The Impact Of Environmental Policy To The American Citizen During The

Time Of George W. Bush

A COOPERATIVE LEARNING REPORT

Presented to:
The Faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences
Filamer Christian College
Roxas City, Capiz
Philippines

In Partial Fulfillment
Of the requirements
In Political Science 331
(American Government and Politics)

By:
Catamin, Catherine Joy
Buenvenida, Jo-an
Calvario, Arven
Estorque, Rubylyn
Bartonico, Eric
Haudar, Jayvee

CAS Student
October 2009
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents Page

Acknowledgement
Table of Contents
CHAPTER I-INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
B. Statement of the Problem
C. Hypothesis
D. Significant of the Study
E. Definition of Terms
CHAPTER II-REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
CHAPTER III-METHODOLOGY
A. Content Analysis
B. Historical Analysis
CHAPTER IV-FINDINGS, ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION
CHAPTER V-SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATION
Summary
Conclusion
Recommendation
BIBLIOGRAPHY
REFERENCE
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The researchers would like to express their warmest gratitude to the

following who in one another did their best in helping make this study
possible and successful.

First of all to the Almighty God, for giving us wisdom and guidance
during the difficult moments of the researchers process and for giving
the researcher the inspiration to pursue the study.

To Dr. Danilo F. Pamplona, CAS Dean, for correcting our research

paper, encouragement, and support for believing the abilities of
Political Science s Students.

To Krizzel C. Catamin, SOF graduate, who guide us the basic of

understanding and doing research.

To school Librarian who in one give us the opportunity to borrow

books.

To the researchers parents, for their moral support and financial

supports, and for being one of the person who encourage us.

Finally, to all AB 4th year and 3rd year, S.Y. 2009-2010, Thank you
very much.

The
Researchers
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Upon arriving in office in 2001, Bush stated his opposition to the

Kyoto Protocol, an amendment to the United Nations Convention on Climate
Change which seeks to impose mandatory targets for reducing greenhouse
gas emissions, citing that the treaty exempted 80% of the world's
population and would have cost tens of billions of dollars per year. He
also cited that the Senate had voted 95–0 in 1997 on a resolution
expressing its disapproval of the protocol.

In 2002, Bush announced the Clear Skies Act of 2003, aimed at amending
the Clean Air Act to reduce air pollution through the use of emissions
trading programs. It was argued, however, that this legislation would
have weakened the original legislation by allowing higher levels of
pollutants than were permitted at that time. The initiative was
introduced to Congress, but failed to make it out of committee.

President George W. Bush with Vice President Dick Cheney addressing the
media at the State Department, August 14, 2006

Bush has said that he believes that global warming is real and has noted
that it is a serious problem, but he asserted there is a "debate over
whether it's man-made or naturally caused". The Bush Administration's
stance on global warming has remained controversial in the scientific and
environmental communities. Many accusations have been made against the
administration for allegedly misinforming the public and not having done
enough to reduce carbon emissions and deter global warming.

In 2006, Bush declared the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands a national

monument, creating the largest marine reserve to date. The
Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument comprises 84 million acres
(340,000 km²) and is home to 7,000 species of fish, birds, and other
marine animals, many of which are specific to only those islands. The
move was hailed by conservationists for "its foresight and leadership in
protecting this incredible area".

In his 2007 State of the Union Address, Bush renewed his pledge to work
toward diminished reliance on foreign oil by reducing fossil fuel
consumption and increasing alternative fuel production. Amid high gas
prices in 2008, Bush lifted a ban on offshore drilling. The move was
largely symbolic, however, as there is still a federal law banning
offshore drilling. Bush said, "This means that the only thing standing
between the American people and these vast oil reserves is action from
the U.S. Congress." Bush had said in June 2008, "In the long run, the
solution is to reduce demand for oil by promoting alternative energy
technologies. My administration has worked with Congress to invest in
gas-saving technologies like advanced batteries and hydrogen fuel
cells... In the short run, the American economy will continue to rely
largely on oil. And that means we need to increase supply, especially
here at home. So my administration has repeatedly called on Congress to
expand domestic oil production."

In his 2008 State of the Union Address, Bush announced that the U.S.
would commit $2 billion over the next three years towards a new
international fund to promote clean energy technologies and fight climate
change, saying, "along with contributions from other countries, this fund
will increase and accelerate the deployment of all forms of cleaner, more
efficient technologies in developing nations like India and China, and
help leverage substantial private-sector capital by making clean energy
projects more financially attractive". He has also announced plans to
reaffirm the United States' commitment to work with major economies, and,
through the United Nations, to complete an international agreement that
will slow, stop, and eventually reverse the growth of greenhouse gases;
he stated, "this agreement will be effective only if it includes
commitments by every major economy and gives none a free ride.
Statement of the Problem

This research main objective is to find the impact of environmental

policy to the American Citizen during the time of George W. Bush by using
the Case Study and Historical Analysis.

Specifically, this research sought to answer the following

questions:

1. How does (EPA) or one major environmental policy affect the program
of U.S. Government?
2. Is there any successful environmental policy that Bush
Administration implement?
3. Is environmental policy important?
4. How we determine the impact of environmental policy in:
a. measuring pollution
b. sustainable environment

Hypothesis

The following hypothesis will be tested in this study:

1. Yes, environmental policy is important in our government and

society, without it, it is impossible to keep our government in
harmony.
2. Yes, environmental policy is important in measuring pollution and
providing sustainable environment.
3. Yes, there are some improvements in environmental policy during
the time of George W. Bush.

Significance of the Study

The aim of this research is to determine the impact of environmental

policy to the American Citizen during the time of George W. Bush. It also
involve what is environmental policy does to our nation, that affect the
American Citizen not only in U.S. but also to all nation with concern to
environment. These researches also answer what is sustainable environment
and measuring pollution. We also focused on one major environmental
policy known as (EPA) or Environmental Protection Agency. This research a
will be beneficial to the student of Political Science major not only in
Filamer Christian College but also to those person who wants to study
public policy in regards with environmental policy. These will give a
brief information and background to those people who had interest in
biological science. It will give an insight to the problem of environment
in our world today. Lastly this will serve as
a data instrument on the environmental policy of George W. Bush as our
guide that will give us awareness in the aspect of change in terms of
American Governing role in American society in terms of policy.

