1 AURCRAET \ gesgeT ETAL HyepresenTable Of Contents Preface Pagev Chapter I Aircraft Structural Components —_ SHEE EEE Eee eee era Joints; Wings; Fuselage Assemblies; Empennage Section; Plight Control 7-20 Chapter II Aircraft Repair Tools. Hand Tools; Bench And Floor ‘Tools; Airframe Special Tools Chapter III _Aireraft Metals And Alloys —___21-25 Aluminum Alloys; Wrought Aluminum Alloys; Titanium Alloys; Monel; ‘Stainless Steel: 18-8 Steel; Chrome-Molybdenum Steel Chapter IV Aircraft Solid Shank Rivets 27-38 Riveting; Rivet Codes And Identification; Rivet Head Styles; Dim Rivet Alloys; Shear Strength; Bearing Failure; Inspection Of A Rivet Joint; Selecting Rivet Diameters And Lengths Chapter V Aircraft Special Fasteners. 41-61 Solid Shank Rivets; Hi-Shear Rivets; Hi-Lok Fasteners; Hi-Lite Fastener; ‘Lockbolt Fasteners; Cherrybuck Titanium Shear Pins; Huckbolt Fasteners; ‘Taper-Loks; Blind Fasteners; Mechanical Lock Blind Rivets; Olympic-Lok® Fasteners; Huck Fasteners: Summary Of Blind Fasteners; Special Fasteners: Access Panels And Cowis Chapter VI Forming And Bend Allowanee —_____ 63-71. Bend Allowance; Setback; Layout; Finished Part Chapter VII Aircraft Repairs 73-85 Acceptable And Approved FAA Repair Data; Ordering Parts; Analyzing The Repair Area; Removal Of The Damaged Parts; Installation Of New Or Rebuilt Parts And Patches; Rivet Formulas; Inspection And Return To Service Chapter VIII Aircraft Corrosion —____________.___.87-90 ‘Surface Corrosion; Intergranular Corrosion; Stress Corrosion; Dissimilar Metal Corrosion; Fretting Corrosion; Magnesium Corrasion; Exfoliation; Corrosion Prevention; Cleaning Aireraft Chapter IX Applied Forming, Bending And Layout Of Aircraft Parts _____ 91-106 Construction Of Joggled Joint, Aluminum Tube And Nose Rib; Layout And Construction Of Control Surface; Construction And Installation Of Access Plate And Cover,‘Appendix A 107-112 ‘Single Shear Strength Of A Rivet; Bend Allowance Chart; K-Factor Chart; ‘Excerpt For Tangent; Rivets Per Inch Chart; Minimum Bend Radius Chart, Appendix Big. ‘Computer Program For Computing Bend Allowance, Setback and Layout; ‘Setback And Natural Trigonometric Functions Charts; Computing Setback; Labeling Leg Lengths; Computing Shear Strength; Computing Correct Rivet Diameter Glossary Of Terms 123-128 Answers To Study Questions 129-130 Index —____PREFACE ‘This book on Aircraft Sheet Metal is one of a series of specialized training manuals prepared for aviation maintenance personnel. This series is part of a programmed leaming course produced by Jeppesen Sanderson, one of the largest suppliers of aviation ‘maintenance training materials in the world. This program is part of a continuing effort to improve the quality of education for aviation mechanics throughout the world. ‘The purpose of each Jeppesen Sanderson training, series is to provide basic information on the ‘operation and principles of the various sireraft systems and their components. Specific information on exact application procedures of a product should be obtained from the manufacturer through his appropriate maintenance manuals and followed in detail for the best results, ‘This particular manual on Aircraft Sheet Metal includes a series of carefully prepared questions and answers to emphasize key elements of the study, and to encourage you to continually test yourself for accuracy and retention as you use this book. Some of the terminology used in this book may be new to you. Throughout the text, you will find terms that are defined in the Glossary at the ‘back of the book highlighted as follows: glossary item. Acknowledgements ‘The validity of any program such as this is enhanced immeasurably by the cooperation shown by recognized experts in the field, and by the willingness of the various manufactuers to share their literature and answer countless questions in the preparation of these programs. We would like to mention, especially, our appreciation for help given us by: Bill DeWalt, ALCOA Rivets John Weaver, ALCOA Ray Pedersen, Boeing Commercial Aieraft Company James Schubert, Bocing Commercial Aircraft Company Mike Potts, Beecheraft 1H. Dean Humphrey, Cessna Ronald Folkerts, Greenlee Toot Company Michael Schuster, Hi-Shear Corporation Ramon L. Hurd, Huck Aerospace Fasteners Ed Mares, P-B. (BRILES) Fasteners Roy Moosa, Cherry Aerospace Fasteners Joe Wetstein, Professor of Aviation — Lewis University Dr. Bette Bonacci, Professor of English — Lewis University Dr. John Bonacci, Structural Engineer For product, service, or sales information call 1-800-621-JEPP, 303-799-9090, or FAX 303- 784-4153. IF you have comments, questions, oF need explanations about any component of our Maintenance Training System, we are prepared to offer assistance at any time. If your dealer does not have a Feppesen catalog, please request one and we will promptly send it 10 you. Just call the above telephone number, or write: Marketing Manager, Training Products Jeppesen Sanderson, Inc. 55 Invemess Drive East Englewood, CO 80112-5498 Please direct inquiries from Europe, Africa, and the Middle East to: Jeppesen & Co., GmbH P.O. Box 70-05-51 ‘Walier-Kolb-Strasse 13 60594 Frankfurt GERMANY Tel: 011-49-69-961240 Fax: 011-49-69-96124898Chapter I Aircraft Structural Components ‘The major aircraft structures are wings, fuse- lage, and empennage. The primary flight control surfaces, located on the wings and empennage, are ailerons, elevators, and rudder. These parts are connected by seams, called joints. A. Joints All joints constructed using rivets, bolts, or spe- cial fasteners are /ap joints. Fasteners cannot be ‘used on joints in which the materials to be joined do not overlap — for example, butt, tee and edge joints. A fayed edge (Figure 1-1) 's atype of ap joint made when two metal surfaces are butted up against one another in such a way as to overlap. ‘Internal aireraft parts are manufactured in four ways: Milling, stamping, bending, and extruding. FAYED EDGE ‘The metal ofa milled partistransformed from cast Fig. 1 Fayed edge font. iAaeS UsHaPE LSHAPE wine stock dfs LF HALE ROUND ‘2—SHAPE ames eee: Har — SHAPEto wrought by first shaping and then either chemi- cally otching or grinding it. A stamped part is annealed, placed in a forming press, and then re-heat treated. Bent parts are made by sheet metal mechanics using the bend allowance and layout procedures. An extrusion is an aircraft part which is formed by forcing metal through a preshaped die. The re- sulting wrought forms are used as spars, stringers, Jongerons, or channels. Figure 1-2 shows a selection of extruded shapes used for the construction of many aircraft internal parts, In order for metal to be extruded, bent, or formed, it must first be made malleable and ductile by annealing. After the forming operation, the ‘metal is re-heat treated and age hardened. B. Wings 1.General ‘The aireraft wing has to be strong enough to withstand the positive forces of flight as well as | | | | the negative forces of landing. Metal wings are of two types: Semicantilever arid full cantilever, Semicantilever, or braced, wings are used on Tight aircraft. They are exterdally supported by struts or flying wirés which connect the wing spar tothe fuselage. ‘A fall cantilever wing (Figure 1-3) is usually made of-stronger metal. It requires no external bracing or support. The skin carries part of the swing stress, Parts common to both wing designs are spars, compression riés, former ribs, stringers, stress plates, gussets, wing tips and wing skin Figure 1-4). 2, Spars ‘Two or more spars are used in the construction of wing. They carry the main longitudinal —butt to ‘tip — load of the wing. Both the spar and a com- pression rib connect the wing to the fuselage. BUTTRB FORMER RIB TRIM TAB AILERON REAR SPAR, FLAP WING STRINGER Fig. +3. Full cantilever wing — Boeing 747. Fig. 1-4 Internalparts of a wing.3. Compression Ribs Compression ribs carry the main load in the di- rection of flight, from leading edge to trailing edge. On some aircraft the compression rib is a struc- tural piece of tubing separating two main spars. ‘The main function of the compression rib is to absorb the force applied to the spar when the aircraft is in flight. 4, Former Ribs A former rib, which is made from light metal, attaches to the stringers and wing skins to give the wing ite aerodynamic shape. Former ribs can be classified as nase ribs, trailing edge ribs, and mid ribs ranning fore and aft between the front and rear spar on the wing. Formers are not considered primary structural members, 5, Stringers Stringers are made of thin sheets of preformed ‘extruded or handbformed aluminum ally. They van, front to back along the fuselage and from wing butt to ‘wing tip. Riveting the wing skin to both the stringer and the ribs gives the wing additional strength. 6. Stress Plates ‘Stress plates are used on wings to support the weight of the fuel tank, Some stress plates are made of thick metal and some are of thin metal corrugated for strength. Stress plates are usually Fig. +8 Semimonocoque fuselage structurat ‘com 3 held in place by long rows of machine screws, with selflocking nuts, that thread into specially ‘mounted channels. The stress-plate channeling is riveted to the spars and compression ribs. 7. Gussets Guscets, or gusset plates, are used on aircraft to Join and reinforce intersecting structural members, Gussets are used to transfer stresses from one mem- ber to another at the point where the members join. 8. Wing Tips ‘The wing tip, the outboard end ofthe wing, hastwo purposes: To aerodynamically smooth out the wing tip air low and to give the wing a finished look, 9, Wing Skins ‘Wing skins cover the internal parts and provide for a smooth air flow over the surface of the wing. On full cantilever wings, the skins carry stress However, all wing skins are to be treated as pri- mary structures whether they are on braced or full cantilever surfaces. C. Fuselage Assemblies 1,General ‘There are bwvo types of metal aircraft fuselages: Full monocoque and semimonocoque. The full ‘monocoque fuselage has fewer internal parts and ‘a more highly stressed skin than the semimono- coque fuselage, which uses internal bracing to ob- tain its strength. ‘The full monocoque fuselage is generally used ‘on smaller aireraft, because the stressed skin elim ‘nates the need for stringers, former rings, and other types of internal bracing, thus lightening the airerall structure. ‘The sernimonocoque fuselage derives its strength from the following internal parts: Bulkheads, long ‘rons, keel beams. rag struts. body supports, former rings, and stringers (Figure 1-5). 2, Bulkheads ‘A butkhead is a structural partition, usually lo- cated in the fuselage. which normally runs perpen- dicular to the keel beam or longerons. A few exam- ples of bulkhead locations are where the wing spars ‘connect into the fuselage, where the cabin pressuriz- ation domes are secured to the fuselage structure, and at cockpit passenger or cargo entry doors. 3. Longerons And Keel Beams Longerons and keel beams perform the same function in an aircraft fuselage. They both carrythe bulk of the load traveling fore and aft. The keel beam and longerons, the strongest sections of the airframe, tie its weight to other aircraft parts, such as powerplants, fuel cells, and the landing gears 4, Drag Struts And Other Fittings Drag struts and body support fittings are other primary structural members, Drag struts are used ‘on large jel aireral to tie the wing wo the fuselage center section. Body support fittings are used to support the structures which make lp bulkhead or floor truss sections. Former rings and fuselage stringers are not pr- macy structura! members. Former rings are used to give shape to the fuselage. Fuselage stringers running fore and af are used to tie in the bulk- hhends and former rings. D. Empennage Section | 1.General The empennage is the tail section uf an aireraft. 1 consists of horizontal stabilizer, elevator, vertical stabilizer and rudder (Figure 1-61. The conventional po i [verricat SraiLlzeh | empennagesection contains the same Kind of parts used in the construction of a wing, The internal parts of the stabilizers and their fight controls are made with spars, nhs, stringers and skins. Also, tail sections, like wings, can be externally ar inter- nally braced. 2, Horizontal Stabilizer And Elevator ‘The horizontal stabilizer is connected to a pri- mary control surface. i¢., theclevator. The elevator causes the nuse of the airvraft to pitch up or dowa, ‘Together, the horizontal stablizer and elevator provide stability about the horizontal axis of the aireraft. On some aircraft the horizontal sta- bilizer is made movable by a'screw-jack assembly which allows the pilot to trim the aireraft during fight. 3. Vertical Stabilizer And Rudder ‘The vertical stabilizer is connected to the a end of the fuselage and gives the aircraft stability ‘about the vertical axis, Connected to the vertical stabilizer is the rudder, the purpose of which is, to turn the aircraft about its vertical axis \ Fig.146 Empennage.E. Flight Control 1.Ailerons Elevators and rudders are primary flight con- trolsin the tail section. Ailerons are primary flight controls connected to the wings. Located on the outboard portion of the wing, they allow the air- craft to turn about the longitudinal axis. ‘When the right aileron is moved upward, the left ‘one goes down, thus causing the aircraft to roll to the right. Because this action creates a tremen- dous force, the ailerons must be constructed in such a way as to withstand it. Flight controls other than the three primary ‘ones are needed on high-performance aircraft, On. the wings of a wide body jet, for example, there are as many as thirteen flight controls, including high- and low-speed ailerons, flaps, and spoilers. 2. Flaps And Spoilers ‘Wing flaps increase the lift for take-off and land- ing, Inboard and outboard flaps, on the trailing edge of the wing, travel from full up, which is neutral ‘aerodynamic flow position, to full down, causing air to pile up and create lift. Leading edge flaps — Krueger flaps and variable-camber flaps (Figure 1-7) increase the wing chord size and thus allow the aircraft to take offor land on a shorter runway. ‘Spoilers, located in the center section span-wise, serve two purposes. They assist the high-speed ailerons in turning the aircraft during flight, and they are used to Kill the aerodynamic lift during landing by spreading open on touchdown, $.Trim Tabs Connected to the primary flight controls are de- vices called trim tabs. They are used to make fine ‘adjustments to the flight path of an aircraft. Trim tabs are constructed like wings or ailerons, but are ‘considerably smaller. QUESTIONS: 1. Name the primary sections of a modern aircraft. 2. Name the primary control surfaces of an aircraft. List five auxiliary light controls. What isa semicantileer wing? What isa full monocoque fuselage? A sparis toa longeron as.a compression rib is toa What is the main fore-and-oft structural ‘member on an aircraft? 8. Name the parts that make up an aireraft em- ‘pennage section. 9. What happens to the upper skin areas of wing ofan aireraft in fight? 10. Name two types of fuselage constructions. I. Why ore wing spoilers used on modern Jetliners? 12, What is the main difference between a braced anda full cantilever wing? 13, What are the primary tip-to-butt load-carry- ing members of e wing? 14, Name three internal parts ofan aileron. 18. Why are some control surface skin coverings corrugated? RN pMASFig. 1-7 Verleble camber leading adige flaps schematic. 6Chapter IT Aircraft Repair Tools A. Hand Tools 1, Measuring Scale A tool used by sheet metal mechanics for mea- suring a layout is the six-inch scale (Figure 2). It has a decimal equivalent chart on one and ‘Yei-inch increments on the other. 2. Motor And Drill ‘Two important hand tools are the motor and dil ‘The motor, which drives the drill, can be pneurnatic (air-powered) or electrical. In aircraft repair work, the air-driven motor is usually preferred because electrical lines ean be accidentally eut while work- ing in close quarters on an aircraft, and because all air moters have variable drill speeds and are more durable than most electrical motora. However, elec: ‘trical motors are less expensive, and some of the newer models are battery operated. Drills are used to cut holes in aluminum skin for rivets, special fasteners, and bolts. ‘A precision tool, the drill requires special care. Always store it in a plastic container to prevent damaging the tip and reamers. Drills are cataloged in four ways: Fraction, deci- mal, letter (A to 2), number (1 to 80), and metric. ‘The number drills most commonly used in the air- craft industry are #40, #30, #21, and #11. These drills are slightly larger than the rivet diameters which correspond to them (Figure 2-2). ‘The difference between the rivet diameter and the recommended drill size, .002 to .004 of an inch, allows the rivet to be inserted easily and also pro- vides for shank expansion. 