset 2100 2100 farless than capacity with flow in 1 direction only;forheavy 2-way traffic,
2300 2300 2 separate openings should be provided —(3).
2350
2400 2400
2700 2700
3000 3000 (P/mm)

2027 1982 gateways&other clearopenings 60—110/mw

hofopening singleswing door (900) 40—60 increased by 50% if fastened
open
coordinatingw of doorset 600s revolving door 25—35 1 direction: this is doubledif
(L)—.(2) 700s leaves collapse to give2openings
800s &d waist-highturnstile:
900s&d 900s with freeadmision 40—60
l000s&d l000s with cashier 12—18
1200d 1200d operatedwith singlecoin 25—50
1500d 1500d
1800d 1800d
2100d 2100d 3 Capacityof doorwayswith unidirectional pedestrian flow
ssingle ddouble
1 Size ofwooddoors(—.Bibl 45)
DISABLEDPERSONS
Standard door sizes: mm convenient widthfor ambulantdisabled 800
coordinating doorset(opening width675, infernal door). This too narrow for wheel-
w(L)
chair users: 900 doorset usuallyadequate. Wider doors not necessarily
H better forwheelchairs provided adequate space to position chair beside
door
Location of doors: corridors should be not less than 1 200 wide for
wheelchair users to position themselves to open doors in end wall of
corridor or at side. At end door should be offset to give max space
beside handle. Similarly when located in corner of rm door should be
internaldoors hinged at side nearer corner —(4)(5).
L—125
external doors
approx L— 150

2 Openingwofdoors(—.Bib145)

FIRESAFETY
This may affect design of doorways both in need to maintain fr of
partition and provision of means ofescape.
fr doors described in El 1 of bldg reg. In general fr door must be
self-closing; hinges must be neither combustible nor of metal that
softens at low temp; rebates to frame generally larger than standard
(25). For somecases directions of swing of double doors specified in
reg.
Means of escape from fire covered in Section II of Part E of Bldg reg:
contains no detail on doorways but refers to code of practice. CP3:
Chapter IV. Part 1: 1971 (Flats and maisonettes in blocks over two
storeys) containsrecommendationson mainentrancedoors todwellings
and ontypeand location ofinternal doors to bedr, living rm and kitchens.
Section 4.3 lists requirements offrdoors.Part 2: 1968(Shops and dept
stores) givesdimensions for exit openIngs: 1 070 for up to 200 users
with additional 152 for each 30 persons over 200. Number of persons
found by dividing total occupants offloorby number 1 less than number
ofexits. Part 3: 1968 (Office buildings)gives requirementofmm opening
width of exit doors in multi-staircase bldg as765 fordoorway serving up
to 230 m2 grossfloorarea, 1 070 upto 1 860 m2 plus an additional76for
each additional 140 m2 served.
In general all doors which are fire escapes must open in direction of
escape; doors which open into corridor must not cause obstruction
within corridor; width of final exit doorway must not be less than mm
1200mm -
4 Locationofdooratendofcorridor 5 Doorswing in corner of mi for
forwheelchairusers wheelchairusers
In small rm,suchaswc cubicles,side-hung doors should open outwards
orsliding doors should be used. Designer should check whether doors
swinging outwards into corridors orpublic areas such as washrm likely
to be hazardous. Doorswings should not conflict with each other and
should not extend oversteps.
Self-closing doors can cause difficulty to disabled; if essential, action
should be as light as possible. In bldg for blind, self-closing doors
required in some locations. Automatically-opening doors can be
advantage to handicapped in public bldg but must not be of type that
closes after predetermined delay.
Lever handles preferable to knobs and usually satisfactory at standard
height of 1040. Glazed doors should be used where possible. Foradult
users base of glazed panel should not be over 1010fromfloor and it
should be down to kick-platelevel in bldg used by handicappedchildren.
Fully-glazed doors must carry some marking as hazardcue.
Sliding doors slightlyeasier than side-hung doors for wheelchair users
to operate; but may be less robust and give significantly poorer sound
and thermal insulation. In general their useshould be limited to locations
where space inadequate fora satisfactoryside-hung door.
Also —.p85---7
 402 Components

Doors
C) INDUSTRIALTYPES
0
2 For largeopenings (partitions)slid-
ing, sliding-folding, concertina-
0 folding —.(1 )—(8).
Private garage doors (folding,
CD sectional, roller) —api 02(7)—(1 0).
For very large and high bldg (eg
C), aircraft hangers) special design
with lifting corner or section sup-
ports—a(9).
Accessway doorsofimpact resis-
tant plastics —.(1O); also plastics
strip curtain —.(1 1).
1 Slidingdoor 2 Telescopicslidingdoor 3 Anglesliding doors(cornaway)
Airdoors:injection ofspanningair
curtain —u(12)—(13).
Door frames of weather-proof
ply
rubber edging —.(14); all-round
wired rubber segments —.(1 5).

leit. imitation

er.orPsc\

4 Foldingdoors(foldaway) 5 Foldingdoors(centafold) 6 Concertinafoldingdoors 7 Concertinafolding doors

(plywood) (plasticsfabrics)

liftable

8 Power-operatedfolding door 9 Roll shutterdoorover corneror 10 Rubberswingdoor 11 Strip curtain(pvc)forwide

with sectionalsupports(hreach access
possibilities)

channel
single-sided double-sided
channel

unitworkson
interiorair /

unitworkson
exteriorair

12 Aircurtainsystem 13 Aircurtainfor smalldoors 14 Rubberedgingdoor seal 15 Wired rubbersegmentsdoor

seal

Door references
—aBibliographyentries 117 145401 549 574 592 628
 Components 403
Windows
COORDINATINGSIZES
To suitmatricesof basicspaces in PD 6444 Pt 1 (—*Bibl03)
Rangesofsteel Metricpreferredrange
windowsto8S990Pt2 ofW20steelwindows
mm soo 600 1800 900 1500 1800
&to Module100MetrIc 200
800 1000 1200 1500
asspecifiedbySteel 600 1200 mm

Range'asgivenby 300 WindowAssociation fi 300

SteelWindow
Association 5lI iL.....IE
Note: BS&module 100metricrangeincludes tI
500

600
—.Bib138610 doors& associatedfinedlights(notshown)
700 II Not This angealsoi icludes18001 2190h
I with ixedlightsonly;the latterhincludesdoors 700
I'I I

900
—
II II 900
— —
1100 II II 1100

— — _____
13(10 II 1300

l
[IIiII]

111 1500

ii
1 Note:BS& Module100metricrange includedoors& associatedmiaed 2 Note:ttiis rangealsoincludes1800&2lOOhw,th hued lights
I= fixedlights
lights(not shOWfl);f only:2100hincludedoors

Rangesofaluminiumwindowsto BS 4873: wIde

rangeofwindowsincludingvertically&horizontally
sliding types—.BibO9l 300
500

606

i:
WindowSizes 70€
—
Forfitting windows into basic openings3options

:: L
windowtailor-made tofitcompleted opening 90€

windowused astemplate for forming opening:

traditional method in UK 110€
basicopenings coordinatedwith specified range
of windows and other components: success
dependson accuracy with whichopenings are 130€
built, dimensional compatibility of joints and
dimensional accuracy ofwindows
On more general aspects of modular coordi- 1500
nation —vBiblO4105.

Range of sizes in steel windows can be ex-

tendedbycoupling members,byuse ofpressed
steel box mullions and by use of wood sur- 1806

rounds. Aluminium window size limits in each

range vary with type of window, eg whether
horizontal orvertical sliders.

Work sizes 2100

Steel windows(—vBibl38) 6 less than coordi-
natingsize, permissibledeviation 1.5. Aluminium
windows (—vBibO9l) as specified by manu-
facturers, permissible deviation 1.5. Wood
windows in metric range6 less than coordinated
size.
60€
:
90€
— — —
100€
— — —
120(

-
150€

500 600 800 900 izi,aj 1500 2100 2400

Note Abovediagramsintendedforgeneralguidanneonoverallsizes
only; no distinctionmadebetweentypesofopeninglight,some
Dimensionallycoordinatedmetricsizesforwood sizes,hxedlightsonly(designated8)Obtainable in standardranges
windowsasrecommended byBritish
Wood-workingFederation
404 Components
Windows

S
POSITIONRELEVANTTO DAYLIGHT PENETRATION

1 Tallwindowscan give good 2 Longhorizontalwindowscan 3 As—(1)cangive gooddaylight 4 Can give goodspreadof daylight
daylight penetrationtowardsbackof give good lateralspreadofdaylight penetrationbutifwindowswidely &useful light on wallsurrounding
rrn close towindow separatedlightingcanbe uneven opposingwindow

POSITIONRELEVANTTOVIEWOUT & ACTIVITY

5 Wherepanoramicviews& balc 6 In liv whereextensiveviewsover 7 In liv onupperfloors,forsafety, 8 lnofflongwindowsoften

provided,windowsdown to floor countryortownscapelow cills may cillhshouldbe not lessthan 1020or preferredbutindeeprmonupper
leveltake fulladvantageofview beprovided ifcompatiblewith safety guard rails provided floors lowerpartofviewobscuredto
peopleatbackofrm

SAFETY& ACCESSFORCLEANING

9 Ink,cills oftenhto provide 10 In offfiling spacescill usually 11 In dosameconsiderationsas

splash-backbutindomestickcan fixed byfiling cpddimensions —*(10): in1-storey bldgroof lights
give awkwardshadows&restricted may bebettersolution
view-out

eqp maxhof maxlof POSITION&SIZE OFWINDOWS

facade(m) facade(m)
Additional considerations
Positioning of windows in bldg facade, and their overall sizes deter-
ladders mined usually by daylighting considerations —(1)—(4), admission of
ordinaryladders 9 any
travellingladders an any sunlight and importance given to view out —.(5)—(8). Constraints on
positionmg and selection ofwindow sizes may be imposed by activities
suspensionsystems of occupants and positions of fixed furniture, fittings and plant —.(9)—
portableeqp 45 12 (11). Energy conservation, protectionagainstexternal noise and security
permanenteqp against unauthorised entrymay also imposeconstraints. With reference
manually-operated cradles 452 any toconservation of fuel and power in bldg and restrictionof total area of
power-operated cradles any any window openings for buildings other than dwellings —Bib593. Fire
precautions with particularreferencetoheat radiationhazardson escape
walkways any any
routes may impose constraints. Bldgstandardsreg for Scotland (—.Bib594
1
butlimitedtoladder1019 m 595 596) limit amount of unprotected area of external wall, ie area
2but wire ropesshouldbeusedabove30m comprising windows, doors or other openings.

12 Recommendedrangesofexternal meansof accessto windowsfor

cleaning& maintenance(basedon CP 153(5)-.Bib146)
 Components 405
Windows
BASIC TYPESOFWINDOW

1 Fixedlight 2 Casement—side 3 Casement—tophung 4 Casement— bottom 5 Horizontallypivoted 6 Verticallypivoted

hung hung

7 Verticallysliding 8
I
Horizontallysliding
H F 1 9 Linkedhopper 10 Projectedtophung 11 Louvred

VENTILATION

1
'c
17d1
12 Troublefromventilationin high 13 Adjustabledevicesto give 14 Fan-operated acoustic 15 Scandinavian-typesub-cill
winds atdeskh minimalventilationcanbefittedor ventilaton unitassociatedwith ventilatorassociatedwith radiator
obtained incorporatedinwindow: double-glazedwindow toadmitwarmed air
sometypes includeoptional
flyscreen

DOUBLEGLAZING& DOUBLEWINDOWS CHECK LIST

Cost:if main consideration usestandard windows
Performance:checkagainst reports oftestsin strength, air-leakage &
resistance to water penetration
Fixedwindows: doconditions justify? in particular:
will there be access to outside forcleaning?
will they inhibit fire-fighting &escape from fire?
arefixedwindows required for security?
will additional indirect costsoutweigh potential savings?
Openablewindows: whattypes ofopening light should beused?
16 17 Supplementarywindowtypes: proprietary is easy maintenance & cleaning frominside required? if so, consider
Factory-sealed reversible pivoted, inward opening casement, or projected top hung
doubleglazingunitin hinged&fixedpanelsavailableforfittingto frame
steelwindow or slidingtypes in separatelightframe are projecting opening lights to beavoided? ifso, consider vertically or
horizontally sliding types
when should multiple louvrewindows be considered?wherefull opening
with limited projection is desired

7111 J liT Double glazing(Soundinsulation):

18 Proprietoryhorizontallysliding type
inaluminiumwithtwo pairs of sashes
19 Horizontally pivoted typein
woodwith coupledsashes
is protection against outdoor noise essential?
can double glazing with widegap beafforded?
will itcause ventilation & solar heat problems?
Double glazing(heat insulation):
ifair-conditioning, double glazing may beessential?
ifdesiredmainly foramenity is someone preparedto pay?
is double glazing tobe used forboth sound & heat insulation?if so, form
with wide gap essential
Further details —BibO58
406 Components

Windows: shading devices

Retractable types

I Curtainsgive flexiblecontrolfor 2 Springrollerfabricblinds,easy 3 Lath rollerblinds,also plastics 4 Light-excludingblindswhere

lowlevelsun:forotherthandomestic maintain:somefabricstoodense louvredsheetingtype, whichallows complete black-out needed in lab &
uselaunderingcanbe problem allowdiffuse daylightthrough,but ventingthroughsmall louvres dark rm: require light-proofcasings;
openweavematerialsbetter ventilatedbox headsavailable

5 Venetianblindsgive flexible 6 Externalawningsgive goodsun 7 Continentaltypeexternallath 8 Internal verticallypivotedlouvre

control of sunlight&ventilation: wide control:motonsedversionsavailable awning: Norwegianvariantavailable blindswith impregnatedcottonor
rangeavailable,includingexternal forcommercialuse with aluminiumslats extrudedwhite pvc louvres: allow
types&foruse inspaceindouble goodpenetrationof daylight;useful
glazing forlowangle sunfacing E orW;
retractableontop, ortop& bottom
Practicalconsiderations Fixedexternaltypes tracks
Internal shades fixedon orbehind windows less effective than external
shades for reducing solar heat gains because proportion heat they
absorbreleased to rm: have advantage of protection against weather
and accessible forcontrol and maintenance; when not required during
sunlessperiodscan be easily retracted; when fully drawn at night can
improve interior illumination. Curtains can be used with most window
designs but pivoted windows can cause problems. Costs vary widely sloping
depending on materials. Fabric roller blinds simple operate but tend ss;4
restrict ventilation unless ofopenweave: can beautomated. Venetian
blinds easy install and maintain: manually-operated types relatively
inexpensive but susceptible misuse; full automation available with
photocell solar controls. Vertical louvre blinds—*(8)can be setexclude
sunlightover wide range of conditions but for S facing windows may
needfrequent adjustment follow sun path: can be automated; but this
tendsbeexpensive.
In general external solar shading devices more effective than their
internal counterparts.

Folding awnings and roll sun blinds often combine solar shading with
decorative function. External vertical rollerblinds, as also horizontally
louvred types, usually provided with guides at sidesgive protection
11 12
___
against winds. For neatness banks of louvred types often controlled
together, either manually byrod control through gear box or by electric
motorshoused in head member. Provision need be made in window
heads house retracted louvres.
Fixed external shading devices less flexible than retractableand adjust-
able shades for dealing with sunlight; as rule more appropriate for
climatswithpredictably continuous sunlight than for Britain: cost high
forbenefit'received. In temperate climates, canopytype probably most
useful for S facing windows when desired exclude summer sun but
admit winter sunlight. Fixed vertical louvres —o(1 1) can be used for

13
effective screening of windows mainly facing E or W if slats inclined 14
towards N. Fixed horizontal louvre systems can give protection against
direct sunlight over wide range of conditions depending on setting of
louvres butreduction in diffuse daylight can bequite severe—(1 3)(14).
Performance offixedtypescan be checked against sun path diagrams Fixed external canopies, louvres & screens with shading masks; for
—p34—6byusing shading masks—*(9)—(14).
examples given windows assumed face SW & sun's rays as at approx
Properties of materials used for blinds and louvre systems can be 1 400 hr midsummer lat51.5°N.
relatedto proportion ofsolar radiationtheyreflect, absorb and transmit;
but in practice solar heat transfer complicated by number of factors. Window references:
Some comparative data—*Bibl 64. —BibLiography references 019 058 091 103 138 146 170375380381
434 459 467520 536 543 549 567 610

WALKING SPEEDS
On level walkways, within bldgand outside, rate ofmovement affected
by: purpose of journey; age and sex of individuals; whether walking
aloneoringroup(groups slower); airtemp(people walkmore quickly in
cold); floorsurface (softsurfaces associatedwith slower pace); carrying
ofbaggage; crowddensity; overall flow patternof crowd.
Within anycrowdconsiderable variation ofwalking speedfound; even in
homogeneous sample, eg women shoppers, range between highest
speed observed and lowest equalsmeanvalue.
Components 407
Corridors & ramps
WAITINGAREAS
Linear queues
Width of queue can be reduced to 600 when barriers or other con-
straints used. Unconstrained queue, suchasatbus stop orticketoffice
window, typically has avwidthof 1 200. Form of queue can be affected
by heavy flows ofpedestrians nearby. Down length ofqueue avdistance
between persons is400—500undernormal circumstances.
Bulk queues
Crowd of 2 P/m2 seems dense to those within it but much higher
crowding(up to6P/rn2) possibleinelevatorcarsandsimilarsituations. Most
people feel comfortable in crowdof 1 P/rn2: useful design figure for
waitingareas offmain circulation routes. Infoyersand other areaswhich
combine waiting and circulationdensityof0.4 P/rn2good overall design
value.

Hi
freeflow: meandensity fulldewgn capacity
0.3 P/rn2 or less 1-wayflow:1.4 P/rn2

walking limitofcorr walking corrcapacity

•
10 speed capacity with speed (P/mm per
(rn/a) freeflow(P1 (mIs) mWI
minpermw)

1.46
.
commuters, working
population 1.5 27 1.0 84
individual shoppers 1.3 23 0.8 67
0.8 L8 familygroups: shoppers with
highproportion ofyoung
walking speed(mIs) childrenorwith bulky
packages; tourists in
circulation arindoors, or
1 Observedwalkingspeedsinindoorshoppingmall:shadedarindicates P interest 1.0 0.6 50
outsidenearplacesot 18
walking with 1 or moreothers schoolchildren 1.1—1.8 18—32 0.7—1.1 59—92
increasing
withage
Short length ofslopeinotherwise level corridor may have little effecton
walking speeds. Longer rampsoflow gradient,5% orless, maysimilarly underfreeflowconditions rangeof speed inanygroup may extend, typically,from
have little effect. On steeper ramps walking pace can be reduced from 0.6 m/s belowmean to0.6 m/sabove: with crowding & allpedestriansmoving inone
level rate by 20% with 10% gradient, 40% with 15% gradient (gradient directionrange is very small
% = verticaldistance/horizontaldistancex 100). Somepeople,particularly
elderlyand disabled, walkmore slowly down rampthan up. 2 Approxmeanwalkingspeedson levelwalkways; approxcorrcapacities

CORRIDORCAPACITY singlequeuealong side of corr 1200

personsseatedonbenchalong wall 1000
Limitoffreeflow conditionsabout0.3 P/m2.At greaterdensitiesindividuals coin-operatedmachines depthof machine plus 600far
not able alwayswalkattheirnaturalspeedorovertakeslowerpedestrians. first personand400 foreach
Commonly-adopted max density for design of circulation areas: 1.4 additional user
P/m2. At this crowding most people will walkat less than their natural waitingpedestrianwith baggage 600
speed and be aware of some discomfort. For short distances along shop windows 500—800, varying with the
route, up toabout3000, tighter crowdingpermissibleprovidedsignificantly interest showninthegoods,
and withtheir size
wider spacesoccurbefore and after obstruction. With corridors wider smallfire-fightingappliances 200—400
than about 1 200 flow capacityproportionalto width; in narrowerpassages wall-mountedradiator 200
2 people unable pass each other withease. Corridor dimensions given rough ordirty bldgsurface 200
—v(2) for unobstructed routes; static people orfixtures reduce effective
width—e(3). 3 Approx reductionsfromeffectivewofwalkway

-i iI tr
RAMPS FOR DISABLED

Exceptforveryshort ramps gradient should not exceeed 81/2% (1:12)

and should not be greaterthan 5% (1:20) when more than 6000long
—*(4). Level platform 1 800long should beprovided attop; inlong ramps
rest-platforms desirable at changesofdirection. Nochanges ofgradient 305
alongramp. Bldg reg H4specifies maxgradient of 1: 12, mm widths 800
withindwellings, 900forcommon ramps (02 ormore dwellings, 1 000in
institutional and other bldg. Handrail required by reg when total rise
exceeds600. kerb

a JMfl
—'Il 0
honzontalprojection -
wall
b slope maxrise max horizontalprojection

L
1.12 760 9000

C
1 16
1 20
760
760
12000
15000 115
slope

Steeper than 1: 10 but no sleeper than1:8

Steeperthan 1: l2butnosteeperthan1:10 150
75
maxrise max run

600
1500
¶mmmTr
verticalguardrail
sleeperthan 1 : 8not allowed
4 acomponentsofsingleramp run bsamplerampdimensions callowable
rampdimensionsforconstructioninexistingsites &bldg (USAstandards) 5 Examplesoframpedgeprotection& handrail extensions
 408 Components

Stairs
0
0 TREAD& RISE PROPORTIONS BUILDINGREGULATIONS

030 Following rule-of-thumb based on assumption of adult pace of 300 in

ascending stair: going+ twice rise = 600—.(1).
General requirements for stairs in UK in Part H of Bldg reg:
i Mustbe landingattop and bottom with going notless than widthofstair
:3 (except at top of steps to an inward-opening external door where total
CD rise does not exceed 600). Landing must be unobstructed and, if
:3 internal, level;if external may slope atgradient upto 1:12.
ii Max of 16 risersallowed in each flight. With very long stairways must
C,) be change of direction of 30° or more at landing after notmore than 36
pitch
line risesin consecutive flights. Landings between flights must be level and
unobstructed, with going not less than width ofstair.
Clear headroom of 2000 must be maintained, measured vertically
frompitchline (line of nosings).
ivTreads must be level, extend to complete width ofstair, and beeither
parallel ortapered (except that lowest 2 ofstairwaymay berounded). All
parallel treads must have same going; tapered treads must have same
rate oftaper, narrow ends atsame side, and samegoing when measured
in centre.
v Rises must besamethroughout stairway.
vi Projection ofnosings notexceed 15.
vii Continuoushandrails required on any flight rising more than 600.
Height mustbe 800—1 000above pitch line. Rails required at both sides
on stairs widerthan 1 000.
via Sumof goingand twice risemustnot beless than 550 and notmore
than 700.
ix Except in dwellings, stairs wider than t 800 must be divided by
handrails into sections not less than 1 000and notmore than 1800wide.

