Professional Documents
Culture Documents
07 Guidelines For Management PDF
07 Guidelines For Management PDF
59 37
Abstract
These Guidelines summarize and evaluate all currently available evidence on Acute Myocardial Infarction (AMI)
with the aim of assisting physicians in selecting the best management strategies for a typical patient, suffering
from AMI, taking into account the impact on outcome, as well as the risk/ benefit ratio of particular diagnostic or
therapeutic means. Rapid diagnosis and early risk stratification of patients presenting with AMI are important
to identify patients in whom early interventions can improve outcome. AMI can be defined from a number of
different perspectives related to clinical, electrocardiographic (ECG), biochemical, and pathological characteristics.
Quantitative assessment of risk is useful for clinical decision making.
For patients with the clinical presentation of AMI within 12 h after symptom onset, early mechanical (PCI) or
pharmacological reperfusion should be performed. Platelet activation and subsequent aggregation play a dominant
role in the propagation of arterial thrombosis and consequently are the key therapeutic targets in the management
of AMI. Adjunctive therapy with antiplatelets and antithrombotics is essential. A recommendation for routine
urgent PCI ( within 24 h ) following successful fibrinolysis seems to be most practical option. In India, pharmaco-
invasive therapy is the best option.
Table 2 : Factors to Consider in Deciding Mode of therapy in reducing overall short-term death (7% vs. 9%,
Reperfusion in STEMI p=0.0002), nonfatal reinfarction (3% vs. 7%, p<0.0007), stroke
(1.0% vs/ 2.0%, p=0.0004), and the combined endpoint
Favored Therapy
Key Factor Clinical Scenario of death, nonfatal reinfarction and stroke (8% vs. 14%,
Lysis PCI
p<0.0001).
Time from Symptom Very early presentation √
Onset < 1 hour B. In hospitals without PCI capability. The ACC/AHA guidelines
< or > 3 hours, √ suggest that four factors are to be considered when deciding
significant transfer whether to use fibrinolytic therapy or transfer the patient for
delay primary PCI while a patient presents to a hospital without
< or > 3 hours, no √ PCI capability. These are :
significant transfer i. Time from symptom onset
delay
ii. Clinical risk of STEMI
High-risk Patient Cardiogenic shock √
Pulmonary edema √ iii. Risk of bleeding
Electrical Instability √ iv. Time required for transport to a PCI centre
TIMI risk score > 5 √ Anticipated prolonged transport delay to a PCI centre such
Bleeding Risk Contraindications to √ that door-to-balloon time minus door-to-needle time is > 60
fibrinolytic therapy minutes. However, in a recent analysis of sixteen randomized
Risk of bleeding / √ trials, Tarantini et al6 concluded that acceptable reperfusion delay
Intracranial hemorrhage to prefer primary angioplasty over fibrin-specific thrombolytic
Time Required for Early or late √ therapy is affected (mainly) by the patient’s mortality risk
Transfer presentation, significant i.e. 1 hour does not fit all. The acceptable PPCI-related delay
transfer delay (the time that nullifies the advantage of PPCI over thrombolytic
Early or late √ therapy [TT]) is influenced by the baseline risk mortality and by
presentation, no
the presentation delay, as illustrated by the following equation,
significant transfer
delay
obtained by the regression analysis :
Z = 0.59c - 0.033Y - 0.003W – 1.3
Recommendations by the Task Force on the management of ST-
(where Z is the absolute 30-days reduction in mortality of
segment elevation acute myocardial infarction of the European
PPCI over TT, c the mortality risk, U the PPCI-related delay, and
Society of Cardiology4 for initial management of acute STEMI
W the presentation delay). Widimsky7 wrote in his editorial that
are similar and are enlisted in Table1.
widespread use of Tarantini’s equation for individual patients
An angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) should be administered would add unnecessary complexity on the pre-hospital STEMI
to STEMI patients who are intolerant of ACEIs and who have care in regions where PPCI is readily available. However, he
either clinical or radiological signs of heart failure or LVEF observed that the suggested calculation may be an ideal solution
less than 0.40 [IC]. Valsartan and candesartan have established for sparsely populated regions with long transfer distances or
efficacy for this recommendation. for regions with suboptimal patient care organization.