8, Drill Description ‘A drill bas three main parts: the tip, the body, and the shank Figure 2-4). ‘The tip of the drill is made by the webbing, ‘which looke like an hourglass when viewed from the tip or point. ‘The body ofthe drill is composed of the flutesand spiral webbing. The flutes are the valleys between the spiral webbing of the drill. They aid in cooling the tip, provide a path for lubricating the tip, and allow the drill cuttings to be removed. ‘The drill shank is the part of the drill that is clamped into place by the motor’s chuck. The drill DECIMALRIVET DIAMETER DIFFERENCE ‘a2 = 0937 0048 ve = 235 0035 s/t = 18605 20875 3/6 = 1875 9085 Fig. 2-2. Alvet sizes and dell sizes. sme opus rare) ya aw Decimal Fig.2-4 Three main parts ofa dri. ‘sizo is stamped on the end of ite shank. A chuck key ‘used to tighten the drill into the chuck: drill must be able to cut holes that are round, straight, and free from cracks. The drill must be sharpened to an angle determined by the type of metal being drilled. The drill speed must also be adjusted for different hardness of metal. Drills used to cut holes in aireraft aluminum. should have an included angle of 118°, a sharpening angle of 59°, and high tip speed. They should be ‘operated with steady, downward hand pressure.Drills used to open holesin stainless steel should haven included angle of 140°, a sharpening angle ‘of 70° and slow tip speed. Heavy pressure on the Grill is necessary. Soft materials, such as lead, copper, brass, soft aluminum and Plexiglas, require an included an- gle of 90°, a sharpening angle of 45°, and a speed ‘which varies with the material being drilled. ‘The included angle is the tip angle (drill point) os viewed from the center line of the drill body. The sharpening angle is one half of the included angle, ‘because when a drill is sharpened, only one lip fe 3» come in contact with the grinding wheel. Figure 2-5, shows the included and sharpening angles. ‘A drill-sharpening gauge is used to check the sharpening angle of a drill. Figure 2-6 shows hhow to make the gauge. During sharpening, the drill tip must be kept cool at all times by dip- ping it frequently into cold water. If it overheats, it will lose its temper and not retain its sharp cut- ting edge. 4, Deburring Tool Ifburrs, slivers which form at the edges of holes whenever a drill breaks through the metal, ere not removed, they will deform the joint by creating a bulge between the skins when the fasteners are installed into the holes. A good deburring tool is a twit drill one or two times larger than the hole. Ingertiitinto the hole and spin by hand until all the burrs are removed. 5, Microstop Countersink Cutters ‘There are three types of countersink cutters: ‘A non-adjustable fixed cutter, a stop countersink which is equipped with a rivet hole pilot independent “ USE AZ’ x § PIECE OF METAL. RAW ACENTER LINE LENGTHWISE. MEASURE IN ONE INCH FROM THE LEFT. MAKE AI DEGREE ANGLE WITH CENTERLINE. CUT AWAY 31 DEGREE ANGLE AND ONEINCH STA. ‘THE REMAINING ANGLE 1858", THE SHARPENING ANGLE FOR AN AIRCRAFT SHEETMETAL DRILLTIP. Fig. 2-6 Dril-sharpening gauge. of the cutter, and a microstop countersink eutter which includes a hole pilot. ‘The microstop countersink cutter (Figure 2-7) allows the user to make micro adjustments when setting the depth of the countersink cutter. An. other advantage of the microstop countersink is that it is more durable than the other types. Lockine ING C BARREL curren SKIRT. Ss (@RoKEN vn $i Puor Fig.2-5 Included and sharpening angles of drill.6. Cleco Clamps And Pliers Cleco clamps are used to align parts prior to being reriveted to an aircraft, The clamps are in- stalled with Cleco pliers (Figure 2-8). The color of | the Cleco clamp indicates the diameter of the rivet itis to be used with. Four commonly used sizes are 2 of an inch (iver), Ys of an inch (copper), 8/2 of an inch (black), and /ie of an inch (brass, gold). 7. Rivet Guns ‘The hand tool commonly used to drive rivets is a rivet gun (Figure 2-9), Rivet guns are powered by compressed air and are classified as light-, medium-, or heavy-hitting. A light-hitting gun is ‘used to install ¥s2-inch and ‘e-inch diameter rivets. ‘Medium-hilting guns are used to install S2-inch and ie-inch diameter rivets. Heavy-hitting guns are used to install larger diameter rivets and some special fasteners. 8. Rivet Sets Or Gun Sets There are two types of gun sets: The univer- sal and the countersink (Figure 2-10). The uni- versal gun set is sized to fit on the driven end af the various shapes of rivet heads. The opposite end of the tiniversal gun set fits into the rivet gun barrel and is held in place by @ beehive retainer spring. KIS & & POWER CLECO WEDGELOCK cLeco CLAMP WET DRILL CLEGQCOLOR ‘aa2 #40 SILVER e430 «COPPER. soz #21, BLACK ane #11 «GOLDPISTON RIVET SET BEEHIVE ‘SPRING REGULATOR Fig.2-9 Rivetgun. “ ° Ry N N IMPROPER FT F f i al ny nN AN A BS Fig 210A The radius of the cup of the rivet set must be slightly larger then the radius ofthe rivet head. Fig. 2-108 Typesot rivet sets. u‘The countersink gun set is made to fit on the driven end of any size flush head rivet. A bechive retainer spring will notfit over the gun setretainer rring of the countorsink gun set. It uses a specially ‘constructed retainer spring. Figure 2-11 pictures both types of retainer springs. The retainer ring, located in the middle of the gun set, holds the re- tainer spring as it is threaded onto the gun barrel and prevents the gun set from accidentally flying ‘off. The rivet gun should never be fired if the gun set is not held in place by the retaining spring. 9. Rivet Cutters Rivet eutters are used tocut rivets to size prior to driving. The rivot cutter has a stack of thickness Bo o PROTRUDING GUNSET SPRING GUNSET SPRING Fig. 21 Gun set retainer springs. RIVET SHANK ‘CUTTING HOLES. ‘gauges which are used to determine the correct. rivet length by measuring the space between the rivet head and the cutting edge (Figure 2-12). ‘When rivet cutters are not available, the rivets can be cut to size using a pair of diagonal cut- ting pliers. The rivet is cut by squeezing together the two rotating plates connected to the cutter handles. AL sT10003 ‘st 1000-4 LEC&E ‘sT 1000-4 ST 1000-5 ST10006 ST 1000-7 PO GE 7100010 ‘87 1000-2 sti00s ST 1000-9 MISCELLANEOUS BUCKING BARS £¢ ‘SHEAR TIE SPAR BAR FLATTENER, BOTTLE ‘BAR ‘st 1000-40022 Fig. 2-12 Rivet cutters. 2 Fig. 2-13 Bucking bars.RIVET —DRIILL_—CLECO— BUCKING BARS — MINIMUMS RIVET BucKING | MINIMUM | MINIMUM piameren | owweTER | oni | ovensze | onme | cteco| Ban | AVET | EDGE ‘OFRIVET | DECIMAL | DECIMAL | OFORILL | NUMBER} COLOR | WEIGHT } PrcH | DIST a | 0007 0080 | 0043 | suver | 200. on | ose 1 125 3285 9035 30} copPEn | s-4ibs. 2 S132 5625 2028 21 | aiack |oasibe. | tsaz | torae ane | 1075 0085 1 | ow | sits. ae | 66 va 250 207 F [orem |sesie. | a4 26 USED IN THE FIEL [NOTE:ALCOA CLAIMS THATA RIVET SHOULD FIT AS TIGHT AS POSSIBLE BEFORE DRIVING, ESPECIALLY THOSE ‘RIVETS OF HARDER ALLOY. THE HOLE CLEARANCES LISTED ABOVE ARE THE RECOMMENDED SIZES Fig. 2-14 Rivet information chart. 10. Bucking Bars Bucking bars are tools used to form shop heads on solid-shank rivets during installation. Bucking bare are available in many sizes, shapes and weights. An assortment of bucking bars is illus- trated in Figure 2-13. When installing rivet, it is important to remember that the bucking bar weight should correspond to the diameter of the rivet being driven (Figure 2-14). ‘The face of the bucking bar is smooth and must, be protected from any nicks or scars which can affect the proper shaping of the driven head. Damaged bucking bar faces can be filed and then smoathed using oil and crocus cloth. 1. Hand Files Files are classified according to shape, length, and cut (Figure 2-15). The shapes of files are f triangular, square, half round, and round. The length of a file is measured from the heel to the point, That is, the tang is not included. Files may besingle or double cut. A single-cut file has one set of teeth angled 75° to its center line. A double-cut file has two sets of teeth, one angled 75° and the other 45° to the center line of the file, ‘There are several filing techniques. The most ‘common js to remove rough edges and slivers from the finished part before itis installed. Cross filing is a method used for filing the edges of metal parts which must fit tightly together. Cross fling in- volves clamping the metal between two strips of ‘wood and filing the edge of the metal down to a preset line, Draw filing is used when larger sur- faces need to be smoothed and squared, Itis done by drawing the file oer the entire surface of the work. . rut TmANGE souane ,MMlF noun A ‘SINGLE CUT FILE ‘TEETH 75" Fig. 245. Filo parts and shapes. B‘To protect the teeth, files should be stored sep- arately in a plastic wrap or hung by their ha dles, Files which are kept in a toolbox should be ‘wrapped in waxed paper to prevent rust from form- ‘ingon the teeth. File teeth can be cleaned with a file card. At- tached to the side of the file card is a de-pinning pick, which is used to rettove metal particles lodged in the gullets of the file teeth. Oil build-up can be removed from the gullets by rubbing chal on the teeth. The oil will be absorbed by the chalk. 12. Hand Shears Hand shears are needed to make large holes, curved parts, round patches, and doublers. They have colored handles which identify the direction of the cuts: Yellow cuts straight, green curves right, and red curves left (Figure 2-16). 13. Nibblers Nibblers, as the name suggests, cut metal by nibbling away small pieces until the correct size is obtained. A typical hand nibbler (Figure 2-17) is operated by squeezing repeated notches out ‘of the metal. Nibblers ean be used to enlarge RIGHT CUT RED HANDLE LEFTCUT Fig. 217 Hand nibblers. an inspection hole or to cut a notch to fit around an obstruction. 14, Chassis Punches ‘The chassis punch, once used only for installing radios and other avionics appliances, has become a useful tool for the sheet metal mechanic because of its ability to make neat holes. Chassis punches are ‘used tomake lightening holesin newly formed ribs cor aceess holes for inspection purposes. Fig. 2-16 Aviation snips. “ Fig.248 Greenlee hole cutter.OW) yubkine PILOTED Ne STRAIGHT TAPER Sfeamen CHUCKING peawen REAMER REAMER REAMER, (HAND) (HAND) y ee TAPER EXPANSION ADJUSTABLE mar 2S. cise ous (POWER) (POWER) ‘ Fig. 219 Reamers. ‘The Greenlee chassis punch (Figure 2-18) can be used with a %-inch drill and a %cinch wrench to ‘open holes from 2 to 1i/ inches in diameter. For larger holes, 2 larger drill and wrench will be needed. 15.Reamers When a close tolerance fit is required for a spe- cial fastener, an undersized hole isfirstdrilled, and the hole is then brought up to specifications by using a reamer. Reamers are driven by a drill motor or turned by hand, They are available in standard and adjustable sizes. Straight, tapered, spiral, expansion, and adjustable reamers are shown in Figure 2-19, ‘The correct way to use a reamer is to turn it only in the cutting direction when entering the hole or taking it out. If the reamer is turned in the opposite direction, the cutting edges will be damaged. 16; Routers ‘The router is not a tool normally used ta repair aircraft structures. It is used primarily to remove damaged honeycomb skin and core material from the control surfaces of modern jet aireraft. Routers are driven either pneumatically or electrically. Each type uses the same straight cutting bits, either high-speed steel or carbide-tipped. The bit 15 best suited for cleaning out damaged honéycomb is the earbide-tipped type. Figure 2-20 shows the router with a cutting bit. ‘The router bits range in width from 34s to 1 inch and from 4 to 112 inches in depth. Fig. 220 Router.17. Hole Finder Or Duplicator Hole finders, or duplicators, are used to locate holes to be made in undrilled skin. Hole finders can be ‘easily and inexpensively made to meet specific needs. Figure 2-21A shows a typical homemade hole finder. The holes in the rib or stringer to be reused serve ‘as the alignment holes. The duplicator marks the location of the holes to be made in the new skin. To ‘use a hole duplicator, firs insert the rivet alignment pin into one of the holes on the rib. Then place the lundrilled skin over the hole finder’s rivet head. Fi- nally, center-punch the new skin (Figure 2-21B) B. Bench And Floor Tools 1. Squaring Shears ‘Squaring shears can be operated either manually or hydraulically. A foot-operated treadle can be “ ALIGNMENT PIN PILL HOLE TO EXACT SIZE OF RIVETDIA, Fig2Z1A Hote Finder Fig 2218 Hole finder used to cupleste holes. inexpensively converted to a hydraulic type by in- stalling a hydraulic power pack on the machine. A hydraulic squaring shear can cut aluminum alley up to¥jwofan inch thick and aireraftstee! up to 16 gauge. ‘Figure 2-22 shows a squaring shear. The primary purpose of the side fence is to square metal to the cutting blade. A piece of sheet metal can be squared by placing it beyond the cutter, shearing off one side, and turning the metal 90° to make another eut Extending from the back of the machine are two rods, which, like the side fence, have a measuring seale embossed on them. Connected to these two rods isa stop fence that can be adjusted for longer Ki “ ye We, v0, CONTROL hyo. puMP FOOTTREADLE ELECTRIC MOTOR Fig.2-22 Squaring sheer. 16cuts. The rods can be set to measure the distance from the cutting blade to the adjusted stop. For example, if a sheet metal skin is to be cut 10 inches long and has to be squared, slide the skin along the fixed side fence, pushing it until it contacts the stop fence, which has been set at 10 inches. Then cut by stepping on the treadle, 2, Bending Brakes ‘There are many different sizes and types of bend- ing brakes. The most versatile and widely used is the box and pan brake (Figure 2-23). The box and pan brake is fully adjustable and comes in various FORE & AFT NOSE ‘ADSUSTMENT REMOVABLE (NOSE DIES NOSE DIE THICKNESS, ADJUSTMENT Jengths. It has removable nose pieces that. make tthe construction of a pan rib possible. The whole brake section can be moved backwards and forwards, allowing the addition of thicknesses of metal to the nose of the brake to increase the radius of the bend igure 2.24) As the bend radius is incressed, the ‘nose brake clearance must also be increased. Straight bonding brakes range from four to twelve feet in length. They are usually not adjust- able, and it is difficult to install a bend radius bar ‘on the nose of the brake. The straight bending bbrake is used to make long stringers. 3.Slip Roller A lip roller (Figure 2-25) is used to make a eyl- inder or a duct. The slip roller consists of three rollers interconnected by gears and turned’ by a hand crank. The rollers can be individually ad- {usted to produce a tight or a loose roll. ARter a metal cylinder is formed, it is removed from the roller by activating a release which allows the roller to slip free of its holder at one end. The part can then be removed. 4, Drill Pre A drill press is used to drill precision holes. Its use on s} limited by the reach, or distance, between the center line of the spindle and the stand which holds the drill'sdrive mechanism. Itis, ‘more commonly used to predrill holes in new spars or stringers. RADIUS INCREASED ‘T0.1265 APPROX. 1 ‘ADDED. 092-4 .092 = 064 ORIGINAL, RADIUS. 0625 \ ge BAR Fig. 223 Bending pan brake, wv Fig.2-24 Increasing bend radius bar.‘The drill press has four main parts: Floor stand, adjustable table, adjustable spindle, and-electric motor (Figure 2-26). The table can be raised up- wards toward the spindle to reduce the that the spindle has to travel downward to meet the ‘work, On some drill presses, the spindle has a threaded stop which can be adjusted to control the amount of downward travel and thusallow thedrill press to be used as a stop countersink cutter. The Grill press electric motor is bolted to the same frame as the spindle. Drill speed is determined by the belt’s location on the motor and by the spindle pulloys. If low speed is required for drilling, the mall pulley on the motor will be connected to the large pulley on the spindle, 5. Combination Band Saw ‘A-combination hack and band saw (Figure 2-27) is used when thick sheet metal cannot be eut with the squaring shears. A medium-size combination ‘saw will do most such cutting jobs. 6, Electric Grinders ‘The electric grinder is used regularly to sharpen. dull or broken drills. A grinder does not have to be large; a small 1/2 to 94 horsepower motor is ade- ‘quate. The grinding whee! best suited for sharpon- ing drills is a fine grit stone. When a grinding 18, ELECTRIC ‘MOTOR ‘TABLELOCK ‘BOLT Fig.2-26 Drill press. ‘wheel becomes grooved and uneven, it should be re-dressed and squared with a dressing tool. Care should be taken to avoid dropping the grinding ‘wheel because it can develop small cracks which ‘could later cause the wheel to fly apart and 6e- rriously injure the operator. ‘Note: Never use a grinding whee! that bos been dropped or that has a flaw of any kind. C. Airframe Special Tools ‘Tools used for aligning fuselages or supporting wings while they are being repaired are called‘BANDSAW WITH BLADE ‘GUIDE IN PROPER POSTION Fig.227 Bandsaw. slings or jigs, Most of the fuselage slings are shop-made for the specific repair to be done. For example, fuselage slings or saddles support the un- damaged parts of the fuselage while the damaged parts are being removed. When a braced wing needs to be repaired and the strut must be re- ‘moved, awingjig or stand isplaced underneath one of the compression ribs. Figure 2-28 shows exam- ples of slings, igs, and braces. QUESTIONS: 'L. What is the included angle of a drilt used to open holes on stainless steel? 