‘objectives/advice Introduction The Pitot/Static syste Pitot/static Installations Pitot/static Instruments Activity 1. ‘The ALtineter ‘The Airspeed Indicator The Vertical Speed Indicator Activity 2. Maintenarce of Pitot Static/systens Additional Instrumentation Self Assessment, Self Assessment Review Sunmary Essential Reading Recomenéed Reading Suggested Practical Activities Typical Examination Questions Answers to Typical Examination QuestionsQBgecrrvEs /aDVICE on completion of this booklet you will have a general Sppreciation of any sizeraft's pito/static system, and the Basic instruments supplied. In particular you will be able for © describe the sources of pitot and static peersure, © wita the aid of a Giagram, explain a single Ditst/static system, © describe how the three basic instruments, altineter, ASI and VSI operate, © List typical maintenance autivilies involved with pitot/static systens The booklet will take you about one hour of study tine. erRopuctioN ‘The instrument panels of modern cockpits present an array of Gials, which nay at first appear bewildering, but everything has a cleer function and is essential for the efficient and accurate control of the aircraft. The panels contain two main Groupe of inseruments, they are: ¢ these that show the relationship of the aircraft fo its surroundings and to the ground, © those for engines and aircraft systems which inéieate certain. conditions related to those systems. This is the first of three booklets which look at these Instruments, and in the first booklet ve will look st the instruments vhich are Used to indicate to the pilot the felationship of the aircraft to its surroundings and the ground. For an aircraft to operate in a safe, reliable and economic manner in its natural environment, a method of supplying the Pilot or crev with information about the aircraft's altivude and airspeea must be provided. In this booklet we will look at the basic principles of the neasurenent ind display of altitude and airspeed employed in Bll aircraft, together with sose typical maintenance actions.‘THE PrTOT/STATIC SYSTEM ‘The terms pitot and static are commonly used throughout the industry to identify the appropriate stospheric pressures used in altitude and airspeed measurement. Their definitions are: ‘Thic is the dynamic pressure, generated by the aircraft's movement through the atmosphere, and isa fuction of the aircraft's ‘velocity squarea’. i.e., Pitot pressure © cv? (v = velocity) (c = Constant) © Statics This is the still or static air pressure that Surrounds the aircraft, <.e., ambient pressure. This reduces in value with an increase in height above sea level. Pitot and static pressures are obtained from outside the aircraft. and applied to the measuring instruments via Lightweight alloy tubing and flexible pipes. Pitot pressure is derived from a pitot head that is mounted at 2 point directly forward of and Slong—the airoraft's, normal line of flight, so that it measures the dynamic pressure Generated by the aircraft's movement through the air. Static pressure is derived from a static vent that measures the anbient pressure surrounding the aircraft, in some syetens the static vents are incorporated into the pitot head. Fig. 1 on the next page shows a typical pitot/static probe designed for fuselage nounting.Pigs 1 PrTOr mm As a prevention against ice formation, the pitot head will contain a heating element that is powered from the aircraft's Slectrical power system, The controls and indicators for pitot head heating are located in the aireragt's cockpit. In some aircraft, static pressure is obtained fron a static vent located fuush against the fuselage. Fig. 2 on the next page is a typical example of a static. vent. In some Installations the vent will contain a heating element for ice protection, sisilar to those used on a pitot head.co ae It is common practice to install two static vents, one located fon each side of the aireraft, and cross connected, This is, to reduce errors in the measuring instrunente due to a” pressure unbalance vhenever yawing of the aircraft takes place. ITOT/STATIC INSTALLATIONS ‘The pitot head is installed to measure the undisturbed dynamic air pressure forvard of the aircraft. This means the pitoe head is usually located on the forward fuselage or on’ the Leading edge of a wing. ‘The static vents are generally located on the forvard or mid fuselage area, in a position to measure the ambient, pressure, that is, free’ from any turbulence caused by external fittings or aerials imediately adjacent to the vent. Pitot and static pressures are applied to the appropriate instruments via a systen of light alloy pipes and” iexile hoses, which includes some method of collecting moisture at the low points in the system, and thus preventing blockages due to ice formation. ‘These aré generally known as water drain valves and usually include a means to allow the moisture to be drained away via a valve that is designed to be self sealing.rere Fig 3 shows two examples of water drain valves. PITOT/STATIC TusTROMORETS ‘There are a large number of different pitot/static instruments and control systems in use. ‘The three most common types found on any aircraft are the:- © Altimeter; which displays the aircraft height or altitude above a datum, ie., sea level. © Airspeed Indicator (ASr); which displays the speed of the aircraft through the air, usually calibrated in knots. (Nautical miles per hour). © Vertical speed Indicator (vst); which displays the aircraft's rate of climb or descent in ‘thousands of feet per minute. ‘These instruments are supplied with pitot and static pressure from the appropriate canresA simplified system is shown in Pig. 4. [ ig. 4 suwnircen rnmysricre SYSTEX Before we take a look at the instrunents themselves, it is now Suitable. time fo fant your rnowledge of pitot/static ‘installations,ACTIVITY 1 8 Minutes a Give a definition of (a) Pitot pressure, () static pressure. Draw a simple pitot/static system, supplying Pressures to the three basic instruments. (Use Blocks to indicate the instruments). @ co)cotmseuns o8 ACTIVITY 1 1. (a) Pitot pressure is the dynamic pressure generated by the eireraft's movement through the alr. () Static pressure is the ambient pressure that surrounds the aircraft. 