Lipid management : A fasting lipid profile (or obtaining Ready availability of the catheterization laboratory in
one from recent past records for all STEMI patients) should be question, skill of the personnel involved (Operator experience
performed within 24 hours of symptom onset and lipid-lowering greater than a total of 75 primary cases per year and team
medication namely statins should be initiated before discharge experience greater than a total of 36 primary PCI cases per year)
[IA].Treatment goals for LDL-C after STEMI should be < 100 mg/ and vascular access difficulties are the other issues that need to
dl [IA] and further reduction to < 70 mg/dl appears reasonable be considered.
[IIa-A]. Dietary advice on discharge should be given to all STEMI
Factors to be considered in deciding mode of reperfusion in
patients especially emphasizing on < 7% of total calories from
STEMI have been shown in Table 2.
saturated fat and < 200 mg/day of cholesterol [IA]. For patients
with non-HDL-C < 130 mg/dl and who also have HDL-C < 40 mg/ Taking into account all the studies and registries, ESC
dl, special emphasis should be given on life-style modification Guidelines for STEMI (2008) recommend that primary PCI
e.g. exercise, weight loss and smoking cessation [IB]. Drugs (balloon inflation) should be performed within 2 hours after
like niacin or fibrate to raise HDL-C in this situation have IIa first medical contact (FMC) in all cases. However, for patients
recommendation (Level of evidence : B) after achieving LDL-C presenting early with a large amount of myocardium at risk,
< 100 mg/dl with statins. However, if triglycerides are ≥ 500 mg/ a maximum delay of only 90 minutes after FMC seems to be a
dl, niacin or fibrates should be initiated before LDL-lowering reasonable recommendation.
therapy in order to prevent pancreatitis [IC].
Special Issues Related to Primary PCI
Selection of Reperfusion Strategy 1. Duration of thienopyridine therapy : In patients receiving a
A. In hospitals with PCI capability : A total of 23 published stent either bare-metal stent (BMS) or drug-eluting stent
randomized controlled trials have compared primary PCI (DES) during PCI for ACS, clopidogrel 75 mg daily (Level
to fibrinolytic therapy in patients with STEMI. A meta- of evidence : B) or prasugrel 10 mg daily (Level of evidence
analysis reported the short and long-term outcomes of the : B) should be given for at least 12 months. Continuation
7,739 patients (3,872 randomized to primary PCI and 3,867 of clopidogrel or prasugrel beyond 15 months may be
randomized to fibrinolytic therapy) enrolled in these trials.5 considered in patients undergoing DES placement (Level
In this analysis, primary PCI was superior to fibrinolytic of evidence : C).
© SUPPLEMENT TO JAPI • december 2011 • VOL. 59 39
2. DES vs. BMS : Controversy over use of DES vs. BMS in Relative contraindications :
primary PCI is an ongoing one with results of recent studies 1. Prior ischaemic stroke beyond 12 months
showing conflicting results. Late stent thrombosis rates are
2. Major surgery within 3 weeks, recent (2-4 weeks) internal
clearly more with use of DES in STEMI setting (reaching
bleeding, prolonged or traumatic CPR or non-compressible
as high as 2.75%), this is counterbalanced to some extent
vascular puncture.
by lower restenosis events with use of DES for ON-LABEL
indications. However, use of DES is still an OFF-LABEL 3. Active peptic ulcer is only a relative contraindication to
indication. fibrinolysis unless there is active bleeding. Patients with
positive test for occult blood only in stool may be considered
3. Non-culprit lesion angioplasty in same sitting in multivessel
for fibrinolytic therapy.
