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If you think learning is helped by frequent reinforcement, make sure that items to be learnt are processed several times. 4) Materials reflect the nature of the learning task, We have noted in previous chapters that language learning is a complex process involving many different kinds and levels of knowledge. In the heyday of structuralism, it was assumed that a knowledge of the structures the same as knowing a language and that repetition led to jing. Materials writing was a simple task of isolating the ructure, writing a text to exemplify it and pattern drills o practise ‘We must now take a more humble view and recognise that 1age learning is a very complex and litele understood process. should try to create a balanced outlook which both reflects xity of the task, yet makes it appear managcable. an have a very useful function in broadeni ing, by introducing teachers to new techni ls pro ly placed thi 3t. This is a necessat function of materials, bu iis all oo often taken a the ony purpose, sat materials become simply a starement of language tse rather than a vehicle fr language learning. Langunge teehing materials should not be the kind of beginner's guide to Applied Linguistics, which is so prevalent in ESP. We, as linguists, may be ‘endlessly fascinated by the analysis of discourse: it is our chosen specialist field. For the doctor, the secretary and the engineer Tanguage may have little such attraction. 2 Amaterials design model ‘Taking into account the principles we have outlined, we can now present 4 model which we have used for writing our own materials. The Of this particular model is to provide of the various aspects of leai ough room for creativity and 4) Input: This may be Bue, Video-recording, diagram or any piece of communication data, depending on the needs you have defined in your analysis. The input provides a number of things: ~ stimulus material for activities; = new language items; = correct models of language use; = atopic for communication; ~ oppo: for learners to use their information processing skills; ~ opportunities for learners to use their existing knowledge both of the language and the subject matter. b) Content focus: Language is not an end in it conveying information and feelings about som: content should be exploited to generate meaningful communication in the classroom. Language focus: Our aim is to enable learners to use language, but 0 give learner: jo not have enough of the necessary language kr terials should involve both opportunities for analysis and synthesis. In language focus learners have the chance to take the language to pieces, study how it works and practise putting it back together again. 4) Task: The ultimate purpose of language learning is language use. Materials should be designed, therefore, to lead towards a communicative task in which learners use the content and language knowledge they have built up through the uni “These four elements combine in the model as follows: INPUT LANGUAGE CONTENT | TASK Figure 28: A materials design model ‘The primary focus of the unit is the task. The model acts as a vehicle ‘which leads the learners to the point where they are able to carry out the task. The language and content arc drawn from the input and are selected according to what the learners will need in order to do the task. It follows that an important feature of the model isto create coherence jn terms of both language and content throughout the unit. This provides the support for more complex activities by building up a fund ‘of knowledge and ¥ q @ ° e « e e © e e e ¢ A iL e Li e e e La © - e © e © vs e Ss Ss © v esnidus pup soysvag :v6 7 aunty +e yeumures® 30 430] BuueoK v spl “4 a.ojeq 998) ara jo.utod jensnun ue woxy postasaid ‘a siya uy ysnot sks. Lion qUDsap — asin | pest | Wuoauo: ue y8noatp payseordde s} ofenSupy ‘soyeoipur apm aun 2 ‘x9) [eaipeu & se Weys sayes so}Uey ION pmg 30 sojdiound jesousd ap Jo we revo aptuae ane neta ces TREE — Reese ead or O> SWHISASONIdWNd “a 34 ue tars6s er 10 Asses Jo so1298 v x9A0 peasds 2q 2y8tur sum, 07 2tp 3L UOSs9] 9U0 I parza40> jeu JO} past oq UeD [apout 3F Sieuexew ejdwes:jepow ubisep sjeyerew y ¢Tetear pupa beth ag ‘Teves {ary ood tor tha orto the by Sa, ‘Dearie Babar, Therghtveunice cary blood tie eat ‘Tee hinge ‘Spunped fromthe hngsbock othe ner, ‘helatede the bart ED te sed with oxy a Thearietas Putte een oct he ste, STEP 2 (Copy his agram ofthe tert and ced som, FY ae Cn yourdiagram label he rice and