2. Your diagram should be something Like that in Pig. 4. I hope you didn't find those too difficult, if you are satisfied with your results move on to consider the three basic instrunents, starting with the altimeter. ‘THE ALTIMETER An altimeter is a sensitive pressure gauge which operates on the principle of the anezoid barometer to indicate the change in atmospheric pressure which occurs with a change in altitade. In the altimeter, static pressure is applied to the sealed case Surrounding an evacuated capsule, which expands as the height increases, and atmospheric préssure decreases. Capsule movenent is magnified by a mechanical linkage to move a group of pointers or counters. The scale is calibrated in accordance with an International Civil Aircraft Organisation (ICAO) lew which assumes, amongst other factors, a standard sea level pressure of 1013.25 millibars. In order to compensate for deviations awey from this standard Pressure, the instrument datum can be altered by rotating the fechanism via the knob on the front of the instrunent. There are three connon altimeter datum settings based upon the ICAO "Q" code of communication. © QFE: Setting the pressure prevailing at an airfield to make the altimeter read zero on landing and take off. © GRE: Setting the standard sea level pressure of 1013.25 mbar. This is normally set during cruise, to ensure all aircraft are reading height’ from a uniform datun. © QNH: Setting the pressure datum to make the altineter read airfield height above sea level for landing and take off, i,e., the current sea level pressure. Fig. 5 on the next page shows a simplified altimeter schematic, and some typical instrument Zaces.The airspeed indicator, or ASI, is a sensitive pressure gauge which measures the difference ‘between the pitot and static Pressure, and displays the resultant in terms of indicated airspeed.= 10 - ‘The instrument incorporates a barometric cepsule which expands under dynamic or pitot pressure, while static. pressure is applied to the sealed instrument case surrounding the capsule, Thus the capsule expands in proportion to the difference between pitot and static pressure, the movenent is transferred to a pointer by a mechanical linkage. The pointer. rotates against a scale on the dial face calibrated in units of speeds Biles per hour, knots oF kilomerras per hose Fig. 6 is a simplified schematic of an ASI along with sone typical dial presentations. [SPECAL DIAL PRESERTATIONS THE VERTICAL, SPEED INDICATOR ‘The VSI or rate of climb and descent indicator shows whether the aircraft is clinbing or descencing. In the VSI, “static pressure is connected to a pressure capsule and’ to the instrunent case via a calibrated metering unit, which Antroduzes @ ‘leak! into the instrument.ome hen flying level (Fig. 7(a)) the pressures in the capsule and the case are equal and the needle renains at zero. When the aircraft descends (Fig. 7(b)) increasing static pressure expands the capsule and the needle indicates & Bescent. When the a: contracts the sraft climbs (Pig. 7(¢)) decreasing static pressure Capsule and the needle indicates a clind. ‘The dial is calibrated in thousands of feet per minute climb ox Gescent with a maxinum figure of 6000 ft for high performance aircraft, and 2000 £¢ for light aircraft. ‘the indscator may be adjusted to read zero with the air the ground, by the adjustment screv located on the face of thene We have now completed our look at the basic operating principles of the three main instruments in connon use. Before je look at sone Maintenance activities carry out Activity 2. activity 2. 5 Minwi Complete the following sentences by supplying the missing word or words, from the List supplied. 1. an AST is supplied with . An altimeter capsule is .. The pressure datum adjustment codes are | AVST measures the actual ore Pitot pressure only Supplied with static pressure QUE Rate of change of speed ou rr Pitot and static pressure. Evacuated Rate of change of static pressure one Supplied with pitot pressureroe Commnns on acTIviTy 2 Your answers should be: 2. An AST Ss supp’ 2 with pitot and static pressure. 2, An altimeter capsule is evacuated. 3. The pressure datum adjustment codes are QFE, ONE, ONH. the actual rate of change of static hope you did not find those too difficult! Let's move on. MAINTENANCE OF PYTOT/STATIC SYSTEMS ‘The following paragraphs are of a general nature and extracted from CAIP AL/10-1, which you are advised to read in conjunction with this Booklet. Pitot /Static Heads Should be inspected for security of mounting and signs of Sistortion. The pitot entry hole, drain hole and if applicable the static vents should be inspected to ensure that hey are unobstructed. Gaution On no account must they be cleared with tools likely Eovcaige enlargement or blurring, use of a Stiff, non-metallic Brush is recomended. Static Vem Should be inspected to ensure thet exposed surfaces are free from scratches, indentations, paint etc., and the holes are unobstructed and their edges free cf Darts and other damage. Pipelines Should be checked to ensure freedon from corrosion, kinking and. other danage, and that the pipes are securely clanped and their connections tight and locked. At specified periods or when the aircraft has been subjected to Severe weather conditions, the pitot-static system should be drained at each of the water-drains provided. The pipes should be disconnected from the instruments and blown throug with a dry, low pressure air supply.