Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Vol. 9: Thorax and Lungs
Your learning objectives for mastering the examination of the thorax and lungs are: to review the
anatomy and physiology of the thorax and lungs; and to apply correct techniques to examination of the
posterior and anterior chest, including inspection, palpation, percussion, and auscultation. Accurate
identification of percussion notes and breath sounds is especially important when assessing asthma,
bronchitis, COPD, and pneumonia.
Common or concerning symptoms relating to the thorax and lungs include: Chest pain, shortness of
breath or dyspnea, wheezing, cough, and blood‐streaked sputum, or hemoptysis.
By eliciting the patient’s concerns before the examination, you prepare for an examination that is
efficient and productive.
Smoking accounts for one in five U.S. deaths each year, so be prepared to counsel smokers about the
risk of related diseases and death, and be current on techniques that help smokers quit successfully.
Anatomy Review—Thorax and Lungs
An understanding of thoracic landmarks is integral to the systematic examination of the thorax. The
bony thorax encases the heart and lungs and partially covers the stomach, liver, kidneys, and spleen.
The thorax consists of 12 pairs of ribs which attach anteriorly to the sternum via their costal cartilages
and posteriorly to the thoracic vertebrae. Inferiorly the anterior cartilage and ribs form the right and left
costal margins. To locate and describe your findings when examining the thorax and lungs, you must be
able to number the 12 ribs and their interspaces accurately as well. Anteriorly, begin by identifying the
sternal angle.
To find the sternal angle, place your finger in the hollow curve of the suprasternal notch...
...and slide your fingers downward about 5 centimeters until you feel the bony ridge that joins the
manubrium to the body of the sternum. This is the sternal angle.
Move your fingers laterally and find the adjacent second rib and costal cartilage. Using two fingers, walk
down the interspaces, one space at a time, on an oblique line.
Do not try to count interspaces along the lower edge of the sternum as the ribs there are too close
together.
Posteriorly, the 12th rib is another starting point for counting ribs and interspaces.
Find T12 and the adjacent 12th rib by pressing your fingers in and up from below the rib cage. Then
“walk up” the interspaces above.
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An alternate method of numbering the ribs posteriorly is to count down from C7.
Lower your chin to your chest, please.
With the patient’s neck flexed forward, find the most prominent spinous process, which is usually at C7.
Then feel and count from C7 to T12. You can often palpate and count the processes below them,
especially when the spine is flexed.
To further locate and describe your findings, use these imaginary vertical lines: the midsternal,
midclavicular, anterior axillary...
...midaxillary, anterior and posterior axillary...
...scapular, and vertebral.
When examining the chest, it’s helpful to visualize the underlying lungs and their fissures and lobes on
the chest wall.
Anteriorly, the apex of each lung usually rises 2 to 4 centimeters above the inner third of the clavicle.
The lower border of the lung crosses the 6th rib at the midclavicular line and the 8th rib at the
midaxillary line.
Posteriorly, the border of the lung lies at about the level of the T10 spinous process. On inspiration it
normally descends 3 to 5 cm further down.
Each lung is divided roughly in half by an oblique or major fissure. The right lung is divided into the
upper, middle, and lower lobes. Note that the right middle lobe underlies the axilla. The left lung has
only two lobes, the upper and lower.
Make a point to learn the general anatomical terms used to locate chest findings. Supraclavicular means
above the clavicles. Infraclavicular means below the clavicles. Interscapular means between the
scapulae. Infrascapular means below the scapulae.
The bases of the lungs are the lowermost portions and the upper, middle, and lower lung fields are self‐
explanatory.
The trachea bifurcates into its mainstream bronchi at the levels of the sternal angle anteriorly and the
T4 spinous process posteriorly. Breath sounds over the trachea and bronchi usually have a different
quality than breath sounds over the lung parenchyma.
Beginning the Examination of the Thorax and Lungs
With the patient’s health history in mind, and after good hand hygiene, you are ready for the physical
examination.
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Note the shape of the chest and how it moves.
Is the thorax symmetrical?
Are there any bony deformities?
Observe the rate, rhythm, depth, and effort of breathing...and listen for any audible sounds of breathing
that may indicate respiratory distress.
Now listen and count the number of breaths per minute. Normally, a resting adult breathes easily,
quietly, and regularly about 14 to 20 times a minute.