CAD : ACC/AHA/SCAI has laid down multi-vessel PCI
at the times of primacy PCI as Class III indication except 4. Severe uncontrolled hypertension (> 180/110 mmHg) is a
in patients with cardiogenic shock where the procedure relative contraindication. In view of the linear relationship
should be supported by intra-aortic balloon pump (IABP). between severity of hypertension and ICH, STEMI patients
However, a recent trial suggests that culprit vessel-only presenting with hypertension should be administered beta-
angioplasty was associated with higher rate of long-term blockers, nitroglycerin and analgesics promptly to lower
major adverse cardiac event (MACE) compared with blood pressure and reduce risk of ICH following fibrinolysis.
multivessel treatment.8 5. Patients on warfarin therapy have higher rates of
4. Left main coronary artery primary angioplasty : ACC/AHA haemorrhage. Higher the INR, higher is the risk of
has not given any specific recommendation as there is no haemorrhage.
randomized data available; most suitably these patients 6. Pregnancy is a relative contraindication to fibrinolysis;
are to be treated as STEMI with cardiogenic shock with however haemorrhagic diabetic retinopathy is not a
emergency revascularization by PCI or surgery according contraindication for fibrinolytic therapy.
to availability together with mechanical circulatory support Occurrence of a change in neurological status after
supplemented with GPIIb/IIIa inhibitors. reperfusion therapy, particularly within the first 24 hours after
initiation of treatment, is considered to be due to ICH until
Indications for Fibrinolytic Therapy proven otherwise.
1. In absence of contraindications, fibrinolytic therapy should
be administered to STEMI patients with symptom onset Assessment of Reperfusion
within 12 hours and one of the following :
i. ST-elevation greater than 0.1 mV in atleast two
(Non-invasive)
contiguous precordial leads or at least two adjacent Relief of symptoms and maintenance or restoration of
limb leads (IA). haemodynamic and/or electric stability are most obvious features
of successful reperfusion following fibrinolytic therapy.
ii. New or presumably new LBBB (IA) However, there are objective parameters to assess reperfusion
iii. 12 lead ECG findings consistent with true posterior MI following fibrinolytic therapy.
(IIaC) ST-segment resolution : A close association with clinical
2. In the absence of contraindications, it is reasonable to outcomes has been found with ST-segment resolution which is a
administer fibrinolytic therapy to STEMI patients with simple surrogate for both epicardial and myocardial reperfusion.
symptoms beginning within 12 to 24 hours who have ST-resolution has typically been categorized as either present
continuing ischaemic symptoms and ST-elevation greater (> 50%) or absent (< 50%) or as a three-way categorization
than 0.1 mV in at least two contiguous precordial leads or : complete (> 70% resolution), partial (30-70% resolution) or
atleast two adjacent limb leads (IIaB). none (< 30% resolution). Patients who achieve complete ST-
Fibrinolytic therapy should not be administered to resolution (> 70% resolution) are much more likely to have
asymptomatic patients with symptoms beginning more normal TIMI grade 3 flow on angiography following fibrinolysis
than 24 hours earlier or to patients with only ST-segment compared to those with either partial or no ST-resolution.9 90%
depression except if true posterior MI is suspected. of patients with complete ST-resolution had a patent infarct
related artery (IRA) and 70-80% achieved TIMI-3 flow. However,
Contraindications to Fibrinolysis conversely some patients with TIMI-3 flow were not found to
demonstrate complete ST-resolution since microvascular and
Absolute contraindications :
tissue reperfusion (assessed by myocardial contrast echo and
1. Any prior intracranial haemorrhage (ICH) angiographic myocardial blush grading) were not achieved in
2. Known malignant intracranial neoplasm these cases resulting in significant myonecrosis. Thus, ultimately
3. Known intracranial cerebrovascular lesion (aneurysm or ST-resolution is a good marker of tissue reperfusion after
arteriovenous malformation) fibrinolytic therapy. Consequently, GISSI-2 trials has clearly
shown that patients with > 50% ST-resolution were at much
4. Ischaemic stroke within 3 months lower risk of death compared to those with < 50% resolution at
5. Known or suspected closed head or facial trauma within 3 30 days (3.5 vs. 7.4% HR 0.46, 95% CI 0.37 – 0.47).10
months Biomarkers : With successful reperfusion, reflow of blood
6. Suspected aortic dissection and allows faster clearance of necrotic proteins and hence CK-MB
7. Active bleeding or known bleeding diathesis and troponin levels peak earlier and decline faster. Since
troponin remains elevated longer (even weeks after a large
MI) than CK-MB and CK-MB returns to normal range within
40 © SUPPLEMENT TO JAPI • december 2011 • VOL. 59
METROPOLISES
& BIG TOWNS
SMALL TOWN VILLAGES
Requisite for Pre-hospital
Thrombolysis
PRIMARY PRE-HOSPITAL HOSPITAL PRE-HOSPITAL HOSPITAL
• Critical care ambulances staffed with physicians ideally
PCI FIBRINOLYSIS (ED)
FIBRINOLYSIS
FIBRINOLYSIS (ED)
FIBRINOLYSIS
or paramedics trained to send pre-hospital ECG to
corresponding hospital’s CCUs using telemedicine.