2. What is the sharpening angle ofa drill used to open holes on aircraft sheet metal? 3. What type of drill motor is the most safe to use around aircraft? 4. How many number drills are there in a nor. mal set? What size number drill is used to open holes for aiis-inch diameter rivet? What are the three purposes of dri flutes? What color Cleco clamp is used when install- ing Vs-inch diameter rivets? Name two types of gun sets used to install rivets on modern airerof. What weight bucking bar is needed toinstalla Sisa-inch diameter rivet? ‘Name the parts of file. |. What isa double-cut file? How should reamers be removed from a hole? What tool is used to remove damaged honey- comb skin? |. How would you increase the radius of @ pan bending brake? 5. Ifthe belt were connected to the large pulley on the motor, would the drill press spindle speed be high or iow?Fig. 228 Wing end foselege support stands.Chapter III Aircraft Metals And Alloys Modern aircraft are manufactured from many different typos of metal alloys. Those most com- monly used are aluminum alloy, titanium alloy, Monel (a nickel alloy), stainless steel, and chrom molybdenum steel. Civilian aircraft are con- structed primarily from heat-treated aluminum alloys, while military aircraft are constructed primarily from titanium and stainless steel A. Aluminum Alloys Pure (89.0%) cast aluminum is unsuitable for air- raft atructures bocause it is too soft. Howevor, be- cause of its light weight (one-third the weight of steel), it ig, when alloyed with other metals or ele- ‘ments, an ideal structural material. Alloyed alumi- num fs produced in cast or wrought form. Cast alu- minum has a grain structure that is very coarse: thus the metal is brittle. Cast aluminum is used in the construction of aircraft whoel castings and ‘engine crankeases. When aluminum is wrought, its grain structure comprossed and tightened as it is forced into shapes of plates, rods, extrusions, or skins. Wrought, aluminum, used extensively in aircraft constrac- tion, is either non-heat-treated or heat-treated. ‘Most structural aireraft parts are made of heat- treated aluminum alloys Alloying ia mixing aluminum with othor metals to make it stronger. The percentage of copper or ‘tine mixed with aluminum will determine the strength of the alloy. Stirring sugar into a cup of coffee ism good example of what happens when ‘metals are alloyed. The dogree of sweetness in the coffee is directly related to the amount of sugar ‘added to the mixture. Similarly, the percentage of cothor elements in the alley determines ite charac- teristics. For example, when aluminum is mixed ‘with copper, manganese, or magnesium, the alloy incapable of carrying major struetural loads Figure 3-1 shows the percent. of alloying ole- rmonts mixed with aluminum to form the various types of metals used in the aircraft industry. ‘Thealloy ia identified by the predominant alloying ingredient. For example, the alloy 2024, which contains 4.5% copper, is a copper-bearing alloy PERCENT OF ALLOWING ELEMENT — ALUNGNUM AND NORMALIMPURTIES COMITTTUTE REMAINDER cooren [econ] wananvese | waanewuw | nc | wore | crmowun | veao [enw ies eee eres eee Peer gece reece Eee wel 2 | o] a Be eee (ioe Peo er bul | o | 2 = JZ) 5] 2 fale mul ou | oe | os ati fore peace eee ti mrj we | = | oe eed fer ee reer ir av{ as | = fo sdf efor | eee (eeeeee ee eee ee mula | = ff wf Stet He eee on i gala | = | oe se (Reo ee EET nes | os | os | os ee eee ee es ater eee Eee woz | oe | = eat efe | eas ee ie os] = | Sef = we ft lnm te ae a we} — |=] = Pooper ford jeemauud seh Prec fee ee ws| = || = FBrn pared jeesandse-vse) aes [ies oer | oz | oe | yw | o[ 2] oes | o] s ae ee ce ee Fig 3-1 Nominal compoelion f wrought alumina aoy.of aluminum. The 7075 alloy, which contains 5.6% tinc, is. zinc-bearing alloy of aluminum. Figure 8-2 shows how to read the alley codes, 1. Copper (Cu) 2XXX When copper is mixed aluminum, the aluminum becomes more mal le and ductil Ductility is the ability of the metal to be drawn into wire and bar stock. Pure aluminum is also malle- able and ductile, but the addition of copper en- hances these physical properties. The copper also acts to prevent stress cracks from forming while the metal is worked and makes some alloys, like 202473, shock resistant. Copper, which melts at 1981°F, is one of the most, ductile ofall the metals. It can, however, be made harder by cokdworking. ‘2, Manganese (Mn) 3XXX ‘Manganese is a gray-white, brittle metal which melts at 2273°F, When manganese ia mixed with aluminum, it provides a surface highly resistant to ‘wear and corrosion. Azo2013 sicacsiie Se) CCOPPER-THE MAIN ALLOVING INGREDIENT MODIFICATION OF ALLOY (“0" MEANS NO MOD) ALLOY DESIGNATOR SOLUTION HEAT TREATED, AGED. ‘ANO COLD WORKED MAJOR ALLOYING INGREDIENTS: ‘OKK PURE ALUMINUM, EXX COPPER, ‘OX MANONESE DOK SILICON SXXX MAGNESIUM SOO MAGNESIUM SILICON POKZNE (DOO OTHER ELEMENTS AMODIFIED ALLOY 16 ASSIGNED A NUMBER INL PLACE OF THE-O- SUCH ASIN211773, THE ONE IS DEFINED BY THE MANUFACTOREN. THE ALLOY. DESIGNATOR, SUCH AS 17.2475 OR 78, CONTAINS ‘THE ELEMENTS SHOWN FIG. 2-1. Fig. $2 Aluminum alloy Kientification. 3, Silicon (Si) 4XXX Although silicon, which melts at 2538°F, ie not ‘metallic, it has, properties which, in alley, make aluminum harder but not brittte. 4. Magnesium (Mg) 5XXX Magnesium weighs %/ as much as aluminum. It is strong enough to use structurally only when it is alloyed with aluminum, zinc, or manganese. ‘Also, because magnesium is very corrosive and burns easily — especially in ribbon or powder form — it is seldom used in sheet form. However, the alu- minum-magnesium 5066 rivet is commonly used to ‘hold the skins onto magnesium contre! surfaces. 5, Zine (Zn) 7XXX When zinc is mixed with aluminum, the rosult- ing alloy is stiffer and more brittle than pure alu- ‘minum, Zine—a bluish-white, lustrous meLal — is brittle at room temperature but malleable whon ‘heated, Zine melte at 786 B, Wrought Aluminum Alloys ‘Wrought aluminum is divided into two catego- ries: Non-heat-troatable and hest-treatable. After the allay is wrought, itis in an “as fabricated” (F) condition until it is heat treated or annealed. For example, the alloy 2024 would be 2024F before being heat treated. 1. Non-Heat-Treatable Aluminum Non-heat-treatable aluminum alloys are hard- ened by alloying and strain hardening. The terms “coldworkod’, “work hardened”, and “strain hard- ‘ened” refer to hardening processes such aa rolling, drawing, bending, or pressing. These alloys cannot be hardened by heat treatment. Non-heal-treated aluminum alloys that are work. hardened are designated by the letter H and the number 1,2, or3. Hl is strain hardened only; H2 is ‘train hardened and partially annealed; and H3 is, strain hardened and then stabilized, Following these designations is one of four numbers — 2, 4, 6, or 8— which indicates the degree of hardness of the alloy. For example, the alloy 3003128 is strain hardened ‘and stabilized to its fullest degree of hardness. ‘The four most commonly used non-heat-treatable aluminum alloys are 1100, 3008, 5052, and 5066. ‘The 1100 alloy is 98.0% pure. It i not used to make structural parts for aircraft. It is used to mako small-diametor, low-pressure tubing, rivets, ‘and reciprocating engine baffles ‘The 3003 alloy has as its major alloying in- grediont manganese, which gives it moderate208 our Te wn 2, fon uence ee Fig. 3-39. Heat treatment with natural age hardening. ‘Heating time varies according to thickness of meal Tine period between hee and quench eels cae htepe strength snd excellent formability This alloy is ‘used to construct wing tipa and prop spinners. ‘Tho 5052alloy hasasite major alloying ingredient ‘magnesium, but it also contains a light amount of chrome, This alley has excalleat structara) strength and good formability. It maintains ita properties ‘wall at elevated tomperatures. It is used to make low-pressure tubing and storage tanks for hy- Graulic fluids, fae, ol, and other liquids, ‘The 5056 alloy also has magnesium as its major alloying ingredient. It ia primarily used as rivet stock for magnesium control surface skins, Rivets rade from 5056 are magnesium compatible and therefore will not cause corrosion when installed into magnosium skins, 2, Heat Treatment: Natural Aging” ‘The hest-treated aluminum alloys are-extene sively used in aireraft structures, Commonly used heat-treatable alloys naturally age hardened are 2U17, 2017 and 2024. ‘There are three stages in the heat treatment pro- ‘cess: Heating, quenching, and aging. In it “as fab- ricated' condition, tho aluminum is placed in heat-treating oven and heated for a period of time determined by its alloying oloments and by its size (Figure3-3), For example, the aluminum alloy 2024F is heated to.2 temperature of 820°F and held at that tempera- ture until all parts are equally heated. After being heated, the metal is quickly transferred to a quench- ing tank. The quenching operation must be per- formed as quickly as possible in order to reduce the possibility of intergranular corrosion. After quench- ing, the aluminum alloy is kept at room temperature for 16 to 24 hours to ensure that the metal has age hardened, Age hardening, the final step in the heat- treatment process, makes the motal naturally hard. ‘The designation of metal so treated changes from F, as fabricated, to T4, heat treated and age hard- ‘ened, If the metal ig further hardened by coldwork- ing (that is, mechanically) its designation in TS. See Figure 3-4 for other temper designations of heat- treatable and non-heat-treatable alurainum alloys. 'WEAT TREATING THE COMMON ALUMINUM ALLOYS, ‘SOLUTION HEAT ‘PRECIPITATION “ARWEALING ‘TREATMENT HEAT TREATMENT ‘TmexrwenT fa “APPROX. ‘HEATING wert | tempen | meta, | Tiweor | temper | erat | TIMEIN auor vewe | pesian | Tema | HeaTina | ogeon. | tee | HOURS 1100.0 = - - - - wor | 2020 = = = = = 88 = 10520 = = = = = aor = soseHs2 = = = = = - = 210% ser ™ 7 = - 88 2 27 sor u 7 7 = Ter na 8 ser % a8 7” me | er 3 won wer m7 tor t10 ® 88 23 707 eer w aor | mae " TF 23 fosorm | ere w aor | anRs. ma aise | aHRS. NOTE 1: «moana: alloys for ehvat stock only; #80" plus or minus 10°F: end “plus or minus SF NOTE: 2: Ail of he non hast treted alloys lated shows are nthe annebed form andthe better “Ole designated ator ter oy codon, og. 1100-0, 9003-0, an 5082-0. Fig. 34 Temper designations of heat-irestable snd non-teat treatable auminum alloys. 23Hoat-troatable aluminum alloys commonly used in the construction of modern aircraft are 211774, 201774 and 202474 or 73. ‘The alloy 211774 is manufactured only as rivet stock. It is the most widely used rivet alloy in the aviation industry, The 211774 rivet iadriven in the ‘condition received from the manufacturer without any further treatmont. ‘The 201774 alloy is manufactured in two similar forms. The first form dates back to 1926, when it ‘wus called 17ST and was used for rivets and atruc- tural skins. When being driven in diameters larger than 31s of an inch, the rivet stock fre- quently cracked. Also, it had to be re-heat treated ‘and driven in a softened condition. Recently, Alcoa reworked 20177% by slightly re- ducing the amount -of magnesium and adding small amounts of iron and silicon. The new crack- free 201714 mosta the original 2017 standards and cean be driven in'the condition received. It in used in the construction of the new Boeing 757 and 737-200 series aircraft. ‘The alloy 2024TS is widely used for skin covering and internal parts of all typos of aircraft. It has ‘exceptional resistance to fatigue Toads, itis highly resistant to cracks, it can withstand heavy load limita, and it retains high strength efter damage. As rivet tock, however, the 202474 rivet is being chal- enged by a new rivet, the (Boeing rivet) 7050173. 8. Precipitation Heat Treatment: Artificial Aging Aluminum alloys containing zinc, magnesium, silicon, or copper are given a precipitation heat treatment after. nabral heat treatment is com- pleted. For example, the alloy 7075 ia given a nor- maf heat treatment at 870°F and quenched in cold water, After it is precipitation heat treated at 250°F for 24 hours, itbecomes 207676. Alloys are iredipitation heat treated by heating them in an Geb; time and temperstures vary (Figure 3-4). "This treatment has the effect of locking together particles in the grain of the metal, thus increasing strength, stability, and resistance to corrosion. ‘Natural heat treatment begins the grain-binding ‘process; precipitation oat troatment completes it, In addition, artificially aged alloys are generally cover-aged to increase their resistaiice to corrosion, especially if, like 2024, they are subject to inter- granular corrosion. ‘Metals which are given precipitation heat treat- ‘ment iatally love some mallerbility and ductility, tnd’ their mochanical properties are s0 changed ‘as to reduce thor ability to be reshaped cold without cracking. 4 The most commonly used precipitation heal- treated alloys are those containing zine. The alloy ‘107ST6 has high impact resistance and therefore is used where great strength is required. The 707976 aluminum alloys are excellent or making forgings for heavy channels that carry landing gears or flapaoflarge aircraft. The alloy 7178 is used where compression loads are the greatest, for example in the supersteucture of wide-body jets. ‘The alloy 7050773 is the newest aluminum alloy, It was developed in 1979 by Alcoa and the US Air Force. A combination of aluminum, zinc, and magnesium, it is primarily used 8 a solid-shank rivet. The 7050773 alloy is the strongest of any rivet alley in use today: It has a high resistance to stress corrosion and is much stronger than the alloy 2024731, which it has replaced on some mod emjetliners. Figure 3-4 lists hest-treatable end non-heat- treatable aluminum alloys and their temper conditions, Because titanium much as steel) and strong, particularly when al: loved, itis much in demand for structural parts on high-speed aircraft. Because it remains strong up itis better than aluminum for use around eof jet aircraft, ‘Titanium resiste fatigue, cracking, fracturing, and corrosion. Alloyed, it does not need to be coated ‘to prevent corrosion, but, because it is cathodic to magnesium and aluminum, it should be insulated from them. ‘One form of titanium alloy that, is used in the manufacture of special fosteners is GAL-4V: GAL. ‘means that 6% of the alloy is aluminum;4V means that 4% is vanadium. This alloy has a melting tem- perature higher than that of steel, and tt is 66% more dense. It has a tensile strength equal to that of steel and twice that of aluminum — 180,000 rst in the heat treated condition. D. Monel Monel in nickel alloy which has the properties cofhigh strength and excellent corrosion resistance. Monel containe 68% nickel, 29% copper, 0.2% iron, 1% manganese, and 1.8 % other materials. 301 is used for the construction of sprockets and chaina orlanding goars, in the manufacturin of certain aircraft fasteners, and, in general, wher- ever both atrongth and high resistance to corrosion. are needed.E. Stainless Steel: 18-8 Steel Stainless steel is used in many places on modern aircraft, such as fire walls, skins, structural parts, ‘and special fasteners. Stainless stool is often called 18.8 steel, because it contains 18% chrome alloyed to8% nickel and 74% steel, Chrome forms an oxide which, after buildup, prevents corrosion from ta ing place. ‘Stainless stee} is strongest when it is cold rolled. t resiste drilling by conventional means. When. drilling stainless steel, thedrill must be sharpened. toan included angle of 140" and the tip speed must be slow, 750 new. Use steady drill pressure. F. Chrome-Molybdenum Steel Chrome-molybdenum (4130) ateel, also called “chromally”, is made up from plain steel, molyb- denum, and chrome. The main alloying ingredient in chrome-molybdenum steal in chrome, In the ‘code 4130, the first digit 4) indicates an amount of molybdenum; the second digit (1) indicates the amount of chrome; and the last two digits (30) spec- iff, in hundredthe of a percent, the amount of ear ‘bon in the alloy. There are three classes of carbon steels: low (.08 to .25%), mild (25 to 65%), and high (86 to abave 1.0%). Because 4130 is a mild- carbon ateel, itis easy to weld. ‘The alloy 4130 steel is most commonly used to ‘construct engine mounts and shock struts. Chrome-molybdenum is highly resistant to shock and corrosion. QUESTIONS: Which typeof metal ia most commonly used in the construction of modern civilian aircraft? Mn 12. 