Inspect the patient’s neck for retraction of the accessory muscles, namely the supraclavicular,
sternocleidomastoid, or scalene muscles, suggesting respiratory difficulty. Normally, this is not present.
Palpate in the sternal notch to check the position of the trachea. It should be in the midline.
Check the patient’s color for circumoral and nailbed cyanosis, a bluish color arising from deoxygenation.
Lips and fingernails are normally pink.
Examining the Posterior Thorax
Now examine the posterior thorax, beginning with inspection. Observe the chest for contour, symmetry,
and deformities. Also, inspect the overlying skin.
Tell me if this hurts.
Then, palpate the chest wall to locate any areas of pain or tenderness, or any lesions or bruises
suspicious for rib fracture.
To test chest expansion, place your thumbs close to the patient’s spine at the level of the 10th ribs and
spread your fingers lightly across the lateral thorax.
Ask the patient to inhale and exhale deeply and fully while you watch the divergence of your thumbs
(normally about 2 centimeters) and feel for the range and symmetry of movement. Decreased excursion
suggests restrictive lung disease.
Next, systematically palpate for tactile fremitus.
Okay, I’m going to press my hands on your back and I want you to say, “ninety‐nine… ninety‐nine” over
and over again until I tell you to stop.
Sure.
Say, “ninety‐nine.”
Ninety‐nine...ninety‐nine...ninety‐nine ...ninety‐nine…
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Using the ball of your hand or the ulnar surface, identify areas of increased, decreased, or absent
fremitus. Palpate and compare symmetric areas of the lungs as you identify and locate any areas of
increased, decreased, or absent fremitus.
…ninety‐nine…
Okay, you can stop now.
Continue the examination by percussing the chest in a systematic manner, moving down the thorax and
going from side‐to‐side, as demonstrated, in a “ladder” pattern.
Remember that only the distal interphalangeal joint of your pleximeter finger should be in contact with
the chest wall to avoid damping out the percussion note. Wrist motion should be relaxed and fluid as
you make strikes with the tip of the third plexor finger. You are trying to transmit vibrations through the
bones of the pleximeter joint to the underlying chest wall.
Percuss down the chest wall from the apices to the bases of the lungs. Listen to the intensity, pitch, and
duration of your percussion notes and note the sense of vibration. Identify the type of notes you are
hearing. Normal lungs are resonant.
Hyperresonance suggests COPD from alveolar air trapping and delayed expiration. Note any areas of
abnormal dullness, suspicious for underlying effusion.
Next, ask the patient to breathe out and use percussion to identify the lower level of the diaphragms.
Ask the patient to take a full inspiration and measure descent of the diaphragms, or diaphragmatic
excursion.
Percuss downward from the initial level of the diaphragms until you again reach dullness at the
boundary of resonant lung tissue and the duller structures below the diaphragm. Excursion is usually 3
to 5 centimeters.
Auscultation is the most important examination technique for assessing air flow. It involves listening to
the sounds generated by breathing, listening for any adventitious or added sounds, and, if abnormalities
are suspected, listening to the sounds of the patient’s spoken or whispered voice as they are
transmitted through the chest wall.
To auscultate the posterior thorax, use the diaphragm of the stethoscope. Begin at the apices and
proceed downward, moving systematically from side‐to‐side—again, in a ladder pattern—comparing
breath sounds in symmetrical areas.
Listen to the duration, pitch, and intensity of the inspiratory and expiratory sounds, decide what type of
breath sounds you are hearing, and note any added sounds. Listen to at least one entire breathing cycle
at each location.
[VESICULAR BREATH SOUNDS, AS PATIENT BREATHES IN]
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They are normally heard during inspiration and during the first third of expiration and can be heard over
most of the lung fields.
Bronchial breath sounds are harsher, louder, and higher in pitch than vesicular sounds. They are often
heard over the trachea and main stem bronchi.
The expiratory sound lasts longer than the inspiratory sound. A silent gap may separate these two
sounds in bronchial breath sounds.
[BRONCHIAL BREATH SOUNDS]
Bronchovesicular sounds are often heard in the 1st and 2nd interspaces anteriorly and between the
scapulae posteriorly. They have an intermediate pitch and intensity.
Inspiratory and expiratory sounds are about equal in duration at times separated by a silent interval.