1 Definitionof terms
No scientific ground for exactness in achieving this although some
codes of practice specify particular proportions. Bldg reg H3 gives
requirement that going and twice riseshould add upto between 550 and
700.
Other criteria ofstair proportions: energy expenditureand freedom from
accidents. Totalamount of energyused can become smaller as stairs
increase in steepness but rate of energy expenditure increases. More
accidents occurin descending than in climbing stairs; number of mis-
steps increases as size of tread reduced. Generally satisfactory
proportions can vary from 100 rise and 360 going to 180 rise and 280
going. Private stairs in dwellings may be satisfactoryupto steepness of
210rise and 240 going.
WALKINGSPEEDS& FLOW CAPACITY
FIRE ESCAPESTAIRS
Requirements for escape stairs in UK given in number of statutory
documents. These include London Building Acts, Building Standards
(Scotland), Bldg Reg (England&Wales) and Fire PrecautionsAct 1971.
Requirements given also in statutes covering specific uses of bldg,
suchas Factories Act 1961 and Offices, Shops & RailwayPremises Act
1963.
In general, fire escape stairs must be built within enclosed shaft with
wallsof given fire resistance and frself-closing doors. Doors mustopen
into shaft at all floors except final exit level; doorswings must not
obstruct flow of people already on staircase Stairs from upper floors
must not continue in unobstructed flightpast ground floor to basement.
Winders generally not permitted. In most other aspects requirements
given in recent British codes of practice related to thosein bldg reg.
Section II of Part E of reg covers dwellings, office bldg and shops, and
refers to Code of Practice CP3: Chapter IV for all instances except
certain single-staircase bldg. Staircasewidths for specified numbers of
occupants given in code.

Short flights of stairs rarely climbed at speed which minimises energy STAIRS FOR DISABLED
expenditure (aspeople tendtodo when walking on level)but avwalking
speeds on stairs lower than in corridors. When alone most people walk External stairs particularly dangerous for elderly and disabled in bad
faster downwards than upwards butindense crowd reverse canbetrue. weather. On internal stairs splayed treads should be avoided. There
should be no open risers; splayed risers with slightly-rounded nosings
For fire safety codes flow capacity of 1 .3 P/s/m width has often been preferable to undercut square nosings. Handrailsshould beprovided on
used as basis of recommendations but this is greater than normally bothsidesofstaircase; section ofrail that is gripped should be rounded.
acceptable in general use—.(2). with widthabout 50. Railsshould be continuous at landingsand extend
at least300beyond topofstairs; heightshould beabout 850 above pitch
freeftow:meanplan full design capacity line. Max gradient should be 40°: 35° or less better. Preferred going
density0.6P/rn2 1-wayflow:plan 250; rise should not exceed 190 and preferably be 170 orless.
orless density2 P/rn2
stairs servingoniy stairscecnrnon stairs itiflsl,tutionai au otherstairs
speed limit ot speed stair
I dweting 102ormore bidg,exceptthose
dwetirtgs usedsoieiybystab
along stair along capacity rain w 6001 servirtg 900 1000 8001 seraing
Slope capacity slope (P/min/ 1 rrn excepikor partofbldgcapable
(mis) with free (m/s) m w) halortobatfrr ofbeingusedby
flow lP/ andwc rotmore than P 5
minimw) moo pitch
800otherwise
42 38 - 104343ott,ernsise
—
numbe,atrises
young& middle-aged 09 27 06 60 penlight mao 16 tO 16 6
men mar 2 2 3 3
young& middle-aged 07 21 06 60 roe max 220 90 tOO 190
rrniri— 75 75 75
women 75
paralleltreads
elderly people,family 0.5 15 0.4 40 rain going 220 240 280 250
groups taperedireads
mis going —

-
75 75
—
2 Approxmeanspeedsofmovement upstairways: approxstaircapacities
maoarrgie
aetweenadjacent 15 th
'isero
nringoing 270 220 240 280 250
irom ends01 tread
or In centreif
3 Extractfrom tabletoBldgreg H3 widerthan 1000
 Components 409
Escalators
canbe significantly less than those used bycommuters in underground C)
DIMENSIONS
stations 0
UK reg limits angle ofelevation to 35° when rise does not exceed 6 m
—(2)givesapprox capacities with escalators used by commuters or in
B
and speed along line of slope not greater than 0.5 rn/s. In all other
instances angle must not exceed 30°. This most common, although
treadw max w overall w approxcapacity 0
somemanufacturers produce escalators tolower angle.BS allows max m between m (P/mm)
tread width of1 050 and mm 600. Manufacturershave rangesofstandard balustrades CD
escalators cheaper than eqp builttospecial sizes —.(1). speed(mis)
0.45 0.6 0.75
(1)
0.6 0.85 1.25 65 90 95
-. - -
2i96
hxl.73
30
0.8
1.0
1.05
1.25
1.45
1.65
95
125
120
150
125
155
35 hx143,maxh=6rn
2 Approxw&traffic capacityof escalators

bldg with regular users. Forother instancesuseful figure forpreliminary

planning 60 P/mm, regardless ofwidthand speed —.(2).

PLANNING

For escalators serving several storeys in 1 direction of travel super-

1 Dimensionsofescalators forinitialplanning
Structure ofescalator: steeltruss supported at upperand lower landings,
and usually at intermediate point when rise exceeds 6000. Steps are
carried on 2 sets of rails and drawn by steelchains. Motor and driving
mechanism usually within truss below upper landing.
TRAFFICCAPACITY
Dependent on rate at which people step on to escalator which, in turn,
depends on
widthof escalator
speed of escalator: up to about 0.75 rn/s increasing speed results in
greater capacity; higher speeds tend deter passengers stepping on
typeof passenger and location:capacity of escalatorsin deptstores etc
imposed flights occupy least plan area but require passengers to walk
between successive rises. Crossover arrangement eliminates this;
double crossover is common inlarge dept stores, for movement in both
directions —(3).
When escalators extend through fire compartment boundaries, self-
closing shutters required. Escalatorsnot normallyacceptable as means
ofescape fromfire—.Bibll7.
PASSENGERCONVEYORS
Passenger conveyors —.Bib123. Restrictions on width same as for
escalators: mm tread width 600, max 1 050. Atangles ofslope from 0° to
8° max permissible speed 0.90m/s; above8°to 12°0.75 m/s; angles of
slope greater than 12° not permitted.
Traffic capacity same as that of escalators of equivalent width under
most conditions; with commuters, notcarrying baggage,slightlyhigher
values may be observed.

'Fly) ,) y) )'
f ,,

,,, ,, ,

f.ffl flZFf

3 Superimposed,crossover&doublecrossoverarrangements of escalators

Stairs references.
—Bibliographyentrmes117123300338340346501591 594613628
410 Components

Elevators
DIMENSIONS
numberofP 4 6 8 10
Dimensions for 7 classes of electric elevators —Bib123:
load in kg 300 450 600 750
Light trafficpassenger & perambulator/passenger
Stretcher/passenger well w A 1800 1 800 2000 20O0
General purpose passenger d B 1300 1600 1900 1900
Intensive traffic passenger
Bed/passenger car internalw C 1100 1100 1100 1300
General purpose goods internal d 0 800 1100 1400 1 400
internal h 2200 2200 2200 2200
Heavy dutygoods
Tables forclasses 1 3 and 6—.(2)(3)(4) landingdoors clearw M 700 700 800 800
clear h N 2000 2000 2000 2000
Eqp to manufacturers standard specifications less expensive than
elevators to special dimensions orwith special finishes. pitd V= 0.5 m/s p 1400 1400 1400 1 500
V=0.75m/s p — 1500 1500 1600
Electro-hydraulic elevators an alternative to el traction elevators. V=1.0 rn/s p — 1500 1500 1600
Maximum travel approx25 m and max speed 1.0 rn/s. Motorrm need
not be at top shaft and may be remote. Initial cost slightly greater than treeh V= 0.5 rn/s 3900 3900 4000 4000
that of equivalent traction elevator but maintenancecosts can be lower. V= 0.75m/s — 3900 4000 4000
topterminal Q
V= 1.0 rn/s Q — 4000 4000 4000

machinerrn w R 1800 2300 2000 2000

d S 3700 4000 4400 4400
minh H 2300 2300 2600 2600
2 Light traffic P& perambulator e evators

numberof P 8 10 12 16 20

loadin kg 600 750 900 1200 1500

motor
rrn well w A 1800 2000 2100 2600 2600
d B 1900 1900 2100 2200 2500

I Urn CA
car internalw C 1100 1300 1600 2000 2000
internald 0 1400 1400 1400 1 400 1700

kn
internalh 2200 2200 2200 2200 2200

landing doors clearw M 800 800 800 1100 1 100

clear h N 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000

pitd V= 0.75 rn/s P 1500 1600 1600 1700 1700

V=1.0 rn/s P 1700 1700 1800 1900 1900
V=1.5 rn/S P 1700 1700 1800 1900 1900

freeh V=0.75m/s Q 4000 4000 4000 4100 4100

top terminal V= 1.0 rn/s Q 4000 4000 4200 4200 4200
V= 1.5 rn/s 0 4200 4200 4200 4300 4300

machinerrn w R 3100 3100 3300 3500 3500

Sd 4800 5000 5100 5300 5600
rninh H 2600 2600 2700 2700 2700
3 GeneralpurposePelevators

maxnumberofP 6 13 20 26 26 40 40

load in kg 500 1000 1500 2000 2000 3000 3000

well w A 1800 2100 2500 2500 2800 3000 3500

d B 1500 2100 2300 2800 2400 3300 2700

car internalw C 1100 1400 1700 1700 2000 2000 2500

internald D 1200 1800 2000 2500 2100 3000 2400
internal h 2000 2000 2300 2300 2300 2300 2300

landing doors clearw M 1100 1400 1700 1700 2000 2000 2500
clearh N 2000 2000 2300 2300 2300 2300 2300

pit V = 0.25 rn/s P — 1 500 1 500 1 500 1 500 1500 1500

V = 0.5 rn/S P 1400 1 500 1 700 1 700 1 700 1 700 1700
V=0.75rn/s P 1500 1500 1800 1800 1800 1800 1800
V = 1.0 rn/s P 1 500 1 500 1 800 1 800 1 800 1 800 1800

freeh V=0.25rn/s 0 — 3800 4000 4100 4100 4200 4200

topterminal V= 0.5 rn/s 0 3800 3800 4100 4300 4300 4400 4400
V= 0.75 rn/s Q 3800 3800 4200 4500 4500 4500 4500
V= 1.0 rn/s 0 3800 3800 4200 4500 4500 — —

machine rrn w R 2000 2100 2500 2500 2800 3000 3500

d S 3700 4300 4500 5100 4700 5600 5000
1 Lettereddistancesrefer to —.(2)(3)(4) which minh H 2400 2400 2700 2900 2900 2900 2900
give dimensionsinmm of elevators to BS 2655 4 Generalpurposegoodselevators
(—.Bib123)
 Components 411

Elevators
TRAFFIC CAPACITY PATERNOSTERELEVATORS
Withintensive trafficdetailed analysisofflowpattern required. Selection Dimensions
of elevators and ofcontrol system requiresspecialistadvice. Preliminary Forpaternoster elevators —Bib123. Cardimensions limited tomm clear
design can be made with aid —(2)(3); —*(1) gives typical values of height of 2200; width and depth to between 900 and 1000with max
elevatortraffic flow and acceptable interval betweensuccessivedepartures floor area 0.93 m2. Landing entrances must be same width as open
of elevators. sides of cars with height between 2600 and 2800. Max permissible
speed 0.4 m/s.Stringent recommendationsonsafety devices—+(4)(5).
Example: multi-storey office bldg in several tenancies of similar type
with 600 people occupying 10storeys above ground level. Number of Traffic capacity
peoplearriving inpeak 5mm period: 600 x 15% =90. Rateofflow90/5 Paternosters appropriate for random interfloor traffic with able-bodied
= 18 P/mm. From .—*(2)will beseen that 4 x 1.5m/s elevatorscancarry
users, having total trafficcapacity significantly greater than that of con-
21 P/mm with 30sinterval; for 18 P/mm carsize required 900 kg. From ventional elevators of similar plan area. With random interfloor traffic
—(3) 3 x 1.5 m/s elevators would give interval of 45 s. evenly distributed through bldg total of about 30 P/mm can be carried
with little waitingwhen installation serves 5floors,35 P/mm when 11 floors
served and approx42 P/mm with 16floors, Ifqueuestolerated capacity
numberof Parrivingin5mm, givenas% occupants interval(s)
abovegroundfloor level can beabout 60% more. Withtraffic emanatingfrom1 floor flow capacity
significantly less: for upward traffic only from ground floor max approx
12 P/mm. In real conditions interfloor traffic not usually even over all
singleoccupancyoff bldg, storeys: intermediate figureshould be adopted.
industrial bldg 15—20% 25—35
multipletenancyoff bldg 11—15% 25—35 Longjourneys slow: ifdominant traffic pattern flow to and fromground
hotels 10—15% 30—60 conventional elevators should be used. Paternostersgenerally inappro-
housing 5—7% 60—90 priate in bldg used by general public, bychildren and by disabled.
leisurebldg, multi-storey individual assessment required 40—50
carparks,dept sto

an interval at lowerend ofeach range associated with bldg having high

standard of finishes& fittings
1 Peakperiodelevatordemand &acceptable intervalsbetween elevator
departures

•213f— 950 4 324 4 950 —12131

20
down up

4 Paternosterelevator:typical plan dimensions

crossseCtion longitudinal
5 Paternoster:typicalshaftdimensions
 412 Components

Elevators
ELEVATORSFOR DISABLED

fo5Q6Q
I

•0
80

20

mOIen
la

main
entry

do dosed
b
In rnulti-storey bldg elevators are principal means ofvertical circulation
forthoseconfined towheelchairs and for others with difficulty inwalking.
Mm dimensionsof elevator car to accommodate standard wheelchair:
1100 internal depth,900 width, 700 clear dooropening: 6-person light
traffic passenger elevator —6ib123 just meets thesedimensions but
largercars preferable. In public bldg thereshould besufficient space for
another person to accompany chair-bound: 1400 mm depth, 1100
_______
I atann
width. In special residential homes largewheelchairs need to be accom-
emeency
stop modated; dimensions for these: 1 800 depth, 1 000 width, 800 door
opening.ANSI standards —(1)(2).
Elevatorcars must beaccuratein levellingatlandings;must notaccelerate
or brake with jerk, requirements which dictate use of either variable-
voltage traction motors or electro-hydraulic elevators. Doors should
close slowly (0.3 m/s residential homes, 0.5 rn/s elsewhere); photo-

-
C d
1 ElevatorcarcontrolsforwheelchairusersANSI standardsapaneldetail
bcontrolh calternativeplacingofpanel withcentreopeningdoor
d alternativeswith sideopeningdoor
electricdevicesto prevent premature closing desirable.
Control buttons should light to operate. For general purposes normal
vertical layout is best, with buttons at 30 centres mm spacing. Mean
height should be 1 400, max 1600. In bldg used by unaccompanied
wheelchair userscontrols should notbe higherthan 1 300. In residential
homes horizontal arrangementofcontrol buttonsin carscan be desirable,
at height 1 050and setin wall atleast600backfromdoor.
At landings floor numbers should be very clearly indicated. To position
wheelchairs there should be clear space at least 1 500 x 1 500 before
each liftdoor.