13, Ma. 15. 16. 18. 19. What is the major alloying ingredient in 7060773? What percentage of copper does the alloy 20B4TH contain? What percentage of copper does the alloy 1100 contain? What characteristic of zinc makes it « good alloying ingredient? List the following metals in order of in- creasing weight: magnesium, iron, tianium, stainless steel, aluminum. What is the major alloying ingredient in the luminum alloy 2024747 What is the major alloying ingredient in the ‘ving, ond @ bulbed blind head (Figure 6-19): The: Sriviog vil, which look Tike a suher; i ‘nates wear and tear on the installation tool, This allows the use of one pulling bead on all diameteti”: 55‘TheCherrymax rivet is available in six diameters: \Vnineh nomingl and oversize, a-inch nominal and oversize, and Me-inch nominal and aversive. tis man- ufictured in ivo head stylon Univeraut M&20470, 100" flush MS20428, 100° flush NASiO97, unisink, and 120" flush. Figure 5-20 showsa typical part number. breakdown and the various head styles and ures of the Cherrymax rivet, ae cHenay PART NUMBER EXAMPLE AXMEUM Grom LENGTH IMAGTHS OF AN INCH (eae ank= 19 RIVET DIAMETER I 32NDOF ANINCH (Fe =6a2 6 396) WEADSTYLE FLUGH HEAD verre a MATERIAL COMBINATION GHEY MAK RIVET YM a LL canst, ‘ACOMBINATION FLUSH AND PROTRUGING ‘HEAD FOR USE ON VERY THIN TOP SHEETS, TELMNATES NEED FOR ‘DOUBLE-DIEPLING. K. Olympie-Lok® Fasteners ‘The OlympicLok fastener ie 9 lightweight, mechanically tecked, spindle-type blind rive ‘Olympic-Loks are equipped with a locking ring, fntegral to the palling atom, which in used to lock the stem into position. It also provides a lenge formed head on the blind side, which improves the ree 7-8 — 4 swsTARY PART NUMER EXAMPLE MAMIMUM GRIP LeNaTH IN IETHS OF AN INCH. ts ans 541M) RIVET DIAMETER aZteD OF ARINC (70+ 62 = an} AWET TYPE, MEAD STILE. AMD MATERIAL (SEE MAR-TI86) CHEARVMAX RIVET NOTE: ORIVING ANVILS ARE COLOR Kec SEEKS Sys 56 “Fig. B40 Parl number breakdown and various head styles and ses of Cherrysmax rivalbearing strength of the joint, The clamp-up action and shank expansion improve shear strongth. ‘The Olympie-Lok blind fastener is a total fasten ing aystem which includes festever and tools. The Olympie-Lok pulling heads are designed to pull protruding and countersunk heads in the eame di- ameter range. The too! is designed to permit the installation of fasteners from ane side of open ot limnited-aocess structures. Figure 5-21 shows the installation ofan Olympse-Lok blind rivet with the Jacked spindle. ‘The Olympic-Lok blind fastaner is avaitable in three head etyles: Universal protruding, 100° Aush countersink, and 100° lush shear, and three diam- coterd: Vi, 5a and 31-inch. The three diartetors are available in eight different. allay combinations of 2017-74, A-296, 5056, and Monel. The Olympic- Lok locked spindles are made from the same mate- vials that the aloovas are rude. L. Huck Fasteners ‘Thore are two kinds of Huck blind Gasteners: Huck NAS1900biind rivets and Huek-Clinch blind rivets, ‘The locking collar of the NASI900 is can rivet head, simulluncously filling a locking groave around ity spindle, Figure 5-22 shows the installa- tian of the NASISKIO Huck rivet. ‘Tho NAS 1900 Huck rivet i avnitable in two head styles: protrading and Mush. Hie available in four dlamotare: #4, 92, Mie and W-ineh. The di amoters are measured in increments of Yse-inch and lungths are maasured in 'aedoch increments ‘They are manufactured in three different combina- Udrinof alloys: « 6056 alurminum sleeve with a 2024 aluminum affny pin, an A236 corrosion-resistant steel sleeve with an A-2U6 pin, and x Mone! 400 sleeve with an A-286 pin. ‘Tae Huck-Clinch fastener haa the ability todraw up the metal to a tight and binding joint. The lock- ing of the spindle into position ie accomplished by the action ofa stop anvil pressing down on the rivet pend. The pressing action ofthe stup anvil and the draw-up of the spindle causs the rivet to expand, thus filling the locking area arsund the spindle nck (Figure 5-23), M. Summary Of Blind Fasteners Each blind fastener is unique in construction, ‘The Cherrymax, Olympic-Lok, Huck, and Cherry mechanical lock rivels ail huve stems that snap away when installed, leaving « locking device or which keeps the stem (rom felling out-ng mettor what the situation or smount of vibration. The stems of these Fivetx must never be filed smooth because of the danger of removing the locking device. Alwoys follow the manufseturer’s recom ‘mendations regarding the handling of amy blind fagtence. ‘Toromavex hline rivet, fire filet flatspoton the stem suction of the locking ring and center punch iL Then dril! deep enough to eomove the remaining ock ring. Use wimall pin punch to tap out the tem. Remove the manufictured head by deilting deep enough to eut it free of the slocve, and lightly tap out tho remaining shank. N. Special Fasteners: ‘Access Panels And Cowlings Tho cuwling surrounding both jet and piston engines aids in cooling and streamlines the flow around the engine. Due to the pressure jen crated by the air flow around un engine, its onl: ing must be locked on securely, Deus buttona, Camloce, and Airlocs are used tv uccure engine ‘cowlings und access covers ty Various other parts of an aireraft. 1. Dzus Fasteners ‘Three main parts make up the Drvs fastenees ‘The stud, spring, aud grommet. The stud fs made uf steel and is available in three head styles: flush, oval, and wing. The spring is made of cadmium-plated, piano-hinge steal wire. The cadmium plating prevents dissiniflar metal corro- sion. The grommet is made from 1100 aluminum. ‘Dawa fhstenors are manufactured in body diaro- dors ranging fom Ihe to Winch {im increments of Yw-inch) and in shank lengths ranging from (200 to 1 inch (moasared in increment of one- hundredths of an inch), al On top of the manufacturud head are the name “Daus’a latter which denotes whether the fastener head is flush (1 or protruding (P), the diameter in sixteenths of an inch, and the lengtlsin bundredths of an inch. Figure 5-24 shows tho parts and in- stallation ofa Dzus fastener. Hither a wing or slotted hoad Dans fastener ia used when attaching cawling or closing up wc- ‘cess plates. The wing type is seeurod by turning iL manually, The slotied Daus bitton requires a com mon blade sctewdriver. To secure 2 Dzas fastener, the cutved slot on tho end ofits shank ix made to stratldle the lock =pring prior to turning into the Aoeked position. Secure lock-up is indicated by sticking sound, :COiyerpie- Lax bine rvs Tools grip the stem and Ineestesinte aprepared —pulitinto the soeve, closing hole Notethe clearance the cheat gap, expanding he batwaso ie shetandihe —afeeve foil the hole, ond ‘Slaesolthatale snd tie forming aconatlery lager epbetween he sheets. vile akdabeering ores. FULLY SERRATED STEN FOR INGREMENTAL EULLUP ‘LOCKING COLLAR —— fv 1205 SenrEs. ‘COUNTERSUNK HEAD STYLE {1G GH GRUP VARIATION CAPABILITY, ‘DESIGNED INTO FASTENER av 1200 Senues, FLUSH BREAKING STEM: “GREATER LOCKING COLLAR VOLUME [DRIVEN INTO LOCKING GROOVE ‘SLEEVE REDUGEO INTEANAL DIAMETER TO. ‘PRECISELY ALIGN THE LOCKING GROOVE. CONTINUOUS INTEGRAL LARGER SECOND SHANK ‘DIAMETER FOR EXTRA Des [SLEEVE EXPANSION AND ‘GREAT SLND-SIOE [BEARING AREA ‘Wen tha sue ral Continued pulling beaks. stoppes bythe sues inter the stem flea tothe testen- rotten ie ntegt rocking collo ears te aed is fovedine tw tem ocing ‘orranent oacnaneat ioc fechand. Flushes. ‘sured bythe posoning olthe break groove ween {he weve’ ioral ng Fig.6-21 Olymplc-Lok lastenees,Se CLEA, ‘BPINDLE Is FRACTURED ‘TENSION PROVIDING A FLUSH SNSTALLED LIND RIVET WITH NOSE. TICALLY INTEGRITY. {8 THEN UPSET TOP TO FORMA ‘TMRUST THE INNER ANVIL ‘STRONG, BULBEO HEAD ON THE AGAINST THE LOCK ‘BLIND SIDE. ‘WHICH IS FORGED INTO THE CONICAL ACESS. PARTS ARE LOCKED TOGETHER Per % Fig. 5-22 Huck taxtones, )REMOVARLE ART ‘GROMMET = ay mae Fae 4 aves [STUD ABSEMBLY 2. Camioc Fasteners ‘The Gemfac fastener consists of thros parts: eoep- tacte, grommet, and stud assembly (Figure 5-25) “The resuptan is neado of « precsod aluminum ally: which ix mounted un a stamped sheet metal buse and riveted to the cowling or cowling support. The: grommet ia flanged to fit into. hole in the cowling. Itinstrengthoned by ribbing that encirclesthe part which comed into contact with the atud, ‘The Camloc is designed in such a way that its srouspin can be installed by compressing it with’ pliers similar to those used on Glecos, To remove a Camioc recoptacle, remove ite two mounting rivets. 3. Airloc Fasteners ‘The Aidoc fontenor conaists of two parte: spring receptacle and stud-and-crospin assembly. The. stud comay in two head styles; countersunk and round. The spring has un upper leaf that eatchos: the erosapin. The locking of the erosspin jite the ‘upper leaf prevents the stud and pin from unlock ing once it is snapped into position. The lower leaf, pring forces the Cowling into place. Two rivets hold the receptacle in place. The rivet beads must. be countersunk su that the outer surface Ties flush, with the inner ahnet. Figure 6-26 ahows the in- stallation of an Airloc. ‘srup ‘ASSEMBLY > ‘RECEPTACLE 80 Fig, 8-25 Carnioc fastener.st QUESTIONS: “1. Name three conventional, non-blind, special fasteners. : 2. Which iethe scrongest special fastener? . 8. Name the twx different types of lockbotts, 4. Why con a Cherrymac blind rioet be used! to replace a salid-shank rivet? 5. ‘Name three blind fasteners that wee stem lock- ing devices, 6. What three diameters are standard for must bind rivets? 7. What ride governs the installation of a Cherry- Loch friction rivet when itis used to replat @ solid-shanh rivet? 8. Which Blind fastener hax a tockiny device which in part ofthe manufactured rivet head? 9. How are bind rivets with locking stems reranecl? 10, What is the advantage of the twa! used to install an OlyoapiceLak rivet 11. What alleys are used to make Cherrybuck fasteners? 12, What advantage docs a Cherrybuck have over aHicLok fastener? 13. Wherearebliad fisteners used! most successfuliy? 44, What two head styles seem ta be most common on blind faateners? 15, Name three colin and accees cover fasteners.Chapter VI Forming And Bend Allowance Four steps are to be followed when farming or bending aircraft parts: Computing bend allowance and setback, meauuring the tayout, and making the finished part, A. Bend Allowance Bend allowance is defined as the amount of metal to be added to the total layout. Figure 6:1 in an edge view of a 90° hend showing the location of bead allowance. There are three variables to consider when computing bend al- lowance: Radius of the bend, thickness of the metal, and umber of degrees of the bend. Fig- ‘ure 6-2 shows a labeled, finished part ‘The radius of the bend is alwaye located nt the ‘inside heol ofthe bent metal. Bend radiusis always ‘expressed in thousandths of an ineb. One of the NEUTRAL, LINE OF AXIS, EXTEREON LINES MARKED A& 8 Fig 1 Bond stowance.‘most important considerations when bending metal ig tho minimure bond radiua. When bends are Toade smaller than the roquited minirsum rae dius, metal will erack at che outside heel of the bond, A metal part bent about a radius bar will compress at the inside heel and strateh at the out- side heel of the bend, This aetion causes the metal ta become cold worked. Because cold working can either weaken or strengthen the metal, depending upon its previous dogres of hardness, detormiaing minimum bend radivsin critical. “The minimum radius of the bend is determined by the hardneas and the thickness of the metal, Figure 6-3 isa minimum bend radius chact. When ‘ory hurd motals (such as 707876), are bent. using thr lower nide of the miniraun range specified (30), relief holes must be drilled at various intervals along the sight tine. Some aircraft aluminum alloys are extremely ‘hard, and when they require bending to a radius ‘emnaller than minimum, thoy should firet be sn- vealed, a form of hest treatment. that softenn metal. Annealod aluminum can be bent to 1 mini- ‘mum radiue equal to ite own thickness. Then after tho bending in completed, the metal is re-heat treated to realore it to ix previous temper condi- tion, If heat treating equipment is not availeble, ‘use a larger bend radius. ‘Thickness of the meta’ boing bont is determined by where the part will ultimately be located. ‘The thickness of the metal is always referred to in thousandtha of an inch. Bend allowance and minimum bod radius are allected by the thi noag of the metal. ‘The number of degrees of the bend isdetermained by the shape of the part. Difforent procedures ap- ply to calculation of bends of 90” and those less and ‘more than 90°. Because hard metals will spring back after bend. ing, they should be bent five to ten degrosa beyond the required bend angle, 1. Bend Allowance Formula ‘There are four mothods for finding bend at- lewance, Three formulas can be used. The one-pi and two-pi formulas eonsider the location of bend allowance to be direetiy on the neatsaly or canter, line of the thickneas of the metal. The formula allows for a slight inward shift of bend allowance and is therefore considered to be more acetate, A bend allowance table presents data rived fram th empirical formula. 2 One-Pi Formula ‘The one-pi formula determines band allowance by computing the efreumference af a circle which includes the diameter of the bend plus the thick- ness ofthe motal. The formula i Bh = rx) Come ND BA jg bend allowance; Pi (m) is 3.1416; D is bend radius times two plus the thickness of metal: TEC CNEREED RAGH FOR BENDS W ALUN ALOE TAPPRORIMATE BREET THICKER cre aia on one ant aoe sn ace sam om °. enn act vacua) varius : Wanavall Wateia = Sato vss) “Are a SO) BOR ssa Aca fwwane [aCe | axa | are esa on on on ou o-t rere mn | wacevm| ie |uvacn [evan aire varie) “Gok ava MACE ETS 7750 2 oa tf vacival naa faa wee | ate | ace | ace | MECN] ace [Marte *ALCLAD SHEET MAY BE GENT OVEN SUIGITLY SMALLER RADA THAN THE ‘CORRESPONDING TEMPERS OF UNCOATED ALLOY. MNEDIATELY AFTER QUENCHING, THIS ALLOY MAY BE FORMED OVER ‘APPRECIABLY SMALLER RAH, { Fig. 61 Minimum bend radtvs chart. cy\N is the number of degrees of bond. Far example, if the bend radius is 125 and the thickness of the otal is 040 then 1 ig 290. The bend is 90°. i ma» 208 end Atiowance is 228 b.Dwo-Pi Formule {n this emul, pits multiplied by tan, andanly half of the thicknous is used for computation, This Ibrmula expresses tho fact that bend allowance 2e- ‘ually ies along the neutral lino ofthe metal thick- ness. The two-pl farzmula Se: Bae (mAs wy + 00+ wy ‘Using the data given for the ons-pi farmula: a =a. s+ (040+ sa teu ize + 82-040) + 89 +50) base (ies + am) 4 Fame) 69 = arto aie Bend allowance in 228, ¢.Bonpirical Bond Allowance Formala ‘The empirical formula is the most accurate of all the bend allowance formutas, U is based on experiments which prove that the neutral fine running through the thickness of metal shifle slightly towards the inside radius when the metal is bent, thus shortening the bend al- lawanee several thousandths of an inch, ‘The empirical formula tales into account the shif- tng of tha neutral line, slightly inward, when the metal fg bent. ‘The empirical frmuta: (RAIN x 4 Oo THE Unlike the one-and two-pliormutas, the empitical formula wsrignsconstants: (1743 tobe multiplied by radius, and 0078 to bo multiplied by thickness, Thete constant values aro #lightly smaller than would be durived by the tw-pi formula. ‘That is, if pl ixzaultiplied by 2nd divided by 360, the result. ia 17488. rather than 01743, and if pi tudivided by 360°, the renult is .0087, rather than .0078. ‘An exumple, using the same data, i: srr x 08+ sort 0480 “5 fanart aigpe 2 (ONT 9 = 2 Bend allowance is 224. 