Definition of Terms

1. Environmental Policy- is any [course of] action deliberately taken

or [or not taken] to manage human activities with a view to prevent
reduce or mitigate harmful effects on nature and natural resources,
and ensuring that man-made changes to environment do not have
harmful effects on humans(www.wikipedia.com).
2. Policy- designates the behavior of some actor or set of factors,
such as an official, a governmental agency, or a legislature, in a
given area of activity, such as public transportation or consumer
protection agency (Anderson, 1990).
3. Public Policy- maybe viewed as whatever government chooses to do or
not to do although such definitions may be adequate in ordinary
discourse. “Broadly define” as relationship of a government unit to
its environment. Finally, Political scientist Carl J. Friedrich
regards policy as a proposed course of action of a person group, or
government within a given environment providing obstacles and
opportunities which the policy was proposed to utilized and
overcome in an effort to reach a goal or realize an object or a
purpose (www.wikipedia.com)..
4. Environmental Issues- generally addressed by environmental policy
include (but are not limited) to air, water pollutions, waste
management, ecosystem, management, biodiversity protection, and the
protection of natural resources, wildlife and endangered species.
5. Renewable Energy- utilizes natural resources as sunlight, wind,
tides and geothermal heat, which are naturally replenished
(www.wikipedia.com).
6. Endangered Species- endangered species, any plant or animals whose
ability to survive and reproduce has been jeopardized by human
activities (www.wikipedia.com).
7. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) - independent agency of the
U.S. Government, with headquarters in Washington D.C. It was
established in1970 to reduce and control air and water pollution
and radiation during the time of Bush Administration on March 27,
2001 (www.wikipedia.com).
8. Carbon Dioxide- chemical compound, Co2, , a colorless, odorless,
tasteless gas that is about one and half times as dense as air
under ordinary conditions of temperature and
pressure(www.wikipedia.com).
9. Global Warming- the gradual increase of the earth’s temperature of
the earth’s lower atmosphere as a result of the increase in
greenhouse gases since the industrial revolution
(www.wikipedia.com).
10. Mexico City- Policy- is a United States government policy in
which limits the eligibility of federal funding to non-governmental
organization (NGO’s) (www.wikipedia.com).
11. League of Conservation (LCV) - is an independent, non-partisan
political advocacy organization that was founded in 19609 by the
noted American Environmentalist David Browser (www.wikipedia.com).
12. Environmentally Friendly- also referred to as nature friendly,
is a term used to refer goods and services considered to inflict
minimal harm on the environment (www.wikipedia.com).
13. Worldwatch Institute- is a globally focused environmental
research organization.
14. Wetlands Reserved Program (WRP) - is a voluntary program
offering landowners the opportunity to protect, restore, and
enhance wetlands on their property (www.wikipedia.com).
15. USDA- Natural Resources Conservations Service (NRCS)
administers the program with funding from the Commodity credit, cut
by $ 162 Million (www.wikipedia.com).
16. Solar Energy- any form energy radiated the sun, including
light, radio waves, and X-rays, although the term usually refers to
the visible light of the sun(www.wikipedia.com).
17. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration- agency in the
Department of Commerce that maps the oceans and conserves their
living resources; predicts changes to the earth’s environment;
provides weather report and forecast flood and hurricanes and
science office (which studies climate change) cut by 10%
(www.wikipedia.com).
18. The Tropical Forest Conservative Act- for which Bush pledge
last year $100 million in new dollars, to fund dept for nature
swaps in developing nation (www.wikipedia.com).
19. National Ecological Observatory Network- is planned to be a
network of observation stations that will cover the United States,
in order to collect data is unprecented detail (www.wikipedia.com).
20. Land and Water Conservation Funds-is a federal program that
was establishes by Act of Congress in 1965.
 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Environmental Policy

Environmental Policy is any form of action deliberate taken [or not

taken] to manage human activities with a view to prevent, reduce, or
mitigate harmful effects on natural resources, and ensuring that man-made
changes to environment do not have harmful effects on humans.

Definition

It is useful to consider that environmental policy comprises two

major terms: environment and policy. Environment primarily refers to the
ecological dimension (ecosystems), but can also take account of social
dimension (quality of life) and an economic dimension (resource
management). Policy can be defined as a "course of action or principle
adopted or proposed by a government, party, business or individual".
Thus, environmental policy focuses on problems arising from human impact
on the environment, which retroacts onto human society by having a
(negative) impact on human values such as good health or the 'clean and
green' environment.

Environmental issues generally addressed by environmental policy include

(but are not limited to) air and water pollution, waste management,
ecosystem management, biodiversity protection, and the protection of
natural resources, wildlife and endangered species. Relatively recently,
environmental policy has also attended to the communication of
environmental issues.

Rationale

The rationale for governmental involvement in the environment is

market failure in the form of externalities, including the free rider
problem and the tragedy of the commons. An example of an externality is a
factory that engages in water pollution in a river. The cost of such
action is paid by society-at-large, when they must clean the water before
drinking it and is external to the costs of the factory. The free rider
problem is when the private marginal cost of taking action to protect the
environment is greater than the private marginal benefit, but the social
marginal cost is less than the social marginal benefit. The tragedy of
the commons is the problem that, because no one person owns the commons,
each individual has an incentive to utilize common resources as much as
possible. Without governmental involvement, the commons is overused.
Examples of tragedies of the common are overfishing and overgrazing.

Environmental policy instruments

Environmental policy instruments are tools used by governments to

implement their environmental policies. Governments may use a number of
different types of instruments. For example, economic incentives and
market-based instruments such as taxes and tax exemptions, tradable
permits, and fees can be very effective to encourage compliance with
environmental policy.

Voluntary measures, such as bilateral agreements negotiated between the

government and private firms and commitments made by firms independent of
government pressure, are other instruments used in environmental policy.
Another instrument is the implementation of greener public purchasing
programs.

Often, several instruments are combined in an instrument mix formulated

to address a certain environmental problem. Since environmental issues
often have many different aspects, several policy instruments may be
needed to adequately address each one. Furthermore, instrument mixes may
allow firms greater flexibility in finding ways to comply with government
policy while reducing the uncertainty in the cost of doing so. However,
instrument mixes must be carefully formulated so that the individual
measures within them do not undermine each other or create a rigid and
cost-ineffective compliance framework. Also, overlapping instruments lead
to unnecessary administrative costs, making implementation of
environmental policies more costly than necessary[8] In order to help
governments realize their environmental policy goals, the OECD
Environment Directorate studies and collects data on the efficiency of
the environmental instruments governments use to achieve their goals as
well as their consequences for other policies.. The site
]
www.economicinstruments.com serves as a complementary database detailing
countries' experience with the application of instruments for
environmental policy.

The current reliance on a market based framework is controversial;

however, with many prominent environmentalists arguing that a more
radical, overarching, approach is needed than a set of specific
initiatives, to deal coherently with the scale of the climate change
challenge. For an example of the problems, energy efficiency measures may
actually increase energy consumption in the absence of a cap on fossil
fuel use, as people might drive more efficient cars further and they
might sell better. Thus, for example, Aubrey Meyer calls for a 'framework
based market' of contraction and convergence examples of which are ideas
such as the recent Cap and Share and 'Sky Trust' proposals.

 Environmental science
 Environmental Principles and Policies
 Environmental policy of the United States
 Canadian Institute for Environmental Law and Policy

WHAT ARE THE EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS?

Environmental Policy programs emphasize the multi-disciplinary

nature of environmental issues, so students should expect to study
scientific and technological fields, as well as economics, law, policy
and planning, political science, history, sociology, psychology and
philosophy. There is often considerable freedom for students to focus on
a particular policy field within a program emphasis and/or individual
courses. Specific course we've seen include:

 Quantitative Methods
 Statistical Analysis
 Resource Allocation
 Environmental Economics
 Cost-Benefit Analysis
  Global Environmental Policy
 Environmental Law
 Environmental Health
 International Dimensions of Environmental Problems
 Pollution Control Management
 Environmental Communications
 Business and Industry
 Conservation Biology Policy
 Public Lands Management
 Sustainable Land Use Regulation
 Transportation Policy
 Water Policy
 Government and Public Affairs
 Corporate Lobbying.
 Geographic Information Systems

The Bureau of Labor Statistics does not include a specific category for
Environmental Policy Analysts. However, the field is closely related to
Environmental Planning, which is covered by BLS under its report on Urban
and Regional Planners. For this category, BLS reports that median annual
earnings of urban and regional planners were about $49,880 in 2002, with
the middle 50 percent earning between $39,210 and $62,710 a year. Check
out full report from BLS on careers in Urban and Regional Planning here.