-ue Electrical Heaters Probe and vent neaters should be checked for operation by ensuring they warm up when svitched on, or if an ammeter 13 fitted by carrying out a current consumption check. once this check has been carried out switch off the heaters, because in seill air the elenente will overheat and burn out. Caution Exercise great care when checking for probe heat, the probes and vents can reach very high temperatures with the Bircrage on the ground. Physical examination: Check for:- © security of attachment and connections, © legibility of dial markings, © presence of moisture inside the glass, which Indicates a case leak. © pitot and static Lines not cross connected, especially relevant to the ASI. Note: To prevent the inadvertent cross connection, pitot and Static connectors are usually of different sizes with the lines Clearly marked, or the connectors will be colour coded red for pitot, yellow for static In situ tests: With no pressures applied to the pitot/static Linas other than ambient pressure the instruments should readi~ © VSI, zero, can be adjusted within limits specified in the Maintenance Manual. © ASI, zero, or off scale, this cannot be adjusted. © Altineter, set the QFE on the pressure datum. The inscriment should read zero, plus or minus Limite laid down in the Maintenance Mangal. Set ‘the CNH to the correct value and check that the pointers move smoothly round’ to indicate the airfield's heignt above sea level, again within Linits laid down in the Maintenance Manwal- Sone instruments will have an electrical connection to power, internal dial lighting and an electro-nechanical vibrator to prevent the mechanical movement from sticking and introducing fan error into the instrument. These functions are checked for gorrect operation by applying power from the appropriate supply-as- Protection Covers These are moulded covers and plugs that ere fitted to pitot/static vents to prevent. the entry of foreign matter, Ghenever the aireraft is to be left standing for any length of Uline. They are of a prominent colour and have a red streamer Sttached to ensure they are renoved prior to flight. Before fitting a protective cover, always ensure the appropriate heater is switched off, and inhibited by opening the appropriate circuit breaker or switch. ADDITIONAL INSTROMENTATION We have now completed our look at the basic operating and Raintenance principles of pitot/static instrument systems. Tefora you finish the booklet it is worthwhile looking at some bdditional equipment that can be fitted to any aircraft pitot/static system. Machneter: Supplied with pitot ané static pressure. Contains both ASI and altimeter capsules and a mechanism to display the speed of the Aircraft asa percentage of the local speed of sound, vhich varies with altitude. Az Data Coaputer Supplied with pitot and static pressure. Contains individual airspeed and altimeter capsules, and transducer elements vhich Convert capsule movenent to an électrical signal proportional fo airspeed and altitude, Additional quantities can be derived Such as; vertical speed, mach airspead, true air speed, total air temperature and even angle of attack. These signals are Suppliea to additional electronic equipment such as; aucopilots, autothrottles, navigation systems, flight data Fecorders and even instruments themselves. Pressure Switches and Transducers Supplied with pitot and static pressure, or static pressure, to provide aural, visual or physical warning to a pilot of an Approaching dangerous condition, such as too great an air Speed, or aleitade. They contain capsules similar to those found’ in ‘the basic instruments, but activate electrical Svitches instead of pointer mechanisms.ae As a final review consider Fig. 8. zt is a layout of a Bicoe/atatic systen sora Boeing 737 aircragt, and includes Sone of the itens discussed in this booklet. ig. 8 somtNe 737 ~ ernon/smere yer ator?-u- SELP_ASSESSMENT 1 aw oo) © Draw a simplified pitot/static system, include an internal schenatic Of the three basic instruments to Show how the indications are derived. Describe the three basic '9' codes for pressure datum adjustment of an altineter.-1e- Briefly describe the in-situ tests for:~ (a) an altineter. (b) an ast. fe) a vst. @ ) coor SELF ASSESSMENT REVIEW Your answers should be something Like these:~ Your sketch should include those items illus Fig. 9. ced in 2. QFE, setting the pressure datum to make the altineter read zero on landing or take off. QNH, setting the pressure datum to make the altineter Fead airfield height above sea level. on landing oF take off, i.e., the current sea level pressure. QNE, setting the standard sea level pressure T0IS.25 mbars to make the altimeter read height 2 constant datun.= 20- 3. tin situ! teste ares (a) vst: Ensure it reads zero. (®) ast: Ensure it reads zero. (c) Altimeter: Ensure it reads zero when pressure datum is set to QFE, and pointers © rotate Smoothly around to. indicate airfield height above sea level, when the pressure datun is adjusted to the’ ONE. If you experienced any difficulty with these questions, refer Back to the appropriate sections in the booklet and repeat the work €0 your own satisfaction. SUMMARY We have now covered the basic principles of aircraft pitot/static systems, and the basic operation of the three most Common instruments found on any aircraft. In addition we have looked at some typical maintenance activities involved with these systems. In the next booklet in this study plan we shall consider gyroscopic instruments. ESSENTIAL READING (CAIPS AL/10-1 RECOMMENDED READING Airframe and Powerplart Mechanics Airframe Handbook EACAC 65 - 15A Chapter 12. SUGGESTED PRACTICAL ACTIVITES Read an aircraft Maintenance Manual ATA Chapter 24. Make @ note of the maintenance activities appropriate to that aireragt. i Sxanine as many different instruments and systems as possible on any aircraft available to you, make. any adjustments ONLY under the strict supervision of qualified engineer.e@ Gyro Instrumentscomments Objectives /aavice 4 Entreduetion 1. ‘The Gyroscope Activity 1. 