CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

Footings are members used to support columns and walls by transmitting and distributing
their loads to the soil. It is an essential design criterion that total and differential settlement
remain within the tolerable limit specified for the structure. Adequate safety against titling and
rotation of footings should be maintained. Differential settlements cause excessive stresses in
beams and slabs and induce excessive moments on columns. Even when the soil condition is
very good and isolated footings are recommended, the foundation engineer remains n fear of
differential settlements due to the possible environmental effect on part of the subsoil.

To account for these requirements, it is the custom to connect isolated footings by tie
beams. Tie beams are sometimes used to connect an exterior column to the nearest interior
column. It is an alternative solution for a combined footing. If the spacing between the exterior
and interior footings is larger than 4.5 m, a tie beam footing type may be used because it will be
more economic than a combined footing. Also, sometimes it is necessary to build spread footings
very close to a property line, another structure, or some other places where no construction may
occur beyond one or more of the exterior walls. Because such footings cannot be centered
beneath the column, the load is eccentric. This can cause the footing to rotate and thus produce
undesirable moments and displacements in the column. One solution to this problem is to use
cantilever footing, which consist of an eccentrically loaded footing under the exterior column
connected to the first interior

Column using a tie beam. This arrangement, which is similar to a combined footing,
provides the necessary moment in the exterior footing to counter the eccentric load. The use tie
beams to connect all the spread footings in a structure provides a more rigid foundation system.

1
 CHAPTER-2
NOTATION

A = equivalent square column size in spread footing design

= depth of the effective compression block in a concrete beam
Ag = gross area, equal to the total area ignoring any reinforcement
Areq = area required to satisfy allowable stress
As = area of steel reinforcement in concrete design
A1 = area of column in spread footing design
A2 = projected bearing area of column load in spread footing design
b = rectangular column dimension in concrete footing design
= width, often cross-sectional
bf = width of the flange of a steel or cross section
bo = perimeter length for two-way shear in concrete footing design
B = spread footing dimension in concrete design
= dimension of a steel base plate for concrete footing design
Bs = width within the longer dimension of a rectangular spread footing that reinforcement
must be concentrated within for concrete design
C = rectangular column dimension in concrete footing design
C = dimension of a steel base plate for concrete footing design
d = effective depth from the top of a reinforced concrete member to the centroid of the
tensile steel
db = bar diameter of a reinforcing bar
df = depth of a steel column flange (wide flange section)
= concrete design compressive stress
Fy = yield stress or strength
Hf = height of a concrete spread footing
ld = development length for reinforcing steel
= development length for column dc l
ls = lap splice length in concrete design
L = name for length or span length

2
Lm = projected length for bending in concrete footing design
L’ = length of the one-way shear area in concrete footing design
Mn = nominal flexure strength with the steel reinforcement at the yield stress and concrete at
the concrete design strength for reinforced concrete flexure design
Mu = maximum moment from factored loads for LRFD beam design
P = name for axial force vector
Pdowels = nominal capacity of dowels from concrete column to footing in concrete design
PD = dead load axial force
PL = live load axial force
Pn = nominal column or bearing load capacity in concrete design
Pu = factored axial force
qallowable = allowable soil bearing stress in allowable stress design
qnet = net allowed soil bearing pressure
qu = factored soil bearing capacity in concrete footing design from load factors
Vc = shear force capacity in concrete
Vn = nominal shear force capacity
Vu1 = maximum one-way shear from factored loads for LRFD beam design
Vu2 = maximum two-way shear from factored loads for LRFD beam design
Βc = ratio of long side to short side of the column in concrete footing design
Φ = resistance factor
γc = density or unit weight of concrete
γs = density or unit weight of soil
ρ = reinforcement ratio in concrete beam design = As/bd
ʋc = shear strength in concrete design

3
The default values of model dimensions

Dimensions default value(m) symbol

Width of the footing 1.5 B
Length of the footing 1.5 B’
Thickness of the footing 0.5 h’
Width of the tie beam 0.5 b
Length of the tie beam 4.5 L’
Thickness of the tie beam 0.5 h
Width of the column 0.5 a’
Length of the column 0.5 a”
Height of the column 4 H

Foundation materials:
Typical foundation materials include:
 Plain concrete
 Reinforcement concrete
 Steel
 Wood
 Composites, ie. Steel tubing filled with concrete

4
 CHAPTER-3
FOOTINGS

The function of a footing or a foundation is to transmit the load form the structure to the
underlying soil.