• Improving public awareness about value of time to
treatment after onset of chest pain.
PHARMACO- RESCUE
• Emergency dial numbers for hospitals pertaining to a
INVASIVE
PCI
PCI locality.
Fig. 1 : A proposed model of STEMI management over the next Rescue PCI
decade in India Emergent PCI performed in a patient with evidence of failed
48-72 hours, it is therefore the preferred marker for assessing a reperfusion with fibrinolytic therapy is called rescue PCI. Success
recurrent infarction. of rescue PCI in patients with moderate to large infarctions has
been demonstrated in terms of improved LV function and overall
Non-invasive imaging : Transthoracic echocardiography
clinical outcomes by review of early studies.13 More data are now
(TTE) may have a role to play in evaluation of wall motion
available from recent studies like MERLIN14 AND REACT.15
abnormalities if history and baseline ECG are inconclusive and
in the initial assessment of infarct size and ventricular function. Despite impressive results with successfully conducted rescue
Follow-up echocardiography is reasonable only about two or PCI, prognosis remains poor for those in whom rescue PCI is
more months later because myocardial stunning may yield unsuccessful.
misleading results with echocardiography if done earlier. Both As per ACC/AHA Guidelines (2004),1 following are the Class
nuclear imaging and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) I indications for rescue PCI :
are quite precise at quantifying the size of the infarct but have a. Cardiogenic shock in patients less than 75 years old who are
little role in the acute management of STEMI. suitable candidates for revascularization (Level of Evidence
: B).
Status of Different Thrombolytic b. Severe congestive heart failure and/or pulmonary oedema
Agents (Killip Class III) (Level of Evidence : B).
Streptokinase : Approved for general use c. Haemodynamically compromising ventricular arrhythmias
Alteplase : Established standard (Level of Evidence : C)
Reteplase : Approved for general use Class IIa indications for rescue PCI include
TNK-tPA : Approved for general use and likely to replace a. Cardiogenic shock in patients 75 years of age or older
Alteplase because : b. Patients with haemodynamic or electrical instability or
1. Bolus injection simplifies administration even in pre- persistent ischaemic symptoms
hospital setting and reduces potential for medication errors. c. Patients with failed reperfusion and a moderate or large
2. Increased fibrin specificity provided by TNK-tPA does myocardium at risk (anterior MI, inferior MI with RV
confer a significant decrease in major systemic bleeding. involvement or precordial ST-segment depression).
SCAI Guidelines in its latest update (2009)3 has accorded class IIa Without reperfusion therapy : Class of Level of
status to PCI in patients who have received fibrinolytic therapy Recommendation Evidence
and who are at “high risk” (Level of Evidence : B). It has accorded Antiplatelet co-therapy :
class IIb status to PCI after fibrinolytic therapy in patients who If not already on aspirin oral (soluble I A
are not at high risk. (Level of Evidence : C). Considerations / chewable / non-enteric coated) or i.v.