4, Bend Allowance Chart ‘The bend allowance table chown tn Figure 6-4 wax developed using the dala from the empiri= eal formula. ft rolales radius to thieknoss. The three-pluce decimal is the: bend allowance for 90°, “The aix-plane decimal is the bend allowance for one degroe of bend. If the six-place decimal nurabur is 280 Ms aren 20 85 ‘multiplied by any bend angle, it will produce the ‘bend allowance tor that ange, For example, to find the bend allowance far & 90° bend when the rudius in 126 and Une thickness is 040, read across the top Hine to 126. ‘Then read down the thieknese colunin until you get to 040. ‘The throe-place decimal, 224, in the bend al- fowance for 90° und tho six-pluce docimal, .002493, is for one degree of bend. Bend allowance for 248° angle ia 002493 % 45, or <2. ‘eGight line After all the mensuronvents are Inid out on the sheet metal part, sight fine muet be located in the ‘bend allowance area. This is important far proper Positioning of the bending brake in thw beed al- Towance area prior to making the bend, Lacation of the sight line affects the bend al- owanee ground the bend radius bar because when metal is bent, the outside heel strotches and the inside heel compresses, causing the metal to stzeich at the point of the bend. The sight line pplacoment for bends 90° and greater is always one bend radius out from the bead fire under the not of the brake. Figure 6-5 shows the location of the « sight ling for bends 90° and over. ‘When bends are smnaller than 90 it is obvious ‘that gotting the sight Tine ane bend radius out fom the bend line will not be pusible because the bend allowance area ie too small In this case, wet the nose ofthebrukeinthe tlddteofthe bend allowanccarea. B. Setback ‘Sethack is thecalculation ofthe ammount of metal 40 be subtracted from a teg in order to find the length of its unbent portion, stvo reforred to se the X distance (Pigura 6-6), Simply stated, eetbock is determined by subtracting the radius and the thickness from the length ofthe finishad leg. ‘The formula for calculating setback is: ax aT) Values of K are given in Figure 6-74. Thom are based on trigonometric functions, Up to 90°, the K value is from .00873 to 7. For angles above ‘90, the K value is from 1 to infinity, Note that for bends of $0", the K factor is one: that is, setback ie detertmined by radius (R) and thickness (1), Forbends over 90, the fnctor increases to infinity, Dut, in practice, isnot significant because redius and thickezes can be measured and eubtracted from the ongth of the finished leg. However, tho inclusion of the K (actor in the formula allows the accurate vomi- putation of setback when radius and thickness cam nobbe measured, when the bend is loss than 90°,salebladlstlsilellel ebleG|af|si[ailsdladlsélellgd|eilsilet stletlebla€letlatleliat/st| |e! ebledielledladlei[allst|ai silad/sQledlstledlad adlailat|zi|s'jefls§/alledled|allatled Salabladladla€ladlsdsdlst|sdlailal aalet 'galedleUlefle€letlaaiedladlellsl|ad allai galedleGledledlabisd elledledletlel abled sledled|e2/ef[eficd ellalletlstlel alist Selnbladladladiagingisdiagiadlacies al Stndledlad|ellatletlallstlstlallad ae [Seine leeladlebled|ediadleélalladlad stledlsGled|sdlndindinllediedlae|al galstle Geet] dletlel|eHladlel|ai etletledlstled/saled|t) | | a Plablebledls’ afejerefefaleieletelalalelejatelela Fig. 6-4 Band allowance chert 66LF FQES Sightline. axa. Fig. 66 Gotback for 97" bends.SSRSRRrasIssaizaeeNrsesssseae ot pry a 196 ar se tas at Fig 7A aaa 37708 ar 2a 60st 37320 oarne a 20178 3.a6e7 ozne74 2 20385 orn a.zpe2t 83 108 1659 aaps2 u nme ans. 31520 8 toa as page * 06. a33459 e 1909 agist 9343s 8 49608 cuss agate * 43708 S515 36907 a0 a certs oaraaa 10 saan 18 svat aganee me 8 182 sau7 Dasae7 303 sa57e ry Soot oaoaes 10 ead 104 mm oaraat 108 3092 165 ‘3087 paaear 708 13270 166 anes paneer +07 135 187 7760 a ‘ans saree 108 o aBers saute 20 ages saaet na st oa7ee7 asso um 12708 8 oaar73 ue 9036 mm 14301 3 0.49056, 1 15106 173 10.350 * osces2 4 15998 174 isnt s 052057 15 8607 8 22904 6 ost 6 16003 178 288 a 05e29s a feats 7 S108. 8 osseat Neos m 5200 * osssr7 a7 are ttasto o oss Tae 0 INFUTTE ‘Kuchar chart 3 to 780 degrees.pea [sw [tan 7 ‘cos | veo. ‘20 | aaoeoe | ecw | => | teow | on0 1 | sors! sore] sao | 16000] ws 3 | ‘oosen | sca | zens | 42000 | a 3 | gas | ‘conse } mo | 00 7 4 | samme | ‘ooses | veaze } t2aoe) 5 | somra| oonra} reese | som] 5 6 | ower} woe | sxc | came { 4 2 | ‘owz} orm} mas | soo} 3 2 | oxme | ore} rusz | se] 2 jaw | our | case | some] 10s ae [ose | sao | 205 [came] ma a {sme | aoet | 2aas | sons | are 2] xm | a | 20 | gels 3] mw] an | zen | ee] 7 A | aot | az | zee | aan] 6 | sm | ae | zea | sem] 5 a | Sor | cae | zaoe | are] 4 7 | gee | aus | zor | aes] 3 a | Gas | 4am | om) sen] 2 a | Sent | fee | ae a ‘ea [camer | oer a A | ace | our 6 2 | ar | srs + a | ame | ste 7 4 jm | ae a 3) 2m | sur 4 s = 4 2 | 7am | sees a a | rou | a0 2 3s | ram | oe at 59 | rors | tooco. aa ec | cos | oor | bea. J ‘The K-factor values are arrived at by dividing any angle by two und Ending what the tangent ceguivalent is. For example, a 45° angle divided by two is:22.6. On the tangent table, Pigure'G-7B, Find ite value, 4542. z ‘To determine the aotback for a 45° angle with a radiag of 325 and a thidknoss of 040, use the chart to determine the setback, 4142, and apply he formu 58m 1 «(125 + 2am) = 08 CC. Layout A layout is mace by placing the measurement ‘obtuined by caleulating bend allowance and sel tack onto sheot metal stock. To make a layout for ‘@ part with three different legs, much ax a rib or ‘par, Oasign a lettor to ouch leg (Figure 6-8). After the lines are taid out, the part is cus out and bent tosbape. Fig. 678 Tangent and cotangent excorpt tabi, ost wanes | Unment weno ‘colesmien nem 1a es AusowNCE ‘tavour rnacmion a 1000 as 6 sea mater Te 1 me ET 78 ° a ‘ae zero ayn a ae ma 72 pve Ta as 256 wie t C wane A~ LEPTvenTiCaL CED ‘wa. nen aLLowace r—TcnESs1.90°Bends A goat éearmple of a bond of 90" is a spar splice to be * dnizortad iota a finished part (igure 6-91 Rond a 1° > 16 9 1" U-shaped charinel to a radium £25 ofan inch. ‘Phe metal thickness is.0{0ofan inch. aneleach legis tobe bent 80°. According tn therbend allowance chart “sis appendix Ay bend allowance ix £224 af am inch. Setback for 90° aR + T: 125 > 040) = 165. 2 Lega A and © are one inch tong, When setback, 165, fs subtracted fram them, the unbent portions are 836 ofan inch. Leg B18 six inches long, When two setbacks are sublracied, (he unbent portion is 5.670 inches. 2. Bends Less Than 90° Qpemangie bends are less than #Y. The bend al-- lowancs. far open-anite bends is added tothe layout, + dsare other bend ungles. However, when laying outa ‘end of leas than 90, sothark must bn; calculated, using the X factor. Sethack is thinn subtracted from ‘anch Siniahed length to find the unbent lex portion, for bends loss than 90°, sethack cannot he simply Rs Theeause there is ne clear distinction Detween the thicknesses of the metal and the tadiux of the bead, An example of this method ig illustrated in Figur 6-10. 8. Bends Greater Than 9° In Figure 6-11, two identical 135°-angle bends ‘ore shown. Bach of the finished parts has one-inch, Tege. The unbent. portion of leg A in example | is obtained by eubtracting the num of R + T from the ea = 398 AS KFACTOR = 2142 finighed ley. In example 18, the unbent portion of leg A iscaloulnted by subtracting setback, which 1s determined by using the K factor. “The main difference between the tw methods is that in example T, xetlack is measured from the curvature of the metal tothe tnd radius extenaion Aine, and in example U1 setback is rweasured from ‘the mold point to the hend radius extensian Tin ‘When bands ave greater thun 90°, bend allow tance inereaves and sctbuck eemains the Same, at it would fora 9" hend. For example, a benel aver 90° on a V-shaped stringer can be calculated using this deta: Bend radius is .125 inches the thickness of the metal ix 1040 of un inet the bond angle tx 120": ‘Aand Bare bath two inches, Acenrsling to the benel allownnee chart, ond alluwance for one degree is OO2ASHH, Tues, BA is 120 x HORE, or £290 inches. Bellnack is RC1259 + 'T L040), oF 185 inches. Sub- tract sethack (1651 froen both A 2.0000 and 112.0405 ( find the unbent. portion of ench Ing, 1.835 inches. The total layout, = TA 4+ 1 in 5.968 inches, D. Finished Part ‘The finished part is the starting point & puting bend allowance and setback, ‘The mesure inns — thicknars of the metal. rad . and number of degrees of the bend — are all detar= mind from the finished part, The finighed parti ‘thaaetual project like a rh, spur or stringer made in the shap, The purt-may nolexigt excepl on pane. blueprint, of AD compliance note. SH = K(AL+ ThSD = 281 (575 « 225) 4142 (500) = 202 4,98 = 267 {WHEN GND ARE LESS THAN 90,SETBACK MUST BE COMPUTED USING THE K.FACTOR.ON ENDS LESS THAN. 907 RADIUS AND THIGKHESS CANNOT GE SIMPLY REMOVED TO FIND THE UNBENT PORTIONS OF A FINISHED LEG. ig. 810 Bends iass than 30.‘THE FINISHED LEGS A&B AREONEICH LONG. ‘THE UNGENT PORTIONS ARE.835, ‘THE UNBENT PORTION FOUND BY SUBTRACTING ‘THE SUMOF/ + TEROMTHEFINSHEDLEG. Fig. 6-11 Bonds greater than 00. QUESTIONS: Z 2. 3 4 6 6. What three items must be known in order to compute bend allowance? What happens to bend allowance when the ra- divs is increaned? What happens to bend atlowanwe when the thicknens is decreased? What ée setback nd how is it computed fora 90° bend? ‘Ona piece of poper, do this layout: I" x 4" x I" U-shaped channel; bend radive ie 166 inches: thicknvss of metal is 061 ofan inck:and each ‘bend angle is 90%. Using the data from problem &, compute the layout for a stringer that huean angle of 135, if Jeg A = 1.000 inch and leg B = 1.760 inches. n THEFRNSHED LEGS Ag BAREONEWCHLONG. -_.|' ‘THE UMBENT PORTIONS XA & XB ARE 295. ‘TO THE EXTENSION OF THE BEND RAWUELNES, 7. Using tke empirical formula, find bend at- lowanee if R = 167,T = 034, and N = 9". 8. Using the data from problems 7, find bend allowance by using the two-pi formula, 9. Define an open-angle bend. 10. How was the data in the K factor chart derived? 11, What determines minimum bend radiue used when bending metal? a 32, Where is the neutral axis'on o piece of metal found? 13. Where does bend allounnca phycieally occur (on a bent piece of metal 14, What happens to the outside heel of a bend when the metal ia bent? 15, What kappets to the inside heat of the bead. when the metal is bent?Chapter VII Aircraft Repairs All major repairs must sonform to the guidelines of the original certification of an aircraft. and they must meet. with the approval of the KAA and the manufacturer, Before making any major struc- tural repair or alteration, the technician should review acceptable FAA data, FAA-approved techni- cal data, and manufacturer's recommendations. A. Acceptable And Approved FAA Repair Data FAA approved technical data, the technical data which must he used in making an FAA-approved repair, includes the following: Aireraft. Type Certificate (ATC) data sheets, aircraft specifica tions, Supplemental Type Certificates (STO), Air- worthiness Directives (ADs), and manufacturers’ FAA-approved data (DOA\, Approved data ean also be obtained from a designated engineering rep- resentative (DER) and a designated alteration station (DAS) with an FAA field approval ‘When FAA-approved technical data is not avail- able, the following technical information may be used in making major repairs or alterations: FAA Advisory Circulars (AC) 48.1314 and 2A, man- ‘ufacturers’ technical information such as manuals, bulletins, kits etc., and military technical orders, ‘Major repairsean be made using the AC43.13-18 as approved data when the mechanic determines that iL isdireetly applienble to the repair, and ifthe information is nol opposed to the manufacturer's data, The AC 43.13-1A contains a series of sheet metal structural repairs which serve as general guidelines. Many of these repairsare similar tothe ropairs shown in the manufacturers’ maintenance manuals, A good suggestion is o use the examples shown in AC 4313-14 as a minimum standard for performing an FAA-approved repair. B. Ordering Parts Although parts for older aircraft may have lo be mace, it is more economical to buy new aircraft parts. When ordering new parts, theserial number of the aircraft must be known because later models may be slightly different in design. 3 In the parts book, later-modet aireraft have a “usable on” code to indicate the manuficturer’s changes. ‘An cxample of the code is shown in Figure 7-1. Note three different styles of wing tips: B, C, and D. Each letter represents the serial number range of the aircraft on which the wing tips are used. C. Analyzing The Repair Area ‘The use of the manufacturer's maintenance and parts manual is important in determining the ex- tent of the damaged area. List the new or rebuilt, parts needed. Determine if the damage is serious ‘enough for complete replacement of a wing or con- trol surface, For example, it may be more econom- ical to replace a whole wing rather than pay for roplacoment parts and labor. ‘When planning repairs, consideration must be given to the speed of the aireraft, For example, a low-speed aircratt uses surface patches or com mon lap joints with universal hend rivets, while high-speed aircraft use flush patches and counter- sunk rivets, ‘The cost of Iabor and parts must be estimated and the owner so informed. Do not begin any repair work on an aircraft without the consent of the aireraft owner. Damages that often appear on aireraft struc- tures are oif canning, ruptures. cracking and at- tition, Oil canning is caused by the loosening. of skins between two ribs or stringers. ‘The metal pops buck and forth until it becomes excessively coldworked and cracks. Ruptures are caused by the exertion of force on the structural skins of light, pressurized aircrall. Many aireraft will develop cracks near joints or seams. These cracks are usually caused by over coldworking the metal. Attrition is the failure of aircraft structures due (o age and use. As an air- craft gets older, its ability to withstand the con- stant expansions and contractions caused by flying, ‘or landing is impaired. In their carlier stages, many structural prob- Jems can be prevented by the addition ofa stiffener in the area where the eoldworking action is takingFig. 7-1 Page trom Mlustrated parts catalog.place. Excessive eoldworking faults are eommonly Associated with light, thin-gauge aircraft skins Larger aireratt are also affected over a longer period of time. D. Removal Of The Damaged Parts Cleaning out the damaged area involves the removal of all bent or broken parts. Disassemble the aireraft carefully because many of the parts may be re-usable or repairable. As the parts are removed, they should be identified by part and re-installation number with a permanent folt marker. The permanent felt matkings can later be washed away with alcobel. Warning: When removing rivets, never over- size the holes. ‘The recommended procedure for rivet removal is to.use a drill, one size smaller than the rivet being removed. Drill only the depth of the manufactured head. Use a pin punch the same size as the rivet, and snap the drilled heads off. Back up the shop’ head side of the rivet shank and tap out the re- maining stem, E. Installation Of New Or Rebuilt Parts And Patches Repair parts must be as strong as the original. ‘The metal used to make the parts must be the same alloy content and thicknoss as the original ‘The parts must be re-installed using the same size and kind ofrivets as the original design, Ahhole finder will be needed to locate the centers of new rivet holes when new skins aro being pre- pared for installation (Figure 7-2. When re-assem- bly bogins, do not rivet anything in place until all parts are fitted together and the holes line up. Hold the work in place with Clecos placed two oF three inches apart. Be sure that all pilot holes are broughtup to specifications before riveting begins. A patch on the Jonding edge of a light aireraft ‘wing flap serves to restore its original strength and shape. An example ofa repair to a lap loading edge REPLACEMENT CENTER ‘PUNCHED onIGINAL, RIVET. HOLES FINDER RIVETSIZE EQUAL TO OLE Fig. 7-2 Now skin being prepared for instalation. 