Environmental Management

Environmental management is not, as the phrase could suggest the

management of the environment as such, but rather the management of
interaction by the modern human societies with, and impact upon the
environment. The three main issues that affect managers are those
involving politics (networking), programs (projects), and resources
(money, facilities, etc.). The need for environmental management can be
viewed from a variety of perspectives. A more common philosophy and
impetus behind environmental management is the concept of carrying
capacity. Simply put, carrying capacity refers to the maximum number of
organisms a particular resource can sustain. The concept of carrying
capacity, whilst understood by many cultures over history, has its roots
in Malthusian theory. Environmental management is therefore not the
conservation of the environment solely for the environment's sake, but
rather the conservation of the environment for humankind's sake. [citation
needed]
This element of sustainable exploitation, getting the most out of
natural assets, is visible in the EU Water Framework Directive.

Environmental management involves the management of all components of the

bio-physical environment, both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic).
This is due to the interconnected and network of relationships amongst
all living species and their habitats. The environment also involves the
relationships of the human environment, such as the social, cultural and
economic environment with the bio-physical environment.

As with all management functions, effective management tools, standards

and systems are required. An 'environmental management standard or system
or protocol attempts to reduce environmental impact as measured by some
objective criteria. The ISO 14001 standard is the most widely used
standard for environmental risk management and is closely aligned to the
European Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS). As a common auditing
standard, the ISO 19011 standard explains how to combine this with
quality management.

Other environmental management systems (EMS) tend to be based on the ISO

14001 standard and many extend it in various ways:


The Green Dragon Environmental Management Standard is a five level
EMS designed for smaller organizations for whom ISO 14001 may be
too onerous and for larger organizations who wish to implement ISO
14001 in a more manageable step-by-step approach

BS 8555 is a phased standard that can help smaller companies move
to ISO 14001 in six manageable steps

The Natural Step focuses on basic sustainability criteria and helps
focus engineering on reducing use of materials or energy use that
is unsustainable in the long term

Natural Capitalism advises using accounting reform and a general
biomimicry and industrial ecology approach to do the same thing
 
US Environmental Protection Agency has many further terms and
standards that it defines as appropriate to large-scale EMS. [citation
needed]


The UN and World Bank has encouraged adopting a "natural capital"
measurement and management framework.[citation needed]


The European Union Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS)

Other strategies exist that rely on making simple distinctions rather

than building top-down management "systems" using performance audits and
full cost accounting. For instance, Ecological Intelligent Design divides
products into consumables, service products or durables and unsaleables -
toxic products that no one should buy, or in many cases, do not realize
they are buying. By eliminating the unsaleables from the comprehensive
outcome of any purchase, better environmental management is achieved
without "systems".

Recent successful cases have put forward the notion of "Integrated

Management". It shares a wider approach and stresses out the importance
of interdisciplinary assessment. It is an interesting notion that might
not be adaptable to all case[.Pollution prevention

Pollution prevention (P2) describes activities that reduce the amount of

pollution generated by a process, whether it is consumer consumption,
driving, or industrial production. In contrast to most pollution control
strategies, which seek to manage a pollutant after it is formed and
reduce its impact upon the environment, the pollution prevention approach
seeks to increase the efficiency of a process, thereby reducing the
amount of pollution generated at its source. Although there is wide
agreement that source reduction is the preferred strategy, some
professionals also use the term pollution prevention to include recycling
or reuse.

As an environmental management strategy, pollution prevention shares many

attributes with cleaner production, a term used more commonly outside the
United States. Pollution prevention encompasses more specialized sub-
disciplines including green chemistry and green design (also known as
environmentally conscious design).
Perspectives

The earliest precursor of pollution generated by life forms would

have been a natural function of their existence. The attendant
consequences on viability and population levels fell within the sphere of
natural selection. These would have included the demise of a population
locally or ultimately, species extinction. Processes that were untenable
would have resulted in a new balance brought about by changes and
adaptations. At the extremes, for any form of life, consideration of
pollution is superseded by that of survival.

For humankind, the factor of technology is a distinguishing and critical

consideration, both as an enabler and an additional source of byproducts.
Short of survival, human concerns include the range from quality of life
to health hazards. Since science holds experimental demonstration to be
definitive, modern treatment of toxicity or environmental harm involves
defining a level at which an effect is observable. Common examples of
fields where practical measurement is crucial include automobile
emissions control, industrial exposure (eg Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) PELs), toxicology (eg LD50), and medicine (eg
medication and radiation doses).

"The solution to pollution is dilution", is a dictum which summarizes a

traditional approach to pollution management whereby sufficiently diluted
pollution is not harmful.[21][22] It is well-suited to some other modern,
locally-scoped applications such as laboratory safety procedure and
hazardous material release emergency management. But it assumes that the
dilutant is in virtually unlimited supply for the application or that
resulting dilutions are acceptable in all cases.

Such simple treatment for environmental pollution on a wider scale might

have had greater merit in earlier centuries when physical survival was
often the highest imperative, human population and densities were lower,
technologies were simpler and their byproducts more benign. But these are
often no longer the case. Furthermore, advances have enabled measurement
of concentrations not possible before. The use of statistical methods in
evaluating outcomes has given currency to the principle of probable harm
in cases where assessment is warranted but resorting to deterministic
models is impractical or unfeasible. In addition, consideration of the
environment beyond direct impact on human beings has gained prominence.

Yet in the absence of a superseding principle, this older approach

predominates practices throughout the world. It is the basis by which to
gauge concentrations of effluent for legal release, exceeding which
penalties are assessed or restrictions applied. The regressive cases are
those where a controlled level of release is too high or, if enforceable,
is neglected. Migration from pollution dilution to elimination in many
cases is confronted by challenging economical and technological barriers.

Greenhouse gases and global warming Historical and projected CO2

emissions by country.
Source: Energy Information Administration.[23][24]

Carbon dioxide, while vital for photosynthesis, is sometimes referred to

as pollution, because raised levels of the gas in the atmosphere are
affecting the Earth's climate. Disruption of the environment can also
highlight the connection between areas of pollution that would normally
be classified separately, such as those of water and air. Recent studies
have investigated the potential for long-term rising levels of
atmospheric carbon dioxide to cause slight but critical increases in the
acidity of ocean waters, and the possible effects of this on marine
ecosystems.

Fig. 1-1. Graph representing the kinds of pollutants in the world.

Air pollution Soil contamination Water pollution Other

 Atmospheric
Chemistry  Environmental  Cruise ship  Contamination

Observationa soil science pollution control

l Databases  Marine  Earth Day

 List of waste
 - links to management debris  Externality
freely companies  Marine  Genetic
available  List of waste pollution pollution
data. management  Ship  Global warming
 Category:Air topics pollution  Heat pollution
dispersion  Stormwater  Noise health
modeling  List of solid
 Wastewater effects
 Climate waste

change treatment  Wastewater  List of

technologies quality
 Emission environmental
standard indicators issues

 Greenhouse
gas

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), independent agency of the

United States government, responsible for protecting the environment and
maintaining it for future generations. It was established in 1970. The
EPA superseded and assumed most of the activities of the former
Environmental Health Service. Specifically, its aim is to control and
diminish air and water pollution, noise pollution, and pollution by
radiation, pesticides, and other toxic substances.