5. ‘The Rate Gyroscope Power Supplies for Gyro Instruments ™ whe Artificial Horizon 8. the Dizection Indicator 20. Rate of Turn Indicator Lo. Activity 2. a. Maintenance Activities a. Self Assessment a. Self Assessment Review 16. summary as. Essential Reading vv. Reconnended Reading a Suggested Practical Activities uw. typical Examination Questions a8. Answers to Typical Examination Questicns 19.opsectives/apvice on completion of this booklet you will have a general appreciation of an aircraft's gyroscopic instrumentation system. In pirticular you will be able to: © define the terms rigidity and precession as applied to gyros, © understand the principle of operation of a rate gyro, © describe typical instrument power supplies © describe how the three basic instruments, artificial horizon, direction indicator, and rate of turn indicator operate, © describe typical in situ tests for these instruments. This booklet vill take you about one hour to complete, and assune that you have completed Booklet No. 1 on Pitot/Static Instrument systene. aNrRoDUCTION The Instrument panels in a modern cockpit present an azzay of dials, which may at first appear bewildering, but” everything has 2'clear function and is essential for the efficient and accurate control of the aircraft. There are two main groups Of runenes © those that show the relationship of the aircraft to its surroundings and to the groung, © those for the engines and aircraft systens which indicate conditions inside the aircraft, For an aircraft to operate in a safe, reliable and economic manner in its natural environment, in all conditions of visibility, sone method of supplying the pilot or crew with information about the aircraft's actitude and heading must’ be Provided.In this booklet we will look at the basic principles of the Reasurenene and dceplay of attitude and heading information, a5 Uscives from gyroscopic instruments, namely the:~ ficial horizon, © @irection indicator, © rate of turn indicator. ‘THE GYROSCOPE ‘the gyroscope (gyz0) ie & rotor having freedom in motion in one of more planes at right angles to the plane of rotation. Fig. 1 below is a gyro with freedom of movenent about two axes, BBY and cc" With the rotor spinning, the gyro vill possess two fundamental ropertie: © gyroscopic rigidity or inertia, * gyroscopic precession. ‘hese are defined as:~ Rigiaity Maintains ite axis of rotation constant in space.aa An angular change of direction of the plane of rotation, under the action of an external force. As it is importane for you to understand these tuo definitio: Tee's examine them in more detail. consider Pig. 2. If the gyro rotor is spinning and the supporting frames are positioned as shown, then regardless of the position of frame ¢ Fotating about axis BB" or rotating about axis iA"; the rotor and its axis of spin AA’ will remain fixed in the same Position, pointing into space. This it gyro rigidity. Hovever, if the frame C is rotated about axis CC", then due to ‘the nature of gyro precession the gyro frame A vill rotate the axis of spin until it is vertical, as shown in Tig. 3°to determine the direction a gyro will precess, follow these Sinple sveps, with reference 0 Pig. 4. 1. Augly the force so Lt acts on the sim of the rotor at a8 2, Move this force arond the rim of the rotor so that it moves through 90° and in the sane direction as the rotor spins. 3, Precession will move the rotor in the sane direction ag chet initially applied at 1. One important point about precession to remenber, is the relationship of the rate of precession or angular change to applied force and gyro rotor speed. ‘The relationships are:- © for a given gyro rotor speed, the rate of precession is proportional to the amount of applied force, ¢ for a given applied force, the rate of precession is inversely proportional to rotor speed. one final point to remenber se chat the frames waacn nold the spin axis ina certain position are known as gimbals. wherefore, with reference to Pig. 1, this gyro has two gimbals, an inner gimbal (frame A) and an outer ginbal (frame 3). Before we move on to look at the instrumentation, carry out Activity 1, to. engure chat you are familiar with basic gyroscopic theor;ACTIVITY 1 15 Minutes 1. Draw a gyro whose spin axis is horizontal has two gimbals, an inner and an outer. 2. Give the definition of: (4) rigiaity, (44) precession.comeners oN ACTIVITY 1 1. Gyros can be @ bit tricky to draw, however with practice your gyro should appear as shown in Pig. 1. The definitions are:- (4) Rigidity ~ the gyroscope maintains its axis of spin constant in space. (ii) precession ~ the angular change of direction of the plane of rotation under the action of an external force. If you are satisfied with your answers, let's move on. THE RATE GYROSCOPE ‘he basic rate gyroscope is a two frane gyro similar to that shown in Fig. 1, vith one notable difference, in that the frame is restrained by springs attached to the base, as shown in Fig 5 With the rotor spinning, the base is rotated in an anti-clockwise direction (1), This turning motion will precess the gyro rotor frame, so that the pointer moves over to the left, extending spring A, compressing spring 8. The extension of spring A applies a recultant force (2), which in turn will recess the gyro rotor (3), waich is in the sane direction as the original turning motion.‘Thus the rate of angular motion of the base is balanced by the precession of the rotor in the sane plane. This balance is achieved by precession against the spring to. produce the Fequisite force, and che rate of turn will be indicatee by the pointer moving over the scale, provided the rotor speed remains Constant. ‘The rate gyro just described forms the basis of an aircraft's rate of turn indicator, vith additional applications in aircraft autopilot and yaw damper systens. POWER SUPPLIES POR GYRO INSTRUMENTS In all gyro instruments, a prime requirement is to provide some form of power to spin the rotor at a very high speed, and in the case of rate gyros at a constant speed. This power is derived from two different sources, cependent upon the type of aircraft involved; these are: © electrical. Vacuum Supplic This form of supply is used in inetruments that are air ériven, and is generally found on Light aizcratt, cr older” types of aircraft. In this system, @ vacuum is produced, either from a venturi tube mounted outside the aircraft or from an engine driven suction pump. The air lines are connected to the appropriate instruments, and the vacuum produced will aray air from inside the cockpit, through the instrument and to the source. In passing through the instrument, the air is turned into