The choice of suitable type of footing depends on the depth at which the bearing strata
lays, the soil condition and the type of superstructure most of the structures built by us are made
of reinforced concrete. Here, the part of the structure above ground level is called as the
superstructure, where the part of the structure below the ground level is called as the
substructure.

Footings are located below the ground level and are also referred as foundations.
Foundation is the part of the structure which is in direct contact with soil. The R.C. structures
consist of various structural components which act together to resist the applied loads and
transfer them safety to soil. In general the loads applied on slabs in buildings are transferred to
soil through beams, columns and footings. Footings are that part of the structure which are
generally located below ground level. They are also referred as foundations. Footings transfer the
vertical loads, horizontal loads, moments, and other forces to the soil.

THE IMPORTANT PURPOSE OF FOUNDATION IS AS FOLLOWS

1. To transfer forces from superstructure to firm soil below.

2. To distribute stresses evenly on foundationsoil such that foundation soil neither fails nor
experiences excessive settlement.
3. To develop an anchor for stability against overturning.
4. To provide an even surface for smooth construction of superstructure.

Due to the loads and soil pressure, footings develop bending moment and shear forces.
Calculations are made as per the guidelines suggested in IS 456 2000 to resist the internal forces.

5
Footing design

6
3.1 TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

Based on the position with respect to ground level, Footings are classified into two types;

1.Shallow Foundations

2.Deep Foundations

Types of Shallow Foundations

The different types of foundations are follows:

1.Isolated Footing

2.Combined Footing

3.Staip Footing

4.Strip Footing

5.Mat/Raft Foundation

6.Wall Footing

Types of Deep Foundations

Deep foundations are provided when a different types of deep foundations. Some of the
common types of deep foundations are below,

1.Pile Foundation

2.Pier Foundation

3.Well Foundation

7
3.2 SOME OF THE POPULAR TYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
a)Isolated Column Footing
These are independent footings which are provided when

 SBC is generally high

 Column are far apart
 Loads on footings are less

The isolated footings can have different cross section some of the popular shapes of
footings are;

 Square
 Rectangular
 Circular

The isolated footings are essential consist of stepped or sloping in nature. The bottom of
the slab is reinforced with steel mesh to resist the two internal forces namely bending moment
and shear force.

8
b) Combined column footing

These are common footings which support the loads from are provided when

 SBC is generally less

 Columns are closely spaced
 Footings are heavily loaded

In the above situation, the area required to provide isolated footings overlap. Hence, it is
advantageous to provide single combined footings is located on or close to property line. In such
cases footings cannot be extended on one side.

Here, the footings of exterior and interior columns are connected by combined footing.

c) Strap footing

An alternative way of providing combined footing located close to property line is the
strap footing. Strap footing, independent slabs below columns are provided which are then
connected by strap beam. The strap beam does not remain in contact with the soil and does not
transfer any pressure to the soil. Generally it is used to combined the footing of the outer column
to the adjacent one to that the footing does not extend in the adjoin ted property.

d) Strip footing

Strip footing is a continues footing provided under column or walls.

e) Mat foundation

Mat foundation covers the whole plan area of structure. The detailing is similar to two
way reinforced solid floor slabs. It is a combined footing that covers the area beneath a structure
and supports all the walls and columns. It is normally provided when

 Soil pressure is low

 Loads are very heavy
 Spread footing cover >50%

9
 CHAPTER-4
BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL

The safe bearing capacity of soil is the safe extra load soil can withstand without
experiencing shear failure. The safe bearing capacity (SBC) is considered unique at a particular
site. But it also depends on the following factors:

 Size of footing
 Shape of footing
 Inclination of footing
 Inclination of ground
 Type of load
 Depth of footing etc.

SBC alone is not sufficient for design. The allowable bearing capacity is taken as the smaller
of the following two criteria

 Limit state of shear failure criteria (SBC)

 Limit state of settlement criteria

Based on ultimate capacity, i.e., shear failure criteria, the SBC is calculated as

SBC = Total load / Area of footing

Usually the Allowable Bearing Pressure (ABP) varies in the range of 100 kN/m2 to 400
kN/m2. The area of the footing should be so arrived that the pressure distribution below the
footing should be less than the allowable bearing pressure of the soil. Even for symmetrical
Loading, the footing may not be uniform. It depends on the rigidity of footing. Soil type and
conditions of soil. In case of Cohesive Soil and Cohesion less Soil the pressure distribution
varies in a nonlinear way. However, while designing the footings a linear variation of pressure
distribution from one edge of the footing to the other edge is assumed. Once the pressure
distribution is known, the bending moment and shear force can be determined and the footing
can be designed to safely resist these forces.