6 ‘CENTER PUNCH MARKING SKIN SPAR WITH HOLES:MAXIMUM RIVET SPACING: ‘Taw our ‘DAMAGED AREA AEPAIR.DOUBLER TO BUTT AGAINST CORRUGATED SKIN. AT TOP AND BOTTOM OF FLAP FLUSH PATCH SIMILAR V0" DIA. RIVETS OnIGINAL PARTS REPAIR PARTS: — Fig. 7-1 Flap leading edge repalr 6BALANCING MANDREL —- [A DALANCEIN THIS RANGEIS “UNDERBALANCE <~ ABALANCEIN THIS RANGE IS “OVERBALANCE” Patt \A L jes SPIRITLEVEL, PROTRACTOR’ BALANCING. MANOREL ELEVATOR HINGE PONT __- MARK GRADUATIONS ININCHES, FOUR-FOOT LENGTH OF EXTRUDED CHANNEL, GRIND WEIGHT T0 SLIDE ALONG BEAM. GRIND ‘ENDS TO OBTAIN EXACTLY ONE POUND. AND ARK CENTER OF WEIGHT, FABRICATE VERTICALLY ADJUSTABLE ‘TRAILING EDGE SUPPORT THAT WILL. SLIDE ALONG BEAM, ATTACH KNIFE EDGES AND. ‘MARK AT MID-POINT Fig. 7-4 Balancing mandrel and beam tor re-balencing control surfaces. ”requiting the romovel of the damaged area is shown in Figure 7-8.'The clean-out must be held to ‘minimum to make the patch-as small as possible inorder tosave weight. | | ‘After a primary control surface (aileron, eleva: tor, or rudder) is repaired, it must be re-balanced. Ifa control surface is not in balance, it will cause flutter and eventually lead to sorious structural damage at its connecting points. See Figure 7-4 for examples of the tools and devices used for re- balancing control surfaces. Consult the manufac- turer's maintenance manual for the specifications 1, Surface And Flush Patches ‘Two types of patches aro used on aircraft: surface patch and flush patch (Figure 7-5), These patches are ordinatily round, oval, or square with ¥/-inch radius corners. When patches are made on wings, fuselage, or control surfaces, a prescribed number of rivets must be used to obtain the necessary bear- ingandchearing strengths, | F Rivet Formulas | “The formula for finding rivets per inch is: Pt = Tx 79900 + DSS ‘Tis the thickness of the metal; DSS is the driven shear strength of the rivet (see Appendix A-V for the rivets-per-inch chart, based on this formula). Forexample, ifthe DSS is 389 and the metal is.040 inch thick, the mumber of rivets per inch is 7.7. DOUBLER PATCH, SURFACE » PATCH ZLIB "FORTHE PATCH Fig. 7-5. Surface and flush patches. oh To determine the total number of rivets for a patch, use the following formula: Nm = (Lx RPL NRis the number of rivets; L is the length of the break; RPI is rivets per inch, as given in the chart. ‘Tho % in the formula for a lap joint or common patch is 75%. For example, if @ patch is covering. a 3-inch diameter hole using AN470AD¢ Trivets, the total number of rivets is 36, Na = (0077 x 782 Pera = G02 8 ‘The total number of rivets is 36. ‘A new, simplified rivet formula can be used to find the total number of rivets needed for a patch. ‘when the chart cannot be used: I (U7 72000 +88) 2% #2 NRis the number of rivets; L is the length of the break: Tis the thickness of the metal; 75,000 is the skin stress; DSS is the driven shear strength; and 75% is the percentage of rivets used for a lap joint. For example, if the thickness of the metal is .040, DSSis 389, and % is.75. The total number ofrivets: is 36: Either the rivets-per-inch chart (Appendix A-V) or the simplified formula may be used to make a patch repair on an aircraft because they yield the same results, The chart can only be used for uni- versal head rivets. The formula can be used for either universal or countersunk rivets 1, Surface Patch Layout Figure 7.6 shows the layout of a surface patch ‘covering a one-inch hole. This pateh uses eight each AN470 AD# rivets spaced 45° apart, The over- all diameter of the patch is 2.50 inches, The edge distance is 3 rivet diameters. Figure 7-7 shows the layout of surface patch covering a two-inch hole, This patch uses sixteen ‘each AN470AD4 rivets spaced 45° apart in each row, Edge distance is four rivet diameters. A doubler is installed to increase the skin strength in the area of the patch. The total size ofthis patch is 5 inche Figure 7-8 shows the layout of a surface patch covering a three-inch hole. This patch uses 24 each. ANA70AD4 rivets spaced 30° apart in each row.1.00014 HOLE 4 as hon, CHO AnsToADS RIVETS reap. parca anon. (wo DOUBLER REGO) \Leasting ‘SKIN SECTION THRU PATCH NOTE: RIVET LAYOUTIS AROUND THE HOLE, WET ErroH 4s EDGE DISTANCE IS 38 1NCH. Fig.7-6 Patch repalr for one-inch diameter hole. ge distance is 4 rivet diameters. A doubler was installed on the inside of the hole to add strength to the skin in the area. The size of this patch is 7.5 inches. ‘These examples show that the number of rivets inereases as the size of the repair increases. ‘The total number of rivets used in each case can be arrived at by using the rivet-por-inch chart (Appendix A-V) or the new, simplified rivet for mule. An example ueing the table fe: a= (x 49% 752 = Ge792 Sorivets ‘The total number of rivets for the patch is 8. ‘The new, simplified rivet formula can be applied tothe same data: += (1 005 «75000 + 308) ¢7512 = ars = sae 92) (7532 ‘The total number of rivets forthe patch in 8. Figure 7.9 shows an alternative layout for rivet, patch not using angular rivet spacing, The following facts are known: The patch uses 24 each AN470AD4 ANATOADA RIVETS. “1eREOD. DEGREES APART. EDGE DISTANCE IS 4 RIVET DIAMETERS. NOTE: TWOROWS OF RIVETS. FACH ONE ISES'A 45° BITCH. THE ROWS ARE TRANSVERSE MAKING THE PITCH DISTANCE BETWEEN RIVETS IN THE TWO ROWS 225 seerion minusarcet Fig.7-7 Patch repair for two-inch alameter hole. 79ANATOADS RIVETS ‘24REQD. PATCH EXISTING, ‘SKIN DOUBLER ‘SECTION THRU PATCH 3.0001. HOLE NOTE: THE RIVET ROWS ARE TRANSVERSE. AIVET PITCH IN SAME CIRCULAR ROW IS 30: [EDGE DISTANCE IS 4 RIVET DIAMETERS, Fig. 7-8 Patch repair for three-Inch diameter hole. NOTE: RIVET SPACING SY (MEASUREMENT RATHER ‘THAN ANGULAR LAYOUT. 24-ANATOADS RIVET PITCH AROUND INSIDE ROW 1S 5D. ‘THE OUTSIDE ROW IS TRANSVERSE, RIVETS ARE SPACED AT EQUAL DISTANCE BETWEEN RIVETS OF THEINSIDE ROW. Fig. 7-9. Anaiternative patch method. rivets; there are 12 rivets in each of two rows; the hole being patched is 2 inches in diameter; ‘edge distance is 3 rivet diameters; the cireum- ference of the first row of rivets is 7.4613", ‘To determine the approximate spacing of the 12, rivets in the first row, divide the circumference (7.4613) by 12. Each space will be slightly larger than & of an inch. The outside row of rivets will, be located 4 rivet diameters from the inside row and will be spaced transverse to it. The patch will end with an edge distance of 3 rivet diameters from. the outside row. The finished patch has a diameter of 4.5 inches. 2. Flush Patch Layout Flush patches, made on smooth aerodynamic surfaces, use countersunk rivets (Figure 7-10), ‘The driven shear strength of a countersunk rivet. installed into a machined hole is less than that of a universal or cold-dimpled rivet. Therefore, more will be needed. For, example, the driven shear strength of an AN426AD4 rivet is 33118. Using the simplified rivet formula: NA = (2x 040 x 75000 + 31)(78}2 Gono + 00792. = (8128)(79}2 243892 = (2 = zac For the flush patch 28 rivets are required.8. Access Plate Installation Access plates are used to open up an area on a wing or fuselage in order to buck rivets on a patch or part. Access plate installation is, shown in Figure 7-11. Access holes and covers are provided by the manufacturer, or they can be made in the shop. In any case, follow the ir structions set forth by the manufacturer in the maintenance or part manuals when installing access plates and covers. ‘Access plates are always located on the under side of wings or control surfaces. They are installed near a spar, rib, or stringor in order to tie into their strength, PLUG SAME THICKNESS ASSKIN DOUALER PATCH ‘SAME THICKNESS ‘ASSKIN NOTE: 1. RIVETS USED IN PLUG DO NOT COUNT FOR STRENGTH RESTORATION. 2, USE COUNTERSUNK RIVETS FOR FLUSH PATCHES. ‘A. DIMPLE SKINS UNDER 040 THICK. 'BLMACHINE CSK SKINS OVER C40 THICK. 3, USE DRIVEN SHEAR STRENGTH FOR, ‘COLD DIMPLE RIVETS ON SKINS UNDER. 040. 4, USE DRIVEN SHEAR STRENGTH OF MACHINE CSK RIVETS ON SKINS OVER 40 THICK. Fig.7-40 Flush patch with countersunk rivets. a1 4. Corrugated Skin Repairs Many light aircraft use corrugated skins to give the control surface rigidity and strength yet keep. it light. Any repair to a corrugated control surface is considered a major repair because the control surface is balanced and the skin is considered a primary structure. Figure 7-12 shows a corrugated control surface repair. 5. Splicing A Single-Channel Spar A repair toa single-channel spar is considered a major repair. Whenever a section is cut out of a spar in order to make a repair, it must be replaced with metal of the same thickness and strength as. the original. A doubler which connects the insert to the walls of the spar can be made of thicker metal than the original An example of this type of repair is shown in Figure 7-13. The repair has five parts: an insert 4.5 inches high with "-inch legs, a rear and a front doubler, and two %s" x 7s" x 064" angle stringers. Fifty-two MS20470ADé rivets are needed to make this repair. The rivet spacing and edge distances are noted in the illustration. The driven shear strength of each rivet is 389 pounds. The total shear strength is 389 x 52, or 20,228 pounds. The rivets (12) installed into the insert are not part of the total shear strength of the joint. ‘Their only purpose is to serve as a filler between the two doublers. G. Inspection And Return To Service After a major repair or alteration is completed, a final inspection must be made by an authorized FAA inspector. The inspection, which is based on ‘manufacturer's guidelines, includes a detailed ex- ‘amination of the parts used and of the installation of rivets and other fasteners, ‘When the final inspection is completed, an FAA 337 form oust be filled out in duplicate and mailed to the local FAA General Aviation District Office (GADO) within 48 hours of its being dated. The law requires that two 887 forms ‘be made out and distributed, one to the FAA GADO and the other to the owner of the aircraft ‘Some mechanies make a third copy for their per- sonal files.saan ‘oOUsLER 440 (090) HOLE {7 (oREOD) LOWER WING SKIN (REE) a 1. AOD THE MINIMUM NUMBER OF ACCESS HOLES NECESSARY. 2. ANY CIRCULAR OR RECTANQULAW ACCESS HOLE WHICH If USED WITH APPROVED OPTIONAL ‘EQUIPMENT INSTALLATIONS MAY BE ADOEDIN LIEU OF THE ACCESS HOLE LLUSTRATED. ‘9. USELANDING LIGHT INSTALLATIONS INSTEAO GF ACCESS HOLES (THAU 1870 MODELS) WHERE: POSSIBLE. DO NOT ADU ACCESS HOLES AT OUTBOARD END OF WING; REMOVE WING TIP INSTEAD, 4. DONOT ADD ANACCESS HOLE IN THE SAME BAY WHERE ONE IS ALREADY LOCATED. |5. LOCATE NEW ACCESS HOLES NEAR THE CENTER OF A BAY (SPANWISE) LOCATE NEW ACCESS HOLES FORWARD OF THE FRONT SOARS AS CLOSE TO THE FRONT SPAR AS PRACTICA 7. LOCATE NEW ACCESS HOLES AFT OF THE FRONT SPAR BCTWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND STRINGERS. [AFT OF THE SPAR. WHEN INSTALLING THE DOUBLER, ROTATE IT SO THE TWOSTRAIGHTEDGES ARE CLOSEBT 70 THESTRINGERS. ALTERNATE Bats, WITH NeW ACCESS NOLES STAGGERED FORWARD AND AFT OF THE FRONT SPAR, ARE ‘PREPERAL ‘A MAXIMUM OF FIVE NEW ACCESS HOLESIN EACH WINGIS PERMISSIBLE: IF MORE ARE REQUIRED (ConTACT THE SERVICE DEPARTMENT, 10, WHEW A COMPLETE LEADING EDGE SKINIS BEING REPLACED, THE WING SHOULD BE SUPPORTEDIN. ‘SUCH A MANNER SO THAT WIMG ALIGHMENTIS MAINTAINED. (A. ESTABLISH EXACT LOCATION FOR INSPECTION GOVER AND INSCRIBE CENTERLINES, B._DETERMINE POSITION OF DOUBLERON WING SKIN AND CENTER OVER CENTERLINES, MARK THE TEN RIVET HOLE LOCATIONS AND DRILL YOSIZE SHOWN. 1 & eM TOUT ACCESS HOLE, USING DIMENSION SHOWN. 9, PLEX OOUBLER AND INSERT THROUGH ACCESS HOLE. AND AIVETINPLACE. E. POSITION COVER AND SECURE. USING SCREWS AS SHOWN, Pig.7H8 Acceae hole instalation. = eae][) omnat par WE neva parcxtncnoss secrion ea PREFERRED METHOD Fig. 7-12 Corrugated akin repeica wore: TS AEpAIA APPLIES TO EITHER FRONT OR REAR SPARIIP THE SPAR. IBASINGLE CHANNEL. angus 2024. T4 ALACLAD. THB x 74 O64 lomamat pans 080 { Giiynepuneanrs.cco aay REPAIR PARTS IN CHOSE [SECTION 040 4.064 Fig. 749 Wing aparrmpalr. FILLER — 2020-74 ALCLAD OAD THICK Shows avers BACH SIC OF DAMAGED AREA ee cose manonrye) ‘EW SIMPLIFIED IVEY EORMULA; un = $55.00 278000 5 75 x 2m SPRWETS THERE ARE 26 MS20670AD4 FUVETS. USED ONEACH S10 (OF BREAK OF THE FILLER. THERE. [ARE 12 RIVETS USED SF TOHOLOTHERILLER IN PLACE.QUESTIONS: 1 2 3 Name three kinds uf acceptable date for major repaire. List the three major repairs to an aircraft structure What vtepe should be followed in making 0 repairor an alteration? What is the purpose of the manufacterer’s paris manual? Name three ahopes of patches used on the akins of cireraft Whot type of putck is used on low-speed " aireraf? What is the cause of metal cracking? 10. Tn 12. 13, 44. Using the rivet formutlo, find the number of rivets nexded for a pateh if the break ix inches, the metal thickness is 051 of aa inch, aud ANA70AD6 rivets are being used. ° Who signs the 337 form before itis sent to the FAA? Heao mary copies of the 37 form must be mode? Who gets copiea of the 397 farm? What isthe formula for finding the number of. rivets por inch? AUfthe shear strength ofa rived in 859 pours, eohat 1 the total ohear irength of 48 such rivets? Where are access plates usually located. on at, aircraft wing?Chapter VIII Aircraft Corrosion A. Surface Corrosion Surface corrosion, ur pitting, is a form of carco- sion that cata away at the skin of light aircraft, ‘Surface corrosion usally occurs frat in the form of bitiering beneath cracked paint, Surface corrosion can qu undotocted until it breaks through the matal, when it (s loo late ‘tw save the affected party, Special attention should be given to the inspection af airerafl which are infrequently flown or are parked in corrosion- ‘prone environments, especially seacoast ard in- dustrial areas. ‘Sulfates and acid base mixtures om industrial smokestacks con penetrate the openings of wings ‘or airfoils. When tho host of the sun causes the wing to sweat, deposits begin to build up in the form of white acid cryatals. The first buildup may not be damaging, but in timo the metal loses ite ability to ward off eneroaion, By the time « mechanic detects the corrosion, it may be too late torepair it. Blistering should be cleaned awuy with paint re- tnover 0 that the area can bw inspected for the extent of corrusion and then alodined ond re- painted, When the corrasive condition is the type that has worked its way through from the inkide, the only remedy is akin removal and internal part ‘ingpection, « method so costly that thought should bbe given to replacing the whole part. Conmusion af the interior surfaces of a wing (Fig- ture 8-1) should be treated ax soon as i is detected. ‘The affected parts should be alodined and sprayed with zinechromate. This “evaplane treatment” can be given to new aireran. Othor preventative measures are to fly the air craft frequently in order to air out the insides off the wings, and to prutect the aircrafl, in 2 hangar if possible, from clements which secelerate corteston, B, Intergranular Corrosion Intergranular cormuinn is caused by improper heat treatment, When aluminum alloys are taken from the hest treating farnnce to tho quenching funk, intergranular eorrusion begins. The elupsed Hime should not exceed ten to Sifteen aeconds. Aluminum alloys such ae 202413, 201773, and 201473 are likely tohe alfected: aluminum wloyed to zing rarely is, Intergranular corrosion wiually does not allect thin aluminum alfoys in the 2000 cries because they enol repidly ater hout treat nent. Thick sheets of copper-bearing aluminum afloys.arw more susceptible and, whon they are to ‘be wed on large aireraft, special precautions must be taken during the menufacturing process ta pre- vent intergranular corrosion. Jn its early stages, intergranular corrosion can hedetectad by a microscope. ‘The problem of intergranular corrosion can bbe minimized by the use of tho aluminum alloy 20756, u zinc allay which is heat treated by the precipitation method, C. Stress Corrosion Stews corrosion manifests iteclf in an inter- yromular form, ILis the result of small cracks which allow oxygen to vome in contact with the exposed core metal. The amall cracks appeur on thick alu. minum alloy parte where interferunse ft holes are drilled. The installed bushing ar festener presses outward and, if the aluminum part is not strong enough, cracks will appear along the lines of force. allowing moisture to enter. ‘Stress corrosion can best be prevented during the manufacturing process. If it oceurs rugularly un manufactured parts, an ingpection alert or AD nato will cuggest or specily the type of repair to bemade,D. Dissimilar Metal Corrosion Dissimitur metal corrosion is a severe and com- ion frm of corrosion. [Cig the result of allowing: ‘wo metals of greatly differing electranic potenti tocome in contact with one another in the presence ‘of an electrolyte such ne water. A galvanic action takes ploee, similar to that of lead‘acid battery. The active meta! behaves like an anode (+); the less active like a cathode (—). "The tranafer of eloetrons frou tha more active metal to ‘the lass active one cnuses.a vary comsive condition, ‘When parts made of dissimilar metal must be ned, they should be insulated by non-porous insulators, auch as cellophane vr thin plastic, di- electrie inaulatars, such as. thin phenolic washers ‘ar at leaut two vouts of xine chromate primar applied to cach contacting aurface. E. Fretting Corrosion Hretting corrosion results from two metal sur faces rubbing aguinst one anuther with @ very slight motion, auch as thot caused by syrupathetic vibration. Aa thw two pidcon of metal rub agaist one another, they forma emall particles which act like ball boorings rubbing against the two sur faces, This continued setion enuses the surfacen to bacome harder and harder, until the metal finally eracks, Barly signs af fretting corrosion ace trailing, dork deposits behind rivet heads. ‘These darie nails, which look liko wisps of smoke or burned oi, are actually fine deposits of afurninum axide that have worked their way up through the rivet hole. F. Magnesium Corrosion ‘Magnesium is the most chemically ative matal used in the construction uf aircraft, Once mugne- sium corrosion begins, it proceeds rapidly, Te ix easy to detect in its enrly elages because it causex the metal to swoll. The corrosion uppears as white spots, which quickly develop into mounds which look like white whiskers. Protection involves the removal of all corrusion products, the restoration of surfuco coatings by chemical treatment, nnd a re-application of prates- tive coatings such as paint. G. Exfoliation ‘The end result of all corrosion is exfaliation. Wt becomes evident in ite laut stages, when an alumi- num part will burst out and shed delansinates 88 ayors. Many tiny Rakes and scales appear, a0 that. it looks like a stack of needles in shredded wheat. ln this etata, the metal ne longer has any strength. ‘The only remetly is complete removal ofthe: ecetions, Figura 8-2 chows an example of exbliation.. H. Corrosion Prevention 1, Alclad Some shoct metal aurfucesof modern virerafbare covered with a eoating of pure aluminum zalled alclad. Niciad io pressed on to the aluminum alloy pari after the metal hasbeen rolled or drawn ink ite desired shapes. Tis approximately 5% of the thickness on wach side of the alloyed skin. Uthe total thickness of the finished akin ie 040 of an inch, the alclad covering ‘would be 906 of an inch. Thus, the alley 19 036 of fan inch thick. The difforenice rmust by considered °, when replacing non-alclad skins with alclud, ‘Alelad is used to cover aluminum allay because: the oxides which form on purealuminum makethe surface highly cesiatant to-corrasion. 