a nunber of jets, which impinge on buckets cut into the periphery Of the rotor. The operating details of @ vacuum system were covered in the Previous booklet, which you are recommended to read, and therefore will adt be discussed again in this booklet. Electrical Supplies In electrically operated instruments, the gyro rotors are specially constructed motors designed on conventional acs and alc. motor principles.mney can be designed to operate from either 26 volt direct sey se of 11s volt, 400 hertz alternating current (or less), PEER fe Supplied from. the aircraft's electrical generator Gystem or instrument inverter system. the advantages of using electrical oyros over air @riven gyros Te iGneroas, bu the main ones can be summarised as follows: ¢ Anstrunents can be completely sealed, no chance of aire or moisture ingress, © greater gyro rotor speed, leading to more accurate indications, «efficient operation at ali altitudes and aircraft speeds, © with no supply pipes, total aircraft weight can be reduced. With these basic facts, we can now move on and look at the MigileGperation of the three main gyroscopic instruments in use on any sireraft. INE ARTIFICIAL HORTZON The artificial horizon has @ gyroscope rotating on a vertical Enis; which is maintained in a position perpendicular to the Ehcthrs surface by some form of gravity seeking device attached zo its gimbal. the gyro renains steady and the gimbals are displaced around The “Zocor by the manoeuvres of the aircraft, These Eiipiscemants’ are sensed through mechanical linkages that Gonerei a waite bar representing the horizon, that remains {evel with respect to the Earth, whilst a marker, representing the aizcraft and fixed to the instrument face appears to move SBletive co the horizon bar to show the changing attitude of the sizeraft. aypical aiplaye are shown in Pig. 6 on the next page.-u- ME DIRECTION INDICATOR ‘The gyroscopic direction or heading indicator is intended to provide a stable heading reference in bonpy flight. or during Eurns, climbs and dives when the conventional magnetic compass is generally unusable. the direction indicator utilises « gyro with a horizontal axig mounted between two frames, the outer frame includ 360° graduated scale. Due £0. the principle of gyroscopic Figidity, the rotor saintains its position in space, while the aizcrafe and instrument pointer rotate around the scale. ‘The instrument includes a knob that when pressed and rotated allows the direction indicator to be set to the aircraft's Regnetic heading, prior to making @ manoeuvres Fig. @ is a simplified schematic of a direction indicator. figs @ otntenson niorenmen comusse RATE OP TURN INDICATOR A rate gyro, similar to that shown in Fig. 9 on the next page, ie mounted in an instrument to. indicate to’ the pilot’ the aircraft's rate of turn. The scale, marked with numerals 1 to 4 or with index marks, is calibrated such thet the number 1 or first’ index mark equates to. a 180 degree per minute turn, commonly known as a rate one turn. Ie iz usual co find che rate of curn gyroscopic instrument combined with an indicator known as a slip indicator.-u- This is a gravity controlled device, either a ball-in-tube type, or a weight and pointer type that vill. come under the influence of gravity to indicate to the plot the slip of skid Of the sireraft that occurs during an uncoordinated turn. Fig. 9 also shown examples of rate of turs and slip indicators.-aa- acriviry 2 Minutes 1. Dray the instrument face of an artificial horizon with the aircraft in a climbing turn to the lefts 2. Which instrument uses the gyroscopic principle Of precession? 3. Briefly descrite two typical gyro supplies. a 2 3 0)ae coments ou ACTIVITY 2 1. The sketch you require should be similar to that shown in Fig. 6, the bottom centre diagram. 2. The rate of turn indicator uses the principle of precession. (a) Vacuum, froma venturi tube, or an engine driven Suction pump, drave air through the instrunen:, air jets produced impinge on buckets ‘cut into (2) Electrical power, either acc. or d.c. is supplied to the rotor, which forms part Of an electrical motor. ZX hope you didn't find those too difficult. 1¢ you expeciencea any ditficulty, refer back to the appropriate section and Feview the vork. MAINTENANCE ACTIVITrES Caution ‘he gyro rotor and gimbal bearings are manufactured to very fine tolerances, and can be easily danagea by rough handling. Therefore keep the instruments in their original packing until sequized, aid handle ell instruments carefully ana the correct The followiag information is extracted from CAIPs Leaflet AL/i0~2, which you are recommended to read, it is of a general nature only. ‘The instruments should be checked for:- * security of attachment to panels, and vacuum and electrical supplies, * cracks in the instrument glass, © legibility of dial markings. An in situ test consists of the following: © Apply power to the instruments, and allow time for the rotors to attain normal running speed.ome Check that the artificial horizon bar indicates the attitude of the parked aircraft, remember the parking area may not be level! Set the direction indicator to the corresponding magnetic heading, ang check for arift fron. this heading. Generaily 3° in 15 minutes is acceptable. the rate of turn indicator should indicate zero. its Rovenent canbe checked” by displacing the Shock-mounted instrument panel at one corner, this Will eimulate a. slight turn and cause che turn pointer to deflect slightly.=ass SELP ASSESSMENT (a) precession, (b) rigiaity. ry () Describe briefly the in situ tests basic gyroscopic instruments. (a) oy te) for the three- 16 - SELP ASSESSMENT REVIEW 1. (a) Precession The angular rate of motion of the gyro's plan Of spin, when it is subjected to en external force. () Rigietty The ability of the gyro rotor to maintain its position in space. 