should be given in both groups to initiating a preparatory dose of aspirin if oral ingestion is not
antithrombotic (anti-coagulant plus anti-platelet) regimen before feasible
and during patient transfer to the catheterization laboratory. Oral dose of clopidogrel (75 mg) I B
Antithrombin co-therapy :
Adjunctive Therapy
2.5 mg i.v. bolus of fondaparinux I B
A. With Fibrinolytic therapy Class of Level of
followed 24 hours later by an s.c. dose
Recommendation Evidence
If fondaparinux is not available, I B
Antiplatelet co-therapy :
enoxaparin i.v. bolus followed 15
If not already on aspirin oral 150-325 I B minutes later by first s.c. dose; (1 mg /
mg soluble or chewable / non-enteric Kg); if age > 75 years no i.v. bolus and
coated) or i.v. dose of aspirin (250 mg start with reduced s.c. dose (0.75 mg/
plus) Kg) or
Clopidogrel oral loading dose (300 I B i.v. heparin followed by a weight- I B
mg) if age ≤ 75 years adjusted i.v. infusion with first aPTT
If age > 75 mg start with maintenance IIa B control after 3 hours
dose of Clopidogrel (75 mg)
Antithrombin co-therapy with References
alteplase, reteplase and tenecteplase : 1. Antman EM, Anbe DT, Armstrong PW, et al. ACC./AHA guidelines
Enoxaparin i.v. bolus followed 15 min I A for the management of patients with ST-elevation myocardial
later by first s.c. dose, if age > 75 years infarction : A report of the American College of Cardiology /
no i.v. bolus and start with reduced American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines
first s.c. dose (Committee to Revise the 1999 Guidelines for the Management
If enoxaparin is not available, a I A of Patients with Acute Myocardial Infarction). J Am Coll Cardiol
weight-adjusted bolus of i.v. heparin 2004;44:E1-E211.
followed by a weight-adjusted i.v. 2. Antman EM, Hand M, Armstrong PW et al. 2007 focused update
infusion with first aPTT control after of the ACC/AHA 2004 guidelines for the management of patients
3 hours with ST-elevation myocardial infarction : a report of the American
With streptokinase : College of Cardiology /American Heart Association Task Force on
An i.v. bolus of fondaparinux IIa B Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008;51:210-47.
followed by an s.c. dose 24 hours later 3. Kushner FG, Hand M, Smith SC et al.2009 focused updates : ACC/
or AHA guidelines for the management of patients with ST-elevation
Enoxaparin i.v. bolus followed 15 IIa B myocardial infarction (Updating the 2004 Guidelines and 2007
minutes later first s.c. dose, if age > focused update) and ACC/AHA/SCAI guidelines on percutaneous
75 years, no i.v. bolus and start with coronary intervention (updating the 2005 guideline and 2007
reduced first s.c. dose or focused update). A report of the American College of Cardiology
Foundation / American Heart Association Task Force on practice
A weight-adjusted dose of i.v. IIa C
guidelines. Circulation 2008;2271-2306.
heparin followed by a weight-
adjusted infusion : 4. Vande Werf F, Bax J, Betrice A et al. Management of acute
B. With Primary PCI : myocardial infarction in patients presenting with persistent ST
segment elevation. The Task Force on the management of ST-
Antiplatelet co-therapy :
segment elevation acute myocardial infarction of the European
Aspirin (oral dose of 150-325 mg or I B Society of Cardiology. European Heart Journal 2008;29:2009-2945.
i.v. dose of 250-500 mg)
5. Keeley EC, Boura JA, Grines CL. Primary angioplasty versus
Clopidogrel loading dose (300 mg, I C intravenous thrombolytic therapy for acute myocardial infarction :
preferably 600 mg) a quantitative review of 23 randomised trials. Lancet 2003;361:13-20.
Prasugrel (60 mg loading dose) I C
6. Tarantani G, Razzolini R, Napodano M et al. Acceptable
GPIIb/IIIa antagonist : reperfusion delay to prefer primary angioplasty over fibrin-specific
Abciximab IIa A thrombolytic therapy is affected (mainly) by the patient’s mortality
Tirofiban IIb B risk : 1 h doses not fit all. European Heart Journal 2010;31:676-683.
Eptifibatide IIb C 7. Widimsky P. Primary angioplasty vs. thrombolysis : the end of the
Antithrombin therapy controversy. European Heart Journal 2010;31:634-636.