2, Anodizing ‘Anodizing io an electrochemical process which causes aluminum axides to solidify on the surface af nluminure alleys. The oxides are not statinnary. ‘They cling and slip around just as a pith ball does ‘on a lass rod loudod with static electricity. The reeult of (he anodizing process is thal atuminute ‘wxides are made to stick to the murface ofthe metal. ‘This action provides a good corrosion-reviatant sur- {ace and an exeellent-paint bade. ® Fig. 822A Tha metals comphtoly destroyed and Only needia ike particies remain. Fig. 828 Notica the swelling ut top of arte thet is stotisted.Anodizing (Figure 8-3) requires u cathode, which ia the mteel tank that holds the ehromie acid; aneleetrolyte, which is chromic acid; a 40-mnlt DC supply with an on‘olf switch; and an anode, which ig the aluminum alloy part to be anodized. ‘Phe aluminum alloy part ie imeurged in the chromic acid and the valtage is turned on. The elec- tran flaw causes the oxides on the surface of the uluminum alloy toxoften. ‘The part isthen romoved from the tank and dipped into hot water which ia mixed with a colored dye. The colored dye is absorbed by the softened oxides. Ne part is theo allowed to dry. ‘Anodized, blue, bydraulic or fuel system AN ft- tings are often seen, but anodizing is used for many other exterior parts of aircraft 3. Alodizing/Aledining ‘Alodizing is 2 chemical treatment of aluminum alloy which increases its resistunce ts corrosion and improves its paintsbonding qualities. Te re- ‘autites no special equipment. Before alodizing, tho aluminum wlloy porte should be cleaned with an acidie or alkaline metal cleaner and rinsed with fresh watne for ten to Sifteen sceonds. The alodining chomicals are then applied — by dipping, spraying or brushing —- tothe surfice of the metal. ‘At thie point, 2 thio, hard coating develops. Tk will be a slightly iridescent, light bluish-green — (SAN ELECTROCHEMICAL ACTIONBETWEEN ‘AUUMMNUH OXIDES ON THE SURFACE OF THE METAL AND (GRO,) CHROMIC ACID, ELECTRON FLOW iS NEGATIVE TO POSITIVE CAUSING THE ‘OXIDES YO SOFTEN AND CLING TO THE ALUMINUM | ALLOY SURRACE: THE PAAT IS THEN DHPPEDINTO a a Fig. 8-9 Anodizing. on coppersfree alleys, olivesgreen on eupporbear- ing alloys, “the afodived parts should be rinsed with clear cold or warm water for fifteen ta thirty seconds, Finally, the party should bo given a deoxylyte bath for ten to fien seconds, Deoxylyle counteracts alkalinity and makes tho alodized parts #lightly acidic on deyinis. 4. Painting Aircraft Exteriors ‘A good puint finish ix an offective barrier be- tween metal surfaces and corresive enviFonments, Alnminum alloy surftces neo to Kave luc. num aides neutralized before compatible paint primers are applied. If paint isaprayed ot brushed directly onto aluminum alley without chemically treating the oxides. it will peel off almost imnte- dintely upon drying. Be expecially careful to fallow manufacturer's recommendations when preparing the outer surfaces oC aluminum alloy airerefl din 10 be painted. Béching is:in old-fashioned but successful method of preparing @ surface to be painted. Etching is accomplished by washing the outer skin with eaus- Ue soda and rinsing with liborad amounts of fresh water. The part is theh blown dry with compressed air, and @ light cost. of xine chromate is applied tathe whole warface, All aircraft should be periodically stripped of paint dean to the bare metal and inspected for sor rasion before a now paint jab is begun. lt ia highly recommended that any metal aireraft paint job be preceded by an aledine treatment, 1. Cleaning Aircraft When the aircraft iacleaned, it should be closely examined for signs of corrosion, stich uf paint fak- ing and blistering. Ordinarily, paint aking is localized and can bo removed by n chemical paint remover. If no farther corrosion is found, alodine the expoicd area nnd repaint.QUESTIONS: 't. What farm of corrosion is caused by improper hucat truatmnent of tee alloy? 2, What is the naree of the carrusive action that ocwura when tun sheels of metal rub together cand form stress cracks? 3. What type of corrosion results fram cracks axed by prevsed-in bushings? 4. What type of corrusion causex the inner sur- faces ofthe metal to begin to blister through to the outside? 5. Name a process used! 1o protect the shins of airerae. 6. What does anodizing do to the surface of alu mninuyn alloy? 7. What must be done to the surface of alymi- num aligy before any primer om paint.is ap- plied toit? &. What isthe name ofthe provess used by atimi- nut manufacturers to protect the surface of ‘aluminum alloys? 9, What happens to an aluminum alloy part af: fected by intergranular corrosion? 10, "Which of the following is the most corrosive: a) aluminum. b} magnesium, ore} steel?Chapter IX Applied Forming, Bending And Layout Of Aircraft Parts fn modern aviation there aro not: many sheet metal mechanics who can still make aircra? ports, ike they did yeurs ago. in the 8408 and'50s about the oniy way airera(t paria could be abtained was to have them madn by a sheet metal mechanic who ‘knew howto shape, bend and form metal. ‘Aa the aviation industry grew, the demand for new parts increased. Aircraft manuficturers gan making parts which werm approved and i ‘expensive. hs shop mechunie no tanger bothered to make parts aa he once did, and much of the expertise of the trade was lost. ‘An aren in the aviation community where the old ebilis of forming and bending are having a re- irth ts in the sirens “home builder” industry. theee aircraft builders are learning many of the ‘skills of the past and are doing 4 good job making, their own parts. The instructional roaterials show. ing how ta form, bend and arseuble parts are not Teadily avaifeble. ‘The main purpose of this chapter is to show the application of layout, bending, forming sid wswem- lly of aircraR paria. The souring costs of airecalt ‘over the Inst several years is another rewon for showing examples of how to construct aircraft parts. These high prices have forced many fixed bate operators and Bight sebools into completely overhauling and rcbuilding their aircraft vathér than replacing them as they did in the past. ‘The rebuilding consiets of replacing ve inte- iors, stripping the paint from the skine, roptacing old wr worn out parts antl overhauling the engines. Now parts muy not be available for eome of the colder aircratt, 30 thay will have to bo made by the sheet metal inechanic as they ance were years RO, ‘Many aircraft home builders do not have the pro- fessional training of an A&P mechanic, conse- quently they got into trouble by not using the correct nircrafl structural materials. An under- vtanding of alumiqurt alloy ond the diffsrent aircraft upproved steels is essential! for the aale construction of a home-built afrcruft. Chaptor UF contains the various metats and at- loys used for the construction of the aireraft and its parts. A review of the metals dsed om sircraft should be examined befare learning huw to develop, Jay aut, form and constructite parts, Trhas alreo been ontablithed, iv this book, that modern civit- jun airoraft are made primarily from aluminum alley, Therefore the examples used in this chapter ‘wilt deal with forming, bending, layout and aasern- ‘ly of whaminutn alloys. ‘The internal and external etractural parts of an aircraft always require the use of heat treated alu- ‘minum. The most poputar type of alloy used for king, spars, siringors and longeray iv A2024-T3 or AU026-TA. Thedilference botweon the two is the ‘TS is heat treated, age hardened and coldworked, while the T4 isonty heat treated and age hardened. ‘Thore are parts, such ax inapection covers, wheel ‘ops, wing tipe and prop spinners where non-heat~ treatable alurninam or annealed 2024-0 i used, ‘The kind of steel excommendes forthe constraction of an iretaRt is 4130 ehrome-molybdenumn. When- ever there ia-any doubt, always consul: the wirerast ‘manufacturer, an A&P mechanic knowledgeable aboutaheot metal, oran FAA authorized inspector. A selection of aircraft parts used to show the wari- ‘ons techniques of construction are: ajoggted joint, a metal tube, a nose rib, « layout and asrembly of contrat eurface, and the construction aid installa. tign of wn accees plate with an inspection cover. The construction of these parta will stress one ur more techniques of planning, developing (proper material selection) lnyout Fig. 9108 Layout table for 2090 rib. Fig. 91068 Fiotshed nose rit. Mig. 9-400 Leyoutlengty, er ‘Tho value for bend allowance can be found in the bend allowance table (Appendix A-LD, oF by tsing the empirieal formula from Chapter VL You will find that hend allowance ie .214: Setback tor a 80 degree bend oblained by adding R125 and "F036 is 150. Figura 9-10 shows a layout table containing the rib leg lengths and bend allowance. 2. Layout Of The Nose Rib Block ‘The forming block used to make thin noso rib is made from hard wood. When constructing a note rib, the peaper shape of the rib is very important, horeforg the eafculations must be as accurate a6 possible, ‘The measurements are taken from 0 manufacturer's print or drawing, and a pattorn is made on u sheet of drawing paper. ‘The pattern is then transfirred to the wood block. ‘Tho wooden block ean be saved, uxing either hand or machine-operated jigaaw: [tis important.to Ioava a little extra materia} around the saw line 50 the rib can be brought to aize using @ belt sander. ‘The edges of the rib block must be rounded to a bond radiug of 425 ofan inch. The aidosof theblock where the flanges aro formud should. be ahaped slightly more than 90 degroes to allow for spring- buck, AN! block edges must be shaped by a belt sander or a band wond rasp, and nish smoothing, with 400 grit sand paper. ‘Thelightening hale iacut out using. rotary hole saw as shovm in Figure 9-11. The lightoning hot Fg. 211 Rotary Role raw Unedto cut Ighiening hole,{similar to a ginnt countersink) ix bevelud 30 de~ grees using & half round file to shape the angle. After making the bevel, a hurd wood dowel is eut to a countersink Lapered Mange uf 30 degrees to form ‘the bovel around the tighvening hole. The cambit tion of the farming block and the dowel ix shown. Figure 8-12. 8, Layout And Cutting The Nose Rib ‘Measure and mark the layout lengths onto the rib stock metal, Set off segments of % of un inch around the nove of the rib. At Une point where the Hines {ouch the fine of sight in the bend allowance aren, mark itwith a center punch. Use n number 21 drill ta make xélief holes at each % of an inch inter- sections around the nose of the rb, Aller drilling out all the relief holes use a pair of straight hand shonré and cut slota equal to the di- aamoter of the #21 drif} hole, At the spar tab ond of the rib, drill a relief hole at each interuection ond ext the corners using « pair of straight cut hand shears. ‘Next, mark the center of the rib and cut the lightoning hole to size, using « Greenles hulu punch. Belare gaing on to the nextulep, cutanquygh stock to make all the ribs needed in this size, Trace the layout of the rib unto each af the rib stock sheets, murk all bend lines, forming marks, relief holes and hold dewn wcrew holes. 4. Forming The Nose Rib Before placing the rib stock over the forming block, drill these #30 holes through the rb and Inte the block, as shown in Figure 0-12, lneert the Ahree #6 wood verowsinta the bales. They are sod to hald the rib stock in place while bending the ‘lange and forming the ightoning hole. Tgin forming tho rib by bending Une agiar tab ‘ust, then hammer the two forward tabs of the rib flange, as in Figure 9-13, Continue forming the ramuining lunge materiel ‘Wh the rb secured by the three wood serews. bein forming tho countersunk beveled ange around the lightening hole, Thuy countersunk flange is formed by pounding the tapered dowel rod inta the beveled portion of the forming rib. Remove the Lhree wood ‘terews and examine the 1b for squareness, If ne onosary, trim the end of the Manges so he rib will bo evenll the way around the nome. D. Layout And Construction Of A Control Surface ‘The construction of w control surface or wing ix basically the sane with respect to the develop- ‘ment, lnyout and assombly of fis three main parts: the ribs, spur and skins, ‘A mechanic must be familiar with the mathe- matical formulas and know how to work with the tend allowance lable to successfully plan a layout of» control surfieo, information on how to uso tho mathematical formulas he bend allowance and sel- back are covered in Chapter V1. A table for bend. allowanee values is found in Appendix AT, Fig. 9:18 Ris Range tabs bent to form nose AD,Materials List 1-One 18 » 12.5 shoot ABV2STS .052 thiek (skin) 2. Qn 18 x 125 cheet A2024T3 .040 thick takin! 3. Throe 5.25 x 12 sheets A202473 .026 tick. ribs) 4, One 18 x 6 sheet of A2G2473 .040 thick (spar) 5. Pencil, drawing paper and eraser 6. ANAZOADS-6 rivets ‘Toots List 1. Box-pan bending brake 2. Bench shears §. Straight edge 4, Six inch scale 5:4 each C-clampa, 6 Drit! motor 7. Half round file 8. Number 40 deill 9, Silver #40 ctecoe 10. Three pound bucking bar 11, Countersink gun set 12, Universal head gun set 13, Counterwink eutter 14. Hand bonders Priar to constructing a control auriace, ila size and shape, type and thicknews of tnetal and number of egrens of bond for ach part must be known. This control surface will chow the applications of bend allowance, setback, layout, forming and assembly. ‘This control surtice is 18 inchos long. Ite inboard and outboard ends are twelve inches wide. For sim- plicity, and because the parts and assembly are petitions, we will show the construction of the fret ‘three inboard riba, spar and skins. Understand, the layout and construction of thix control aurlace could just as well be seven feet or longer if needed. ‘The type of material used for the construction of Unis control surface will be A024 atusminumn al Loy. The vibs ate 025 thick the spar is .040 thick, and ‘skins are .032 and 040 thick The rivet stock ix AN4TOAD3-5 which will be used on all the joints und aking, The finished Jength of the riba is 10/% inches. The spar ond of the rib is 3.5 inchew and the trailing edge is 34 of an inch, The Nange that mateo tothespar abthe frontof the rib is 8.5 inches bofbre it is cu to site and the wpsir cap ia 3 inches long. The: asking are 18 inches long by 12.6 inches wide. The ‘railing edgo of the controf surtice skin. will be fog sled to increase strength and provide a fat surface for the installation af the rivets. Figure 9-14 shows. acomploted asvembly ofa contrat surfece, 1. Development And Layout Of Ribs ‘The fiat parts obe rade are the ribs, These ribs ‘somnect the freat-apar and trail off into a juggled trailing edge. Teo Rese Nao Fig. 615 Rib layout‘The ribs are made from 025 thiek A202473 alu- mizumalloy. Bend allownce is computed by using abond radius of .125 of an inch, metal thickness of {025 af wes inch, snd 90 degree flariye antes. ‘Bend allowance taken from the table in Appendix ‘Aig 214 ofan inch. Setbock R « 125 plus = .025, oF 150. Remember, setback is subtracted from fin- ished log lengths to find the unbent portion vo it can bbe laid out accurately on the rib shest metal stock. "The size of sheet metal on which the ribs will be nid out ia §,25 % 12 inchar, Figure 9-15 shows the layout details of the rib. The length of the sib is dotormined by moasuring 10vs inebee along the centerline from the front tab line of sight. The rib- tospar und main flanges are + of an inch wide. ‘The layout data shown in Figure 9-17 are taken ‘from the table shown in Kgure 9.16. 