The agency has established federal standards for air quality that limit
the quantities of hazardous pollutants from industrial emission. It works
with state and local governments to determine and enforce safer pollution
levels. It conducts research to identify and regulate noise sources and
also to refine techniques of solid waste disposal and reuse. The agency's
efforts in the area of water pollution include establishment of water
quality standards, regulation of regional water pollution controls and
water supply methods, and scientific research into the effects of
chemical and other contaminants. An especially important aspect of the
EPA's work involves protection of the population from radiation: a
national inspection program for monitoring radiation levels in the
environment and the enforcement of rigid standards for disposal of
hazardous wastes. The agency also regulates the handling and control of
chemical substances deemed hazardous. In particular, the use of
pesticides is closely scrutinized; the agency sets tolerance levels for
those used around foodstuffs and carefully monitors residue levels in
food, humans, and wildlife.
In the late 1980s the EPA expanded its mission to include problems of
global warming and environmental change. It created a Climate Change
Division to develop research into the impact of increased carbon dioxide
and other gases in the atmosphere. The EPA also initiated an Ecological
Mapping Program (EMAP) to delineate vegetational patterns in the U.S.
and, in 1990

The U.S. 2002 Federal Budget: Big Cuts for Environmental Programs during
the time of George W. Bush:

* The Wetlands Reserve Program The Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP) is a

voluntary program offering landowners the opportunity to protect,
restore, and enhance wetlands on their property. The USDA Natural
Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) administers the program with
funding from the Commodity Credit , cut by $162 million.

* Energy efficiency research programs, cut by 25 percent.

* Research on geothermal, hydrogen, and wind energy, all cut by 48

percent.

* Solar energy solar energy, any form of energy radiated by the sun,
including light, radio waves, and X rays, although the term usually
refers to the visible light of the sun. research, cut by half to $42.9
million.

* Functioning renewable energy programs, cut by 40 percent.

* Energy Department biological and environmental science programs, cut by

8 percent.

* U.S. Geological Survey water resources division, cut by 25 percent.

* The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Noun 1. National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration - an agency in the Department of
Commerce that maps the oceans and conserves their living resources;
predicts changes to the earth's environment; provides weather reports and
forecasts floods and hurricanes and science office (which studies
climate change), cut by 10 percent.

* The Army Corps of Engineers Challenge 21 program, which helps

communities develop environmentally friendly methods of flood control,
receives no new funding.

* The Plutonium Registry, a program to help Russia track its nuclear

materials, cut by 12 percent, or $100 million.

* The National Park Service's Natural Resource Challenge--a new

initiative to provide environmental information critical to park
management--receives only $20 million to cover the more than 32 million
hectares (80 million acres) of park land.

* The Interior Department, which oversees 175 million hectares (436

million acres) of federal land -- 19 percent of the country--cut by 4
percent, or $400 million.

* The Tropical Forest Conservation Act, for which Bush pledged last year
$100 million in new dollars, to fund debt for-nature swaps in developing
nations, receives only $13 million, in old dollars, from the budget of
the Agency for International Development.

* The Fish and Wildlife Service's endangered species program, cut by 25

percent.

* EPA's enforcement programs, cut by 9 percent.

* EPA research programs, cut by 20 percent, or $212 million.

* The National Science Foundation, cut by $175 million. This cut forces
the dismantling of Earth Scope (a project to study North America's
lithosphere (lĭth`əsfēr '), brittle uppermost shell of the earth, broken
into a number of tectonic plates. The lithosphere consists of the heavy
oceanic and lighter continental crusts, and the uppermost portion of the
mantle. and crust), and the National Ecological Observatory Network The
National Ecological Observatory Network or NEON is planned to be a
network of observation stations that will cover the United States, in
order to collect ecological data in unprecedented detail. (a plan for
long-term biodiversity monitoring).

* The Smithsonian Institution Smithsonian Institution, research and

education center, at Washington, D.C.; founded 1846 under terms of the
will of James Smithson of London, who in 1829 bequeathed his fortune to
the United States to create an establishment for the "increase and
diffusion of , despite a small increase in its budget, is forced to close
a center for video production and three libraries in order to keep its
Conservation and Research Center, which studies endangered species and
breeds them in captivity.

* The Justice Department tobacco litigation An action brought in court to

enforce a particular right. The act or process of bringing a lawsuit in
and of itself; a judicial contest; any dispute.

When a person begins a civil lawsuit, the person enters into a process
called litigation. unit, which needs $60 million a year to continue its
law suit against cigarette makers, receives only $1.8 million.

The winners:

* The BLM, which receives $15 million to oversee drilling permits and oil
and gas leases.

* The Land and Water Conservation Fund The United States' Land and Water
Conservation Fund (LWCF) is a Federal program that was established by Act
of Congress in 1965. The Act designated that a portion of receipts from
offshore oil and gas leases[1] , a controversial program funded by
royalties from offshore gas and oil extraction, receives $900 million.
The money will be controlled by the states, rather than the federal
government.
* Nuclear weapons programs, which receive $1.5 billion.

* Research on cleaner coal technology, which receives $2 billion over the

next ten years.

The Administration's Corporate Connections

"It's useful to have somebody who knows something about the energy
business involved in the effort" to formulate a U.S. energy plan, says
Vice-President Dick Cheney, the former CEO of Halliburton, one of the
world's largest energy companies. It turns out that Cheney wasn't just
referring to himself; he has helped stock the Bush administration with
executives and lobbyists, especially from the energy sector. For example,
the Clearinghouse of Environmental Advocacy and Research reviewed the
backgrounds of the 63-member advisory team that vets the nominees for
political posts within the Energy Department, and found that 50 come from
the energy industry (27 are from the oil and gas industries, 17 from the
nuclear power and uranium miningUranium mining is the process of
extraction of uranium ore from the ground. As uranium ore is mostly
present at relatively low concentrations, most uranium mining is very
volume-intensive, and thus tends to be undertaken as open-pit mining.
..... Click the link for more information. industries, 16 from the
electricity industry, and 7 from the coal industry. Only one is from the
renewable-energy sector).

When President Bush picked his other top advisors and cabinet members, he
"left no industry out in the cold," according to the Center for
Responsive Politics, a watchdog group that tracks corporate influence in
U.S. politics. Most of the administration's top posts have been filled by
people with strong industry ties, a

The fragility of the biosphere and importance of sustainability can be

understood more clearly when we see the Earth from space. Blue Marble
NASA composite images: 2001 (left), 2002 (right).
Sustainability, in a broad sense, is the capacity to endure. In ecology,
the word describes how biological systems remain diverse and productive
over time. For humans it is the potential for long-term maintenance of
wellbeing, which in turn depends on the wellbeing of the natural world
and the responsible use of natural resources.

Sustainability has become a wide-ranging term that can be applied to

almost every facet of life on Earth, from a local to a global scale and
over various time periods. Long-lived and healthy wetlands and forests
are examples of sustainable biological systems. Invisible chemical cycles
redistribute water, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon through the world's
living and non-living systems, and have sustained life for millions of
years. As the earth’s human population has increased, natural ecosystems
have declined and changes in the balance of natural cycles has had a
negative impact on both humans and other living systems.

There is now abundant scientific evidence that humanity is living

unsustainably. Returning human use of natural resources to within
sustainable limits will require a major collective effort. Since the
1980s, human sustainability has implied the integration of economic,
social and environmental spheres to: “meet the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs.”[1]

Efforts to live more sustainably can take many forms from reorganising
living conditions (e.g., ecovillages, eco-municipalities and sustainable
cities), reappraising economic sectors (green building, sustainable
agriculture), or work practices (sustainable architecture), using science
to develop new technologies (green technologies, renewable energy), to
adjustments in individual lifestyles.