PLANNING
Elevators serving single zone of upperfloor should begrouped inplan
a with interlinked controls. Arrangement of lobbies should allow waiting
passenger moverapidly to whichever car arrives first. No more than 4
elevator entrances should be alongside each other; facing entrances
should be 2500—3500 apart. Elevator entrances should not lie on
opposite sidesof circulation route—+(3).
In large bldg lobbyareatendstobe 5—6m2 per elevator on upper floors
F
915
and 15—20 m2perelevator atground floor with singlegroupofelevators.
Forefficient performances under heavy flowsoftraffic numbers ofstops
made byelevator cars should be kept to mm. In largebldg there should
L be single main loading floor; passengers entering bldg at other levels
should be brought by secondary circulation to main lobby at ground
level. Use ofelevators for mail deliveries orforotherinterfloor trafficat
peak arrival or departure periodsshould bediscouraged.
In residential bldg and hotels noise to be generated by elevators must
be considered at early planning stage. Bedr should be remote from
machine rm and walls carrying landing door eqp should not be adjacent
to them. Risk of noise carried through structural continuity should be
examined.
Totalvolume of elevator shafts in very tall bldg reduced when different
groups of elevators serve separate zones of upper floors. Generally
justified only in bldg higher than 15 storeys but normal practice in
commercial bldgof 30storeys or more.
b
maindrculation
rome

4lifts
max

2500—3500

3 Liftlob dimensions
2 Mm dimensionselevatorcarsANSIstandardsacentreopeningdoors
bsideopening doors NBcarswith mm wlessthan shownbutnotlessthan Elevator references:
1370canbeusedforelevatorsof less capacitythan900 kg —Bibliography entries 053 123504613628
 413

Bibliography
ARRANGEMENT 015 AIoi A Architettureperlospettacolo Hoepli Milan Italy 1964
Thebibliography has3 parts: 016 AIoi R Ristoranti Hoepli Milan Italy 1972
basiccomplete listof publications, numberedconsecutively
extracted fromthat a list ofcodes, guides, reg, standardsand statutes 017 AIoi R & Bassco C Ospedali: hospitals Hoepli Milan Italy
reference numbers of publications listed undertopics 1973
018 Alpern A Apartments forthe affluent McGraw-Hill NewYork
Initials are used for the following: USA 1975
AlA American Institute ofArchitects 019 Aluminium Window Association Aluminium window edgeprofiles
AJ Architects Journal (Technical report 1) London England 1976
ANSI American National Standards Institute 020 American Association of Hospital Consultants(Mills B (ed))
AR Architectural Record Functionalplanning ofgeneral hospitals McGraw-Hill New York USA
BRE Building Research Establishment & Maidenhead England 1969
BSI British Standards Institution
CIB International Council for Building Research,Studies & 021 American Federation of Arts Fountainsincontemporary
Documentation architecture distributed byOctober House NewYorkUSA 1965
CIBS Chartered Institute of Building Services 022 American Hospital Association Theextended care unitina
CIRIA Construction Industry Research& InformationAssociation general hospital: a guidetoplanning, organization & management
DES DeptofEducation & Science AHA Chicago USA 1973
DHSS DeptofHealth &Social Services
023 American Hospital Association Hospitalengineering handbook
DoE Deptofthe Environment AHA Chicago USA 1974
ES Illuminating Engineering Society
ISO InternationalOrganization forStandardization 024 American HospitalAssociation Thepractice ofplanning inhealth
HMSO HerMajesty's Stationery Office careinstitutions AHA Chicago USA 1973
PSA Property Services Agency 025 American Hospital Association (committee oninfections within
RIBA Royal Institute ofBritish Architects
hospitals) Infection control inthe hospital AHA ChicagoUSA 3rdedn
1974
Sources
In additionto publicationslisted inthe bibliographysome general sources 026 American Insurance Association Fireprevention code American
of information may befound useful: Insurance Association NewYork USA latest edition
BRE information directory BRE Garston England annually 027 American InsuranceAssociation Nationalbuilding code American
British Architectural Library Architectural periodicals index Insurance Association New York USA latest edition
RIBAPublications London England quarterly 028 ANSI Specifications formaking buildings &facilities accessible
Building Centre/CIRIA Guide tosources ofinformation to & usable bythephysically handicappedpeople ANSI NewYork
Building Centre Group London England every second year USA 2ndedn 1979
Building Centre Group Booksforthe construction industry annual list
029 ANSI Standards ANSI NewYork USA latest edition
HMSO Government publications section list61: Building
HMSO Government publicationssection list65: Scottish Development 030 American Society of Heating Refrigerating& Air-Conditioning
Dept Engineers ASHRAE standard 90—75; energy conservationin new
RIBA Book list RIBA Publications London England annual buildingdesign ASHRAE NewYork USA 1975
031 American Society ofHeating Refrigerating& Air-Conditioning
BASIC LIST Engineers ASHRAE handbook offundamentals ASHRAE NewYork
Reference numbers of publications in this listare used for in-text USA 1977
references throughout the book 032 American Society of LandscapeArchitects Handbookof
Abraben E Resort hotels, planning &management Reinhold landscape ASLA McLean Va USA 1973
001
NewYorkUSA 1965 033 American SocietyforTesting Materials Standards ASTM
Philadelphia USA latest editions
002 Abraham G The green thumb bookoffruit & vegetable
gardening Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs NJ USA 1970 034 Amery C The National Theatre:an architecturalguide
Architectural Press London England 1977
003 Ackroyd P Sports pavilions NationalPlaying FieldsAssociation
035 Annett F Elevators McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 3rd edn 1960
London England 1970
004 Adams R & M & Willens A& A Drylands; man & plants
Architectural Press London England 1978
I
036 Anton J Occupational safety &health management
McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 1979
0
005 Addleshaw G W & Etchells F Thearchitecturalsetting of 037 AR Apartments, townhouses &condominiums McGraw-Hill
anglican worship Faber&Faber London England 1948 NewYorkUSA 1975
006 Adie D Marinas: aworking guideto their development & design 038 AR TheArchitectural Recordbookofvacationhouses
Architectural Press London England 2nd edn 1977 McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 2ndedn1977
007 A4 Publications Officeplanner A4 Publications Edenbridge 039 AR Buildings forresearch FW Dodge NewYork USA 1958
England 1976 040 AR Buildings for thearts McGraw-Hill New York USA 1978
008 AJ Handbook ofbuilding structure (Hodgkinson A (ed)) 041 AR Campus planning & design McGraw-Hill New York USA
Architectural Press London England 1974 1972
009 AJ Legalhandbook (Davey P & Freeth E (ed)) Architectural 042 AR Greathouses forviewsites, beachsites, woodsites, meadow
Press London England 2ndedn 1978 sites,smallsites, slopingsites, steepsites, flatsites McGraw-Hill New
010 AJ Newmetrichandbook (Tutt P & Adler D (ed)) Architectural York USA 1976
Press London England 1979 043 AR Hotels, motels, restaurants & bars F W Dodge New York
011 AJ Principles ofhoteldesign Architectural Press London USA 2ndedn 1960
England 1970 044 AR Houses, architects design forthemselves McGraw-Hill
012 AJ Urban landscape handbook (Tandy C (ed)) Architectural NewYork USA 1974
Press London England 1972 reprinted 1978 045 AR Places forpeople;hotels, motels, restaurants,bars, clubs,
013 AJ/MoH Hospital planning & design guide Architectural community recreation facilities, camps,parks,plazas, playgrounds
Press London England 1967 (Davern J (ed)) McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 1976
014 Allen R W Hospital planning handbook John Wiley & Sons 046 Arlott J (ed) The Oxford companion tosports &games Oxford
NewYork USA 1976 University Press Oxford England 1975
414
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048 Ashford N & Wright P Airport engineering John Wiley&Sons
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049 Atkins W W & Adler J Interiorsbookofrestaurants Whitney
Library of Design NewYork USA 1960
050 Baker G & Funaro B Motels Reinhold New York USA 1955
051 Banham R Architecture ofthewell-tempered environment
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052 Barron I & Curnow R The future with microelectronics Francis
Pinter London England 1979
053 Bates W Introduction to thedesign ofindustrialbuildings
Constrado London England 1978
054 Baynes K Langslow B & Courtenay C C Evaluatingnew
hospital buildings King Edwards Hospital Fund London England
1969
055 Bays K & Franklin S Designing forthehandicapped George
Goodwin London England 1971
056 Beazley E Design & detail ofthespace between buildings
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057 Beazley E Designed forrecreation: apracticalhandbook fora/l
concernedwithprovidingleisure facilities in thecountryside Faber&
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058 Beckett H E & Godfrey AJ Windows:performance, design &
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059 Beckman WA Klein S A & Duffie JA Solar heating design by
the f-chart method John Wiley & Sons NewYork USA 1977
060 Bedhar M (ed) Barrier-free environments Dowden Hutchinson
& Ross Stroudsburg Pa USA 1977
061 Bellis H & Schmidt W Architectural drafting McGraw-Hill
NewYorkUSA 2ndedn 1971
062 Bengtsson A Adventure playgrounds Crosby Lockwood
London England 1972
063 Beranek LL Music, acoustics & architecture John Wiley& Sons
NewYorkUSA 1962
064 Beranek LL Noise& vibration control McGraw-Hill New York
USA 1971
065 Berriman S G & Harrison K C British public library buildings
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066 Bishop M L(ed) Fountainsin contemporaryarchitecture
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067 Blankenship E G Theairport Praeger NewYork USA Pall Mall
London England 1974
068 Bockrath JT Environmental lawforengineers, scientists &
managers McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 1977
069 Boje A Open-plan offices Business Books London England
1971
070 Borchardt S Religiousarchitecture in America 1632—1979
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071 Boswell 0M & Wingrove J M The handicappedperson inthe
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072 Bower J Theevolution ofchurch buildings Whitney Library of
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073 Brawne M Libraries: architecture 8 equipment Praeger New
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Paper 75/75) Garston England 1975
075 BRE Co-ordinating working drawings (Crawshaw D T) (Current
Paper 60/76) BRE Garston England 1976
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077 BRE Information directory BRE Garston England annual
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oneormorestoreys:adesignsumma,y(Morgan HP) HMSO London
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080 BRE Ventilation requirements (Digest 206) HMSO London
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081 BRE Working drawings (Digest 172) HMSO London England
1973
082 BRE Working drawings in use (Daltry C D & Crawshaw DT)
(Current Paper 18/73) BRE Garston England 1973
083 British Horse Society Basicrequirementsofaridingcentre BHS
Kenilworth England 1947
084 British Industrial-Scientific Film Association Filmguideforthe
construction industry Construction Press LancasterEngland 1979
085 Broadbent G & Ward A (ed) Design methods inarchitecture
LundHumphries London England 1969
086 Brock G Road widthrequirements ofcommercial vehicleswhen
cornering Transport &Road ResearchLaboratory DoE London 1973
087 Brooks J The smallgarden MarshallCavendish London
England 1977
088 BSI BS CP96 Accessforthe disabledtobuildings Part 1
Genera/recommendations BSI London England 1967
089 BSI BS 5606 Accuracy in building BSI London England 1978
090 BSI BS5440 Part2 Airsupply BSI London England 1976
091 BSI BS4873 Aluminium alloy windows BSI London England
1972
092 BSI BS CP3 Basic data forthe design ofbuildings, codeof see
Daylighting Fire precautions Loading Sunlight Thermal insulation
093 BSI BritishStandards Handbook 3 vol 1—4 Summariesof
Britishstandards ofbuilding BSI London England latest edition
094 BSI British standards yearbook BSI London England annual
095 BSI BS 1192 Building drawing practice (metric units),
recommendations BSI London England 1969 (revision in progress)
096 BSI BS 4104 Cateringequipment burning liquefiedpetroleum
gases BSI London England 1967
097 BSI BS 2512 Catering equipment, gasheated BSI London
England 1963
098 BSI BSCP 1007 Cinemas, maintainedlighting for BSI London
England 1955
099 BSI BS5382 Cinematographscreens, specification BSI
London England 1976
100 BSI BS 5252 Colour co-ordination forbuilding purposes,
framework for BSI London England 1976
101 BSI BSLP 110 Concrete, structural useof
Part 11972 Design materials & workmanship
Part 2 1972 Design charts forsinglyreinforced beams & rectangular
columns
Part 3 1972 Design charts forcircular columns &prestressed beams
BSI London England 1972
102 BSI BS350: Part 1 Conversion factors, basis oftables BSI
London England 1974
103 BSI PD6444Part 1 Co-ordinationofdimensions inbuilding,
recommendations: Basic spaces forstructure, external envelope &
internalsub-divisions BSI London England 1969
104 BSI BS4330 Co-ordination ofdimensions in building,
recommendations: Controlling dimensions BSI London England
1968
105 BSI BS4011 Co-ordination ofdimensions in building,
recommendations: Co-ordinating sizes forbuilding components &
assemblies BSI London England 1966
106 BSI BS2900 Co-ordination ofdimensions inbuilding,
recommendations: Glossary ofterms BSI London England 1970
107 BSI BSCP3: Ch 1: Part 1 Daylighting BSI London England
1964
108 BSI BS 5502 Design ofbuildings & structures foragriculture,
codeofpractice BSI London England 1978
109 BSI BS 5619 Design ofhousing fortheconvenienceofdisabled
people, code ofpractice BSI London England 1978