2. Apply power to the gyros, allow time for the gyros to fun up £0 full speed. (a) Artificial horizon - bar indicates the parked Bircrafe's attitude. () Direction indicator - set the heading to the Bircraét's magnetic heading, and check for drift from this value. (c) Rate of turn - ensure reads zero, simulate a Snail” turn’ by. displacing the shock-mounted instrument panel. Check the pointer indicates a amali turn. ie have now covered the basic principles of aircraft gyroscopic instruments and sheir typical Gisplays. We have also covered the typical in sita tests for these instrunents. In conjunction with the previous booklet on pitot/static instruments, we have now covered the six basic instruments that are used to indicate co, the pilot the relationship of his Sireraft to its surroundings and the ground. By using these instruments, the pilot Gould fly the aircraft reliably in all weather conditions, day and night, within certain limitations though! ‘nogether these instruments form what is known as the Basic Six Instrument panel, and you will find that no matter what aireraft you work on, they will all be in a similar position with reference £0 one another, see Fig. 10 on the next page.BSSEWSIAL READING CAIPs Leaflet AL/10-2. ‘RECOMMENDED READING Airframe and Powerplant Mechanics Airframe Handbook AC6S-15A ‘Chapter 12. SUGGESTED PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES gyro instrunent as ioe Hate chaprer 34) possible. for the testing of thesDirect Reading Remote Readingcontents objectives /advice Introduction Direct Reading Instruments activity 1. Renote Reading Instruments ‘Thermocouples Lf Assessment Self Assessment Review summary sential Reading Recommended Reading Suggested Practical Activities typical Examination Questions Answers to Typical Examination QuestionsOBJECTIVES /ADVICE On completion of this booklet you will nave 2 general appreciation of the principles involved in’ airerafe instrunentation, in particular you will be able to: describe how a Bourdon tube Ss employed in a pressure indicator, * appreciate the difference between renote and Girect reading instruments, © describe how a particular parameter, e.9: Breseure, “cenperature or" position can” be Reasured, © describe the different electrical circuits that are used, e.g., Desynn, synchro, Wheatstone Bridge, rationeter and thermocouple. This booklet will take about one hour to complete and I assune that you have completed satisfactorily the first two booklets in this Study Plan. I also advise you to read CArPs Leaflet AL/1o-3. eTRODUCTION ‘The instrument panels of modern aircraft cockpits present an array of dials which may” at firse appear beviléering, bat everything has a clear function and is essential for the efficient and accurate control of the aircraft. There are tvo main groupe:~ «those that show the relationship of the aircraft to its surroundings and to the ground, those for the engines and aircraft systems which Indicate conditions ineide the aircraft. ‘This is the third of three booklets which looks at these instruments, and in this booklet. we shall look at those instruments ‘which indicate the conditions of the engines and aircraft systems to the pilot and crew. For the safe and efficient operation of aircraf: engines and associated systems, some means muse be provided zo supply the crew with information directly related to that system.-2- he type of infomation supplied is varied, ané consists of the © pressure, © tenperature, © position. In this booklet we wil} look at the principles involved in the easurenent and display of these values. ‘They can be divided into two groups:~ © @irect reading instruments, + remote reading instruments. As the name implies, direct reading instruments measure and Qisplay the parancters by some direct, mechanical means, wheres remote reading instruments measure’ the parameter and then transmit the information by another mediun to an indicator, ‘this medium may be a liquid, or an electrical circuits Most modern aircraft utilise instruments of the the latter Group, whilst sone older aircraft or light aircraft utilise the former group. Pig. 1 on the next page shows the main instrument panel from a Boeing 737 airliner. It includes instruments which @isplay:~ © off pressure, © oil temperature, flap position. Identify the appropriate instruments.Fig. 1 notte 737 CORE mISTRMNT A, DIRECT READING INSTRUMENTS Direct reading instruments are mechanically operated, ané are @ used to supply the following informacion. © pressure, © position. Let us look at each one in turn, The most common form of indicator utilises a ‘Bourdon Tube’. This is a 'C" shaped tube of oval cross section, closed at cit fend and open to the pressure source at the other. With pressure applied to the open end, usually by a fluid uch a5 011 oF fuel, the tube will tend to straighten out, and ie is this movenent that will drive a. pointer via some ‘mechanical Linkage, such as shown in Pig. 2 on the next page.la soo ne Fig. 2 somo TUBE wacenNTSH The Sourdon tube mechanism is generally used for the Rescurenent. of high pressure, such as oll or fuel pump Pressure. For low pressure sensing such as found in piston engine manifold preseure indicetion 2 bellows or capsule echanism is used for the sensing element. These itens are shown in Fig. 3. Note the similariey of the Capsule element to that’ found in an altimeter’ or airspeed SndicatortPosition Direct reading, position indicators consist of a series of rods, levers and quadrants driven by some mechanical input, together with some form of flag or poincer ‘positioned By a. bowden cable and spFing mechanism. Fig. 4 is a typical example, used to provide an undercarriage down and locked indication, to backup the normal. electrical system. The indicator is viewed froma cabin window. Drsieo sxozeazon This completes our look at direct reading instruments which T hope you dia not find too difficult. Before ve move on 0 Look ae Fenote reading instruments, test your knowledge of direct reading instruments by actenpting Activity 1.Sto acriviry 110 Minutes Draw a simplified Sourdon tube indicator and describe ifs operation.Commenes om acrivErY 1 your answers should be something like this: Your Bourdon tube should appear as Fig. 1, aC ~ shaped tube of Oval cross-section with one end sealed and the other. connected to the pressure source, an increase in pressure will tend to