Cooperative intersection of the social, environmental and economic

pillars of sustainability[2]

Definitions of sustainability may be expressed as statements of fact,

intent, or value with sustainability treated as either a "journey" or
"destination".[3] Where we are now, where we need to be going, and how we
are to get there are all open to interpretation[4] and will depend on the
particular context under consideration.[5] What can meaningfully be
described as sustainable will depend on the scale of space and time that
is appropriate to the item under consideration. For example, if time
criteria have not been met, then assertions of sustainability are more
like predictions than definitions.[6] This difficult mix has been
described as a "dialogue of values that defies consensual definition."[7]
Sustainability has been regarded as both an important but unfocused
concept like "liberty" or "justice"[8][9] and as a feel-good buzzword with
little meaning or substance.[10][11] The idea of sustainable development is
sometimes viewed as an oxymoron because development inevitably depletes
and degrades the environment.[12] Consequently some definitions either
avoid the word development and use the term sustainability exclusively,
or emphasise the environmental component, as in "environmentally
sustainable development."[13]

Another representation of sustainability showing how both economy and

society are constrained by environmental limits[14]

The dimensions of sustainability are often taken to be: environmental,

social and economic, known as the "three pillars".[15] These can be
depicted as three overlapping circles (or ellipses), to show that they
are not mutually exclusive and can be mutually reinforcing.[16] While this
model initially improved the standing of environmental concerns,[17] it
has since been criticised for not adequately showing that societies and
economies are fundamentally reliant on the natural world. According to
English environmentalist and author Jonathon Porritt, "The economy is, in
the first instance, a subsystem of human society ... which is itself, in
the second instance, a subsystem of the totality of life on Earth (the
biosphere). And no subsystem can expand beyond the capacity of the total
system of which it is a part."[18] For this reason a second diagram shows
economy as a component of society, both bounded by, and dependent upon,
the environment. As the American World Bank ecological economist Herman
Daly famously asked, "what use is a sawmill without a forest?"[19] The
concept of living within environmental constraints yields a definition of
sustainable development: "improving the quality of human life while
living within the carrying capacity of supporting eco-systems."[20]

The Earth Charter goes beyond defining what sustainability is, and seeks
to establish the values and direction needed to achieve it: "We must join
together to bring forth a sustainable global society founded on respect
for nature, universal human rights, economic justice, and a culture of
peace. Towards this end, it is imperative that we, the peoples of Earth,
declare our responsibility to one another, to the greater community of
life, and to future generations."[21]

History

In early human history the environmental impacts of small bands of

hunter-gatherers would have been relatively small, even though the use of
fire and the desire for specific foods may have altered the natural
composition of plant and animal communities.[22] With the Neolithic
Revolution 8,000 and 10,000 years ago came the emergence of agriculture
and settled communities. Societies outgrowing their local food supply or
depleting critical resources either moved on or faced collapse. In
contrast, stable communities of shifting cultivators and horticulturists
existed in New Guinea and South America, and large agrarian communities
in China, India, Polynesia and elsewhere have farmed in the same
localities for centuries.[23][24]

Technological advances over several millennia gave humans increasing

control over the environment. But it was the Western industrial
revolution of the 17th to 19th centuries that tapped into the vast growth
potential of the energy in fossil fuels to power sophisticated machinery
technology.[25] Such conditions led to a human population explosion and
unprecedented industrial, technological and scientific growth that has
continued to this day. From 1650 to 1850 the global population doubled
from around 500 million to 1 billion people.[26]

By the 20th century, the industrial revolution had resulted in an

exponential increase in the human consumption of resources and an
increase in health, wealth and population. Ecology as a new scientific
discipline was gaining general acceptance and ideas now part and parcel
to sustainability were being explored including the recognition of the
interconnectedness of living systems, the importance of global natural
cycles, the passage of energy through trophic levels of living systems.
[27]

After the deprivations of the Great Depression and World War II the
developed world entered a post-1950s "great acceleration” of growth and
population while a gathering environmental movement pointed out that
there were environmental costs associated with the many material benefits
that were now being enjoyed. Technological innovations included plastics,
synthetic chemicals and nuclear energy as fossil fuels also continued to
transform society. The negative influences of the new technology were
documented by American marine biologist and naturalist Rachel Carson in
her influential book Silent Spring in 1962. A period of peak oil
production was anticipated in 1956 by American geoscientist M. King
Hubbert's peak oil theory.[28] In the 1970s environmentalism's concern
with pollution, the population explosion, consumerism and the depletion
of finite resources found expression in Small Is Beautiful, by British
economist E. F. Schumacher in 1973, and The Limits to Growth published by
the global think tank, the Club of Rome, in 1975.

By the late twentieth century environmental problems were becoming global

in scale.[29][30][31][32] and the 1973 and 1979 energy crises demonstrated the
extent to which the global community had become dependent on a
nonrenewable resource.

In 1987 the United Nation's World Commission on Environment and

Development (the Brundtland Commission), in its report Our Common Future
suggested that sustainable development was needed to meet human needs
while not increasing environmental problems. In 1961 almost all countries
in the world had the capacity to meet their own demand but by 2005 the
situation had changed and many countries were able to meet their needs
only by importing resources from other nations.[30] A move toward more
sustainable living emerged, based on increasing public awareness and
adoption of recycling, and renewable energies. The development of
renewable sources of energy in the 1970s and 80's, primarily in wind
turbines and photovoltaics and increased use of hydroelectricity,
presented more sustainable alternatives to fossil fuel and nuclear energy
generation.[33][34]

In the 21st century there is heightened awareness of the threat posed by

the human-induced greenhouse effect.[35][36] Ecological economics now seeks
to bridge the gap between ecology and traditional neoclassical economics:
[37][38]
and proposes an inclusive and ethical economic model for society.
Many new techniques have arisen to help measure and implement
sustainability, including Life Cycle Assessment (the Cradle to Cradle,
the Ecological Footprint Analysis, and green building.[39] The work of
Bina Agarwal and Vandana Shiva amongst many others, has brought some of
the cultural knowledge of traditional, sustainable agrarian societies
into the academic discourse on sustainability, and blended that knowledge
with modern scientific principles.[40]

Principles and concepts

Sustainability science and environmental science[41] form the basis for

much of the philosophical and analytic framework of sustainability.[42]
Quantitative data is collected through sustainability measurement and
this data is then used in governance for sustainability.[43]

Scale and context

Sustainability is studied and managed over many scales (levels or frames

of reference) of time and space and in many contexts of environmental,
social and economic organization. The focus ranges from the total
carrying capacity (sustainability) of planet Earth to the sustainability
of economic sectors, ecosystems, countries, municipalities,
neighbourhoods, home gardens, individual lives, individual goods and
services, occupations, lifestyles, behaviour patterns and so on. In
short, it can entail the full compass of biological and human activity or
any part of it.[44] As Daniel Botkin, author and environmentalist, has
stated: "We see a landscape that is always in flux, changing over many
scales of time and space."[45]

Global goals

At the global level a number of key goals have been isolated:

 Intergenerational equity - providing future generations with

the same environmental potential as presently exists
 Decoupling economic growth from environmental degradation -
managing economic growth to be less resource intensive and
less polluting
 Integration of all pillars - integrating environmental, social
and economic sectors when developing sustainability policies
 Ensuring environmental adaptability and resilience -
maintaining and enhancing the adaptive capacity of the
environmental system
 Preventing irreversible long-term damage to ecosystems and
human health
 Ensuring distributional equity - avoiding unfair or high
environmental costs on vulnerable populations
 Accepting global responsibility - assuming responsibility for
environmental effects that occur outside areas of jurisdiction
 Education and grassroots involvement - people and communities
investigating problems and developing new solutions[46]
[edit] Consumption, population, technology, resources
Further information: I PAT