veces andthe Bled sola htop athe bear ake complete ‘reuatoncagram avoug the ngs andthe bay iss © Pllnariows stew oto arDnd ten te yen STEP 3 B® ee tes cxpresions to epics thas of snl meaninginthe INPUT, rowan each ober, increase ene, el amar ret: col ex ‘ood veal. Figure a9b: Gathering information formation from the input and iscontent and language toa wider hecks. They also and 6). This ® 4 themselves wherever possible possible to incorporate opportu knowledge and reasoning powers, but still using the language they have been learning. » 15 *|?eCeasaeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeneneeeeeeeeete as‘eso suesne pee 4H yea np ‘ar goa wee sy poe sans ses eco ba soy ‘samaczco a oto spend jou spe oe Sect a spin ysis poe cn cepa So avotjan seas an Seo seuss yors x oar OOM womnedas ores arog ng wuss Lan yoo OURS, Sesmepo SupRNT 9 aais ‘sams som te op erpepee sper 2 Bam BORE POE | ‘aa om, weg 90s oes gar9 0 souaiee sepnsoe Yay eAOE or oe sume mot up wae poo pe toy aa onerous ‘ber oe sce a Fao ‘tee paroqumm rumen ofS an Gena Se, ‘soso savers pu sion eeaN Cp ams HM URI Sela G7 seormmnseinoymmtewone wren Twsishse Suquoseq ¢ dais SMO S¥NONWT ao se pom seSTEP 7 Describing a system 2 ‘scar show ow wis tiough domes certal bag aad @® Sy h diagram and thn dase the ow of ae toh th sym. 2 Desert terial. afyouwores water nol, Bote ello my rame,0, but you can calm Hashana water noice andthe moment a oat arin sy Pact. it ey es Cnenoa © Dwasinplplaet ote @ Ge eee ee 2 Sinagentvctramed best armen Figure 29d: Task 16 1m guided to more type of input gives the opportunity for some more e language work. they use both the language ed through the about Engl build-up through the unit, the task should be grasp of both learner and teacher. 6 ‘The unit can be further expanded establishing landmarks of achievement. the chance to apply . For example, a project for ¢ any other kind of enclosed an air conditioning system) in their own home, place of work or field of study. the knowledge gained to their own "7 e@egeeeaneaeseee eee ea Dense Reseaseseaaeeeeeaegeeca.210) prey asye080 mo uy 26en6up, aiun Jo vonesBorut sedis eeinosip ‘suonounjsoumonns so1don / soda 01 sideou09 9} 91869, 5 é 8 a ¢ a (1a /s) 22nfaame gun /sngeys 04.1 136 ound ‘Aipyen 200) “Ronesd wened ueusdojonep 31148 woweryonu 20 a i 3 3 i siskyeue puoneposu09, vonewnoyu Buyrarnot Jona] ssexaiur “ouen Bpoymouy Bursa s sow Jo an / ado1 01 uonewueNs SYOLD¥4 ONINUWST ‘snao3 “IN3INOD) s4inn sno04 ‘gounONYT g & zuinn sno03 BOuNONYT grr uDw9[9 Yoea Jo S120 ‘urew oxp aoys 2 suite wresexp oy “uowisod rey UF paafoaut 30U 27B ssonoey Joqp0 Jeyp JOU ‘uontsod ywyp Ut ajo3 w Avyd Afuo Kays seya treaL 3ou soop soanzeay snqeyjés yim [pow ayp Jo sameay BuLAgUDpY aey ‘rexomoy ‘220N “UBIs9p asun0o oxp SuLAropum sasnqoijAs sMoIIEA 43 02 seiejad fopour mun ayy Moy wo) payyduuts e uy sovensnyy rE asndiy “surait sngejés Jo 93ez0,00 ayetadosdde pu ayenbape soptaosd asinoo otp zeya amsua 03 asians snqzijés aya pue azmInLIs 31M 94f1 U22M30q IOUD!aYOD E 9g O2 spoou dIDY.] “98ND yp ur sa 2ey30 2tp 01 Appansoy axejas os[e isms 3]un yea “oxos2z0Kp “aauE=r—09 [euro ue Suiaey oF vomppe uy ‘Buuses] Jo auowdopoadp yp Ut 2]0r 1 Surdeyd se pagruopr sommeay ays fe Jo sngeyjds ay YBaoatp 28219409 ayenbape amsu> o1 2]ge 2q asntu fopow Y “m9 2¥p2}Kouy Suns jo 9sn ‘Aaauea quauraajoaut rouse] ajdwexe 10} ‘uonenas SuiUsed] ‘242 on aiejas reyp ssox>e} 2[q/SuErUT Jo osje Inq “uoNNNIS Y933e2 9x9 50 ‘soumtgay ajqista oup Jo asnf 20u aunosDe ayes snus 9m vey § amdey> UL ‘stsAjeue spaou ypia Zuyjeap ways os[e parou 2/4 ‘2sIno9 {ue wn) SunvIado soengeyJ{s jexo4as 200} ur ase a2ay2 “snqeylAs © Jo afdiouisd Bupsiuesi0 yp Se pasn ag aysimr ammzeay ou0 YSnowsTe ‘sey L roxdey> ut posoU 2, snqeiAs ep pue sjeuexey g Pepow spousayew popundea wy :0€ 2103) pue eB poouy uN sjuspmis svi] 3OWNONVT ANSLNOO feast nant seueys 1 29 opm popuarxe ue apnead 03 apour 2p Jo snajanu agp 03 sutod asoqp 3ie|91 Ue apn ‘2noge aun ayp ur uaas aq ue> j9pOur 2g) 01 Sluawauyoy ajqssod jo 22quINU lepoweys Buuyoy y uonvonday - - e 2 C - “ e « « co C ” os « - « ” « « « ° C - “ e « - | *We have made wide use of models throughout this book. At this point is useful to make a cautionary di n berween two types of model, cd in the materials design process: of model provides the gener: framework ive. This kind of model acts as a feedback device to tell you whether you $/UL. Then when enough material is available the S/UI can be used to check coverage and appropriacy. If the models are used inappropriately, the materials writers wi beso swamped with factors to consider that they will probably of worth. 