BASIC LIST
110 BSI DD 51 Dimensional co-ordination inbuildings, guidance on
BSI London England 1977
111 BS I BSCP 413 Ducts forbuilding services BSI London
England 1975
BSI BS 5873 Educationalfurniture see 134 below
112 BSI BS 5266Part 1 Emergency lighting forpremises other than
cinemas & certain otherspecified premises used forentertainment,
code ofpractice BSI London England 1975
113 BSI BS 2560 Exitsigns, internally illuminated BSI London
England 1976
114 BSI BS 4218 Exit signs, self-luminous BSI London England
1978
115 BSI BS 2053 Farm buildings offramed construction, general
purpose BSI London England 1972
116 BSI BS5588 Fireprecautions inthedesign ofbuildings,codeof
practice Part 4 Smoke controlinprotected escape routes using
pressurisation BSI London England 1978
117 BSI BSCP 3: Chap iv: Fire,precautions against
Part 11971 Flats a maisonettes(inblocksovertwostoreys)
Part 2 1968 Shops & department stores
Part 3 1968 Office buildings
BSI London England 1968& 1971
118 BSI BS 2505 Fixedequipment forcowsheds
Part 11965 Imperial units
Part 2 1972 Metric units
BSI London England 1965& 1972
119 BSI BS544OPart1 Flues BSI London England 1978
120 BSI CP2004 Foundations, general BSI London England
1972
121 BSI CP 101 Foundations & sub-structure fornon-industrial
buildingsofnot more than fourstoreys BSI London England 1972
122 BSI BS3202 Laboratory furniture & fittings BSI London
England 1959
123 BSI BS2655 Parts 1—10 Lifts, escalators, passenger
conveyors apaternosters BSI London England 1969—71
124 BSI BS4727: Part IV: Group 03 Lighting technology
terminology: Glossary ofelectrotechnical,power, telecommunication,
electronics, lighting& colourterms BSI London England 1972
125 BSI BSCP3: Chapv:Loading
Part 11967 Dead a imposed loads
Part 2 1972 Wind loads
BSI London England 1967& 1972
126 BSI BS 5628 Masonry, structural usecode ofpractice Part 1
Universal masonry BSI London England 1978
127 BSI PD6031 Metric system in the constructionindustry, use
of BSI
London England 2ndedn 1968
128 BSI BS 5536 Micro-filming, preparationoftechnical drawings
for BSI London England 1978
129 BSI BS5550: PartV: Section 5.1: Subsection 5.1.1 Motion-
picture safetyfilm, definition testing a marking BSI London England
1978
130 BSI BS 799: Part V Oil storage tanks BSI London England
1975
131 BSI BS 3178 Playground equipment forparks BSI London
England various dates
132 BSI BS CP 114 Reinforced concrete, structuraluseinbuildings
BSI London England 1969
133 BSI BS 5572 Sanitary pipework, code ofpractice BSI London
England 1978
134 BSI BS 3030 Schoolfurniture now replaced by:
BSI BS 5873 Educationalfurniture
Part 1 Specifications forfunctional dimensions, identification & finish of
chairs&tablesfor educational institutions. Part2 Specificationfor
strength & stability of chairs foreducationalinstitutions. Part 3
Specification for strength & stability of tables for educational
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135 BSI PD5686 SIunits, useof BSI London England 1978
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137 B51 B5 1754 Steelbarns with covered roofs BSI London
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138 BSI BS 990 Steelwindows generally fordomestic & similar
buildings Part 2 Metric units BSI London England 1972
139 BSI BS CP 117 Structural steel& concrete, composite
structures in Part 1 Simplysupported beamsinbuildings BSI London
England 1965
140 BSI BS 449 Structural steelin buildings,use of Part 2 1969
Metricunits BSI London England 1969
141 BSI BS CP 3: Chap i(B) Sunlight (houses, flats &schools only)
BSl London England 1945
142 BSI PD 6479 Symbols aothergraphic conventions forbuilding
productiondrawings, recommendations BSI London England 1976
143 BSI BSCP3: Chap ii Thermalinsulationinrelation tothecontrol
ofthe environment BSI London England 1970
144 BSI BS CP 112 Timber,structural useof
Part 2 1971 Metncunits
Part 3 1973 Trussed rafters forroofsofdwellings
BSI London England 1971 & 1973
145 BSI BS 4787 Part 1 Wooddoorsets, door leaves & frames BSI
London England 1972
146 BSI BS CP 153 Windows & rooflights Part 1 Cleaning asafety
BSI London England 1969
147 Buchanan R D etal Theanatomy offoods service design 1
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148 Building Officials & Code Administrators International Basic
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149 Burberry P Building forenergy conservation Architectural
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150 Burberry P Environment & services Batsford London England
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151 Burberry P & Aldersley-Williams A A guide todomestic
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152 Burns-Meyer H & Cole E C Theaters& auditoriums Reinhold
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153 Busche-Sievers U Kneipen, pubs&restaurants Callwey
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154 Butcher E G & Parnell A C Smoke control in firesafety design
E& FN Spon London England 1979
155 Campbell CS Waterin landscape architecture Van Nostrand
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156 Casson H lnscape Architectural Press London England 1968
157 Cheshire CountyCouncil Architect's brief:daycentre for
physicallyhandicapped C CC Chester England 1975
158 Cheshire CountyCouncil Design aidhousing: roads CCC
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159 Cheshire CountyCouncil Made to measure: domestic
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160 Christ-Janer A & Foley M M Modern church architecture
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161 Church TO Gardens are forpeople Reinhold NewYork USA
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162 CIB Directory ofbuilding research information & development
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163 ClBS Design notesforthe Middle East (Technicalmemorandum
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165 Civil Aviation Authority Licensing ofaerodromes CAP 168 CAA
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166 Clay G (ed) Water & the landscape McGraw-Hill NewYork
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167 Clouston B (ed) Landscape design with plants Heinemann
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168 Coates DS lndustnal catering management Business Books
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169 Cochrane A & Brown J (ed) Landscapedesign forthe Middle
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170 Collins I D & Collins EJ Windowselection Newnes-
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171 Colvin B Trees fortown & country Lund Humphries London
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172 Considine D M (ed) Energy technology handbook McGraw-Hill
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173 Constructional Steel Research & DevelopmentOrganisation
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174 Construction Industry Research&InformationAssociation Index
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175 Correale W H & Parker H W Abuilding code primer McGraw-
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176 Cottam DJ Technicalplanning manual forhotels, restaurants,
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177 Cullingworth J B Town &countryplanninginBritain Allen&
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178 Cusworth C R N Thehealth & safety atwork etcact 1974
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179 Cutler L S &Cutler S S Handbookofhousing systems for
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180 Dattner R Design forplay Van Nostrand Reinhold New York
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181 Davis B & E Spon'sarchitect's & builder's price book E & F N
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182 Davis B & E Spon'smechanical &electrical servicespricebook
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183 Dawes J Designing &planning ofswimmingpools Architectural
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184 De Breffney B The synagogue Macmillan NewYork USA
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185 DeChiara J &Callender JH Time-saverstandardsforbuilding
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186 De Neufville R Airportsystemsplanning MITPress Cambridge
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187 Department of Housing & UrbanDevelopment Barrier-free site
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188 Department of Industry Technicalservices forindustry Dol
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189 DES Access forthe physically disabledtoeducationalbuildings
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190 DES Acoustics ineducationalbuildings (BB 51) HMSO London
England 1976
191 DES Boarding school formaladjustedchildren (BB 27) HMSO
London England 1965
192 DES Britishschoolpopulation. dimensional survey (BB 46)
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193 DES Colour inschoolbuildings (BB 9) HMSO London England
4thedn 1969
194 DES Energyconservation ineducationalbuildings (BB 55)
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195 DES Energy conservation intwoOxfordshire schools (DN 16)
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196 DES Fire & thedesign ofschools (BB 7) HMSO London
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197 DES Furniture & equipment dimensions; further & higher
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8
198 DES Furniture equipment: working heights & zones for
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199 DES Guidelines forenvironmental design & fuel co,iservationin
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200 DES JDPCLASP system building forhighereducation (BB 45)
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201 DES Thedesign ofschoolkitchens (BB 11) HMSO London
England 1955
202 DES Lightinginschools(BB 33) HMSO London England 1967
203 DES Newproblems in schooldesign —middle schools (BB 35)
HMSO London England 1966 revised 1973
204 DES Nurseryeducation in converted space (BB 56) HMSO
London England 1978
205 DES Playing fields&hard surfaceareas (BB 28) HMSO London
England 1966 reprinted 1973
206 DES Safety insciencelaboratories (Safety series 2) HMSO
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207 DES Schoolfurniture dimensions: standing & reaching (BB 38)
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208 DES Schoolfurniture: standing & sittingpostures (BB 52)
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209 DES Secondary school design: designing forarts & crafts
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210 DES Seconda,y schooldesign: drama &music (BB 30) HMSO
London England 1966
211 DES Secondary schooldesign: modern languages(BB 43)
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212 DES Secondary schooldesign: physical education (BB 26)
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213 DES Standards forschoolpremises HMSO London
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214 DES Storage ofpupils'belongings (BB 58) HMSO London
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215 DES Villageschools(BB 3) HMSO London England 1975
216 DHSS Building forthe health & social services: abibliographyof
guidance material DHSS London England 1978
217 DHSS Clean catering: a handbook onhygiene incatering
establishments HMSO London England 4thedn 1972
218 DHSS Hospital building notes(various subjects) HMSO
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219 DHSS Planning, design &construction ofhospital buildings for
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220 DHSS Residential accommodation formentally handicapped
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222 Dickens A Structural & servicesystems inoffice buildings:
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223 Dodge FW Motels, hotels, restaurants&bars FWDodge New
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224 DoE Building legislation: aguideto sources ofinformation DoE!
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225 DoE Cars in housing2(DB12) HMSO London England 1971
226 DoE Catering installations data DoE London England 1971
227 DoE Children atplay (DB27) HMSO London England 1973
228 DoE Co-ordination ofcomponents inhousing: metnc
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229 DoE Thecountryside problems &polices HMSO London
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230 DOE Districtheating: an annotated bibliography DoE/PSA
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231 DoE Theestate outside thedwelling: reactions ofresidents to
aspects ofhousinglayout(DB 25) HMSO London England 1972
232 DoE Grouped flatlets foroldpeople:asociologicaistudy
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233 DoE Homesfortoday & tomorrow (ParkerMorris report': MHLG
1961) HMSO London England reprinted 1975
234 DoE Houseplanning: a guideto user needs with achecklist
(DB 14) HMSO London England 1976
235 DoE Housing fortheelderly: the size ofgrouped schemes
(DB31) HMSO London England 1975
236 DoE Housing theelderly MTPConstruction LancasterEngland
1974
237 DoE Housing the family MTPConstruction LancasterEngland
1974
238 DoE Housing single people:adesign guide withadescnption ofa
schemeat Leicester(DB 29) HMSO London England 1975
239 DoE (Countryside review committee) Leisure & thecountryside
HMSO London England 1977
240 DoE Newhousing & road traffic noise: adesign guide for
architects (DB 26) HMSO London England 1972reprinted 1974
241 DoE Planned openoffices, acostbenefit analysis DoE London
England 1971
242 DoE Residential roads & footpaths: layout considerations
(DB 32) HMSO London England 1977
243 DoE Restaurant design: areading list DoE/PSA Croydon
England 1979
244 DoE Roads in urban areas HMSO London England 1966
metricsupplement 1974
245 DoE Safetyinthehome(DB13) HMSO London England
metricedn 1971 reprinted 1976
246 DoE Services forhousing: sanitaryplumbing &drainage
(DB 30) HMSO London England 1974
247 DoE Some aspects ofdesigning foroldpeople (DB 1) HMSO
London England metric edn 1969
248 DoE Spaces in the home(DB24)
Part 1 Bathrooms & wc's
Part 2 Kitchens &laundenng spaces
HMSO London England 1972
249 D0E/PSA Office space: aprimerforusers& designers HMSO
London England 1976
250 D0E/PSA Solarenergy: anannotated bibliography DoE
Croydon England 2nd edn 1979
251 DoE/Welsh Office Daylight indicators HMSO London England
1971
252 DoE/Welsh Office Sunlight & daylight:planning criteria & the
design ofbuildings HMSO London England 1971
253 DoE/Welsh office Sunlight indicators HMSO London England
1971
254 DoE & Travers Morgan & Partners Thecalculationofroad traffic
noise HMSO London England 1975
255 Doswell R Towardsan integrated approach to hotel planning
NewUniversity Education London England 1970
256 Dreyfuss H Themeasure ofman: human factors in design
Whitney Library ofDesign New York USA 2nd edn 1967
257 Dubin FS Howto saveenergy& cutcostsinexisting industrial&
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258 Dubin F S & Long C G Energy conservationstandards: for
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261 Duncan C J Modern lecturetheatres OrielPress Newcastle
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262 Dyck RG Comprehensive healthplanningbibliography Council
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263 Eckbo G Theartofhome landscaping McGraw-Hill New York
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264 Eckbo G Homelandscape: the artofhome landscaping
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265 EducationalFacilitiesLaboratories Five openplan high schools: a
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266 EducationalFacilities Laboratories Newplaces forthearts: a
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267 EducationalFacilities Laboratories RichTownshiphigh school,
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268 Egan M D Concepts in architectural acoustics McGraw-Hill
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269 Egan M D Concepts in building firesafety John Wiley & Sons
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270 Elder A J Guideto the building regulations 1976 Architectural
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271 Electricity Council & Lighting Industry Federation lntenor lighting
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272 End H Hotels &motorhotels Whitney Library of Design New
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273 End H Interiors book ofhotels&motorhotels WhitneyLibrary of
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274 End H Interiors 2ndbookofhotels Whitney Library of Design
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275 Englehardt N L Complete guide forplanning newschools
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276 Essex County Council Design guideforresidentialareas ECC
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277 Everett A Materials (Mitchell's building construction series)
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278 Everett K & Hughes D A Guide tolaboratory design
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279 Fairbrother N The nature oflandscapedesign Architectural
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280 Falconer P & Drury J Building & planning forindustnalstorage
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281 FarrantJ & Subiott A Planningfordisabledpeople inthe urban
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282 Fengler M Restaurant architecture&design, aninternational
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283 Ferguson WA Practicallaboratory planning John Wiley &Sons
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284 Fire Officers'Committee Rules forautomatic sprinkler
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285 Flora SD Tornadoes ofthe United States University of
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286 Fokus Principles ofthe Fokushousing units fortheseverely
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289 Foster J Structure & fabric Part 1 (Mitchell's building
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293 Gage M &Vandenburg M Hard landscapein concrete
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294 Gainsborough H &Gainsborough J Principles ofhospital
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298 Graubner G Theaterbau:Aufgabe undPlanung Callwey
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301 Greater London Council Means ofescape incaseoffire(code of
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305 Grube OW lndustnal buildings &factories Praeger New York
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306 Gruen V & Smith L Shopping towns—USA Reinhold New
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307 Halacy D SJr Earth, water, wind& sun—ourenergy
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308 Halprin L Freeways Reinhold NewYorkUSA1966
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312 Hammond P Towardsa newchurch architecture Architectural
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318 Harrison R 0The technical requirements ofsmall museums
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319 Hattrell W S & Partners Hotels, restaurants& bars Batsford
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328 HoC Cinematograph act 1909 HMSO London England 1909
329 HoC Cinematograph act 1952 HMSO London England 1952
330 HoC Civilamenities act 1967 HMSO London England 1967
331 HoC Clean airact 1956 HMSO London England 1956
332 HoC Clean airact 1968 HMSO London England 1968
333 HoC Control ofpollutionact 1974 HMSO London England
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334 HoC Countryside act 1968 HMSO London England 1968
335 HoC Countryside (Scotland) act 1967 HMSO London England
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336 HoC Dangerous drugsact 1965 HMSO London England 1965
337 HoC Dangerous drugsact 1967 HMSO London England 1967
338 HoC Factoriesact 1961 HMSO London England 1961
339 HoC Films act 1960 HMSO London England 1960
340 HoC Fireprecautions act 1971 HMSO London England 1971
341 HoC Health &safetyatworketcact1974 London England 1974
342 HoC Insulation act 1972 HMSO London England 1972
343 HoC London building act 1930 HMSO London England 1930
344 HoC London building (amendment) act 1935 HMSO London
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345 HoC London building (amendment) act 1939 HMSO London
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346 HoC Offices, shops& railwaypremises act 1963 HMSO
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347 HoC Offices, shops& railwaypremises act 1971 HMSO
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348 HoC Petroleum (consolidation)act 1928 HMSO London
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349 HoC Pharmacy &poisons act 1933 HMSO London England
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350 HoC Public health act 1936 HMSO London England 1936
351 HoC Public health act 1961 HMSO London England 1961
352 HoC Public health (recurring nuisances)act 1969 HMSO
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353 HoC Public libraries & museums act 1964 HMSO London
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354 HoC Radioactivesubstances act 1960 HMSO London
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355 HoC Riding establishments act 1934 HMSO London England
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356 HoC Rivers (prevention ofpollution) act 1951 HMSO London
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357 HoC Rivers (prevention ofpollution) act 1961 HMSO London
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358 HoC Rivers (prevention ofpollution) (Scotland)act 1951 HMSO
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359 HoC Rivers (prevention ofpollution) (Scotland)act 1965 HMSO
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360 HoC Sewerage (Scot/and)act 1968 HMSO London England
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361 HoC Theatres act 1968 HMSO London England 1968
362 HoC Therapeuticsubstances act 1956 HMSO London England
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363 HoC Town & countryplanning act 1971 HMSO London
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364 HoC Town & countryplanning (Scot/and)act 1972 HMSO
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365 HoC Waterresources act 1963 HMSO London England 1963
366 HohI A Office buildings: an internationalsurvey Praeger New
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367 Hopkinson A G Architectural physics: lighting HMSO London
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368 Hopkinson R G Petherbridge P & Longmore J Day/ighting
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369 HornbeckJ S (ed) Stores & shopping centres McGraw-Hill
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370 Horonjeff R Planning &design ofairports McGraw-Hill New
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371 Houghton EL Wind forces onbuildings & structures —an
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372 Housing Press Thehouse & home kitchen planning guide
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373 Howell J D E Notes on theneedforplanning permission Oyez
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374 Hoyt K (ed) Buildings forcommerce &industry McGraw-Hill
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375 Hunt W D Jr Thecontemporary curtain wall—its design
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376 Hunter M K & Hunter E H The indoor garden—design,
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377 Hurst R Services & maintenanceforhotels & residential
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378 Hutton G & Rostron M Theinternationaldirectory ofcomputer
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379 ICB—ClB
380 IES Control ofdiscomfort skyglarefromwindows (supplementto
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381 IES Daytime lightingin buildings (Technicalreport 4) CIBS
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382 IES Evaluation ofdiscomfort glare (Technicalreport 10) CIBS
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383 ES TheIES Code: recommendations forlighting building
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384 ES Lighting guide: sports CIBS London England 1974
385 IES Lighting ofartgalleries & museums (Technicalreport 14)
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386 IES The outdoorenvironment (Lighting guide 6) CIBS London
England 1975
387 IES(USA) Lighting handbook IES New York USA 1972
388 Institute ofBaths Management Swimmingpools (Design guide I)
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389 Institute of Directors Betteroffices loD London England 1974
390 Institution of Electrical Engineers Regulationsfortheelectrical
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391 International Air Transport Association Airport Terminal
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392 International Civil Aviation Organisation Aerodrome design
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395 International Civil Aviation Organisation Internationalstandards,
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396 International Civil Aviation Organisation Stolport manual ICAO
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397 International Commission on Illumination International
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398 International Conference of Building Officials Uniform building
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399 International Federationof Library Associations Standardsfor
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400 ISO Modular co-ordination: basic module (ISO 1006: 1973)
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401 ISO Modular co-ordination: co-ordinating sizes fordoor-sets,
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402 ISO Modularco-ordination: multimodules forhorizontal
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403 ISO Modularco-ordination: principles & rules (ISO 2848:1974)
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404 ISO Modularco-ordination: referencelinesofhorizontal
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405 ISO Modular co-ordination: storey heights & room heights for
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406 ISO Modular co-ordination: vocabulary (ISO 1791:1973) ISO
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407 ISO Standard for the functional sizes of schoolfurniture (ISO!
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408 International Symposium onArchitectural Acoustics Heriot-Watt
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409 Izenour G C Theaterdesign McGraw-Hill New York USA
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410 Jellicoe S & AllenM Town gardens tolive in Penguin
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411 Jellicoe S & Jellicoe G Water: the useofwater in landscape
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412 Jensen R Fireprotection forthe design professional Cahners
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413 JeweIl D Public assembly facilities: planning &management
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414 Joedicke J Office &administrationbuildings Karl KramerVerlag
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415 Kauffman H J TheAmerican farmhouse Hawthorn Books New
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416 Kell JR & Martin P L Heating &airconditioning ofbuildings
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417 Kepes G Module, symmetry, proportion Studio Vista London
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418 Kidney WC Workingplaces:theadaptive use ofindustnal
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431 Kramer J Water gardening—pools, fountains&plants Charles
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440 Lawson F Hotels, motels &condominiums —design, planning &
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442 Lawson F Restaurantplanning & design Van Nostrand
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449 Lighting Industry Federation&ElectricityCouncil Interiorlighting
design LIF London England metric edn 1969
450 Lion E Shoppingcenters —planning, development &
administration John Wiley & Sons New York USA 1976
451 London CountyCouncil Education Department School furni(ure
Staples London England 1958
452 Longmore J BRS daylight protractors HMSO London England
1968
453 Lovejoy D (ed) Landuse & landscapeplanning Leonard Hill
London England 2ndedn 1979
454 Lovejoy D & Partners Spon's landscapehandbook E&FN
Spon London England 1978
455 Lushington N & Mills W N Libraries designed forusers: a
planning handbook Gaylord ProfessionalPublications Syracuse NY
USA 1979
456 Lynch K Siteplanning MIT Press CambridgeMass uSA 1979
457 Lynes J A Principles ofnatural lighting Elsevier London
England 1968
458 McCoy E Case study houses, 1945—1962 Hennessey& lngalls
LosAngelesUSA 2ndedn1977
459 Macdonald AJ Wind loading onbuildings John Wiley & Sons
NewYork USA 1975
460 McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia ofenergy McGraw-Hill NewYork
USA 1976
461 McGuinness WJ & Stein B Mechanical& electricalequipment
forbuildings John Wiley & Sons NewYork USA 5thedn 1971
462 McHarg I L Design with nature NaturalHistory Press NewYork
USA 1969
463 McHugh RC Working drawing handbook: a guide forarchitects
& builders Van Nostrand Reinhold NewYork USA 1977
464 Macsai J Holland E P Nachman H S Yacker J V Housing
JohnWiley&Sons NewYorkUSA 1976
465 Manning P(ed) Office design:asfudyofenvironment Liverpool
University Liverpool England 1965
466 Marlow 0
C Outdoordesign: ahandbook forthearchitect &
planner Granada Publishing/Crosby LockwoodStaples StAlbans
England 1977
467 Marsh P Air& rain penetration ofbuildings Construction Press
London England 1977
468 Martin D (ed) Specification 79/80 Architectural Press London
England 1980
469 May E E eta! Independent livingforthehandicapped& the
elderly Houghton Mifflin Boston USA 1974
470 Mecklenburgh J C Plant layout: a guide to thelayoutofprocess
plants& sites John Wiley & Sons New York USA 1973
471 Metcalf K D Library lighting Associationof ResearchLibrarians
Washington DC USA 1970
472 Metcalf K D Planning academic & research librarybuildings
McGraw-Hill NewYorkUSA 1965
473 Metrication Board Howto writemetric: astyleguidetoteaching
andusingSIunits HMSO London England nodate
474 Millard P Modern library equipment Crosby Lockwood London
England 1966
475 Mills £D(ed) Planning: building foradministration,
entertainment & recreation Newnes-Butterworth London England
1976
476 Mills ED (ed) Planning: building foreducation,culture &science
Newnes-Butterworth London England 9th edn 1976
477 Mills ED (ed) Planning: building forhabitation,commerce &
industry Newnes-Butlerworth London England 1976
478 Mills E D (ed) Planning: building forhealth, welfare& religion
Newnes-Butlerworth London England 9th edn 1976
479 Ministry of Housing & Local Government Metrication ofhousing
building(circular 1/68) HMSO London England 1968
480 Ministry of Labour Cloakroom accommodation& washing
facilities (Health & safety atworkbooklet 5) HMSO London England
1968
481 Ministry of Labour First aidin factories (Health&safety atwork
booklet 36) HMSO London England 1966
482 Mitchell A A fieldguidetothe freesofBritain & northern
Europe Collins London England 1974