The overall driver of human impact on Earth systems is the consumption of

biophysical resources. Human consumption can be divided into three key
components: population numbers, levels of consumption (affluence), and
impact per unit of resource use (which depends on the technology used).
This has been expressed through an equation:

I = P × A × T
Where: I = Environmental impact, P = Population, A = Affluence, T =
Technology[47]

Historically, humanity has responded to a demand for more resources by

trying to increase supply. Sustainability, instead, applies demand
management of all goods and services by promoting reduced consumption,
using renewable resources where possible, and encouraging practices that
minimise resource intensity while maximising resource productivity.
Careful resource management is applied at many scales, but especially at
the levels of economic sectors like agriculture, manufacturing and
industry as well as to individual goods and services and the consumption
patterns of households and individuals.[48][49]

Fig.1-2. Population

Graph showing human population growth from 10,000 BC – AD 2000,

illustrating current exponential growth

According to the 2008 Revision of the official United Nations population

estimates and projections, the world population is projected to reach 7
billion early in 2012, up from the current 6.9 billion (May 2009), to
exceed 9 billion people by 2050. Most of the increase will be in
developing countries whose population is projected to rise from 5.6
billion in 2009 to 7.9 billion in 2050. This increase will be distributed
among the population aged 15–59 (1.2 billion) and 60 or over (1.1
billion) because the number of children under age 15 in developing
countries will decrease. In contrast, the population of the more
developed regions is expected to undergo only slight increase from 1.23
billion to 1.28 billion, and this would have declined to 1.15 billion but
for a projected net migration from developing to developed countries,
which is expected to average 2.4 million persons annually from 2009 to
2050.[50] Long-term estimates of global population suggest a peak at
around 2070 of nine to ten billion people, and then a slow decrease to
8.4 billion by 2100.[51]

Emerging economies like those of China and India aspire to the living
standards of the Western world as does the non-industrialized world in
general. It is the combination of population increase in the developing
world and unsustainable consumption levels in the developed world that
poses a stark challenge to sustainability.[52]

Direct and indirect environmental impacts

At a fundamental level energy flow and biogeochemical cycling set an

upper limit on the number and mass of organisms in any ecosystem.[53]
Human impacts on the Earth are demonstrated through detrimental changes
in the global biogeochemical cycles of chemicals that are critical to
life, most notably those of water, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen and
phosphorus.[54]

Measurement

To survive on planet Earth humans must live within its measurable

biophysical constraints.[55] By establishing quantitative measures
for sustainability it is possible to set goals, apply management
strategies, and measure progress. The Natural Step (TNS) framework
developed by Karl-Henrik Robèrt examines sustainability and resource
use from its thermodynamic foundations to determine how humans use
and apportion natural capital in a way that is sustainable and just.
The TNS framework's system conditions of sustainability provide a
means for the scientifically based measurement of sustainability.
[56]
Natural capital includes resources from the earth's crust (i.e.,
minerals, oil), those produced by humans (synthetic substances),
and those of the biosphere. Equitable access to natural capital is
also a component of sustainability.[56] The energy generated in use
of resources—referred to as exergy[57]—can be measured as the embodied
energy of a product or service over its life cycle. Its analysis,
using methods such as Life Cycle Analysis or Ecological Footprint
analysis provide basic indicators of sustainability on various
scales.[58]

There is now a vast number of sustainability indicators,[59] metrics,

benchmarks, indices, reporting procedures, audits and more. They include
environmental, social and economic measures separately or together over
many scales and contexts. Environmental factors are integrated with
economics through ecological economics, resource economics and
thermoeconomics, and social factors through metrics like the Happy Planet
Index which measures the well-being of people in the nations of the world
while taking into account their environmental impact.[60][61] Some of the
best known and most widely used sustainability measures are listed in the
side bar, they include corporate sustainability reporting, Triple Bottom
Line accounting, and estimates of the quality of sustainability
governance for individual countries using the Environmental
Sustainability Index and Environmental Performance Index.

Carrying capacity

Ecological footprint for different nations compared to their Human

Development Index (HDI)

Gathering data show humans are not living within carrying capacity of the
planet. The Ecological footprint measures human consumption in terms of
the biologically productive land needed to provide the resources, and
absorb the wastes of the average global citizen. In 2008 it required 2.7
global hectares per person, 30% more than the natural biological capacity
of 2.1 global hectares (assuming no provision for other organisms).[30]
The resulting ecological deficit must be met from unsustainable extra
sources and these are obtained in three ways: embedded in the goods and
services of world trade; taken from the past (e.g. fossil fuels); or
borrowed from the future as unsustainable resource usage (e.g. by over
exploiting forests and fisheries).

The figure (right) indicates the sustainability of countries in terms of

their Ecological Footprint to the UN Human Development Index (a measure
of standard of living): it shows what is necessary for countries to
maintain an acceptable standard of living for their citizens while, at
the same time, living at a globally sustainable level. The general trend
is for higher standards of living to become less sustainable. As always
population growth has a marked influence on levels of consumption and the
efficiency of resource use.[62] [63] The sustainability goal is to raise the
global standard of living without increasing the use of resources beyond
globally sustainable levels; that is, to not exceed "one planet"
consumption. Information generated by reports at the national, regional
and city scales confirm the global trend towards societies that are
becoming less sustainable over time.[64][65]

[edit] Environmental dimension

Healthy ecosystems provide vital goods and services to humans and other
organisms. There are two major ways of reducing negative human impact and
enhancing ecosystem services:

a) Environmental management. This direct approach is based largely

on information gained from earth science, environmental science and
conservation biology.

However, this is management at the end of a long series of indirect

causal factors that are initiated by human consumption, so a second
approach is through demand management of human resource use.
 b) Management of human consumption of resources, an indirect
approach based largely on information gained from economics. Herman
Daly has suggested three broad criteria for ecological
sustainability: renewable resources should provide a sustainable
yield (the rate of harvest should not exceed the rate of
regeneration); for non-renewable resources there should be
equivalent development of renewable substitutes; waste generation
should not exceed the assimilative capacity of the environment.[67]

Environmental management
Further information: Environmental management and Natural resource
management

At the global scale and in the broadest sense environmental management

involves the oceans, freshwater systems, land and atmosphere, but
following the sustainability principle of scale it can be equally applied
to any ecosystem from a tropical rainforest to a home garden.[68][69]

Atmosphere, oceans, freshwater, land, forests, cultivated land

In March 2009 at a meeting of the Copenhagen Climate Council 2,500

climate experts from 80 countries issued a keynote statement that there
is now "no excuse" for failing to act on global warming and that without
strong carbon reduction targets "abrupt or irreversible" shifts in
climate may occur that "will be very difficult for contemporary societies
to cope with".[70][71] Management of the global atmosphere now involves
assessment of all aspects of the carbon cycle to identify opportunities
to address human-induced climate change and this has become a major focus
of scientific research because of the potential catastrophic effects on
biodiversity and human communities (see Energy below).