Straighten the tuze and hence drive a pointer via a gear mechanien. I hope you didn't find that too difficult, if you are satisfied with your anaver, let us move on to the next subject. REMOTE READING INSTRUMENTS As I.mentioned earlier, the more common form of instrumentation iS of the remote reading type. This system consists of two © a transnicter that measures the parameter and Supplies the information via a link t¢ © an indicator, the display unit. The link between the tvo units will consist of a liquid filled Capillary tube, cr an electrical circuit. One main reason for {he change ovef, was that with an increase in aircraft size and complexity it vas considered unwise to have, for example, actual engine ofl or fuel supplied to instruments in the :light deck! Let us first look at some typical units, that employ a liquid medium for the sransmission of pressure information. ‘There are two types:~ © the capitiary type, © the pressure transmitter type. he Capillary type ‘This consists of a transnitter containing a capsule which is Connected directly to a Sourdon tube indicator by a length of Capillary tubing. The capsule, the tubing and the Bourdon tube Ste completely filled with a special fluid such as Heptane and together they form a single unit- hen a pressure, such as that from an engine oil system is applied to the capsule, the force displaces the fluid which in shin tends to straighten the Bourdon tube in the manner of the Birect=reading gauge. Pig. Son the next page is a schematic of the systen.-8- the Pressure Transmitter Type ‘This is similar to the capillary type, but has the advantage that the transmitter and. inéicacor can be replaced Independently of one ancther. Hence it is possible to fill the system, from the transmitter unit and regain normal operation 28 for the capillary type. Temperature Indication In some light aircraft, Liguid temperature measurement such as engine ofl is achieved by using @ capillary system. In this case, the fluid will be mercury or ethyl ether, which i5 contained ina bulb which forns the traismitter unit, it Operates in the same way as a thernoneter, With an increase in temperature the mercury expands or in the case of ethyl ether, the vapour pressuce increases causing the displacement of Bourdon tube indicator. Notice that in both cases, the instrument contains @ Bourdon tube mechaniam! The second group of remote reading instrunente uses an electrical circuit to connect the transmitter and indicator.‘There are a number of different circuits in use, each one will have @ specific function in eizcrafe instrumentation. Let us examine each circuit in turn, then cover sone typical applications. yynn_~ Direct Current Voltage ‘This is known as a 4.c. synchronous or ‘Desynn’ system. ‘The transmitter consists of a wire-wound jeizeular resistance with three separate contacts spaced at 120° to form the outpue Connections. A rotating contact arm is driven” around. the Fesistance, and a dic. voltage supplied to the arm, produces three varying signais on the output lines. ‘These three signals are combined together in the indicator to © produce an electro-magnetic field which vill rotate as the Contact arm rotates, and permanent magnet attached to. a pointer will rotate with the field to provide an indication of fhe inpue. Fig. 6 is @ schematic of a Desynn systen. ies somny — Gs There are three types of Desynn in use, they are the:- © basic Desynn, © micro Desynn, |e stab Deeynn. si ficient to say that each one is an improvement on the other.oe ‘the Desynn system finds applications amongst:~ © oft pressure measurenent, rete). © position indication (Flaps, landing g in each case the rotating contact arm is positioned by the appropriate paraneter. Por example, oil pressure uses @ Beliovs unit or Bourdon tube, viilst position indication will tise some form of gear mechanisn. Alternating Current Voltage The a.c, synchronous system, generally knoyn as ‘synchros' or "seleya’, vAutosyn' and ‘Asyan', operates ina similar manner to the Desynn system. In this system, the rotating arm consists of a wound core which when supplied with an a.c. voltage produces an electro magnetic Hela, this in turn produces a varying signal in three output Windings, vhich replace the wound resistance in the former System. ‘The three output signals are combined in the indicator, again Similar to the Desyan, only in this case, the permanent’ magnet is replaced with, a. wound coil” rotor which produces an electro-magnetic field when supplied with an a.c. voltage. The major advantages of an a.c. synchro system over a Desyna system are: © components are lighter an smaller, © with no direct contact in the transmitter, there WIL be no wear in the unit, © indications are more accurate with no errors, ¢ faster response is possible. units that use the a.c. synchro system include * pressure measurement (1.¢., oil, fuel or air). position (flaps, cows, ete.) once again the force that drives the rotor in the transmitter is derived from the parameter being measured. For pressure Reasurenent it will be derived fron a bellows, capsule or Bourdon tube mechanism, whilst for position measurement it will be sone gear or lever mechanism.-u- Fig. 7 Se 4 typical example. Wheatstone Bridge Circuits The ‘wheatstone Bridge’ circuit is a very common method employed to provide ‘the peasurenent and indication of temperature. The element that measures the temperature is a ‘bulb! that contains a coll of nickel or platinun wire which forms a variable resistance arm of a briage circuit, supplied with @ aie. voleaze. As the temerature changes, the resistance of the bulb will alter, and vary the amount of current flowing across “the bridge, i.e., in the moving coil of the indicator. The interaction Of the varying coll magnetic field with a permanent magnetic field will. position the pointer to indicate che Fequired temperature.ae 1. @ shows a simplified Wheatstone Bridge circuit for a temperature indicator. Pig, 9 x meaTsrOUE sRrocE CIRCUIT Aationeter Circuits These instruments, as the name implies, use the ratio of two Thauced electro-magnetic fielde to position a