BASICLIST
483 Mobbs N Industrial investment. Acasestudyinfactory
buildings Slough Estates Slough England 1979
484 Morisseau J J Designing &planning: the new schools Van
Nostrand Reinhold New York USA 1972
485 Mullins W & Allen PG Student housing Crosby Lockwood
London England 1970
486 Munce J F lndustnal architecture— ananalysis ofinternational
building practice FW Dodge NewYork USA 1960
487 National Building Agency Damp protection(Easiguide) NBA
London England 1979
488 National Building Agency Thedisabled in rehabilitatedhousing:
guidance forhousing associations NBA London England 1978
489 National Building Agency Drainage & water installation
(Easiguide) NBA London England 1979
490 National Building Agency Electrical installations(Easiguide)
NBA London England 1979
491 National Building Agency External works detail sheets
Architectural Press London England 1977
492 National Building Agency Fireprotection (Easiguide) NBA
London England 1979
493 National Building Agency Gas heating (Easiguide) NBA
London England 1979
494 National Building Agency Metrichouse shells: one-storeyplans
NBA London England 1969
495 National Building Agency Metric house shells: two-storeyplans
NBA London England 1970
496 National Building Agency Openspace & ventilation(Easiguide)
NBA London England 1980
497 National Building Agency Refuse (Easiguide) NBA London
England 1980
498 National Building Agency Safety &materials (Easiguide) NBA
London England 1979
499 National Building Agency Sheltered housing forthe elderly:
design criteria forcategory 1 dwellings NBA London England 1977
500 National Building Agency Solid fuel& oil heating (Easiguide)
NBA London England 1979
National Building Agency Stairs & means ofescape(Easiguide)
501
NBA London England 1979
502 National Building Agency Structure (Easiguide) NBA London
England 1979
503 National Building Agency Thermal& sound insulation
(Easiguide) NBA London England 1979
504 National Elevator Industry Elevatorengineering standards
National Elevator Industry Inc NewYork USA 5th edn 1979
505 National Fire Protection Association Designing buildings forfire
safety NFPA Boston USA 1975
506 National Fire Protection Association Firesin high-nse buildings
NFPA Boston USA 1974
507 National FireProtectionAssociation High-rise building fires & fire
safety NFPA Boston USA 1973
508 National Fire Protection Association Lifesafety code NFPA
Boston USA latest edition
509 National Fire Protection Association National Firecodes NFPA
Boston USA 16 vol 1976
510 National Fire ProtectionAssocation Nationalfireprevention code
NFPA Boston USA latest edition
511 National House Builders Council Guide tointernal planning
(Advisory note 1) NHBC London England 1975
512 National House Builders Council Registered house builders
handbook NHBC LondonEngland 1974
513 National ParkingAssociation/Parking ConsultantsCouncilThe
dimensions ofparking Urban Land Institute NationalParking
Association Washington DC USA 1979
421
Bibliography
514 National Playing Fields Association Revised drawingsofoutdoor
pitches&courts NPFA London England 1979
515 National Swimming PoolInstitute Technical CouncilMinimum
standardsforpublic spas NSPI WashingtonDC USA 1978
516 National Swimming Pool Institute Technical Council Minimum
standards forpublicpools NSPI WashingtonDC USA 1974
517 National Swimming Pool Institute StandardsCodes Committee
Suggestedminimumstandards forresidential swimming pools NSPI
Washington DC USA 1974
518 Nellist I Planning buildings forhandicappedchildren Crosby
Lockwood London England 1970
519 Nelson G & Wright H Tomorrows house—acomplete guide
forthehomebuilder Simon & Schuster NewYork USA 1945
520 Newburry CW & Eaton K J Windloading handbookHMSO
LondonEngland 1974
521 Newman 0Defensible space, cnme prevention through urban
design Macmillan New York USA 1972
522 Northwood T D (ed) Architecturalacoustics Dowden Hutchinson
& Ross Stroudsburg Pa USA 1977
523 Nuckolls J L Intenorlighting—for environmentaldesigners
John Wiley&Sons NewYorkUSA 1976
524 Nuffield Foundation, DivisionofArchitectural Studies Thedesign
ofresearch laboratories Oxford University Press Oxford England
1961
Nuffield Orthapaedic Centre —.DHSS
525 Nuffield Provincial Hospital Trust Studies in the functions &
design ofhospitals Oxford University Press Oxford England 1955
W
526 O'Connor J A studyin school & university building design
Vantage Press NewYork USA 1974
527 Olgyay V Design with climate: bioclimatic approach to
architectural regionalism Princeton University Press PrincetonUSA
1963
528 Olgyay V Solarcontrol&shading devices PrincetonUniversity
Press Princeton USA 1957
529 Oliver J E Climate & man's environment—an introduction to
applied climatology John Wiley & Sons NewYork USA 1973
530 Organisation forEconomic Cooperation & Development
(Programme oneducational building) Schoolfurniture OECD Paris
France 1980
Page C H & Vigaureux P (ed) SI: theinternational system of
531
units National PhysicalLaboratory HMSO London England 3rdedn
1977
532 Parkin P H Humphreys H R & Cowell J R Acoustics, noise &
buildings Faber & Faber London England 1979
S
533 Paul Apartments:their design & development Reinhold New
York USA 1967
534 Pemberton AW Plantlayout&materials handling Macmillan
London England 1974
535 Penton J & Barlow A (ed) A handbookofhousing fordisabled
people (London Housing Consortium West Group) RIBA London
England 1980
536 Penwarden A D Wise A Wind environmentroundbuildings
HMSO London England 1975
537 Perkins P H Swimming pools Applied Science Publishers
London England 2ndedn 1978
538 PerrinG A lndoorreception centres National PlayingFields
Association London England 1973
539 Peters P(ed) Design & planning —factones Van Nostrand
Reinhold NewYorkUSA 1970
540 Pile J F Interiorssecond bookofoffices Whitney Library of
Design NewYork USA 1969
541 Pile J Interiors thirdbookofoffices WhitneyLibrary of Design
NewYorkUSA Architectural Press London England 1976
542 Pile J Openoffice planning; a handbook forinterior designers &
architects Whitney Library of Design New York USA Architectural
Press London England 1978
422
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BASICLIST
543 Pilkington Brothers Ltd EnvironmentalAdvisory Service
Windows &environment Pilkington Brothers Limited St Helens
England 1969
544 Porges G Appliedacoustics John Wiley &Sons New York
USA 1977
545 Propst R & Wodka M Theaction office:acoustics handbook
Herman Miller Research Corporation Ann Arbor USA 1975
546 Prztak L Standard details forfire resistive building construction
McGraw-Hill NewYorkUSA 1977
547 Putsep E Modern hospitals: internationalplanning practice
Lloyd-Luke London England 1979
548 Rabb J & Rabb B Goodshelter; a guide tomobile, modular &
prefabricated houses, including domes Quadrangle/NewYork Times
BookCo NewYork USA 1975
549 Ramsey &Sleeper/American Institute of Architects Architectural
graphicstandards (Packard RT (ed)) John Wiley & Sons NewYork
USA 7th edn 1980
550 Readers' Digest Encyclopediaofgardenplants 8 flowers
Readers' Digest London England 1971
551 Redstone L G Hospitals & healthcare facilities McGraw-Hill
NewYork USA 1978
552 Redstone L G Newdimensions inshopping centers & stores
McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 1973
553 RIBA Cl/SfBconstruction indexing manual RIBA Services Ltd
London England 1976
554 Ripnen K Office space administration McGraw-Hill New York
USA 1974
555 Ritter P Planning forman 8 motor Macmillan NewYork USA
1964
556 Robinson H W Architecture forthe educationaltheatre
University ofOregon Eugene Ore USA 1970
557 Robinson J Highways & ourenvironment McGraw-Hill New
York USA 1971
558 Rogers TS Thermaldesign ofbuildings John Wiley & Sons
NewYork USA 1964
559 Rosenfield I & Rosenfield Z Hospitalarchitecture & beyond
Van Nostrand Reinhold New York USA 1969
560 Rosenfield I & Rosenfield Z Hospitalarchitecture: integrated
components Van Nostrand Reinhold New York USA & London
England 1971
561 Rosenfield J 'Lightin museum planning' Architectural
Forum 619/1932 NewYork USA
562 Rubenstein HM Centralcity malls John Wiley & Sons New
York USA 1968
563 Rubenstein H M A guidetosite & environmentalplanning John
Wiley&Sons NewYorkUSA 2ndedn1980
564 Salmon G The working office Design Council London England
1979
565 Saphier M Office planning & design McGraw-Hill NewYork
USA 2ndedn 1978
566 Saphier M Planning the newoffice McGraw-Hill NewYork
USA 1978
567 Schaal R Curtain walls—design manual Reinhold New York
USA 1959
568 Schild E & Oswald R Structural failuresin residential buildings
vol 1 Granada Publishing StAlbansEngland 1978
569 Schmertz M F (ed) Campusplanning & design McGraw-Hill
NewYork USA 1972
570 Schmertz M F (ed) Office building design McGraw-Hill New
York USA 2nd edn 1975
571 Schramm W Chemistry &biologylaboratories:design,
construction, equipment PergamonPress Oxford England 1965
572 Schubert H Themoderntheater; architecture,Stagedesign,
lighting Praeger NewYork USA 1971
573 Scottish Development Department Scottish Housing Handbook
part 3 Housing Development layout, roads & services HMSO
Edinburgh Scotland 1977
574 Scottish Development Department Scottish Housing Handbook
part 6 Housing for thedisabled HMSO Edinburgh Scotland 1979
575 Scottish Education Department Schoolkitchens (Educational
building note 14) HMSO Edinburgh Scotland 1976
576 Scottish Home & Health Department Inpatientaccommodation
(Hospital planning note 1) HMSO Edinburgh Scotland revised edn
1977
577 Scottish Hospital Centre Upgrading ofwards SHC Edinburgh
Scotland 1967
578 Scottish Hospital Centre Wardconversion forgeriatnc patients
SHC Edinburgh Scotland 1974
579 Shear J K (ed) Religiousbuildings fortoday FW Dodge New
York USA 1957
580 Shoshkes L Space planning: designing the office environment
Architectural Record Books NewYorkUSA 1976
581 Simmonds M F Accommodation standards foreducational
buildings BRE Garston England revised edn 1977
582 Sloane E Anageofbarns BallantineBooks New York USA
1967
583 SmithD Hotel&restaurantdesign Van Nostrand Reinhold New
York USA Design Council Publications London England 1978
584 Southern Building Code Congress Standardbuilding code
SBCC Birmingham Ala USA latest edition
585 Sports Council Facilities forsquashrackets (Technicalunit for
sportbulletin 2) Sports Council London England 1975
586 SportsCouncil Provision forswimming Sports Council London
England 1978
587 Sports Council Specification forartificialsports surfaces
(technical report prepared bythe Rubber & PlasticsResearch
Association of Great Britain) Sports Council London England 1978
588 SportsCouncil Sports halls: anewapproach totheirdimensions
8 use Sports Council London England 1975
589 Statutory instruments 1959:428 Agnculture (safeguardingof
workplaces) regulations 1959 HMSO London England 1959
590 Statutory instruments 1966:99 Building operations, construction
health & welfare regulations HMSO London England 1966
591 Statutory instruments 1976:1676 The building regulations
HMSO London England 1976
592 Statutory instruments 1976:1676 Thebuilding regulations Part
E Safety in fire
E3 Rules formeasurement
E4 Provision ofcompartment walls & compartment floors
E5 Fire resistance ofelements ofstructure
HMSO London England 1976
593 Statutory instruments 1978:723 Thebuilding (first amendment)
regulations HMSO London England 1978
594 Statutory instruments 1971:2052 Thebuilding standards
(Scotland) (consolidation) regulations HMSO London England 1971
595 Statutory instruments 1973:794 Thebuilding standards
(Scotland) amendment regulations 1973 HMSO London England
1973
596 Statutory instruments 1975:404 Thebuilding standards
(Scotland) amendment regulations 1975 HMSO London England
1975
597 Statutory instruments: Statutory regulations&orders 1922:73
(asamended by SI 1961:2435) Chemical works regulations HMSO
London England 1961
598 Statutory instruments 1955:1129 Cinematographsafety
regulations HMSO London England 1955
599 Statutory instruments 1959:282 Cinematographsafety
regulations HMSO London England 1959
600 Statutory instruments 1948:1547 Clayworks welfarespecial
regulations HMSO London England 1948

BASIC LIST
601 Statutory instruments 1976:2010 Fireprecaution (non-certified
factory, office, shop 8 railwaypremises) regulations HMSO London
England 1976
602 Statutory instruments: Statutoryrules &orders 1917:1067 Metal
works asamended bySR&O 1926:864 &SI 1961:2434 HMSO
London England 1917 1926 & 1961
603 Statutory
instruments: &orders 1929:534
rules
Statutory Oil
order HMSO London England 1929
cakewelfare
604 Statutory instruments 1964:966 Sanitaryconvenience
regulations HMSO London England 1964
605 Statutory instruments: Statutory rules &orders 1925:864 Saw
mi/ls & woodworking factories welfare (ambulance& firstaid) as
amendedbySl1961:2434 HMSO LondonEngland 1925&1961
606 Statutory instruments 1960:1932 Shipbuilding & shiprepairs
regulations HMSO London England 1960
607 Statutory instruments 1972:2051 Standards forschool premises
regulations HMSO London England 1972
608 Statutory instruments 1964:965 Washingfacilities regulations
HMSO London England 1964
609 Steele F Physical settings & organizationaldevelopment
Addison-Wesley Reading Mass USA 1973
610 Steel Window Association Specificationforthemetncpreferred
rangeW20 steelwindows SWA 201 SWA London England 1972
611 Stein R G Architecture & energy Doubleday Garden CityNY
USA 1977
612 Stewart H M & Griffin B (ed) Americanarchitectureforthearts
vol 1 Handel & Sons Dallas USA 1978
613 Strakosch G R Vertical transportation—elevators & escalators
John Wiley&Sons NewYorkUSA 1967
614 Sykes CA Office planner A4 Publications London England
1976
615 Szokolay SV Solarenergy & building John Wiley& Sons New
YorkUSA 2ndedn 1977
616 Tandy C Landscape ofindustry John Wiley& Sons New York
USA 2ndedn 1977
617 Tannehill I R Hurricanes, theirnature & history,particularly those
ofthe WestIndies&thesouthern coastsofthe UnitedStates Princeton
University Press Princeton USA 9thedn 1956
618 Tansley A G The British islands & theirvegetation Cambridge
University Press Cambridge England 1939
619 Taylor J & Cooke G Thefireprecautions actinpractice
Architectural Press London England 1970
620 Thiry P Bennett R M & Kamphoefner H Churches & temples
Reinhold NewYorkUSA 1953
621 Thomas M L Architectural working drawings: a professional
technique McGraw-Hill New York USA 1978
622 Thompson A Library buildings ofBritain & Europe Butterworth
London England 1963
623 Thompson E K Apartments, townhouses & condominiums
McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 1975
624 Thompson E K Houses ofthe west McGraw-Hill New York
USA 1979
625 Thompson G Planning & design oflibrary buildings Nicols
Publishing Co NewYork USA Architectural Press London England
2nd edn 1977
626 Tidworth S Theatres:anarchitectural & cultural history Praeger
NewYork USA 1973
627 Townroe P Planningindustrial location Leonard HillBooks
London England 1976
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628 Tregenza P R The design ofinteriorcirculation Crosby
Lockwood Staples London England 1976
629 United Nations EducationalScientific & Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) Planning buildings & facilities forhighereducation
Architectural Press London England UNESCOPress Paris France
1975
630 University Grants Committee Planningnormsforuniversity
buildings HMSO London England 1974
631 Urban Land Institute Residential developmenthandbook ULI
Washington DC USA 1978
632 US Congress Architectural barriers act US Superintendentof
Documents Washington DC USA 1968
633 US Congress National environment policyact US
Superintendent of Documents Washington DC USA 1970
634 US Congress Occupational safety & healthact US
Superintendent of Documents Washington DC USA 1971
635 US Federal Aviation Agency Theapron & terminal building:
planning manual3vol National Technical InformationService
Springfield Va USA 1975
636 Vahlefeld A & Jacques F Garages & service stations Leonard
Hill LondonEngland 1960
637 Wagner W F (ed)A treasuryofcontemporaryhouses
McGraw-Hill NewYorkUSA 1978
0
638 Wakita A & Linde R M Theprofessionalpractice of
architectural detailing John Wiley & Sons New York USA 1977
639 Walter F Sports centres & swimming pools —astudyoftheir
design with particular reference to the needsofthe physically disabled
Disabled Living Foundation London England 1971
640 Ward C (ed) Vandalism Architectural Press London England
1973
641 Ward H (ed) Betterlibrarybuildings 1967—8 Library
Association London England 1970
642 Webb J D (ed) Noisecontrol inindustry Sound Research
Laboratories Sudbury Suffolk England 1976
643 Weddle A E (ed) Landscape techniques Heinemannfor
Landscape Institute London England 1979
644 Weiss J Better buildings fortheaged McGraw-Hill New York
USA 1971
645 Weisskamp H Hotels: an internationalsurvey Architectural
Press London England 1968
646 Weller J Modern agriculture & ruralplanning Architectural
Press London England 1967
647 Wheeler E T Hospital modernization & expansion McGraw-Hill
NewYorkUSA 1971
648 White B Theliterature & study ofurban & regional planning
Routledge & Kegan Paul London England 1974
649 Whittaker C Brown P & Monahan J Thehandbookof
environmental powers Architectural Press London England 1976
650 Whyte WS & Powell-Smith V Thebuilding regulations
8
explained illustrated Crosby Lockwood Staples London England
5thedn 1978
651 Wild F Factories Van Nostrand Reinhold NewYork USA 1972
652 Wild F Libraries forschools& universities Van Nostrand
Reinhold NewYork USA 1972
653 Williams C H Guideto Europeansources oftechnical
information Francis Hodgson Guernsey CI 1970
654 Wozniak S J Solar heating systems forthe UK: design,
installation & economic aspects HMSO London England 1979
655 Yerges L F Sound, noise& vibrationcontrol Van Nostrand
Reinhold NewYork USA 2nd edn 1978
424
Bibliography
CODES
This listcites
a the principal codes, guides, reg,standardsand statutesthought likely
to be mostoftenneeded
b someless known whichare thought likelyto be useful
Because USA and UKpracticesdifferUKcodes predominateinthislist.
In the UKmost such standards and reg are produced bygovernment
bodies orby nationalinstitutions. In the USA some are produced bysuch
national bodies asANSIbut farmore originate with state and municipal
authorities: theseare too many and too variousto list,
Titles otsome BSI publications are citedon a key word insteadofwith
the formal title, egBSCP 114 The structuraluseofreinforced concrete
inbuildings isgiven asBSCP114 Reinforced concrete,structuralusein
buildings, BS 5572 is given asSanitary pipework, code ofpractice. It is
hopedthatthiswill make things easier for theuser.
013 AJ/MoH Hospital planning & design guide Architectural Press
London England 1967
019 Aluminium WindowAssociation Aluminium window edgeprofiles
(Technical report 1) AWA London England 1976
023 American Hospital Association Hospital engineeringhandbook
AHA Chicago USA 1974
026 American Insurance Association Fireprevention code AlA New
YorkUSA latest edition
027 American InsuranceAssociation Nationalbuilding code AlA
NewYorkUSA latest edition
028 ANSI Specifications formaking buildings & facilities accessible
to & usable by thephysically handicappedpeople ANSI NewYork
USA 2ndedn 1979
029 ANSI Standards ANSI NewYork USA latest edition
030 American Society of Heating Refrigerating& Air-Conditioning
Engineers ASHRAE standard 90—75; energy conservationin new
building design ASHRAE NewYork USA 1975
031 American Society of Heating,Refrigerating& Air-Conditioning
Engineers ASHRAE handbook offundamentals ASHRAE NewYork
USA 1977
033 American Society forTesting Materials Standards ASTM
Philadelphia USA latest editions
084 British Industrial-Scientific Film Association Filmguidefor the
construction industry Construction Press LancasterEngland 1979
088 BSI BS CP96 Accessforthe disabledtobuildings Part 1
General recommendations BSI London England 1967
089 BSI BS 5606 Accuracy inbuilding BSI London England 1978
090 BSI BS 5440 Part 2 Airsupply BSI London England 1976
091 BSI BS 4873 Aluminium alloywindows BSI London England
1972
092 BSI BS CP3 Basic data forthedesign ofbuildings, code of see
Daylighting Fire precautions Loading Sunlight Thermal insulation
093 BSI British Standards Handbook 3 vol 1—4 Summariesof
British standards ofbuilding BSI London England latest edition
094 BSI British standards yearbook BSI London England annual
095 BSI BS 1192 Building drawingpractice (metnc units),
recommendations BSI London England 1969 (revision in progress)
096 BSI BS4104 Catering equipment burning liquefiedpetroleum
gases BSI London England 1967
097 BSI BS2512 Catering equipment, gasheated BSI London
England 1963
098 BSI BSCP 1007 Cinemas, maintainedlighting for BSI London
England 1955
099 BSI BS5382 Cinematograph screens, specification BSI
London England 1976
100 BSI BS5252 Colour co-ordination forbuildingpuiposes,
framework for BSI London England 1976
101 BSI BS LP 110 Concrete, structuraluseof
Part 11972 Design materials & workmanship
Part 2 1972 Design charts forsinglyreinforced beams &rectangular
columns
Part 3 1972 Design charts forcircular columns & prestressed beams
BSI London England 1972
102 BSI BS 350 Part 1 Conversion factors, basis oftables BSI
London England 1974
103 BSI PD 6444 Part 1 Co-ordinationofdimensions in building,
recommendations. Basicspaces forstructure, external envelope 8
internalsub-divisions BSI London England 1969
104 BSI BS 4330 Co-ordination ofdimensions in building,
recommendations: Controlling dimensions 851 London England
1968
105 BSI 4011 Co-ordination ofdimensions in building,
recommendations: Co-ordinating sizes forbuilding components &
assemblies BSI London England 1966
106 BSI BS 2900 Co-ordination ofdimensions inbuilding,
recommendations: Glossary ofterms BSI London England 1970
107 BSI BS CP3: Ch 1: Part 1 Daylighting BSI London England
1964
108 BSI BS 5502 Design ofbuildings & structures foragriculture,
code ofpractice BSI London England 1978
109 BSI BS 5619 Design ofhousing fortheconvenience ofdisabled
people, code ofpractice BSI London England 1978
110 BSI DD 51 Dimensional co-ordinationinbuildings, guidance on
BSI London England 1977
111 BSI BS CP 413 Ducts forbuilding services BSI London
England 1975
BSI BS5873 Educationalfurniture see 134 below
112 BSI BS 5266 Part 1 Emergency lighting forpremises other than
cinemas & certain otherspecified premises used forentertainment,
code ofpractice BSI London England 1975
113 8Sf BS2560 Exitsigns, internally illuminated BSI London
England 1976
114 BSI BS 4218 Exitsigns, self-luminous BSI London England
1978
115 BSI BS2053 Farm buildings offramedconstruction, general
purpose BSI London England 1972
116 BSI BS5588 Fireprecautions inthedesign ofbuildings,codeof
practice Part 4 Smoke controlin protected escape routes using
pressurisation BSI London England 1978
117 BSI BS CP 3: Chap iv: Fire, precautions against
Part 11971 Flats & maisonettes (in blocks overtwo storeys)
8
Part 2 1968 Shops department stores
Part 3 1968 Office buildings
BSI London England 1968 & 1971
118 BSI BS 2505 Fixedequipment forcowsheds
Part 11965 Imperial units
Part 2 1972 Metric units
BSI London England 1965& 1972
119 BSI BS 5440Part 1 Flues BSI London England 1978
120 BSI CP 2004 Foundations, general BSI London England
1972
121 BSI CP 101 Foundations & sub-structure fornon-industrial
buildingsofnotmore than fourstoreys BSI London England 1972
122 BSI BS 3202 Laboratory furniture & fittings BSI London
England 1959
123 BSI BS 2655 Parts 1—10 Lifts, escalators,passenger
conveyors &paternostersBSI London England 1969—71
124 BSI BS 4727: Part IV: Group 03 Lighting technology
terminology: Glossary ofelectrotechnical,power, telecommunication,
electronics, lighting& colourterms BSI London England 1972
125 BSI BSCP3: Chapv: Loading
Part 11967 Dead & imposed loads
Part2 1972 Windloads
BSI London England 1967& 1972
126 BSI 5628 Masonry, structural usecode ofpractice Part 1
Universalmasonry BSI London England 1978
127 BSI PD 6031 Metric systemin theconstruction industry, use
of BSI London England 2nd edn 1968