10
4.1 DISTRIBUTION OF SOIL PRESSURE

When the column load P is applied on the centroid of the footing, a uniform pressure is
assumed to develop on the soil surface below the footing area. However the actual distribution
of the soil is not uniform, but depends on may factors especially the composition of the soil and
degree of flexibility of the footing.

Soil pressure distribution in Soil pressure distribution in

cohesionless soil. cohesive soil.

11
 CHAPTER-5
SPECIFICATIONS FOR DESIGN OF FOOTINGS

The important guidelines given in IS 456: 2000 for the design of isolated footings are as
follows:

General

Footings shall be designed to sustain the applied loads, moments and forces and the
induced reactions and to ensure that any settlement which may occur shall be as nearly uniform
as possible, and the safe bearing capacity of the soil is not exceeded (see IS 1904).

In sloped or stepped footings the effective cross-section in compression shall be limited

by the area above the neutral plane, and the angle of slope or depth and location of steps shall be
such that design requirements are satisfied at every section. Sloped and stepped footings that are
designed as a unit shall be constructed to assure action as a unit.

Thickness at the Edge of Footing

In reinforced and plain concrete footings, the thickness at the edge shall be not less than
150 mm for footings on soils, nor less than 300 mm above the tops of piles for footings on piles.

In the case of plain concrete pedestals, the angle between the plane passing through the
bottom edge of the pedestal and the corresponding junction edge of the column with pedestal and
the horizontal plane (see fig. 20) shall be governed by the expression

Moments and forces

In the case of footings on piles, computation for moments and shear may be based on the
assumption that the reaction from any pile is concentrated at the centre of the pile.

For the purpose of computing stresses in footings which support around or octagonal
concrete column or pedestal, the face of column or pedestal shall be taken as the side of a square
inscribed within the perimeter of the round or octagonal column or pedestal.

12
Bending moment

The bending moment at any section shall be determined by passing through the section a
vertical plane which extends completely across the footing, and computing the moment of the
forces acting over the entire area of the footing on one side of the said plane.

The greatest bending moment to be used in the design of an isolated concrete footing
with supports s column, pedestal or wall, shall be the moment computed in the manner
prescribed in 34.2.3.1 at sections located as follows:

a) At the face of the column pedestal or wall, for footings supporting a concrete column, pedestal
or wall;

b) Halfway between the centre-line and the edge of the wall, for footings under masonry walls;
and

c) Halfway between the face of the column or pedestal and the edge of the gusseted base, for
footings under gusseted bases.

Shear and Bond

The shear strength of footings is governed by the more severe of the following two
conditions:

a) The footing acting essentially as a wide beam, with a potential diagonal crack extending in a
plane across the entire width; the critical section for this condition shall be assumed as a vertical
section located from the face of the column, pedestal or wall at a distance equal to the effective
depth of footing on piles.

b) Two- way action of the footing, with potential diagonal cracking along the surface of
truncated cone or pyramid around the concentrated load; in this case, the footing shall be
designed for shear in accordance with appropriate provisions specified.

In computing the external shear or any section through a footing supported on piles, the
entire reaction from any pile of diameter DP diameter whose centre is located DP/2 or more
outside the section shall be assumed as producing shear on the section; the reaction from any pile
whose centre is located DP/2 or more inside the section shall be assumed as producing no shear
on the section, For intermediate positions of the pile centre, the portion of the pile reaction to be

13
assumed as producing on the section shall be based o straight line interpolation between full
value at DP/2 outside the section and zero value at DP/2 inside the section.

The critical section for checking the development length in a footing shall be assumed at
the same planes as those described for bending moment in 34.2.3 and also at all other vertical
planes where abrupt changes of section occur, If reinforcement is curtailed, the anchorage
requirements shall be checked in accordance with 26.2.3.