6 Using the mod: acase study ‘The models we have presented are ones that we have used in preparing ‘our own materials and in this part we shall look at how they were used in creating the Blood Cell unit (see above p. r10). First some background at the Institute for English Language Education, University of Lancaster, UK. The students were doing a six-month pre-service English course, prior to starting courses at British Technical Colleges in Marine Engincering, Navigation and Radio. The course was set up at short notice and at first we used ESP materials for maritime studies acquired from another institution which had run similar courses before. As the course progressed we became increasingly dissatisfied with these materials. They consisted of texts about maritime topies, for example the roles of the various officers and men on ships, types of ships, instructions for taking a ship out of port. We found these texts difficult to exploit for a number of reasons a) They were mostly descriptive. There was little that could be done with them beyond reading and answering comprehension questions. b) They contained a lot of very specific vocabulary which could only be effectively explained with realia that were not available to us in the ESP classroom. ©) More worrying was the fact that the general technical languas like ‘rope’ and ‘steer’ ‘We decided to carry out a new needs analysis and go ‘on general technical topics (electricity, materials ete. ‘common to a very wide range of course b) Lecturers assumed that on coming to the college student re speakers) would know little or nothing about 5 other than a few common word: ‘tanker’. specific subjects, turers made wide use of references they would relate the parts of to the parts of a car or a house. They might explain how a ship’s air supply system works by reference to the blood system in the body. In other words, lecturers made use of an assumed level of ‘competence in general areas in order to teach the new and specific knowledge (Hutchinson and Waters, 1980) We concluded from our needs analysis that we had been teaching our in effect, 1g them performance data, while neglecting the competence. Armed ight we set about creating the materials from which the ‘was later developed. at the present this in the form of lustrate them with our own procedure in producing the Blood Ce Stage 1: Find yourtext. In selecting texts we operated three criteria =It should be a naturally occurring piece of communication or a piece that might well have occurred naturally. This would not exclude the possibility of adaptation or re-writing at a later stage, if we felt that ‘would improve the pedagogic usefulness of the text. = Itshould be suited to the learners’ needs and interests. = Itshould be capable of generating useful classroom activities. The criteria did not require that texts should come from the target situation, although they could have done so. ‘One text that we found was the following: mreer uorduosop yewxojur ue pur wondidsap [euts03 “exousH e wooMI0q servo 34) — wo|suamp aiou © dn Bums fq ‘yun ayp Jo yenuaod 2aneas9 2yp paseaxout Apeos8 uorsts9s o4p ae} uy “aoIse} sansod © 51 p51 UF sp YnoIp) oUY Jo awoUIDpP we ADEM O1 SEA 2D POOIE, 243 02 BuiSueyp Jo aBaueape Ayo ayp aeyp ayBis 3834 4e MOOS ays 3p nduy pesines oy, yum uleBe g-1 soBeNs YBnowp op :Z ©BEIg poojg [eNprsrpur ue Jo M914 JO 1 Jo yseg 942 2se> 30 Uy woo1e> # Jo uO} 9 as pu auyod aya wou 3x93 tp 10a-03 044 :9UHED 24 x01 se @81010%9 seunoUe 10} 400} pue (401811140) sn e pul) 1YBILA NK 1) BeOS pjoo u!yANd ML ginjosn aiow yeu OF ABM Aue UI pasines aq} UeD zndur atp 01 7929 09 :9 eS 4 pinoys Surypcr949 ang, “sun a9xpo ut pasosoo Ajanenbape sea snqeys asznoastp ay jo asodse srip og “ysv? 