CODES
128 BSI 5536 Micro-filming, preparation oftechnical drawings for
BSI London England 1978
129 BSI BS5550: PartV: Section 5.1: Subsection 5.1.1
Motion-picture safetyfilm, definition testing & marking BSI London
England 1978
130 BSI BS799: PartV Oilstoragetanks BSI London England
1975
131 BSI BS3178 Playground equipment forparks BSI London
England various dates
132 BSI BS CP 114 Reinforced concrete, structural use in
buildings BSI London England 1969
133 BSI 5572 Sanitarypipework, codeofpractice BSI London
England 1978
134 BSI 3030 Schoolfurniture now replaced by:
BSI BS 5873 Educationalfurniture
Part 1 Specifications forfunctional dimensions, identification & finish of
chairs& tables foreducational institutions. Part2 Specificationfor
strength & stability of chairs foreducational institutions. Part3
Specification for strength & stability of tables for educational
institutions BSI London England 1980
135 BSI PD 5686 SI units, use of BSI London England 1978
136 BSI BS 5709 Specification forstiles, bndle gates & kissing gates
BSI London England 1979
137 BSI BS1754 Steel barns with covered roofs BSI London
England 1961
138 BSI BS 990 Steelwindows generally fordomestic & similar
buildingsPart 2 Metric units BSI London England 1972
139 BSI BS CP 117 Structural steel& concrete,composite
structures in Part 1 Simplysupported beamsinbuildings BSI London
England 1965
140 BSI BS 499 Structural steelinbuildings, use of Part2: 1969
Metric units BSI London England 1969
141 BSI BS CP3: Chap i(B) Sunlight (houses, flats & schools only)
BSI London England 1945
142 BSI PD 6479 Symbols & othergraphic conventions forbuilding
production drawings, recommendations BSI London England 1976
143 BSI BSCP3: Chap ii Thermalinsulationinrelation to thecontrol
ofthe environment BSI London England 1970
144 BSI BS CP 112 Timber,structural useof
Part 2 1971 Metric units
Part 3 1973 Trussed rafters forroofsofdwellings
BSI London England 1971 & 1973
145 BSI 8S4787 Part 1 Wooddoorsets, doorleaves & frames BSI
London England 1972
146 BSI BS CP 153 Windows & rooflights Part 1 Cleaning & safety
BSI London England 1969
148 Building Officials & Codes Administrators International Basic
buildingcode BOCA Chicago USA triennial 7th edn 1978
164 CIBS Institution ofheating & ventilationengineers guide (vol
AB&C) CIBS LondonEngland 1970
173 Constructional Steel Research & Development Organisation
Steel designer's manual Crosby Lockwood London England 4th edn
1972
197 DES Furniture & equipment dimensions: further & higher
education (BB44) HMSO London England 1970
198 DES Furniture & equipment: working heights & zones for
practicalactivities (BB 50) HMSO London England 1973
199 DES Guidelines forenvironmentaldesign & fuelconservationin
educational buildings (DN 17) DES London England 1974
214 DES Standards forschool premises HMSO London
England 1972
217 DHSS Clean catering: ahandbook onhygiene in catering
establishments HMSO London England 4th edn 1972
233DoE Homes fortoday & tomorrow (ParkerMorris report':
MHLG1961) HMSO London England reprinted 1975
425
Bibliography
234 DoE Houseplanning: aguideto userneeds wtih achecklist (OB
14) HMSO London England 1976
271 Electricity Council & Lighting Industry Federation Interiorlighting
design Electricity Council&LIF London England 1977
276 Essex CountyCouncil Design guide forresidential areas ECC
Chelmsford England 1973
284 Fire Officers'Committee Rules forautomatic sprinkler
installations FOC London England 1970
300 Greater London Council London building (constructional)
by-laws GLC London England 1972
301 Greater London Council Means ofescape incaseoffire (code of
practice) GLC London England 1974
324 HMSO Guide to fireprecautionsAct 1971:hotels & boarding
houses HMSO London England 1972
325 HoC Agriculture (miscellaneousprovisions) act 1968:codes of
recommendations forthe welfare oflivestock HMSO London England
1968
326 HoC Agriculture (safety, health & welfare) act 1956 HMSO
London England 1956
327 HoC Chronically sick & disabledpersons act 1970 HMSO
London England 1970
328 HoC Cinematograph act 1909 HMSO London England 1909
329 HoC Cinematograph act 1952 HMSO London England 1952
330 HoC Civil amenities act 1967 HMSO London England 1967
331 HoC Cleanairact 1956 HMSO London England 1956
332 HoC Cleanairact1968 HMSO London England 1968
333 HoC Control ofpollution act 1974 HMSO London England
1974
334 HoC Countryside act 1968 HMSO London England 1968
335 HoC Countryside (Scotland) act 1967 HMSO London England
1967
336 HoC Dangerous drugs act 1965 HMSO London England 1965
337 HoC Dangerous drugs act 1967 HMSO London England 1967
338 HoC Factoriesact 1961 HMSO London England 1961
339 HoC Films act 1960 HMSO London England 1960
340 HoC Fireprecautions act 1971 HMSO London England 1971
341 HoC Health & safety at worketcact 1974 HMSO London
England 1974
342 HoC Insulation act 1972 HMSO London England 1972
343 HoC London building act 1930 HMSO London England 1930
344 HoC London building (amendment) act 1935 HMSO London
England 1935
345 HoC London building (amendment) act 1939 HMSO London
England 1939
346 HoC Offices, shops& railwaypremises act 1963 HMSO
London England 1963
347 HoC Offices, shops& railwaypremises act 1971 HMSO
London England 1971
348 HoC Petroleum (consolidation) act 1928 HMSO London
England 1928
349 HoC Pharmacy & poisons act 1933 HMSO London England
1933
350 HoC Public health act 1936 HMSO London England 1936
351 HoC Publichealth act 1961 HMSO London England 1961
352 HoC Public health (recurring nuisances) act 1969 HMSO
London England 1969
353 HoC Publiclibraries & museums act 1964 HMSO London
England 1964
354 HoC Radioactivesubstances act 1960 HMSO London England
1960
355 HoC Riding establishments act 1934 HMSO London England
1934
356 HoC Rivers (prevention ofpollution) act 1951 HMSO London
England 1951
426
Bibliography
CODES
357 HoC Rivers (prevention ofpollution) act 1961 HMSO London
England 1961
358 HoC Rivers (prevention ofpollution) (Scotland)act 1951
HMSO London England 1951
359 HoC Rivers (prevention ofpollution) (Scotland)act 1965 HMSO
London England 1965
360 HoC Sewerage (Scotland) act 1968 HMSO London England
1968
361 HoC Theatres act 1968 HMSO London England 1968
362 HoC Therapeuticsubstances act 1956 HMSO London England
1956
363 HoC Town 8 country planning act 1971 HMSO London
England 1971
364 HoC Town & country planning (Scotland)act 1972HMSO
London England 1972
365 HoC Waterresources act 1963 HMSO London England 1963
383 IES The IES Code: recommendations forlighting building
interiors CIBS London England 1977
387 IES(USA) Lightinghandbook ES NewYorkUSA 1972
390 Institution ofElectrical Engineers Regulationsfortheelectrical
equipment ofbuildings lEE London England latest edtion
391 InternationalAirTransport Assocation Airport Terminalreference
manual IATA Montreal Canada 6th edn 1976
392 International Civil Aviation Organisation Aerodrome design
manual
Part 2 Taxiways,aprons& holding bays
Part 3 Pavements
ICAO Montreal Canada 1977
393 International Civil Aviation Organisation Airport planning manual
Part 1 Masterplanning
Part 2 Landuse & environmental control
ICAO Montreal Canada 1977
394 InternationalCivil Aviation Organisation Heliport manual ICAO
Montreal Canada 1979
395 International Civil Aviation Organisation Internationalstandards,
recommended practices: aerodromes.Annex 14 tothe convention on
international aviation IACO MontrealCanada 1976
396 InternationalCivil Aviation Organisation Stolport manual ICAO
Montreal Canada 1976
397 InternationalCommission on Illumination International
recommendations forthe calculationofnatural daylight (publication
16) CIE ParisFrance 1970
398 InternationalConference of Building Officials Uniform building
code ICBO Whittier Calif USA latest edition
399 International Federation of Library Associations Standards for
publiclibraries Verlag Dokumentation Munich Germany IFLA
The Hague Netherlands 1973
400 ISO Modular co-ordination: basic module (ISO 1006:1973) ISO
GenevaSwitzerland 1973
401 ISO Modular co-ordination: co-ordinating sizes fordoor-sets,
external & internal (ISO 2776: 1974) ISO Geneva Switzerland 1974
402 ISO Modular co-ordination: multi-modules for horizontal co-
ordinating dimensions (ISO 1040: 1973) ISO Geneva
Switzerland 1973
403 ISO Modular co-ordination: principles & rules (ISO 2848:1974)
ISO Geneva Switzerland 1974
404 ISO Modular co-ordination: reference lines ofhonzontal
controllingdimensions (ISO R 1970: 1970) ISO Geneva
Switzerland 1970
405 ISO Modular co-ordination: storey heights & room heights for
residential buildings (ISO 1789: 1973) ISO Geneva
Switzerland 1973
406 ISO Modularco-ordination: vocabulary (ISO 1791:1973) ISO
GenevaSwitzerland 1973
407 ISO Standard for the functional sizes of school furniture (ISO!
D1S5970:1978) ISO GenevaSwitzerland 1978
473 Metrication Board Howto write metric: a style guide to teaching
andusing SIunits HMSO London England no date
504 National Elevator Industry Elevatorengineering standards
National Elevator Industry Inc NewYorkUSA 5th edn 1979
505 National Fire Protection Association Designing buildings forfire
safety NFPA Boston USA 1975
508 National Fire Protection Association Life safety code NFPA
Boston USA latest edition
509 National Fire Protection Association NationalFire codes NFPA
Boston USA 16vol 1976
510 National Fire ProtectionAssociation Nationalfireprevention code
NFPA Boston USA Latest edition
512 National House Builders Council Registered house builders
handbook NHBC London England 1974
515 National Swimming Pool Institute Technical Council Minimum
standards forpublicspas NSPI Washington DC USA 1978
516 National Swimming Pool Institute Technical Council Minimum
standards forpublicswimming pools NSPI WashingtonDC USA 1974
517 National Swimming Pool Institute StandardsCodes Committee
Suggested minimum standards forresidential swimming pools NSPI
Washington DC USA 1974
549 Ramsey & Sleeper/American InstituteofArchitects Architectural
graphic standards (Packard RT (ed)) JohnWiley & Sons New York
USA 7thedn 1980
553 RIBA Cl/SfB construction indexingmanual RIBA Services Ltd
London England 1976
573 Scottish Development Department Scottish Housing Handbook
part3 Housing development layout, roads & se,vices HMSO
Edinburgh Scotland 1977
574 Scottish Development Department Scottish Housing Handbook
part 6 Housing forthe disabled HMSO Edinburgh Scotland 1979
581 Simmonds M F Accommodation standards foreducational
buildings BRE Garston England revised edn 1977
584 Southern Building Code Congress Standard building code
SBCC Birmingham Ala USA latest edition
587 Sports Council Specification forartificial sports surfaces
(technical report prepared bythe Rubber & Plastics Research
Association of Great Britain) Sports Council London England 1978
589 Statutory instruments 1959:428 Agriculture (safeguardingof
workplaces) regulations 1959 HMSO London England 1959
590 Statutory instruments 1966:99 Building operations, construction
health & welfare regulations HMSO London England 1966
591 Statutory instruments 1976:1676 Thebuilding regulations
HMSO London England 1976
592 Statutory instruments 1976:1676 Thebuilding regulations Part
E Safety in fire
E3 Rules formeasurement
E4 Provision ofcompartment walls & compartment floors
E5 Fireresistance ofelements ofstructure
HMSO London England 1976
593 Statutory instruments 1978:723 Thebuilding (first amendment)
regulations HMSO London England 1978
594 Statutory instruments 1971:2052 Thebuilding standards
(Scotland) (consolidation) regulations HMSO London England 1971
595 Statutory instruments 1973:794 Thebuilding standards
(Scotland) amendment regulations 1973 HMSO London England
1973
596 Statutory instruments 1975:404 Thebuilding standards
(Scotland) amendment regulations 1975 HMSO London England
1975
597 Statutory instruments: Statutory regulations& orders 1922:73
(as amended by SI 1961:2435) Chemical works regulations HMSO
London England 1961
598 Statutory instruments 1955:1129 Cinematographsafety
regulations HMSO London England 1955
 427

Bibliography
CODES REFERENCE BY TOPICS
599 Statutory instruments 1959:282 Cinematographsafety Access
regulations HMSO London England 1959 056086088136158189231242244276557
600 Statutory instruments 1948:1547 Clay workswelfare special Acoustics
regulations HMSO London England 1948 063 064 190 254 268 408428503 522 532544 545642655
601 Statutory instruments 1976:2010 Fire precaution (non-certified Air conditioning —ventiIation
factory, office, shop & railwaypremises) regulations HMSO London Airports
England 1976 048 067 165 186 341 370 391 392 393 394 395396 635
602 Statutory instruments: rules
Statutory & orders 1917:1067 Metal Apartments also—housing
worksas amended by SR&O 1926:864 & SI 1961:2434 HMSO 018037 464 533 623 628
London England 19171926& 1961
Auditoriums
603 Statutory instruments: Statutory rules & orders 1929:534 Oil 063408413
cakewelfare order HMSO London England 1929
Banks
604 Statutory instruments 1964:966 Sanitaryconveniences 007249 259 374 477
regulations HMSO London England 1964
Building services
605 Statutory instruments: Statutory rules &orders 1925:864 Saw 090 111 119 130 133 143 150 151 246 377 390 416461 489 490503
mills & woodworking factories welfare (ambulance& firstaid) as 593
amended by SI 1961:2434 HMSO London England 1925& 1961
Canteens —refectories
606 Statutory instruments: 1960:1932 Ship building & ship repairs Car parks
regulations HMSO London England 1960 086 308 424435 513 555 557
607 Statutory instruments 1972:2051 Standardsforschool premises Cinemas
regulations HMSO London England 1972 084098099113114129328329339347426598599
608 Statutory instruments 1964:965 Washingfacilities regulations Climate
HMSO London England 1964 047 285 291 433434467520527529536617
610 SteelWindowAssociation Specification forthe metricpreferred Colleges
range W20 steelwindows SWA 201 SWA London England 1972 039040041063096097113114147168176200217226261377
629 United Nations EducationalScientific & Cultural Organization 413437441 446472476485526556569581 612629630652
(UNESCO) Planning buildings & facilities forhigher education Construction
Architectural Press London England UNESCOPress Paris France 008089092101120121125126132139140144173175200228
1975 277288289316341 371 375378422445467491 494495498502
553 568 590
630 University Grants Committee Plann,ngnorms foruniversity
buildings HMSO London England 1974 Daylighting also—*lightingsunlight
631 Urban Land Institute Residential developmenthandbook ULI 047059074076107251252291367368375380381382383397
Washington DC USA 1978 452 457 527 528 529 567
632 USCongress Architectural barriers act US Superintendentof Design
Documents Washington DC USA 1968 085163169173179185209210211 212213214247276279292
294302303313322375417425445462549567628638
633 US Congress National environment policy act
US Superintendent of Documents Washington DC USA 1970 Dining rooms
096097147168176217226439441
634 US Congress Occupational safety & healthact
US Superintendent of Documents Washington DC USA 1971 Disabledalso —foldpeople
028055060071088109157187189191220221281286287296
635 US Federal Aviation Agency Theapron & terminal building. 317327423432438447469488518535574628632639
planning manual3 vol National Technical InformationService
Doors
Springfield Va USA 1975
117145401549574592628
Drawing practice
061 075081082095127128135142290322448463553621638
Elderly —.oldpeople
Elevators also —.stairs
035123504613628
Energy conservation also —.climateheating
030059149172194195199250257258304427460558611615
Equitation—sport

Escalators —.stairs
Factories —industrial buildings
Farm buildings
108115118137288325326333334335340341347348351352
356357358359360363364365415582589601 646
Fire precautions
026079116117154196269284301324340412436492501505
506507508509510546592601 619
Flats—apartments

Garages
225 276 348435 636 650
Gardens
002 021 032066087 155 161 166 167 171 263 264 320 376 410 411
430431 466 482 550 562 563
428

Bibliography
REFERENCE BYTOPICS Old people
232235236247295302438444469499644

Pools—gardens sport
Handicapped —.disabled Proportions
075081082445
Heating also—.energy solar ventilation
031 059164172199230304416467487493500503536558611 Recreation also —.cinemas museums sport theatres
654 062 131 180227239443475

Hospitals Refectories —dining rooms

013 014 017020 022 023 024 025054 218219220 262 294296303 Religiousbuildings
315336337340341 349 354 362419420421 478525547 551 559 005070072160184311312478579620
560576577578647
Restaurants
Hotelsalso —restau rants 016043045049096097147153156176217226243282319341
001 011 043049050147176217223226243255272273274319 439 441 442 477583
324341 346347363377439440441 442477480583645
Roads also—access
Housing also—.apartments climate disabled energy gardening 086158225240242244308 557
old people solar
037 038 044 047 092 179227 228 233 234 235236 237 238 240242 Sanitary —lavatories
245246247248263264299 300 302363372458464467511512 Schools
519521 548558573574624631 637650 134191192193194195196197198199200201202203204205
Industrialbuildings 207208209210211 212213214215265267275314446451 476
031 036052053164177178257280284301305331 332333338 484 526 530 575 581 607 652
341 346 348 352 354 363 374 382 387418456470 477480481 483 Schools ofartdesign drama music —.colleges
486 505 534 539 590 592 597 600 601 602603604 605606608616
627634642651 Services—.building

Insulation Shoppingcentresshopsstores
143342503558 116117306340341 369374450477552601

Kitchens SI—metricsystem
176 226 248 372 575 Solarenergy
059256528615654
Laboratories
039 122 206 278 283 336 337 341 349354362524571 Spacestandards
103104105110400401 402403404405406407607
Landscape
012051 056057 166 167 169 171 229231239279334335363453 Sport
454 482 563616618633643 003006046083183205212297355384388475514515516517
Lavatories
537538549585586587588639
029246 248 341 347 480 604 608 Stairs
Law 117123300338340346501591594613628
009068177178224300310321 373453649650 Standards, international
Lecture rooms& theatres —.colleges 400401 402 403 404 405406407 530
Students hostels —colleges
Libraries
065 073 314 323 353399 437447 455471 472474476622625641 Sunlight also—*daylightingsolar
652 074 141 251 252
Lighting also—daylighting Theatres also —cinemas
112124202271367380381382383384385386387397449457 015034113114152266298309340343350351352361408409
523 413475556572626
Man & his buildings Toilets —.lavatories
086 256445557 Universities—.colleges
Marinas —sport Vehicleservices —car parks garages
Metric system Ventilation also ---.heating
010102127135228473479494495531610
080090164416496
Museums
Warehouses—industriaI
buildings
040318385476612
Windows
Offices
069177178222241 249257 259 260341346347 363364366374 019058091103138146170375380381434459467520536543
389429465477480540541 542 545554564565566570580592 549567610
601 614 Workshops —.industrial buildings