2. Bending And Forming The Ribs ‘The bost tool to use far marking the layout mes- surements is a sharp felt torking pea, Begin by plotting the rib conterline on the 5.25 x i2sheet of aluminum, Split the layout distance of the center (ahve inh) log into 1A of an inch an each side ofthe centerline. ‘Add to each side the bend aNowanee and flange Jeg lengths. Measure 10 inches along the rib cen- terline and draw a parallel tine 24-inch either side of the centertina, From this line draw 2 paralle} at adistance equal to the bend allowance, and another paraile! line at ¢ distance equal to the leg ‘or flange length ag shown in Figure 9.17, ‘After all linos are clearly marked, lay down the 3 of sight. ‘The lino of sight ie one bond radius ‘ut from the bend line which is located under the ‘nose of the brake, 937 rating edge of contol surface rib wection. in by bonding the zonin rib flunge first. Bend Slange which connects to the spar in the same 2 you would for bending a pan, Before the firat rib, duplicate ite fnyout onthe raining rib stock. Trace the cutout rib, then the location af the line of sight, mark the connect tab. ‘bending all the rabs ba sure to cheek their And Layout Of The Spar (fter the ribs are formed, they must be measured ely bere thespar can bem The Finihee ‘is made trom .040 thick AZ024T3 alumtnum to ‘shuld be 35 inches high, and the height of the yr must beexactly the aome. Thenput layout and jaled chart data are shown in Figure 9-18. mya expe May need to be spread open etter thby are nade to conform to the slope of the ribs as nits Figure 9-19, Bending And Forming The Spar [Begin the forming by bending either one of the F caps iret. Line up the nose of the brake with Tine of sight and bord Une spar caps to 0 de- ea. Repeat this action for the other ‘spar cap. Fahmediately ehock the height of the spar with that a ribs. 100Fig. $16 Sparlayout. SPAR CAP MAY BE (BENTO MEET THE TAPEROFTHE RIE Fig, B18 Sparta rib atop. 5. Development And Layout Of Skins ‘Two AY02AS aluminum allcy skins are used to cover the exterior of the control wurface — one is 092, the ether 040 thick. The 032 akin requires AN4TOAD346 rivets; the 040 skin usee AN426AD3.6 rivels. To finish aff the trailing edge the skine will 10 ‘noed to be jaggled. The layout of the ekins and the ‘rivet pattern ta be used ore shown in Figure 9-20. 6. Bending And Forming Sking ‘The most difficult part of forming the akin isthe ‘proper layaut and bending ofthe trailing edge joggle. Figure 0-21 shows a detailed view of the method of ealimating the antount of joggle needed. The joggle must be deep enough to make tho transition frora the ribs to the trailing edge ax armoodh as possible. Another reason for the joygle is to provide a flat suurfoce for the trniling edge rivet installation. Begin the skin shaping process by clamping the sldns on the clecaed assetably of the ribs to spar. With the skin flat against the spar and ribs, check the elope of the trailing edge. Guuge the amount of Jogale and divide it botween the (wo xkins. The ‘Jogglen witt be made using the bending brake tach- ‘nique as shown in Figure 9-3. Afler the joggles are made, once again clamp the skins into position and ‘check for squarenews, 7. Assembly And Construction OfThe Control Suriace While the clecos and C-clamps are still ip place, use a folt. marking pen and make line up marks on“h © ANGLE EQUAL X = DISTANCE NEEDED ToRIBSLOPE TOMATCH THE ‘TaauNG EOGE OF THE RIB SHON SIZE 18 x 125, ‘THE ACCESS PLATE Cant BE WWSTALLED ON THE ‘THIN SKN (UNDERSIOE). ‘COUNTERSUNK RIVETS ARE ISTALLED ON THICK UPPER SKIN ‘all mating surlaces. The reason for placing the line ‘up marks is reussembly will be much easier after drilling and deburring, ‘Stuvt the final awambly by drilling out all the rivet holes first. ‘The conter rib ig the first to be drilled ay well as riveted. The cuter rib is riveted to the epar and then to both skins, The fire skin'ean be installed with little or no intorferunce, but, the placement of the other skin will require the need for a long thin bucking bar to install therivets. ‘After the conter rit is installed, the skinscan be riveted to the spar, The next operation is to clamp the outer tibs into place and drill cut the rivet pattern shown in Figure 9 "The next ri vo be inatalled is the one that faces beeaeycrietes opposite from the center rib flanges, This rib will ENOUGH TO MEET THE be installed with its Manges pointing outward. ‘TAPER OF THERIG TO ‘The remaining rib will have its flanges tocing oo hce awe in the same direction as the cunter rib, Both ond riba are roferved to as finishing rites because their flanges are ficing outward, making it easy to install the rivets,After the ribs ure installed, then dhe trailing edge is riveted. Upon enmpletion, be sure to cheek the antral ausfiee for squorenose. Fite off all rough edges und give ull rivets very clowe inspection. E. Construction And Installation Of Access Plate And Cover Accom plalen are installed on metal aircraft 99 parts such a8 electrical wires, fluid fittings and control cables loeated internally can be inspected. ‘Accuus holes and plates are usually lacated on the under side ofa wing, along the sides of afuselageor con the undersides of control wurfoces. Some manulackurers of light aircraft Limit tho hum ‘er of acon holes to five foreach wing. When moore than five ucccas holes are needed per wing. always congult the aircraft inaculicturer belore: ination, ‘The eanatruction of any uccoss hole doubler te ‘quires that it be strong enough Lo musky up the loss ‘strength ereated by the removal of metal when taking the hole. The location of on access hole should be us near as possible Uo a rib spar or stringer to borrow from its strongth Materials List 1, Pencil, drawing paper and eraser 21 7 x Teheet of A20247S 040 thick (doubler) 1. 7% 7 shoet of A024TY 082 thick (cover) 4. Felt marking pen 5. Masking tape 6. Seach 8-32 machine screws 7. 6 each 8-32 plate nuts 8, Zine chromate primer 9. ANG26ADS-6 rivets ‘Tools List 1. Right or left hand shears 2. Compass 3. Protractor 4, Drill motor 6. Silver ize inch} clecos 6. Rivet gun 7. Bucking bar 8. Halfround fife 9. Rotary file 10. Serewdriver 1. Hand nibblers 12, Countersink cutter 15. Countoraink gun act 14, #40drilt Access plutos can be made economically in the shop by tbllowing the manufacturera’ suggested plans outlined in their mainlenance manuals. The plans wil give the oecewmry information pertaining 103 to hole ving limite, thieknoes of metal, required ‘sized rivets and how to space the rivets and cover plate hold down fasteners, 1. Layout Of Access Plate ‘The proper solection of materials none af the most {important first steps when making an access hole {° tho akin of the nireraf is A2024T3 025 thick, then ‘the accens doubler will bm AZO2CP2 040 thick. The increased thicknosu of the metal gives an incroste in strength, serves us a stiffener and permits (when necessary? the driving of Jarger dinmeter rivets into what would nurmally be thinner skine, "The access plate iadrawn to full sat on drawing paper. The cover should be the same thicknoss a3 Che ekin. Using a protractor, lay out-a pattern for the rivets.and thesix plate nuts ax shown in Figure 2-22, Laler the pattern ¢att be transferred to pieco ofshest moial asxhown in Kigure9.23. ALthe same Limy, the layout of the cover plate enn be done ‘on x similar piece of sheet metal, 2. Layout And Forming Steps Of Access Plate and ‘Cover Wher making an acccss hole, the fire stap ia to mark the exact locatian of the inspection tole, Drill "Wisinch starting hole in the aireraft akin, Aftor dell- ing the hole in the aireraft skin, use a puir of either Tight or left hand cutting shears to cat w hole sbout ‘ize seraller then the size of the required hole. The faut tiasinch ig left 60 the tole ean be smoothly droosod to size using a half round file. ‘Thesceond step is olay out thedoublerring ona sheet of motel hy transferring ite measurements from thedrawing, (ut out the doubler ring using a Greenlee hole punch, hand shears or nibblers to exactly the seme diameter as the hole made in the alreralt wing skin. ‘The doubler is wide enaugh to allow for the instalation of the rivebs and inspoe- ion plate fastener as ahown in Figure 9-24 ‘Cut the outside circle af the doublor to iz using either left or right hand cutting shears, Aftor tha holes are drilled into the doublor, uso it aa aguide to dil the holes into the irra ain, Be sure there are no burte or sharp edges ee ‘The third atep is the construction af the cover plate: Fit the doubler over the cover phate mator- fal and trece its cutline, Out out the cover plate with hsand shears to the same size a8 the outside dt- ameter of the doubler. Once the citculw cover plate ic made, ft it undor the doubler us dhown in igure 9-25, tape it in placo and center punch the mouchine serew hulos. Use the doubler as a guide and drill the holes using 6 #1 drill. Mark the‘THE ACCESS PLATE MACHINE SCREWS ANO PLATE NUTS. ‘ARE LOCATED 80 DEOREES APART. THE RIVETS ARE LOCATED ‘EVERY 20 DEGREES IN BETWEEN THE WACHINE SCREW HOLESao Fig. 8-25. Fltplate under doubler anc ctl mactine ‘screw holes. relationship of the doubler to the skin and the i spection plate so it will line up properly after you :, remove the burra from its holes. 8, Installation Of The Doubler Plate Alter eutting the doubler as shown in Figure 9-26, tit intoplace und une clecos to holdin place. Drive two rivets 18D degrees apart and it tha covor aver the doubler being sure that ail six machine éerew holes Tine up exuetly bofore continuing to rivet the doubler in place. After all rivets are driven, serew the inapection plate in place using six machine screws. IC the in- spection plate doos not tay flat, bend the edges slightly 28 shown in Figuro 9-27, E Conclusion ‘The examples shown in thix chapter were so lected because they include many of the operations ‘usually involved in the manufacturing of aireraft parts. THe making of aircraft parts is time vnnum- ing but economical, expecially for the aircraft home builder, Making aireraft parts is sometiros the only way to get the parts needed to build or repair an aireratt. ‘The most expensive item when walking aizcrah, paris a the labor. Ifyou are an sinezaft home builder, that is » fact you inust well understand from the ‘beginning. As you got involved with the making of aircraft parts, you will bogin to learn shortauts, (Giecos hod doubler in place for riveting.‘Tap EOGE OWN, TH AMALLET PEE SuanT RADIUS ‘CORNER (1/16) Fig. 927 Bert eciges of inspection plate, Pheuse, always remomber that any shortcut must til be in the beat interest of aviation nafety. ‘The value of proper rivet installation can never be taken for granted bucause iteon and will Yead to serious consequences later. Be sure to install the correct size rivets into structural locations and buck them to the miniraums listed in the 43.13-1. Sae Chapter IV for more about riveting details. 106 QUE: 1 10. a. 72, 13. i. 46. TIONS: What type of aluminaem alley is ranstcunemriéy used in the construction of modera aircraft? What is the name af the steel most commonly used for the construction of iroraft parts? Which souree is the most retiable when it conics to selecting the kind of metal to sxe wher making aireraft partit Whal are axoadeantages of using «jetted joint? What isthe name of the beach ton uved to make aluminum tubing or wing leading édgest What is the main purpoee of a nose rib? Which ine! of material ix best suited for the construction of a nose rib block? When forming a nove rib ovr a block, which {uo parts are formed firett : What does the layout ofa conteol surface most nearly resemble? : Why ore the trailing edges of some control eur faces jogged? What ix the nusximum number of access plates allowed under the wing of at aircraft? What purpose dues the doubler serve wn att saccees plate installation? What is the main consideration regarding safety when installing rivets? List three large bench tools mentioned in the chapter What is the bottwm tine on any job that you are doing ins woiadion?Appendix A A-I Single Shear Strength Of Aluminum Alloy Rivet ‘DRIVEN SHEAR RIVETOIAMETER ‘STRENGTH, as" auwovs fe sa_{ ve | sae | ae | ve | sie | ve aur ~ az | ae | soe | ooo | 500 | eo | aso 2a ey as | a2 | me | wo | wr | aie | cae mo17T91 u ms | at {ors wea | zz | eT panera « wr | st | oom | ums | az | so | ow sone 2 aa | sez | see | soz | ias2 | ame | are, o773 a sa | sv | om | we | ow | wa | son rer vlues would Feud 90,000; 58/000; 26,000; 4,000; 28,000; and 49,006 ceapectvely. Single Shear Strength Of 100° Machine Countersunk Aluminum Alloy Rivet* ‘DRIVEN SHEAR RIVET DIAMETER ‘STRENGTH auors cn wa | ve | oe | vs etry ‘30,000 ve | on [oe | 75 27-13 34,000 oe | oe | sm | ow 2479 44900 an | as | om | set “Shear etrongihe given are consetvallve exiimates.AJI Bend Allowance Chart. (ealeS[afladlailatlel salnbletledjebls bled seladlablatleGledlsd Selsilae it 4 adjai al S2ledla¥lsdleG|silet al ffal[al]sfletladlel if ealedlefledledlefled sk ealadladladlal salsa eil:t salad aijel atlstlad ailsd aii suledlablad 5 abled ailse stlsdlsd|s'ledlailad|ad allel &8 sHlst)etlet|stlefls al se/eGlefled|etle¥|eils galgtlal il eiled if $ efeiala a8 a ale 3 8 1084-IIl K-Factor Chart nao) KaALue ‘ang [OES 7 er 2 ontres @ 3 oscars so 4 usagz oe & oneses 6 § Dosatt 7 Baste a 2 cugeess o * oso o 2 Dewees 7” i 8.98629 a ‘270810 nm 3983 2 agate ™ o.taHes * onaase % O.r4085 n O58 a ones a 9.77635 2 ota * 2 ox0008 2 a n2n3es 3 a o2ies8 4 = azztes ro & ‘33007 on a ‘24008 a rs ‘zee 2 2 o.zseaz 2 > Sa7e5 0 Fl barre on 2 ones 2 3 bape a 4 930503 « as otsae 2 6 og24ea % rd osasst a » 3ees3 = = easetz 2 a ‘30307 00 a oxrsaa tor 2 dese. 103 a 2.30981 103 a ‘oat 08 s oareat 108 “ azur 108, a oagagt Ww a ae we o oass7s 108 o Oasest no a eareor Mt & oaa773 ne 8 sasase ma a 50852 a s sme 1S 2 agar re a ‘osazas 7 3 asset 0 ° ‘osnsr7 ue a O57 120 109AIV Excerpt For Tangent eT oes. ao | exco00 a a | sors s 2 | soos 7 3 0824 7 4 006 * 5 00873 7 6 21087 Z a om 2 s a6 a 3 Sr Ls zo | o27—5 and a 2762 we 2 mm 7 a ms i a at iat s an7 Ate if | 0 | as 4 7 | ae | ans 7 a} ets | a i pis | set | eae a was | omer | eomsy | voais | Drie | ao “ease [aon | vast | o7us | ase 2 | gz) wes | tems | Tue) 8 3 | fm | se for] & | er | res estes 3 | me | sur zpl 4 S| maz | mer mie (4. > | soe | see ames a -. $830 = if Tose 088 rom | sey erent 1.0000 orn | an £06 cor Lt a noAV Rivets Per Inch Chart [NUMBER OF RIVETS REQUIRED FOR SPLICES (GINGLE-LAP JOINT)IN BARE 201476, 2020-3, 2026-736 ‘AND 7075-T8 SHEET, CLAD 2ov#-Tt, 2026:79, 2024-739 AND 7075-T6 SHEET, {2024-Ta AND 7075-6 PLATE, BAR, ROD. TUBE, AND EXTRUSIONS, 201476 EXTRUSIONS, Tacencas’ | _ nO SFA AD MOTRIONGTEAD RVETEREOUREN PER RGNOFWOT-W TROP RGU oT mcr ve sae we a a) 2a 23 = = ‘2a 3 ze i ia oes 23 a8 - 7 Bs a Fry i in 036 7 a 24 fe ue pea eo ae B on a ee # a aa 1" ‘ a 2 on = wa 33 3 ey iS ma a a fe = na Pr a 0 = nm | a wore: Ih FOR STRINGER MCT UPPER SURFACE OF A WING, OR WA FUSELAGE 8 PERCENT OF THE NUMBER OF [RIVETS SHOWN INTHE TABLE MAY BE USED. FOR INTERMEDIATE FRAMES, £0 PERCENT OF THEARIMBER SHOWN MAY BEUSED. FOR SINGLE LAP SHEET JOINTS, 75 PERCENT OF THE NUMBER SHOWN MAY BE USED. [ENGMIEERING NOTES: THE ABOVE TABLE WAS COUPUTEDAS FOLLOWS: 1 2 THE LOADER INCH OF WIDTH OF MATERIAL WHS CALCULATED 8Y ASSUMING A STRIP ONE INCH WIDE IN TENSION. HUMBER OF RIVETS REQUIRED WAS CALCULATED FOR 2117-AD RIVETS, BASED ONA RIVET ALLOWABLE ‘SHEAR STRESS EQUAL TO 40 PERCENT OF THE SHEET ALLOWABLE TENSILE STAESS, AND A SHEET ALLOWABLE BEAIG STRESS EQUAL TO 160 PEACENT OF THE SHEET ALLOWABLE TENSILE STRESS, USING NOMINAL HOLE DIAMETERS FOR ANETS, ‘COMBINATIONS OF SHEET THICKNESS AND RIVET SIZE ABOVE THE HEAVY LINE ARE CRITICAL IN(LE, Witt ‘PAL HY) BEARING ON THE SHEET, THOSE BELOW ARE CRITICALIN SHEARING DF TNE RIVETS, "THE NUMBER OF AM 3 BOLTS REQUIRED BELOW THE HEAVY LINE WAS CALCULATED BASED ON ASHEET ALLOWABLE TENSILE STRESS OF 70,000 ra AND A BOLT ALLOWABLE SINGLE SHEAR LOAD OF 2.128 NOTE: Ghar from AC €3.15-48 424 -Flouru 228 u.A-VI Minimum Bend Radius Chart . anaes “AP PRCHIMATE SHEET THICKNESS (9 ea oie, 3.068 oe bias ose, mae 2 o—* ow ay ot eaeres | imo aoe ae ana aon ponte moat xo ane ao coat 0820 ° o—tt omit ot Sapir Q vat vamtva | vactua| veciaen enti e ° Varin | wenn | wana] xa ‘05-438 omit vwtars | wea | azicat aaa vases | uaa) tam | Rm a ane cone 9 o—n omit omit 08TH ote vectval nox jrmoa java sous oon Hon | aa He at ‘eal ro7e9 2 ott enim} tam | ane nae ana aca | “aon ann ‘Stet "ALGLAD SHEET AY BE BENT OVER SLIGUTLY SMALLER RADI THAN THE. ‘COARESPONOING TEMPERS OF | “aA ar TEN ENON, ALLO MaY REFORMED OVE APPRECDLY 12B-IIL Setback (K) Chart And Natural Trigonometric Functions Chart WORBEND OTHERTHANaG" SETBACK = (K+ T) “ANGTORG) VALUE | ANG IEG] KVAWE | ANGIOEG) KQALUE | ANG[DEG]” tcwAluie + 6 oaaear °% 136 2 7 Bast 2 Ww 3 s paas7s 3 x8 4 a aasra “ 7 6 = asst * uo . 3 ores 6 “ rz 2 astra a ue . 53 4306s a 13 9 m sous 8 ma w s 25207 100 us ” = osst7 us RB a seas Ww 8 ss east ua “ ° osesre oy % @ 05735 50 8 sane x 1 K 7 a 9.60086 ts “ os a8i280 ® 183 ® w a auzer a we a a s osa7o7 ¢ 138 c n e pod T 68 7 2 a oxen ° 7 2 B a 67s 8 19 R ™ o osers cy 2 cd zoe! 2 160 2 ry 7 orn F ier . 7 m o7ease 1682 = a 272086 ‘one 13 ‘one Ey um eas 166 0 15 aerss ‘ ms 1 Ei ” a7ai2 9 2 7 7ases 17 a = onoe7a 18 « nm ‘onese ue Fy ” oase10 7 * a ‘n9se08 wt 7 a ‘.ecat9 be @ e osera um 3» 4 ‘sp0080 a “« e 9.91693 a] a 6 assest % a "7 esa0 ” 6 a” osesae m a ® 9.96270 cs s Ey 1.0800, a0 [oe cos (oea] sw] wn [cor] coe [oes] [dea] ew | vax | cor] cos [oto 309 ao ‘380 |oxaz0|eaeeo] aver oane7| 709] [220 [oszee|came| 2

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