5.1 TENSILE REINFORCEMENT

The total tensile reinforcement at any section shall provide a moment of resistance at
least equal to the bending moment on the section calculated in accordance with 34.2.3.

a) In one-way reinforced footing, the-reinforcement extending in each direction shall be

distributed uniformly across the full width of the footing;

b) In two-way reinforced square footing, the reinforcement extending in each direction shall be
distributed uniformly across the width of the footing; and

c) In two-way reinforced rectangular footing, the reinforcement in the long direction shall be
distributed uniformly across the full width of the footing. For reinforcement in the short
direction, a central band equal to the width of the footing shall be marked along the length of the
footing and portion of the reinforcement determined in accordance with the equation given
below shall be uniformly distributed across the central band:

Where β is the ratio of the long side to the short side of the footing. The remain
remainder of the reinforcement shall be uniformly distributed in the outer portions of the footing.

Transfer of Load at the Base of Column

The compressive stress in concrete at the base of a column or pedestal shall be considered
as being transferred by bearing to the top of the supporting Redestal or footing. The bearing
pressure on the loaded area shall not exceed the permissible bearing stress in direct compression
multiplied by a value equal to but not greater than 2, where A1 = supporting area for bearing of
footing, which in sloped or stepped footing may be taken as the area of the lower base of the
larger frustum of a pyramid or cone contained wholly within the footing and having for its upper

14
base, the area actually loaded and having side slope of one vertical to two horizontal; and A2 =
loaded area at the column base.

Where the permissible bearing stress on the concrete in the supporting or supported
member would be exceeded, reinforcement shall be provided for developing the excess force,
either by extending the longitudinal bars into the supporting member, or by dowels.

Where transfer of force is accomplished by, reinforcement, the development length of the
reinforcement shall be sufficient to transfer the compression or tension to the supporting member
in accordance.

Extended longitudinal reinforcement or dowels of at least 0.5 percent of the cross-

sectional area of supported column or pedestal and a minimum of four bars shall be provided.
Where dowels are used, their diameter shall no exceed the diameter of the column barsby more
than 3 mm.

Column bars of diameters larger than 36 mm, in compression only can be dowelled at the
footings with bars of smaller size of the necessary area. The dowel shall extend into the column,
a distance equal to the development length of the column bar and into the footing, a distance
equal to the development length of the dowel.

5.2 NOMINAL REINFORCEMENT

Minimum reinforcement and spacing shall be as per the requirements of solid slab.

The nominal reinforcement for concrete sections of thickness greater than 1 m shall be
360 mm2 per meter length in each direction on each face. This provision does not supersede the
requirement of minimum tensile reinforcement based on the depth of the section.

15
 CHAPTER-6
DESIGN OF ISOLATED FOOTING

6.1 DESIGN OF ISOLATED COLUMN FOOTING

The objective of design is to determine,

 Area of footing
 Thickness of footing
 Reinforcement details of footing (satisfying moment and shear considerations)
 Check for bearing stresses and development length

This is carried out considering the loads of footing, SBC of soil, Grade of concrete and
Grade of steel.

The method of design is similar to the design of beams and slabs. Since footings are
buried, control is not important. However, crack widths should be less than 0.3 mm.

The steps followed in the design of footings are generally iterative.

The important steps in the design of footings are;

 Find the area of footing (due to service loads)

 Assume a suitable thickness of footing
 Identify critical sections for flexure and shear
 Find the bending moment and shear forces at these critical sections (due to factored
loads)
 Check the adequacy of the assumed thickness
 Find the reinforcement details
 Check for development length
 Check for bearing stresses

Limit state of collapse is adopted in the design pf isolated column footing. The various
design steps considered are;

 Design for flexure

16
  Design for shear (one way shear and two way shear)
 Design for bearing
 Design for development length

The materials used in RC footings are concrete and steel. The minimum grade of concrete
to be use db for footings is M20, which can be increased when the footings are placed in
aggressive environment, or to resist higher stresses.

Cover:

The minimum thickness of cover to main reinforcement shall not be less than 50 mm for
surfaces in contact with earth face and not less than 40 mm for external exposed face. However,
where the concrete is in direct contact with the soil the cover should be 75 mm. In case of raft
foundation the cover for reinforcement shall not be less than 75 mm.

Minimum reinforcement and bar diameter:

The minimum reinforcement according to slab and beam elements as appropriate should
be followed, unless otherwise specified. The diameter of main reinforcing bars shall not be less
10 mm. The grade of steel used is either Fe 415 or Fe 500.