Other human impacts on the atmosphere include the air pollution in

cities, the pollutants including toxic chemicals like nitrogen oxides,
sulphur oxides, volatile organic compounds and particulate matter that
produce photochemical smog and acid rain, and the chlorofluorocarbons
that degrade the ozone layer. Anthropogenic particulates such as sulphate
aerosols in the atmosphere reduce the direct irradiance and reflectance
(albedo) of the Earth's surface. Known as global dimming the decrease is
estimated to have been about 4% between 1960 and 1990 although the trend
has subsequently reversed. Global dimming may have disturbed the global
water cycle by reducing evaporation and rainfall in some areas. It also
creates a cooling effect and this may have partially masked the effect of
greenhouse gases on global warming.[72]

Oceans

A selection of the world's saltwater fish

Ocean circulation patterns have a strong influence on climate and weather

and, in turn, the food supply of both humans and other organisms.
Scientists have warned of the possibility, under the influence of climate
change, of a sudden alteration in circulation patterns of ocean currents
that could drastically alter the climate in some regions of the globe.[73]
Major human environmental impacts occur in the more habitable regions of
the ocean fringes – the estuaries, coastline and bays. Ten per cent of
the world's population – about 600 million people – live in low-lying
areas vulnerable to sea level rise. Trends of concern that require
management include: over-fishing (beyond sustainable levels); coral
bleaching due to ocean warming and ocean acidification due to increasing
levels of dissolved carbon dioxide;[74] and sea level rise due to climate
change. Because of their vastness oceans also act as a convenient dumping
ground for human waste.[75] Remedial strategies include: more careful
waste management, statutory control of overfishing by adoption of
sustainable fishing practices and the use of environmentally sensitive
and sustainable aquaculture and fish farming, reduction of fossil fuel
emissions and restoration of coastal and other marine habitat.[76]

Freshwater
Further information: Water crisis

Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. Of this, 97.5% is the salty
water of the oceans and only 2.5% freshwater, most of which is locked up
in the Antarctic ice sheet. The remaining freshwater is found in lakes,
rivers, wetlands, the soil, aquifers and atmosphere. All life depends on
the solar-powered global water cycle, the evaporation from oceans and
land to form water vapour that later condenses from clouds as rain, which
then becomes the renewable part of the freshwater supply.[77] Awareness of
the global importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has only
recently emerged as, during the 20th century, more than half the world’s
wetlands have been lost along with their valuable environmental services.
Biodiversity-rich freshwater ecosystems are currently declining faster
than marine or land ecosystems[78] making them the world's most vulnerable
habitats.[30] Increasing urbanization pollutes clean water supplies and
much of the world still does not have access to clean, safe water.[77] In
the industrial world demand management has slowed absolute usage rates
but increasingly water is being transported over vast distances from
water-rich natural areas to population-dense urban areas and energy-
hungry desalination is becoming more widely used. Greater emphasis is now
being placed on the improved management of blue (harvestable) and green
(soil water available for plant use) water, and this applies at all
scales of water management.[78]

Land
Further information: Land use

Loss of biodiversity stems largely from the habitat loss and

fragmentation produced by the human appropriation of land for
development, forestry and agriculture as natural capital is progressively
converted to man-made capital. Land use change is fundamental to the
operations of the biosphere because alterations in the relative
proportions of land dedicated to urbanisation, agriculture, forest,
woodland, grassland and pasture have a marked effect on the global water,
carbon and nitrogen biogeochemical cycles and this can impact negatively
on both natural and human systems.[79] At the local human scale major
sustainability benefits accrue from the pursuit of green cities and
sustainable parks and gardens.[80][81]

Forests
Further information: Forestry and Ecoforestry

Since the Neolithic Revolution about 47% of the world’s forests have been
lost to human use. Present-day forests occupy about a quarter of the
world’s ice-free land with about half of these occurring in the
tropics[82] In temperate and boreal regions forest area is gradually
increasing (with the exception of Siberia), but deforestation in the
tropics is of major concern.[83]

Beech Forest – Grib Skov, Denmark

Forests moderate the local climate and the global water cycle through
their light reflectance (albedo) and evapotranspiration. They also
conserve biodiversity, protect water quality, preserve soil and soil
quality, provide fuel and pharmaceuticals, and purify the air. These free
ecosystem services have no market value and so forest conservation has
little appeal when compared with the economic benefits of logging and
clearance which, through soil degradation and organic decomposition
returns carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.[84] The United Nations Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that about 90% of the carbon
stored in land vegetation is locked up in trees and that they sequester
about 50% more carbon than is present in the atmosphere. Changes in land
use currently contribute about 20% of total global carbon emissions
(heavily logged Indonesia and Brazil are a major source of emissions).[84]
Climate change can be mitigated by sequestering carbon in reafforestation
schemes, plantations and timber products. Also wood biomass can be
utilized as a renewable carbon-neutral fuel. The FAO has suggested that,
over the period 2005–2050, effective use of tree planting could absorb
about 10–20% of man-made emissions – so monitoring the condition of the
world's forests must be part of a global strategy to mitigate emissions
and protect ecosystem services.[85] However, climate change may pre-empt
this FAO scenario as a study by the International Union of Forest
Research Organizations in 2009 concluded that the stress of a 2.5C (4.5F)
temperature rise above pre-industrial levels could result in the release
of vast amounts of carbon[86] so the potential of forests to act as carbon
"sinks" is "at risk of being lost entirely".[87]

Cultivated land
Main article: Sustainable agriculture

A rice paddy. Rice, wheat, corn and potatoes make up more than half the
world's food supply

Feeding more than six billion human bodies takes a heavy toll on the
Earth’s resources. This begins with the appropriation of about 38% of the
Earth’s land surface[88] and about 20% of its net primary productivity.[89]
Added to this are the resource-hungry activities of industrial
agribusiness – everything from the crop need for irrigation water,
synthetic fertilizers and pesticides to the resource costs of food
packaging, transport (now a major part of global trade) and retail. Food
is essential to life. But the list of environmental costs of food
production is a long one: topsoil depletion, erosion and conversion to
desert from constant tillage of annual crops; overgrazing; salinization;
sodification; waterlogging; high levels of fossil fuel use; reliance on
inorganic fertilisers and synthetic organic pesticides; reductions in
genetic diversity by the mass use of monocultures; water resource
depletion; pollution of waterbodies by run-off and groundwater
contamination; social problems including the decline of family farms and
weakening of rural communities.[90]

All of these environmental problems associated with industrial

agriculture and agribusiness are now being addressed through such
movements as sustainable agriculture, organic farming and more
sustainable business practices.[91]

Energy, water, food

Energy

Flow of CO2 in an ecosystem

The Sun's energy, stored by plants (primary producers) during

photosynthesis, passes through the food chain to other organisms to
ultimately power all living processes. Since the industrial revolution
the concentrated energy of the Sun stored in fossilized plants as fossil
fuels has been a major driver of technology which, in turn, has been the
source of both economic and political power. In 2007 climate scientists
of the IPCC concluded that there was at least a 90% probability that
atmospheric increase in CO2 was human-induced, mostly as a result of
fossil fuel emissions but, to a lesser extent from changes in land use.
Stabilize the world’s climate will require high income countries to
reduce their emissions by 60-90% over 2006 levels by 2050 which should
hold CO2 levels at 450-650 ppm from current levels of about 380 ppm.
Above this level and temperatures could rise by more than 2 °C (36 °F) to
produce “catastrophic” climate change.[103][104] Reduction of current CO2
levels must be achieved against a background of global population
increase and developing countries aspiring to energy-intensive high
consumption Western lifestyles.[105]

Reducing greenhouse emissions, referred to as decarbonization, is being

tackled at all scales, ranging from tracking the passage of carbon
through the carbon cycle[106] to the exploration of renewable energies,
developing less carbon-hungry technology and transport systems and
attempts by individuals to lead carbon neutral lifestyles by monitoring
the fossil fuel use embodied in all the goods and services they use.[107]