indicates an illustration
Abbreviations: listxiii—xiv,principles xi
Access: air handling plant rooms 392,
ambulances 166(2), buildings 19, cinemas
354, cinemas, drive-in358,disabled 43,
disabled housing86, doors 401—2, ducts
383, flats & apartments 90, flats &
apartments, internal 97, garages, private21,
100—1, gardens 47, hospital accident
department 168, hotels212, houses 41—3,
industrial buildings 264,273, 282—3, libraries
146, manhole dimensions 13, manholes,oil
storage tank 387, motels 219, offices 230,
oldpeople'shousing 83, security 76,
services13, shops& stores 188, theatres
348, windows forcleaning 404(12), workon
buildings 13—also stairs
Accessroads 41—2
Accommodation: boarding schools 127,
conventions 140,221, hotels 210, schoolsof
art,design, drama, music 137, student 99,
studenthostels140—1, youth hostels 143—4
Acoustics 18:collegelecture room 136, theatre
350, unitsof measurement 2(7), —also
sound insulation
Air: common contaminants 15(2),quality of 15,
saturated, moisture content 394(1), supply
rates 15
Air-conditioning: cinemas 356, duct sizes 384,
hotels218, offices233
Air contaminants, ratesof production 15(3)(5)
Air handling plant rooms 392
Airports 258—62:aircraft maintenancebuilding
262, aircraft parking 261, airfreight building
262, baggage handling 260, 261, catering
building 262, components 258, flow
diagrams 260, ground transport 260, layout
258, orientation of runways259, passenger
terminals 259, 260, 261, runways258, 259,
taxiways 258,259
Ambulances, dimensions 166(2)
Ambulance rooms, industrial buildings 280
Apartments —*ffats
Apostilb, definition 26
Architects'data:languagexii, style xi
Art galleries —museums
Artificial lighting —.lighting
Art schools137—8 —also colleges
Aspect, houses 46, 81, gardens 104, loading
bays283
Athletics tracks, indoor326, outdoor 324 —also
sport
Auditorium: exitrequirements 136, 348, 354,
lecture room 134—5, levels, cinema 357(4),
multiple 351(7), 354, seating 135, 136,
349—51,354, theatre 350, 353
Balconies: access, flats & apartments88, 90,
theatre 349,350,351
Banks 245—7: cashier positions 246, drive-in
246, examples 247, layout diagram 245(3)
Barbecues 77(4), 107(8)
Bars: hotel 211, public houses 224
Baths, domestic 63, swimming —.pools
Bathrooms: disabled housing 86—7, domestic
61—5, equipment 61—3, hospital,geriatric
158, hotels 216, industrial buildings 281, old
people, aids83, pre-fabricated units 65
Bedrooms: boarding school 127, disabled87,
domestic 70—2, domestic, USA sizes70,
fitments 71, hotel 210, 216, motel 220, old
people's, dimensions & data 83, student
hostels 140, wheelchair users 87, youth
hostels 143, 144
Bed sizes: domestic 70, 71, hotel 216, hospital
159
Bell curveconcept—human dimensions
Bibliography: basiclist 413—23, codes 424—7,
topicreferences 427—8
Bicycle stands 257(12)(13)
Blinds —windows
Body measurements —cattle, children, man,
pigs
Boilerrooms387—8
Book storage: domestic shelving 69, floor
loading 177, library shelves 146, space
needs 177
Building materials: physical characteristics
(table) 382, sound absorption coefficients
(table) 397, thermal conductivities 393(2)
Bus stations —carparks
Cabinets —cupboards
Calorifier rooms 388
Calorifiers 390—1
Carparks248—52:buses249(1 )(3), bus
stations, 255—6, bus station roadways256,
busstation trafficorganisation 256, drive-in
cinemas 358, industrial buildings 263, multi-
storey 251—2,off-street 249, ramps 251,
road parking 248, space requirements 248,
249, stall widths USA 250, 'standard design
car'251, theatre 348,truck,249, USA
dimensions 250, vehiclecontrol 252 —also
parking
Cattle, dimensions 294 —*also farm buildings
Ceiling heights, USA minimum 44
Changing rooms: hospital staff 178, industrial
buildings 280, 281, swimming pool 336—7
Check lists: energy saving, earth 80, house
userrequirements 48, old people's housing
preferences 82, old people's housing safety
precautions 84, pig husbandry data 303,
services in flats &apartments 93, sporthall
equipment 321, window choice 405
Children body measurements 131—2
Churches 182—4: furnishings 183, galleries
184, interiors 183, organs 184
Cinemas 354—8: auditorium levels 357(4),
college halls 134, 135, drive-in 358, lighting
356, projection 355, prolection, drive-in 358,
rear projection ofimage 134, seating 354,
screen sizes 355, 358, screen systems 357,
16 mm 134—5, 356, sound systems 357,
ventilation 356, viewing criteria, college 135
Circulation: houses, internal 47, 52, operating
theatre 171, people 19, traffic 20—1 —also
access, car parks
Classification of technical drawings—drawing
practice
Cl/Sfb 6
Cloakrooms: cinema 355, industrial buildings
281, swimming pool 337,theatre 348,
windows404(11)
Closets —cupboards
Codingsystems for near-sighted 162
Cold bridges 394
Colleges 134—42: art, design, drama,music
137—8, arts centre layout 138(5), dining
rooms 142, drawing studios 139, lecture
rooms 134—6, lecture room acoustics 136,
lecture rooms, convertibility 134, lecture
roomsmeans ofescape 136, lecture rooms,
tv in 136, student hostels 140—1
Community health care —hospitals
Compartmentation (fire controD: hotels 211,
hospitals 151, industrial buildings 277, shops
& stores 189, 192, 198
Colour: in buildings 17, classification 17
Concerts, hallsused for350
Condensation 394
Conferences —*conventions
Controls forhandicapped86, 162,412
Conventions: hotels221—3, student hostel
429
Index
accommodation 140
Conversion factors 364—5
Conversion tables 366—81, list 366
Corridors14,407:capacity 407, hospital 157,
171, hotel 216, passenger conveyors 409,
queues407, waiting areas 407,walking
speeds 407
Crawlways 13, 383
Crematoria 187
Cupboards: bathroom 62(9)( 10), bedroom,
built-in 71, 73, 74, hotel bedroom 217,
kitchen75, reach height, disabled 86, reach
height, old people 83, walk-in 73—4---also
lockers
Cylinders, hot water389—90
Daylight 27—32: daylight factor (DF) 27—9, OF
calculation28—31,OFfortypes oftask 17(3),
distribution of28, diversity of28, in hospitals
154, obstruction 40, quality of, glare32, sky
components (table) 30,window positions
404—+alsoorientation, sunlight
Daylight factor —*daylight
Design: convention hotel concept 221, houses
38etseq, hospital 149,150,153,154, office
buildings factors 225—7, operating theatre
171, primary schooltrends120, workshop
factors 290, workplace 278, 279
Design schools 137—S
Dimensions, controlling, forhouses 44
Dimensions & space requirements: air
handling plant 392, ambulance 166(2),
bedrooms, old people 83, busparking 256,
beds 70, 71, 159, 216, calorifiers 390—1, car
parks 248, 249, 250, 251, cars USA 251,
cattle 294,296,church furnishings 183,
crawlways 13, 383, cylinders 389—90,
disabled access 43, 85—6, drawing studio
equipment 139, elevators 410—12,
escalators 409, extract fans 392(5), farm
machinery 298,314, fire engine 20, 21(1),
footways 19,43,85, 106, fork-lifts271,
furniture, garden 107, furniture hotel2l7,
furniture old people 83,furniture school
130—3, furniture snack bar 202, 205, garden
paths 106, gardentools107, gasboilers 388,
389, hospital corridors 157, hospital
equipment 156, 158, 159, 167, 169,
172(operating theatres), 1 79(stores), hotel
bedroom 217, hotel kitchen 213, hotel
reception equipment 212, human beings
11—14, kitchen equipment 59, kitchenovens,
domestic 58, laboratory bench 291,
laboratory equipment, hospital 176, laundry
domestic 60, library equipment 146, 177,
loading bays282—4, lockers 133, 178,280,
manual handling 278, meter, external 74,
gas, domestic 386, milk delivery box 99,
officeequipment 243—4, office filing241—2,
oil fuel tanks 387(3)(4), pedestrian
movement 19, pallets 269—72, pigs303, 306,
poultry309, prams, moving 19, prams,
stored74, pressure jet boilers 389, ranges
58, refrigerators 58—9, restauranttables
202—4,school bags 133, school children
131—2, school children'scoats 133, school
furniture 130—1, self-service shop
equipment 195, service ducts 384, 'standard
design car' 251, trucks turning 282(4), 283,
vehicle parking USA 250, vehicles USA
21(1), walkways 383, waterstorage tanks
391, wheelchair car parking 85, 166,
wheelchair moving 19,43,workshop
equipment 288, youthhostels 144
Dining rooms:boarding school 128, college
142, domestic 66, outside spaces 66
Disabled: access to dwellings 43, 85—6,
bathroom 86, 87, changing room, cubicle
430
Index
size 337,codes&switches 86, 162,412,
doors 401, elevators 412, gardens for 110,
hospital baths 163, housing 85—7, kitchen
layout 86, limbfitting centre 174, long stay
ward 162, parking spaces for22, 85,166,
ramps 85, 87(11), 407, stairs 86, 408, wc86,
87—also wheelchair
Diving boards 334
Doors14,401—2: automatic 166(4), 190(7),
bathroom opening 64, bedroom opening 72,
cinema 354, dimensions 401, disabled 86,
fire safety 401, flowcapacity 401, folding
402, hospitals sizes 157, industrial types
402, private garage 102, shops&stores 190
Dormitories —bedrooms
Drainage: garden 109, industrial buildings 290,
laboratories 292, petrol stations 254
Drama schools137—8
Drawing practice 6—8: classification &coding 8,
levels 8, minimum character height 7(4),
working drawings 6—7
Drawing sheets: layout & identification 3, sizes
& folds4—5
Drawings technical, preparation for micro-
filming7
Drive-in: banks 246, cinemas 358, restaurants
206
Ducts: access 383, air-conditioning, sizes 384,
services distribution 384, ventilation, sizes
384 —*alsoservices
Elevators 410—2:coding systems 162,412,
dimensions 410, disabled 412, grouping
412, hospital 151(6)(7), hotels 210, industrial
buildings 286, lobby dimensions 412, offices
228, paternoster 411, shops & stores 189,
trafficcapacity 411, wheelchair dimensions
412
Emergency electrical supply, hotel 218
Emergency lighting, cinemas 356, hotels 218,
shops191 —4Bibl12
Energy, unitsof measurement 2
Energyconservation: double window 405,
house plan shape 80, house ventilation 81,
indoor pool 115, industrial buildings
compartmentation 278, loading bays 283,
office 233, lighting control 400, position of
windows81, underground houses 79, 80,
ventilation 81
Equipment space needs: bathroom,domestic
61—4, bedroom, domestic 71, dining room,
domestic 66, domestic storage 73—5,
drawing studios 139, farm machinery 314,
handbasin unit, hospital 158(2), household
cleaning 75, kitchen, domestic 55—6, 58—9,
laundry, domestic 60, living room, domestic
67—8, meters, domestic 74, 386, offices
241—4, operating theatre 172, schoolofart&
design 137—8, security bellpush 76,
workshop 288
Escalators: 409, shops& stores 189, traffic
capacity 409
Escape: collegelecture room 136, flats&
apartments traveldistance 91, hospital 151,
152, hotel 211, 216, office 231, multi-storey
car park 252 —also fire
Exits: cinema 354, lecture room 136, prolection
room355, theatre 348, 352
Factories —.industrialbuildings
Farm buildings 294—314:animal handling,
cattle 298, 299, animal handling, sheep 308,
beefcattle housing 302, beehouses 311, bull
pens 301, calf housing 302(5), calfpens
296—7,cattle 294—302,cattle housing
295—302,cattle, thermal needs294,cubicles
296, dogs310,dogs,professional kennels
311, domestic poultry3l0, doves 310,ducks
311,feeding, cattle 297—8, geese 311, grain
drying 313, humanwelfare 294, milking
299—300,pigs 303—6, pig behaviour, building
implications 303,pigs,dimensions 303, pigs,
space needs 306, pigs,thermal needs303,
pigs,ventilation 305, pigs, watering 304,
poultry308—9, poultryspace requirements
309, rabbits, 310, sheep 307—8, sheep,
flooring307, sheep, handling 308, slatted
floors295, 296(2), 307, slurry handling 295,
304,storage, crops312—3, storage,fuel314,
storage, machinery 314, straw-bedded pens
296, sucklercowhousing 302, ventilation,
cattle housing 298, ventilation, pigs 305,
ventilation, poultry 308,ventilation, sheep
307, waste production, cattle 295, waste
production, pigs304, waste storage, external
301, waterconsumption, cattle 294, 298,
waterconsumption, pigs303, water
consumption, sheep 307
Fences 103
FHAstandards 44
Fire, means ofescape, flats& apartments91,
93 houses 44, hospitals 151, 152, industrial
buildings 277, offices 231, stairs 408
Fire precautions: collegelecture room 136,
flats & apartments 91,93, hospital 151, 152,
hotel 211, 216,218, hypermarket 198,
industrial building 264, 277, 290, multi-
storey carpark252, office231,shops&
stores 189, 190, 192, sports hall 320, youth
hostel143
Fire safetydoors 401
Firespreadbetween houses 45
Flats & apartments 89—97: access90—1,
balconies 88, building types 89, escape
routes93, fire precautions 91, internal
access 97, internal planning 92—3,
maisonettes 89, penthouses 88, point blocks
94—5, roofgardens 110, 112, services check
list 93, split-level 96
Floodlighting garden features 110
Flow capacity: doors 401, corridors & ramps
14,407,stairs 14,408
Footways 19: disabled housing 85,86,garden
106(22) minimum clearwidth 43, wheelchair
widths43, 85
Fruit trees, trained 108
Fuel storage: domestic 75, farm 314, oil tanks
387
Furniture: garden, dimensions 107, hotel
bedroom 217, office 239, 240, old people,
dimensions 83(1)—(4), 84, school 130—3,
school dimension data 132, school stature
data 131
Garage, private: 41,100—2, doors 102,
entrances 21, ramps 21, UK regulations102,
vehicle dimensions 21, 100, 251, wheelchair
userspace85—also carparks
Gardens 77, 103—14: banks 105, disabled 110,
drainage 109, fences 103, fruit, trained 108,
fruittrees, planting distances 108, furniture
107, gates103, glasshouses 111, hedges
103,104,indoorll2,layout 104,110,112,
lighting, artificial110, 112, orientation104,
112, paths106, pergolas 106, pools109,
113, reservoirs 109, retainingwalls 106, rock
110, roofilO, 112,shedslll,shrub
planting 108, soil treatment 105, steps 106,
swimming pools 114, tools, dimensions 107,
tree planting 108, watersupply 109, wells
109,windbreaks 81, 104
Gas: atmospheric boilers 388, pressure jet
boilers 389, supplies 386
Glare 17, 32, 276, 398: hospitals 154
Glasshouses 111
Golden section 10
Grandstands, sportstadia 316
Health centres 181
Heating industrial buildings 276, 290
Heating systems 385—91:boilerrooms 387—8,
calorifier rooms 388, calorifiers 391, capacity
386, cylinders, hotwater389—90,heat
emittertypes 385, gas386, gas boilers 388,
389,oil 386—7, oil-filledboilers 389, pressure
jet boilers 389, solid fuel 387, tank rooms
391, thermal comfort 16,385
Heattransfer393
Hedges 103, 104
Hospitals 149—81: ambulance critical
dimensions 166(2), accident & emergency
168, administration 179—80, base concepts
153, bathroom, geriatric 158(4), bathroom,
incontinent 163(2), bed/base ratios 153, bed
concepts 153, bedsizes 159, burn units 175,
cardiac surgical units174, casualty
department 168, casualty entrances 166,
cobalt units170, community healthcare 181,
dental clinic 181,design 149, 150, 153, 154,
dietary services 180, elevators 151(6)(7),
escape, means of 151, 152, fire precautions
151, hand basin unit 158(2), health centres
181, Health Maintenance Organization 181,
health services structure 149, intensive care
173, kitchen 180, laundry/linen service 180,
lavatory, assisted 163(3), staff 178(3),
wheelchair 167(6), library 177, limb fitting
174, maternity 160, neurosurgery 173,
nuclear medicine 170, nurse working rooms
156, 157, offices179, operating theatres
171—2, operating theatre equipment 172,
outpatients department 166—7, outpatients
entrances 166, pathology laboratory 176,
pharmacy 177, physical medicine 175, post
mortem room 176, psychiatric centre 164,
radiology department 169, 170, spinal injury
173, staff changing rooms, non-resident 178,
supply &storage 179, transplant units 174,
types 149, ward design 154,158,159,
wards, acute 154, wards, children's 161,
wards, geriatric 158, wards, long stay 162,
163, ward types 155, ward upgrading 165
Hostels: student140—1,youth 143—4
Hotels 208—24: administration215, bars 211,
bedrooms 210, 216, 217, building services
218, convention 221—3, fireprecautions 216,
218, floor service 216, flow diagram 209,
food stores 213, front of house 212, kitchen
layouts 214, kitchenplanning 213, kitchen
storerequirements 214, motels 219—20,
motelroom sizes 220, plan forms 210, public
houses 224, publicrooms 211, restaurants
211, space allocations 208, staff
accommodation 215, types 208, vertical
circulation 210—also restaurants
Houses 38—102:access 41—3, access roads
41, 42, adaptable 78, aspect 40, 46,
balconies 88, bathroom61—5, bedroom
70—2, bedroom sizes USA 70, ceiling
heights USA44(2), children's room 67,
circulation, internal 47, combined rooms 49,
controlling dimensions 44,design
expression ofperiod 38, dining room 66,
disabled 85—7, disabled, access for43,
energysaving 79—81, extendible 78,
favourable & unfavourable sites40, garages
built-in 101, garagingcar41, 100—2, gradient
effectonplan 46, guests' room 67, kitchens
55—9, kitchen/bathroom relationship53,
kitchen/dining 55, kitchen equipment 55,
58—9, laundry spaces 60, living room 67—9,
living roomwindows 404, minimum room
sizesUSA44, more than 1-storey53—4,