17
Designs of isolated footings:

Fck = 25 KN/m2
Fy = 415 KN/m3
𝛱
ASC = 8 × × (12)2
4

= 904.32mm2
Ac = gross area – area of steel
= 228 × 381 – 904.32
= 86344.68 mm

Axial load
Pu = 0.4 × Fck Ac + 0.67Fy Asc
= 0.4 × 25 × 86344.68 + 0.67 × 415 × 904.32
= 1115.72 KN
𝜌𝑢 1115.72
P = 1.5 = = 743.81 KN/mm2
1.5

Self weight of footing = 10%

743.81
= = 74.381 KN
10

1.50

0.23

0.23 1.50

18
Area of footing
1.1 ×P 𝟏.𝟏 ×𝟕𝟒𝟑𝟎𝟖𝟏
= 𝑺𝑩𝑪 𝑺𝑶𝑰𝑳 = = 3.557 = √3.557
𝟐𝟑𝟎

A = 1.886 × 1.886
1115.72
B.M = qu = 1.886×1.886 = 320 N/m2
𝐵(𝐵−𝑏)2 1886(1886−228)2
Mu = qu × =0.320 = 200.26 × 106 N/mm
𝐵 8

Mu = 0.138 fck × Bd2

= 200.26 × 106 = 0.138 × 25 × 1886 d2

d = √200.26𝑥106/0.138𝑥25𝑥1886 d = 176.3 mm
provided 350mm effective & 450 over depth

Reinforcement
𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡
Mu = 0.87 fy Ast d (1-𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝐵𝑑)

415𝐴𝑠𝑡
200.26 ×10 = 0.87 × 415 × Ast 350 (1-25𝑥1886𝑥350)

Ast2 – 39765.06 Ast + 39765.06 × 1584.74 = 0

1886

350

800 1886

800

450

39765.06−√3976.062 −439765.06x1584.74
Ast =
2

Ast = 1653.4 mm2

Using 12mm bar spacing

19
 1.50

0.23

0.23 1.50

𝜋
𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑥𝐵 ×(12)2×1886
4
S= = = 129mm ~ 130mm
𝐴𝑠𝑡 1653.4

Hence provided 12mm dia bar at 130mm@c/c

Check for one way shear

Critical section 1-way shear distance face column
Vu = soil pressure shaded
𝐵−𝑏
Vu = qu B ( − 𝑑)
2
1886−228
Vu = 0.320 × 1866 ( − 350)
2

= 289086.08N
𝑉𝑑 289086.08
τ v = 𝐵𝑑 = 1886𝑥350 = 0.437 N/mm2
𝜋
𝑥(12)2𝑥100
4
percentage steel Pt = = 0.24%
130𝑥350

For 0.24% of steel for M25 grade concrete τc = 0.43 N/mm2> τv

Check for two way shear

Perimeter of critical section 4(228 +350) = 2312mm
Vu2 = qux area of shaded portion
= 0.320[1886 × 1886 - 800 × 800]
= 933.4×106N

20
 𝑣𝑢2 933.4𝑋106
Two way shear stress = = = 1.153 N/mm2
𝐴 2312𝑋360

Permissible punching stress

τ p = 0.25√25 = 1.25 N/mm2> 1.53N/mm2

hence it safe for two way shear

check for development

τ bd = 1.6 × 1.2 = 1.92 N/mm2
0.87 𝑓𝑦∅ 0.87×415×12
Ld = = = 561.1 mm
4𝜏𝑏𝑑 4×1.92
1886−223
Length available with beyond the column face ( ) = 799~800
2

Hence ok

21
22
23
 CHAPTER-7
CONCLUSION

The structural components are designed as per code of practice IS 456-2000 in

accordance to L.S.M. the imposed loads are noted from code of practice IS 876-1987. The
bearing capacity of the soil must be checked so that it withstand the design load layout of
footings, column should be properly marked.

Arrangement of formwork & scaffolding should be properly provided. Proper bar

bending schedule must be followed. To provide the reinforcement as per the structural drawings.
After concreting the structural components proper curing must be done. Preparing of cubes to
find out the compressive strength of concrete.

24
 CHAPTER-8
REFERENCES

th
1. Reinforced Concrete Limit State Design, 6 Edition, by Ashok K. Jain, Nem Chand & Bros,
Roorkee, 2002.
nd
2. Limit State Design of Reinforced Concrete, 2 Edition, by P.C.Varghese, Prentice-Hall of
India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2002.
3. Advanced Reinforced Concrete Design, by P.C.Varghese, Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi, 2001.
nd
4. Reinforced Concrete Design, 2 Edition, by S.Unnikrishna Pillai and Devdas Menon, Tata
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, 2003.
5. Limit State Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures, by P.Dayaratnam, Oxford & I.B.H.
Publishing Company Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2004.

25