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Uo passno0} yasn aq ued u8iU09 pue aBenbue| jo sioedst “saze] yp anoge Asz0m pjno> am ang ‘odAa sty Jo 54572 J0 20} e oumb pey Apeauye om aetp sea “I949MOY “UID|qoId 29 "INO A2ie> 02 ‘avy plttom siuapmas no wy UoHoUNy asinodsIp ArEss=99U F se ,wr9IsAS e Bun ys) otf “ose sty Uy] 19sep, payBUapl pey aa dus “poy nok youeg 392905 :¢ 260g, esis 04) AuAnoe Jo pury au yse7 941 S| “snguyAs oun ‘soMntanoe woossse]> 304 1x09 at Jo [enauared aaNw939 aup ssasse 01 sean a104 wia>u0D ING ‘aBeIS SID Ie K[as0]> axOUI KUE I DUgpp 02 padU ou sem S19], “1OrEISBIYor v Jo uoNeIado yp 10 WOKS Suguotptiog ate ‘worsAs Huneay jesiu2 © se ypns ‘waisks Suduind paso[su> sejruns v aquosap 02 siousRIT aya uM’ uo PapIoop 2A "yun aya jo pua axp.1e op pinco ‘ss0use9] 041 24 SEP © Jo ALIN TopOUL OYA Jo PUB Oy. 0105 +7 @BeIg (prom joann 9g fo yoou wu0y 1033) ose a ‘941 uo 94a snows e sey Ane} eu SaqoA asa J ‘ABA BUOIN 3B: ‘41 19K0:0 tn SaAJeA AeM-9U O1e aay 'S9;2UTUOA PP Sajo}ne ays UBaANa ue vay aun so s1x@ 241 1 UNS Jo soy ews Aq paral) ON BLOG Aion y ‘24 Alddns 01 yBnoue se} Apog aun puns ssod Burdiund 24 Aq p21s00q oq 0 sey ounss 1poo}q pareuaB Axo oun yaryan e aunssoud ows esneoeq popoou st ou ueBe une ay 140 343 yOnowa uesy out ‘stsius (p00|9 perevoGAxo9p) sanssn a4p 01 uaBAXO SH dn VON Se 10 ‘vonse Buidund snoout ‘ueo yonym ‘osind ou uouronddy PR a aA te ala lal llbeleia‘happening at a specific point in time. This meant that the following were now possi a) We co , which focussed on the contrast between a general and an immediate description. Checking back to the syllabus showed that we had no other tasks like this yet. (Note the use here of the syllabus asa checking device.) b) We did not have to throw away them in the exercises to practise could also We could k 1 original task ideas. We could use uage and/or content items. We wve a_number of exercises which would exploit the ity to transfer information from the informal the input to that of a general academic description (steps x, This would help in devel 4) We now had a good, re distinction between the wwe had not yet covered in our language syllabus. (Note again the use ofthe syllabus as a checking device. ‘was an opport from the point of view of a water molecule (step 8). Ie might ced that some learners would be insulted by such work. This is certainly a point to bear in mind, although in our experience this, kind of activity is welcomed by learners as a chance for some fun, the course when more conventional There is, in any case, no compulsion to do the exercise. We would repeat a point made earlier: mate should be a stimulus, They should provide opportunities for class- s. There is a lot to be said for putting in more than can actually be covered, Some can be left out to suit the needs of different creative greatest importance was the work that could now be done to follow up step 2. Whereas previously the learners had simply recreated the input, now they had a much more creative activity. They were transferring the input content into the diagram in step 2, as before. Then the information in the diagram could be used as input to an exercise on discourse linkers (step 6). This pave added coherence to the unit by recycling work from one exercise into another. But the real benefit was thar in doing this new series of exercises the learners were in effect creating for themselves the otiginal descriptive text we had started with (see figure 32). This, we felt, was a much more creative and meaningful learning than simply reconstructing a given text. Having revised our unit using the new text, we could proceed to the remaining stages of using the model and complete a workable version of che ma 124 Original toxt New text input text input text diagram diagram i reformulated students’ input text own text Figure 32: A more creative learning task ‘Stage 8: Check the new materials against the syllabus and amend ‘accordingly. ‘Stage 9: Try the materials in the classroom. the light of classroom Is. They can always be improved, Conclusion: Other options this chapter we have looked in detail at one of the most characteristic features of ESP work: materials writing. We have presented and shown how to operate a model which puts into practice 2 learning-centred approach to materials. However, in concluding, we should state that for a number of reasons materials writing is best regarded as the last resort, when all other fing materials have been exhausted. 4a) We have noted that there is much common ground between learners, of apparently very different subject specialisms. Thus you should first question whether the learners’ needs are significantly different from those of other groups in your institution. It may be possible to use existing materials. But make sure that this solution is acceptable to everyone concerned. Students and sponsors might feel that they ns ae a ahs ale MoH {21 20) papoou st aflpajmouy 3uz1u0> Pue 120 Poofg 342 JO puD aYP Ie 50) ax we OOTY S Apap moury st sendy] 2ey yt Recon com toons oe ou Ayss 30 Ayas suosea ‘aatp gstoureD| gS UO NOK 30 9]qeIIMs 9q 31M 12D Poof > PIO AA. 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