Water
Further information: Water resources
Water security and food security are inextricably linked. In the decade
1951-60 human water withdrawals were four times greater than the previous
decade. This rapid increase resulted from scientific and technological
developments impacting through the economy - especially the increase in
irrigated land, growth in industrial and power sectors, and intensive dam
construction on all continents. This altered the water cycle of rivers
and lakes, affected their water quality and had a significant impact on
the global water cycle.[108] Currently towards 35% of human water use is
unsustainable, drawing on diminishing aquifers and reducing the flows of
major rivers: this percentage is likely to increase if climate change
worsens, populations increase, aquifers become progressively depleted and
supplies become polluted and unsanitary.[109] From 1961 to 2001 water
demand doubled - agricultural use increased by 75%, industrial use by
more than 200%, and domestic use more than 400%.[110] Humans currently use
40-50% of the globally available freshwater in the approximate proportion
of 70% for agriculture, 22% for industry, and 8% for domestic purposes
and the total volume is progressively increasing.[108]

Water efficiency is being improved on a global scale by increased demand

management, improved infrastructure, improved water productivity of
agriculture, minimising the water intensity (embodied water) of goods and
services, addressing shortages in the non-industrialised world,
concentrating food production in areas of high productivity; and planning
for climate change. At the local level people are becoming more water-
self-sufficient by harvesting rainwater and reducing use of mains water.
[78][111]

Food
Further information: Food and Food security

The American Public Health Association (APHA) defines a "sustainable food

system"[112][113] as "one that provides healthy food to meet current food
needs while maintaining healthy ecosystems that can also provide food for
generations to come with minimal negative impact to the environment. A
sustainable food system also encourages local production and distribution
infrastructures and makes nutritious food available, accessible, and
affordable to all. Further, it is humane and just, protecting farmers and
other workers, consumers, and communities."[114] Concerns about the
environmental impacts of agribusiness and the stark contrast between the
obesity problems of the Western world and the poverty and food insecurity
of the developing world have generated a strong movement towards healthy,
sustainable eating as a major component of overall ethical consumerism.
[115]
The environmental effects of different dietary patterns depend on
many factors, including the proportion of animal and plant foods consumed
and the method of food production.[116][117][118][119] The World Health
Organization has published a Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity
and Health which was endorsed by the May 2004 World Health Assembly. It
recommends the Mediterranean diet which is associated with health and
longevity and is low in meat, rich in fruits and vegetables, low in added
sugar and limited salt, and low in saturated fatty acids; the traditional
source of fat in the Mediterranean is olive oil, rich in monounsaturated
fat. The healthy rice-based Japanese diet is also high in carbohydrates
and low in fat. Both diets are low in meat and saturated fats and high in
legumes and other vegetables; they are associated with a low incidence of
ailments and low environmental impact.[120]

At the global level the environmental impact of agribusiness is being

addressed through sustainable agriculture and organic farming. At the
local level there are various movements working towards local food
production, more productive use of urban wastelands and domestic gardens
including permaculture, urban horticulture, local food, slow food,
sustainable gardening, and organic gardening.[121][122]

[edit] Materials, toxic substances, waste

As global population and affluence has increased, so has the use of

various materials increased in volume, diversity and distance
transported. Included here are raw materials, minerals, synthetic
chemicals (including hazardous substances), manufactured products, food,
living organisms and waste.[123]

Materials
Further information: Dematerialization

Sustainable use of materials has targeted the idea of dematerialization,

converting the linear path of materials (extraction, use, disposal in
landfill) to a circular material flow that reuses materials as much as
possible, much like the cycling and reuse of waste in nature.[124] This
approach is supported by product stewardship and the increasing use of
material flow analysis at all levels, especially individual countries and
the global economy.[125]

Toxic substances
Further information: Dangerous goods

Synthetic chemical production has escalated following the stimulus it

received during the second World War. Chemical production includes
everything from herbicides, pesticides and fertilizers to domestic
chemicals and hazardous substances.[126] Apart from the build-up of
greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere, chemicals of particular
concern include: heavy metals, nuclear waste, chlorofluorocarbons,
persistent organic pollutants and all harmful chemicals capable of
bioaccumulation. Although most synthetic chemicals are harmless there
needs to be rigorous testing of new chemicals, in all countries, for
adverse environmental and health effects. International legislation has
been established to deal with the global distribution and management of
dangerous goods.[127][128]

Fig.1-3. The waste hierarchy

 The waste hierarchy
Waste
Further information: Waste management

Every economic activity produces material that can be classified as

waste. The average human uses 45-85 tonnes of materials each year.[123] To
reduce waste industry, business and government are now mimicking nature
by turning the waste produced by industrial metabolism into resource.
Dematerialization is being encouraged through the ideas of industrial
ecology, ecodesign[129] and ecolabelling (see side bar). In addition to the
well-established “reduce, reuse and recycle” shoppers are using their
purchasing power for ethical consumerism.[130]

Table 1-1. Human relationship to nature

Sustainability principles

1. Reduce dependence upon fossil fuels,

underground metals, and minerals
2. Reduce dependence upon synthetic chemicals
and other unnatural substances
3. Reduce encroachment upon nature

4. Meet human needs fairly & efficiently[168]

According to Murray Bookchin, the idea that humans must dominate nature
is common in hierarchical societies. Bookchin contends that capitalism
and market relationships, if unchecked, have the capacity to reduce the
planet to a mere resource to be exploited. Nature is thus treated as a
commodity: “The plundering of the human spirit by the market place is
paralleled by the plundering of the earth by capital.”[169] Still more
basically, Bookchin argued that most of the activities that consume
energy and destroy the environment are senseless because they contribute
little to quality of life and well being. The function of work is to
legitimse, even create, hierarchy. For this reason understanding the
transformation of organic into hierarchical societies is crucial to
finding a way forward.[170]
Social ecology, founded by Bookchin, is based on the conviction that
nearly all of humanity's present ecological problems originate in, indeed
are mere symptoms of, dysfunctional social arrangements. Whereas most
authors proceed as if our ecological problems can be fixed by
implementing recommendations which stem from physical, biological,
economic etc studies, Bookchin's claim is that these problems can only be
resolved by understanding the underlying social processes and intervening
in those processes by applying the concepts and methods of the social
sciences.[171]

Deep ecology establishes principles for the well-being of all life on

Earth and the richness and diversity of life forms. This is only
compatible with a substantial decrease of the human population and the
end of human interference with the nonhuman world. To achieve this, deep
ecologists advocate policies for basic economic, technological, and
ideological structures that will improve the quality of life rather than
the standard of living . Those who subscribe to these principles are
obliged to make the necessary change happen.[172]

 Outline of sustainability
 List of sustainability topics
 Environmental issue

CHAPTERIII

METHODOLOGY

Content Analysis

Environmental Policy defines how environmental concerns are approached

from a governmental or organizational perspective, often with the goal of
addressing and solving environmental problems. Environmental Policy
Analysts develop, study and evaluate these policies with regard to
environmental and human impact, political positioning, economic growth,
employment patterns, and more. The work often involves detailed
environmental assessments, cost-benefit analyses, and a very delicate
balance among many diverse interests.

Environmental Policies are often thought of as being political,

established by government agencies. But policy analysts also work for
many businesses in helping them comply with environmental laws and
develop environmentally-responsible business practices, taking into
account public values, economics, law and planning. Analysts also work
for many public interest, special interest, and lobbying organizations,
particularly in national and state capitals; one of the great challenges,
of course, is to be able to craft or assist in crafting, policies,
statutes, rules and legislation which satisfy the public, corporate and
political interests, hopefully while also striving to be environmentally
responsible.

Historical Analysis
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on