Adventitious (or “added breath”) sounds are superimposed on the usual breath sounds. Detection of
these sounds is an important goal of your examination often leading to diagnosis of cardiac and
pulmonary conditions. These sounds may include “crackles,” sometimes called rales…or wheezes and
rhonchi.
Crackles are intermittent, non‐musical, and brief—like dots in time. They are often heard in pneumonia,
pulmonary fibrosis, and early heart failure.
[COARSE CRACKLES]
Fine crackles are soft, high‐pitched, and very brief, and often accompany congestive heart failure.
[FINE CRACKLES]
Coarse crackles are louder, lower‐pitched, and longer.
[COARSE CRACKLES]
Compared to crackles, wheezes and rhonchi last much longer and sound more musical.
Wheezes are relatively high‐pitched and have a hissing or shrill quality, and often suggest asthma.
[WHEEZING SOUNDS]
Rhonchi have a lower‐pitched, snoring quality, and arise from secretions in large airways, as seen in
bronchitis.
[RHONCHI SOUNDS]
If you hear abnormally located bronchovesicular or bronchial breath sounds, assess transmitted voice
sounds. While auscultating the chest, again ask the patient to say “ninety‐nine.”
Ninety‐nine...ninety‐nine...
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Next, test for egophony, of “E” to “A” changes, which occur in lobar consolidation from pneumonia.
Have the patient say, “eeee.”
Say, “eeeee…eeeee…eeeee”
E‐e‐e‐e‐e‐e‐e‐e‐e‐e...
Normally you will hear a muffled long E sound. If the underlying tissue is consolidated, the E sound
changes to a bleating “A” in quality.
Okay, whisper “1, 2, 3…1, 2, 3”
Finally, check for whispered pectoriliquy. Ask the patient to whisper “1, 2, 3.”
[WHISPERING] 1...2...3.
The whispered voice is usually heard faintly or indistinctly, if at all. Clearer louder sounds suggest
underlying consolidation.
Examining the Anterior Thorax
To examine the anterior thorax, have the patient lie supine and breathe normally. Observe the condition
of the skin and inspect the chest for deformities, asymmetry, and respiratory movement.
Next, palpate the chest to locate any areas of tenderness or to assess any lesions or abnormalities.
Then, assess chest expansion. Place your thumbs along each costal margin with your hands along the
lateral rib cage. Raise any loose skin folds between your thumbs and ask the patient to take a deep
breath.
Take a deep breath for me, please.
Observe how far your thumbs diverge as the thorax expands, and feel for the extent and symmetry of
respiratory movement.
Next, palpate for tactile fremitus. Compare both sides of the chest using the ball or ulnar surface of your
hand. Fremitus is usually decreased or absent over the precordium.
When examining a woman, gently displace the breasts as necessary.
Next, percuss the anterior chest…and the lateral chest. The heart usually produces an area of dullness to
the left of the sternum from the 3rd to the 5th interspaces.
Percuss the left lung lateral to the area of dullness.
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Percuss in progressive steps downward in the right midclavicular line. Identify the upper border of liver
dullness. As you percuss down the chest on the left, the resonance of normal lung usually changes to the
tympany of the gastric air bubble.
To auscultate the chest anteriorly and laterally, ask the patient to breathe with his mouth open and
somewhat more deeply than normal. Compare symmetric areas of the lungs, using the ladder pattern
suggested for percussion and extending it to adjacent areas if indicated.
Listen to the breath sounds, noting their intensity and identifying any variation from normal vesicular
breathing. Note that breathing sounds are usually louder in the upper anterior lung fields. And
bronchovesicular breath sounds may be heard over the large airways, especially to the right.
Identify any adventitious sounds and, if indicated, listen for transmitted voice sounds.
Say “ninety‐nine,” please.
Sure. Ninety‐nine, ninety‐nine…
Recording Your Findings
Remember that a clear, well‐organized clinical record—employing language that is neutral, professional,
and succinct—is one of the most important adjuncts to patient care.
[TYPING] Thorax is symmetric with good expansion. Lungs resonant. Breath sounds vesicular; no rales,
wheezes, or rhonchi. Diaphragms descend 4 centimeters bilaterally…
After practice and further review of this video, make sure you have mastered the important learning
objectives for examining the patient’s thorax and lungs.
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