music room 67, 69, north slopes 46,old
people82—4, officespaces 68,
1-storey 50—2, orientation 40,45,46,
organisation (diagram) 39, outdoor living
areas 77(2)(3), plan ranges 49, planselection
46,47,50, pram space 74(5), privategarages
100—2, private openspace 77, public rooms
66—9, relationship to otherbuildings 45,
security 76, services economy 53, shared
accommodation 99, site topography 46,
siting40, space, sub-division of39,
standards 44, 48, stepped 98, storage 73—5,
underground 79, 80, user check list48,
vertical circulation 53
House plans: circulation 47, examples 49, 51,
52, 54, morethan 1-storey53—4, 1-storey
50, plan ranges 49, selection 50
Human beings, space requirements 12—14,
257(1 )—(4)
Human body,basis ofdimensions 1, 9, 10
Human dimensions: bell curve concept 9,
significance for architecture 9
Human scale1,10
Hygiene: industrial buildings 280, 281,
swimming pools 335
Identification controls& switches fordisabled
86,162,412
llluminance 25, 26: for common tasks (table)
17, daylight on working plane (tables) 27,
outdoor27
'Imperial'measures —conversion factors,
conversion tables
Indoor gardens 112
Industrial buildings 263—90:area/worker264,
basicbuilding types 264, drainage 290,
doors 402,environmental compartmentation
278, factories 265—8,factory process flow
diagrams 266—8, factory structure 268, fire
control 277, fork-liftdimensions 271, heating
276, 290, hygiene 280, 281, industrial parks Loading bays, industrial buildings 282—3, rail
275, lavatories 280, lighting 276, 290,
loading bays282—4, multiple development
layouts 274, 275, noise control 276, order
picking 276, 279(1 )—(3), parking
requirements 263, rail-served 284, roof
factors 265, sanitary installations281,
security, loadingdock283,selection strategy
264—5, services 279, service routes 273,
servicing standards 290, site development
263, site layout factors 273, structure
selection 265, vehicle parking standards
286, ventilation 290, ventilation level 276, spacerequirements 11—13, 257(1)—(4),flow
warehouses 269—72, warehouse handling
methods 272, warehouse pallet stacking
diagrams 270, warehouse store flow
diagrams269—70,workplacedesign 278—9,
workshops 285—90,workshop circulation
286, workshop design factors (table) 290,
workshop equipment spaces 288, workshop
handling equipment 288(1), workshop types
285
Industrial parks 275
thermal 393—4
Insulation,
Insulation —aIso sound
Internal environment 15: industrial buildings
278, laboratories 293, offices 233
Kitchens: boarding school 128, college dining
room 142, disabled housing 86, domestic
equipmentspaceneeds 55,58, 59, domestic Microfilming technical drawings 7
layouts 56, 57,domestic ovens 58, domestic Minimum spaces, restaurant cars 207
storage 75, domestic working sequence 55,
examples 57, fixtures &worktops 56,
hospital 180, hotel 213—4, oldpeople's
dimensions 83, relation to bathroom 52,
studenthostels 141, USA standards 56,
windows 404(9), youthhostels 143, 144
Laboratories 291—3: benches 293, benches,
hospital 176, disposal systems 292,finishes
293, hospital pathology 176, internal
environment 293, services distribution 292,
spacerequirements 291, storage 292
Lamps: filament 399, fluorescent, aspect factor
399, fluorescent, properties 25(3)
Laundry: hospital 180, hotel 213, spaces,
domestic 60
Lavatories: assisted for disabled 163(3),
boarding school 127, collegedining room
142, disabled 87(2)(3)(8), domestic 64,65,
equipment dimensions 61,62, 65, hospital
staff 178(3), industrial buildings 279, 281,
marina 347, office228, old people, aids83,
84, pre-fabricated units65,studenthostel
140, swimming bath 335, wheelchair 167(6),
wheelchair userspaces& fittings
87(2)(3)(8), youth hostel 143, 144
Le Corbusier 10
Lecture halls —colIeges
Le Modulor10
Libraries 145—8: control 146, domestic 69,
examples 146, 147,148, hospital 177, layout
146—7, school 129, services 147, space
standards 145
Lifts—elevators
Lighting 25—6, 398—400:artificial 17, cinemas
356,day 17,definitions 25—6, drawingstudio
139, farmbuildings, illumination levels
294(2), general, loading requirement 398,
glare prevention 398, hotel 218, illuminance
25, 26, industrial buildings 276, 290,
integration ofelectric& daylighting 400,
libraries 147, light sources 399, luminaires,
control in relation todepth ofinteriorspace
400, luminance 26, maintenancefactor 26,
museum 359, 360, office234, outdoor399,
reflectance 25, room index 26, task 399,
utilisation factor 26—also daylight, sunlight
284
Lockers: hospital staff 178, industrialbuildings
280(3)(4), office 242(6), school children 133
Lumen definition 2, 25
Luminance 26: sky, relation to glare 32
Luxdefinition 2, 25
Maintenance factor—Iighting
Maisonettes —fIats & apartments
Man 9: body measurements 11, dimensions &
capacity 14, space foraccess forworkon
buildings 13, universal standard 9,walking
speeds14
Man & his buildings 15—24: access 19, colour
17, noise & acoustics 18, parking 22,
parking, vehicle dimensions 24, pattern &
texture 18, quality of air15, roadways,
dimensions20—1, thermal comfort 16,
vehicleturningspaces 22—3, vibration,
sensitivityto 18, visual efficiency 17
Manholes: access dimensions 13, oil storage
tank 387
Marinas 346—7
Media centres 129
Meters domestic 73, 74, 386
Meterrooms, gas386
Metric system—SI
Metric units—#conversionfactors
Modular coordination, windows 403
Modular systems: hospitals 150, schools 126
Mortuaries: crematorium 187, hospital 176,
temperatures 187
Motels —hoteIs
Mosques 185
431
Index
Munsell scale 17—18,26
Museums 359—61:examples 360, 361, fields
of vision359, lighting 359, 360, painting
storage 359(10), room sizes359
Musicschools137—8
National House-Building Council 44
Neufertix
Noise18:hospital 154, industrial buildings 276,
maximum intrusive levels (tables) 18, privacy
from45, sound insulation 395—7
Odours: air supply rate, sources, ventilation 15
Office buildings 225—44:access 230, building
type225, computer room diagram 236(3),
construction elements 234, cores228, 229,
elevators 228, energyuse 233, equipment
243—4,furniture 239—240,internal
environment 233, lighting organisation 234,
means ofescape 231, meetings, spaces for
237, 238, officeareas definition of226,
reception236(2), security 230,services 232,
serviceducts 228, shell types227, space
standards 235, special areas 236, stairs 228,
231, storage 241—2,table space, meetings
238, workstations 239—40
Offices:hospitals 179, private houses
68(13)—(18),ventilation requirements 15(8),
windows 404(8)(10)
Oil fuel, storage, tank capacities,siting386
Old people, housing for 82—4, 94(4): bathroom
aids83, 84, bedroom dimensions 83,
communal amenities 82, grouped flatlets 82,
lavatory aids83, 84, maximum reach in
furniture 83(1)—(4),planning factors 83,
preferences check list 82, residential homes
84, safetyprecautions check list 84,water
temperature 84—also disabled, hospitals
(geriatric, long stay)
1-room dwellings 69(1)
Operating theatres 171—2
Orientation: aircraft runways 259, balconies88,
bedrooms 72, beds 72, buildings 33, drawing
sheets 3, energyconservation 81, gardens
104, houses 40, 45,46, indoor gardens 112,
kitchens 55, for natural ventilation 81, sports
pitches322(1),windows 33—aIso sunpath
Paper, international sizes 7
Parker Morris standards 44, 48—*Bib233
Parking: aircraft 261, fordisabled housing 85,
hypermarkets 198, industrial buildings 263,
intersections USA250, motels 219—*also
car parks
Parking spaces: basic 22, disabledpersons 22,
shared housing 99, forwheelchair user 166
—aIsocar parks
Passenger conveyors 409
Paths —*footways
Patios 77
Penthouses 88
Pergolas 106
Petrol stations 253—4
Pigs, body measurements 303 —aIso farm
buildings
Pitches, sport: indoor325—6, 328, outdoor
322—3
Plant rooms, air handling 392
Planting distances, fruit 108
Pools: chemical treatment 113, filtersystem
113, fish 113, garden swimming 114,
paddling 109, plumbing & pumping systems
113, private indoor 115—6, private,
relationship to patio 77(7), public swimming
329—37,waterlily 113
Poultry houses, domestic 310
432
Index
Prams: spacesfor movement 19, storage
space74
Pre-fabricated sanitary units65
Privacy: designing for 45, 76, flats &
apartments 93, hospitals 154, houses &flats
76, 77
Projection roomscinema 355,drive-incinema
358
Proportions, relation to human scale10
Public houses224
Queues, dimensions 12(6)—(11),407
Radiators 385
Rail-served buildings 284
Railstations: baggage handling, ticketoffices,
257
Ramps 14, 85, 407: garageentrance 21, 101,
kerbfordisabled 85(2), multi-storey car park Shops, petrol station 253
251, stadium, standing 317(10), for
wheelchair user87(11), 407
Rear projection ofimage, lecture room 134
Refectories —dining room
Reflectance 25
Reiher-Meister scale18(4)
Religious buildings 182—7
Reservoirs, garden 109
Restaurants 202—7: drive-in& self-service
206, hotel 211, kitchens 213—4, restaurant
cars 207, seating 202—4,snack bars 205,
206,spaceallowances 203, table
arrangements 202, table sizes 204, types
203—*also colleges, diningrooms, schools
Reverberation times for rooms 397
Riding schools344—5
Roads: access 41—2, dimensions 20, 21,
garage entrances 21, hierarchy in housing
area 42, rule of roadxii, turning circuits,
buses256,turningdimensions 250, turning
lanes 21, USA categories 21, widths for
passing 20
Roofgardens 88, 110,112
Rooflights, calculation ofdaylight factor 31
Room index —lighting
Room sizes, minimum in houses (USA) 44
Running tracks: indoor 326, outdoor 324
Safety precautions: old people's housing 84,
window cleaning 404
Sanitary unitspre-fabricated 65
Saunas 117,338
Schools 118—33: art, design, drama, music
137—8, boarding 127—8, boarding
accommodation 127, boarding dining room
128, boarding site layout 127, definition of
spaces119, dimensions ofpupils 131, 132,
film display, 16mm356, furniture 130—3,
furthereducation 126, media centres 129,
middle age range 121—2, nursery level 118,
olderage range123—5, planning ingredients,
nursery 118, planning forolderpupils 123,
planning trends119, 122, primary 119,
primary design trends120, principles 118,
pupils equipment dimensions 131, rural 120, Stairs14,408:building regulations408,
stature data 131—2, storage, pupils'
equipment 133, system building 126, work
areas (diagrams)119, 121
Seating: cinemas 354, college dining room
142, flexible 351, hotel function room 211,
lectureroom 135, 136, restaurant202—5,
retractable 135, stadia 317, storage space
351, theatre 351
Security: houses 76, loadingdockdesign 283, Stature human adult 9—11
officedesign 230
Services 383—97:access 13, distribution 383, Student hostels—.colleges
distribution ducts384, heating systems
385—91, hotel 218, hypermarket 198,
industrial buildings 279, 290, laboratory 292,
library 147, office 228, 232, sound insulation
395—7, thermal insulation393—4, ventilation
392
Shadows cast bybuildings 33
Shared accommodation 99
Shelving,shops&stores 195
Sheds, garden 111
Shoppingmall, indoorwalking speeds 407(1)
Shops & stores 188—201:access 188, aisles
188, boutiques 192, entrances 190, 191,
exits 191, goods delivery 189, hypermarkets
198, layout 193, 194, 195, movement
between floors189, self-service 196, service
details 190, shopping centres& precincts
199—201, stairs 191, stock& despatch
rooms191, storey heights 188,
supermarkets, examples 197, windows 190,
191
Showers: domestic space needs 61(8), 64,
hospital geriatric 158(5), industrial buildings
280, forold people 83(9), pre-fabricated
units65, swimming pool 335
SI xi, 1: unitsofmeasurement 2—Bib127, 135
Sickroom,boarding school 127
Sidewalks —*footways
Sloping sites: effectofgradient 46, favourable
& unfavourable 40(2), stepped houses98
Sight lines:cinema 355, 357, drive-in cinema
358, lecture room 134,135, sportstadia3l6,
theatre 349, 350
Soil:treatment 105, weights &angles ofrepose
105
Solargain 80, 81
Sound absorption coefficients 397
Soundinsulation 395—7: absorbent materials
397, absorbent treatments 397, absorption
coefficients 397, reduction index calculation
395, reduction indices, typical (table) 396,
reverberation time397
Split-level: flats & maisonettes 96, houses 46
Sport 315—47:centres 318—9,324(3),centres,
examples 319, centres, features required
(table) 318, dimensions standardsvii,
equitation 344—5, golf 343, halls 320—1, ice
events 341—2,indoor athletics tracks 326,
indoorathletics training 327, indoor pitches
325—6, 328, indoor riding schools 344,
marinas 346—7, outdoor athletics 324,
outdoorpitches322—3, riding centre
premises 345, rollerskating rinks342, sauna
planning 338, ski-jumping slopes 340—1,
space allocation, halls (table) 320—1, stadia
315—7, stadia, access 316, stadia, sightlines
316, stadia stands 316, 317, swimming
329—37,swimming changing rooms 336—7,
swimming diving pools 334, swimming
indoor pools 329—32, private indoor pools
115—6, swimming openair pools 333,
swimming pools watercleaning 114,330,337,
swimming pre-cleanse 329, 335, swimming,
showers, slipper baths 335, swimming water
chute 337(5), tennis339, water polo
331 —*also pools
cinemas 354, disabled housing 86,fire
protection 91, fire requirements in houses
44, flat & apartment access 90, hospital 151,
house52, office 228, 231,old people 86(5),
shops&stores 189, 191, theatre348,tread
& rise proportions 408, walking speeds 408
—also escalators
Standard overcast sky—.daylight
Stature data schoolchildren 131—2
Student: married accommodation 140, shared
accommodation 99
Studios: drawing —colleges
Storage: colleges (art, design) 137, farm crops
312—3, farmmachinery 314, fuel, domestic
75, handling methods in warehouses 272,
hotel food213, hospital 179, kitchen,
domestic 75, laboratory 292, office 241—2, oil
fueltanks386, paintings 359(10), pallet
stacking 270, 272, school children's
belongings 133, seating space 351, sports
halls 321, warehouse flow diagram269—70,
wine,domestic 75, hotels 213
Sun exposure of buildings 34—5
Sunlight 33—7: building orientation 33, building
shadows 33, calculation ofradiation 37,
criteria foradmission 33, duration, prediction
37, exposure, methods offinding 34, sun
path diagrams 34—6, window shades 406
Sun pathdiagrams 34—6
Swimming pools:garden 114, hotel 116,
private indoor115—6, public indoor 329—32,
publicoutdoor333, temperature private
indoor115 —*also sport
Synagogues 186
Système internationale d'Unités —'SI
Systems building: hospitals 150, schools 126
Tables: college dining room 142, office 238, old
people83(4), 84, restaurant202—4, school
130—1
Tankrooms, water storage 391
Television: aerials, cables 43, closed circuit for
hospitals 154, college lecture room 134, 136
Temperatures: furnace crematorium 187,
indoor16, mortuaries 187, oilstorage 387,
pig housing 303, pool 115, 330, rail booking
hall 257,sauna 117, 338, shops &stores
192, turkish bath 335
Terraces: domestic 77, orientation 66,sport
stadia 317
Theatres 348—53:access 348, auditorium 350,
351,353,balconies 349,350,351,boxes
351(4),college 134—6, exits348,352, fire
precautions 352, multiform 353, multiple
auditoria 351, organisation 348, revolving
stage352, ring stage 353, seating 135, 136,
351, seats/row 350, sightlines 134,135,
349, 350,sound diffusion 350, stage tower
352
Thermal comfort 16: human requirements 385,
USAchart16
Tools, garden 107
Trade marts 274—5
Traffic capacity: corridors 14, 407, elevators
411, escalators 409, ramps 407, stairs 408
Tree planting 108
Underground houses 79, 80
Unitsof measurement 1, 2: application xi,
scales xi, —.alsoconversion factors,
conversion tables
Universities —.colleges
Utilisation factor —.lighting
U values: common building structures 393(3),
formula 393
Vehicles: dimensions 20, 21, 24, dimensions,
ambulances 166(2), dimensions forprivate
garages 100, fork-lifts271, 'standard design
car' 251, truckturningdimensions 282(4),
283, turningdimensions USA250
Vehicle services 248—57:bus stations 255—6,
car parks 248—52,petrol stations 253—4, rail
station passenger services 257
Vehicle turning spaces, farm 298, truck 282(4),
283
Ventilation: air handling plant 392, cattle

housing 298, ciriemas 356, duct sizes 384,
energyconservation in houses 81, hospital
154, industrial buildings 276, 290, pig
housing 305, potato stores 312,poultry
housing 308, rates 16, requirements 15,
sheep 307, windows 405
Vibration, human sensitivity 18, industrial
buildings 276
Waiting areas 407
Walking speeds407: on level footway 14, on
ramps 14
Walkways 383
Wardrobes —*cupboards
Warehouses —iridustrial buildings
Washrooms: domestic 64, industrial buildings
281
Watercleaning: garden pools 113, 114,
swimming pools 330,337
Watergarden supply109
Water closets—lavatories
Watertanks 391
Wheelchair: doors for users 86,401,garage
space for user85, elevator controls 412,
elevator dimension 412,garden design for
110, parking space 166(3), passing width 43,
spaces formovement 19, 43,turningspaces
43, 85, userswc87(2)(3)(8)
Windbreaks 81, 104
Windows 403—6: basic types 405, blinds &
louvre systems 406,coordinating sizes 403,
433
Index
daylight penetration 404, double 405,
functions 17, hospital 154, position &size
404, shades 406, shops & stores 190, 191,
viewout 404, viewout, wheelchair user86,
87, worksizes 403
Winestorage, domestic 75, hotels213
Work on buildings, access for 13
Workshops: artcollege 137, drawing studios
139 —*also industrial buildings
Workstations, office239, 240
Youth hostels143—4: fire safety 143, kitchens
143, 144, lavatories 144, space
requirements 144
CONVERSIONS METRIC +— IMPERIAL'/US Tables
length m metre
Factors Abbreviations mm in mdr maids roan(or au pair)
Mainabbreviations reedinteat& med medical
MF maintenance factor
metric diagrarna arehated below. Full list on mm in mm In
'lnsrtsl'/US p. aiii-aiv. NB: plurals arenot used MIT Maaaachuaetta Institute
In abbreviations. 25.4 1 0.04 254.0 10 0.39 of Tectinology
length rn/a metrea persecond
50.8 2 0.08 508.0 20 0.79
1.0mm 0039in A ampere 762 3 0.12 762.0 30 1.18 N newton
25.4mm 1 in ar area 101.6 4 0.16 1016.0 40 1.57 NFPA National Fire Protection
305.0mm 1ff AC alternating current 127.0 5 02 1270.0 50 1.97 Aaaociation
914.0mm lyd accri accommodation 152.4 6 024 1524.0 60 2.36 nur nursery
1000.Omm(1.om) 1.094yd admin administration 177.8 7 0.28 1778.0 70 2,76 off office
1000.Om 1 len) 1093.61 yd(0.621 mile) ANSI American National 203.2 8 0.31 2032.0 80 3.15
1609.3m 1.61 km) 1 mile
ASThI
Standards Institute
American Society for
226.6 9 0.35 2286.0
2540.0
90
100
3.54
3.93 panaI
Ad
Heatth
Satety &
area Teating& Materiaki
av average P
1.0cm'
6452mm2 (6.452cu')
0.155in'
1 in' B bed m —ft paaaenger, patient,
person,pupil
929.03cm2 (0.093ml 1 ft' b bath pa parents room/USA
bathr m ft m ft masterbedroom
0.836m' lyd' bathroom
physical education
lam' 1.196yd'(10.764lf) bedr bedroom
0.3 1 3.28 3.05 10 32.8
pe
plr penny
0.405ha lacre baic balcony
1.Oha 2.471 acre building 0.61 2 6.56 6.1 20 65.62 R radius
bldg 0.91 3 9.84 9.14 30 98.43
1.0km2 0.386mile' bldgreq building regulation 1.22 4 13.12 12.19 40 131.23 radr radiator
2.59kin'(259ha) 1 mile' B(tA Building Ottlciala& 1.52 5 16.4 1524 50 164.04 RC reinforced concrete
CodeAdministrators regulation
volume BRE Building Reaearch 1.83 6 19.69 18.29 60 196.85 relativehumidity
2.13 7 22.97 21.34 70 229.66
I0.765m'
litre(1cr') 61.025in' (0.035 fI') BS(l)
Eatabllahment
British Standards (Inat) 2.44 8 26.25 24.38 80 262.47 RHA Regional Health
Authority
lyd' Btu British thermal unit 2.74 9 29.53 27.43 90 295.28 RIBA RoyalInstitute olBritish
l.Om' 1.308yd'(35.314ft') 30.48 100 328.08 Architects
Corcpd cupboard/USA cabinel un roan
capacity
ci' children area a second
0.4731i1re lpintUS CIBS Chartered Instof SBCC Southern Building Code
0.S68Iitre lpintirnp Building Services cm2.—.in'
1.Olitre 1.76pintimp Congress
CIE Commiaaion ad
1.Olitre 2.ll3pirilUS intemationale de cm' in' cm2 in' ear
acullery
3.l8slitres lgalUS aervery
4.546litrea 1 gal rip l'Ectairage 6.451 1 0.16 64.52 10 1.55 SIB ayatem ofclaaaitlcation
(International (building literature)
Commission on 12.9 2 0.31 129.03 20 3.1
maaa 19.36 3 0.47 193.55 30 4.65 aho shower
Illumination) sitr sittingroom
11b cIt cooker/USArange 25.81 4 0.62 258.06 40 6.2
0.454kg SI Système International
1.0kg 2.205th daaar classroom 32.26 5 0.78 322.58 50 7.75 d'Unitèa
0.9071(907.2kg) lIonUS do cloakroom 38.71 6 0.93 387.1 60 9.3 ak sink
lOt 0.ge4tonimp car corridor 45.16 7 1.09 451.61 70 10.85 at seat
1.01 1.lO2tonUS 51.61 8 1.24 516.13 80 12.4 sb store(-age)
d dayordepth 58.06 9 1.4 580.64 90 13.95
1.016t(lOl6kg) ltoninp dB decibel 645.16 100 15.5 stu attaty
DC directcurrent
v— DES Deptof Education & ter
tonne
terrace
0.025nt/a (25.4mm/a) 1in/s Soence ft2
DF UDC universal decimal
1.0 rn/a 39.4in/s(196.9 ft/mm) daylight factor
1.0 km/hr 0.621 mile/hr DHSS DeptofHealth& m' ft' m' ft' UF
claaaification
utiliaation tactor
1.609kin/hr 1mile/hr SocofSecurity
DoE Deptofthe Environment 0.093 1 10.76 0.93 10 107.64 USHB UnitedStateaHospital
DPC Board
temperature dampproofcourse 0.19 2 21.53 1.86 20 21528 USPHS UnitedStates Public
Xt (x+32rF
dr
E
diningroom
illumination
0.28
0.37
3
4
32.29
43.06
2.79
3.72
30
40
322.92
430.56 Heafth Service
uty utilityroom
x(X-32C xi at
eqp
electrical
equTient
0.46
0.56
5
6
53.82
64.58
4.65
5.57
50
60
538.2
645.84 V volt
0.65 7 75.35 6.5 70 753.47
illumination FFL finished floorleveVIJSA 0.74 8 86.11 7.43 80 861.11 w watt
lix elevation 0.84 9 96.88 8.36 90 968.75 w width
0.O93tt-cancle wa wardrobe/USA closet
10.764Ix 1 ft-candle FHA Federal Houaing 9.29 100 1076.39
A waahr washroom
Ir tirereaiatant wc watercloset
kimmance worlcr workroom
9 volume
0.3183cd/m' 1 spoatilb gram wp working plane
1.0cd/rn' 0.000645 cd/fl' gar garage litre.—.ft' wr (a
waiting room area)
l0.764cci/m' lcd/If h heipltor high yd
1550.0cd/rn' 1cd/in2 ha hallorhectare lItre ft' lItre ft3
yr
yard
year
hb (waah)hand basin
hr hour 28.32 1 0.04 283.16 10 0.35 centre line
Hz hertz 56.63 2 0.07 566.32 20 0.7 0 diameter
84.95 3 0.11 849.48 30 1.06 greaterthanorequalto
ICBO International Conference 113.26 4 0.14 1132.64 40 1.41 equaltoorlessthan
ofBuilding Officials 141.58 5 0.18 1415.8 50 1.77
IES Illuminating Engineering 169.9 6 021 1698.96 60 2.12
IFLA Irinal
of
Federation
Library Aaaocialiona
198.21
226.53
254.84
7
8
9
025
0.28
0.32
1982.12
2265.28
2548.44
70
80
90
2.47
2.83
3.18
ISO International 2831.61 100 3.53
Organiaation br
Standardiaatiai
J joule m3..—.ft'
K degree Kelvin m3 ft3 m' ft3
k kitchen orthermal
conductivity 0.03 35.32 0.28 10 353.15
kgt kilograrn-torce 0.06 2 70.63 0.57 20 706.29
0.08 3 105.94 0.85 30 1059.44
ngthMng 0.11 4 141.26 1.13 40 1412.59
lab 0.14 5 176.57 1.42 50 1765.73
laboratory 0.17 6 211.89 1.7 60 2118.88
Iau laundry
liv 0.2 7 247.2 1.98 70 2472.co
For Comprehensivelistoffac.torsand lob
Inmng room 0.23 8 282.52 2.27 80 2825.17
lobby 0.25 9 2.55
wide rangeof further tables-.p364—81 Ix Iua 317.83
2.83
90
100
3178.32
3531.47