Heparin I C 8. Politi L, Sgura F, Rossi R et al. A randomised trial of target vessel
Bivalirudin (i.v. bolus of 0.75 mg /Kg IIa B versus multivessel revascularization in ST-elevation myocardial
followed by infusion of 1.75 mg/Kg infarction : major adverse cardiac events during long-term follow-
hour) up. Heart 2010;96:662-667.
Fondaparinux III B 9. de Lemos JA, Braunwald E. ST-segment resolution as a tool
assessing the efficacy of reperfusion therapy. J Am Coll Cardiol
Adjunctive devices :
2001;38:1283-94.
Thrombus aspiration IIb B
10. Mauri F, Maggioni AP, Franzosi MG, et al. A simple
electrocardiographic predictor of outcome of patients with acute
myocardial infarction treated with a thrombolytic agent. A Gruppo
Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvienza nell’ Infarno Miocardico
42 © SUPPLEMENT TO JAPI • december 2011 • VOL. 59
(GISSI-2) – Derived Analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol 1994;24:600-7. 18. Di Mario C, Dudek D, Piscione F, et al. Immediate angioplasty
11. Morrison LJ, et al. Mortality and pre-hospital thrombolysis for acute versus standard therapy with rescue angioplasty after thrombolysis
myocardial infarction. A meta-analysis. JAMA 2000;283:2686-92. in the combined Abciximab REteplase Stent Study in Acute
Myocardial Infarction (CARESS-in-AMI) : an open, prospective,
12. Boersma E, et al. Early thrombolytic treatment in acute myocardial randomized, multicentre trial. Lancet 2008;317:559-68.
infarction : reappraisal of the golden hour. Lancet 1996;348:771-5
[Cross Ref] [Web of Science] [Medicine]. 19. Le May MR, Wells GA, Labinaz M, et al. Combined angioplasty
and pharmacological intervention versus thyrombolysis alone in
13. Ellis SG, Da Silva ER, Spaulding CM et al. Review of immediate acute myocardial infarction (CAPITAL AMI study). J Am Coll Cardiol
angioplasty after fibrinolytic therapy for acute myocardial infarction 2005;46:417-24.
: insights from RESCUE-I, RESCUE-II and other contemporary
clinical experiences. Am Heat J 2000;139:1046-53. 20. Fernandez-Aviles F, Alonso JJ, Castro-Beiras A, et al. Routine
invasive strategy within 24 hours of thrombolysis versus ischaemia-
14. Sutton AG, Campbell PG, Graham R, et al. A randomized trial guided conservative approach for acute myocardial infarction with
of rescue angioplasty versus a conservative approach for failed ST-segment elevation (GRACIA-1) : a randomized controlled trial.
fibrinolysis in ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction : Lancet 2004;364:1045-53.
the Middlesbrough Early Revascularization to Limit Infarction
(MERLIN) trial. Am J Coll Cardiol 2004;44:287-96. 21. Scheller B, Hennen B, Hammer B, et al. Beneficial effects of
immediate stenting after thrombolysis in acute myocardial
15. Gershlick AH, Stephens – Lloyd A, Hughes S, et al. Rescue infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003;42:634-41.
angioplasty after failed thrombolytic therapy for acute myocardial
infarction. N Engl J Med 2005;35:2758-68. 22. Armstrong PW. A comparsison of pharmacologic therapy with/
without timely coronary intervention vs. primary percutaneous
16. Immediate vs delayed catheterization and angioplasty following intervention early after ST-elevation myocardial infarction :the
thrombolytic therapy for acute myocardial infarction. TIMI-IIA WEST (which Early ST-elevation myocardial infarction therapy)
results. The TIMI Research Group. JAMA 1988;260:2849-58. study : Eur Heart J 2006;27:1530-8.
17. Topol EJ, Califf RM, George BS et al. A randomized trial of 23. Cantor WJ, Fitchett D, Borgundvaag B et al. for TRANSFER-AMI
immediate versus delayed elective angioplasty after intravenous Trial investigators : Routine early angioplasty after fibrinolysis for
tissue plasminogen activator in acute myocardial infarction. N Engl acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2009;360:2705-18.
J Med 1987;317:581-8.