pointer over the dial’ “or the appropriate instrument. the two fields are produced from two currents, one is the reference current from fhe power supply, whilst the other is produced from the neasuring element and vill vary with the paraneter. this indicator is commonly used for temperature neasurenent, Shilst the sensing device is Similar to that used previously in the Wheatstone Bridge circuit. operation is simplified thus:~ A change in temperature vill alter the resistance of the bulb Gnich fill alter the current flowing in that coil, so altering the balance of the mater movenent. Fig, 9 on the next page is a simplified schenatic of # rationeter instrument. ‘he rationeter principle is also used in oil pressure Reasurenent, and is known as the ‘Smiths Inductor Pressure Gauge’aa ‘This system is primarily used for the measurement of engine temperatures such as piston engine cylinder head tenperature oF turbine engine exhaust gas temperature. ‘A thermocouple assembly is up of tyo dissimilar metal Conductors joined together 20 form a hot junction, while” the Other ends of the conductors are connected to the “indicator which “forms a cold junction. When the hot junction is Subjected to an increase in temperature a small voltage will be Produced, which causes a current to flow in the closed circuit Of the indicator. ‘The indicator is usually e moving coil meter, the flow of current produces an electro-magnetic field which reacts with @ Permanent magnetic field to position the pointer to the appropriate value, ‘The conductors will be # combination of two specific metals, specially chosen for the temperature range being measured. Por exanple: © | copper and constantan leads for cylinder head temperature measurenent, (up to 400°C), © Chronel and Alumel leads for exhgust gas, temperature measurement. (Up tO 1,000°C).ae Fig. 10 is a simplified thermocouple circuit. ‘This now completes our look at remote reading instrument systens. There is quite a lot in the subject and recommend that you do read CAIPs, Leaflet AL/10-3. for further Information To sunnarise then, re cavegories:= reading instruments fall into two ¢ Liguia transmission, * electrical transmission. Liguid transmission systens utilise a capillary tube or Pressure transmitter, ané can be employed in pressure or Eenperature measurencnt. Electrical transmission utilise circuits known as:~ © Desynn (pressure, position indication) Synchro (pressure, position inéication) © Wneatstone Bridge (position, temperature indication) © Ratiometer Principle (temperature, pressure indication) © Thermocouple Principle (temperature indication only)sis SELF ASSESSMENT 1. Draw and decoribe a capillary type praeeure indicater. 2, beseripe now a rationeter is used in a temperature Indieator. 3. List three basic electrical circuits used in remote Feading instruments. @ ® )- us - SELP_ASSESSMENT REVIEW Your answers should be something like these:~ 1. Compare your diagram with that given in Fig. 5) he transmitter and indicator are connected by = Rfiliary tube which contains a fluid such as figtane.” wich pressure applied to the capsule, the aia is “aispiacea which in torn displaces the Bourdon tube indicator. 2. the temperature bulb resistance varies with Temperature, the variation in resistance alters the SGreSit ratio in one coil of a two coil meter, the Eifsrea ratio of the currents is used to position a oving coil meter movement. 3. Your three answers should include any three of the following: (a) Desynn. (b) synchro. (c) Wheatstone Bridge. (e) Ratiometer. (e) Thermocouple. I hope you did not find these too difficult, if you aid, review Ene beptopriate sections to your own satisfaction: smnmsne lie have now covered the basic principles involved in aircraft Wetrunentation, the display of pressure, temperature and position. his has been the third and final booklet ina series that has Zovered all” the aspects of the many different types of Seetithent essential for the efficient and accurate control of airerate. ESSENTIAL READING CAIPs Leaflet AL/10-3ee [RECOMMENDED READING \Aizframe and Powerplant Mechanics Airframe Handtack, EA-AC, 65-154. Airsrage Instruments by E.H.J. Pallett. SUGSESTED PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES EE you have access to an aircraft, exanine the many different eypts of instrument “fitted and “with” reference to. the appropriate Maintenance Manual” find out’ the principle of operation, and where the transmitter (if it's a remote resding System) 1 incatea Also note any special maintenance activities for that system.‘Objectives/advice ae Introduction a Direct Reading Compass "s Magnetic Field ‘The Magnetic Compass ‘Compass Compensation . ‘The Compass Swing 5. Functional Cheek cn Activity 1. 8 Remote Reading Compass Gyro-Magnetic Compass Punctional check 22, Modern Compass Technology 23. Sel! Assessment as. Sel! Assessnent Review a7 Sunnary, 38, Essential Reading a8. Recommended Reading as. Suggested Practical activities a8. ‘Typical Examination questions as. Ansvers to Typical Examination Questions 20.OBJECTIVES /ADVICE When you have completed this booklet you will be able to: © explain the principle of a magnetic compass, + describe the construction of a direct reading compass, © explain tne principle of & compass swing, and calcalate the appropriate figares involved, * describe the principle of a yro-magnetic ‘compass, * describe typical functional checks of both compass types, © describe modern compass technology. ‘This booklet is a supplement to the three previous booklets Concerned with aircraft instrumentation. It is best if you complete then before attempting this booklet. ‘This booklet will take you about one hour to complete. IRSRODUCTION Tt ig necessary to provide an indication of the aircraft heading relative to magnetic North to enable the pilot accurately to fly and navigate an aircraft over the surface of the Barth. There are two types of compass in use ¢ direct reading type, © remote reading type. In this booklet we will look at both types of compass, and some typical in situ checks to prove their serviceability. DIRECT READING COMPASS The direct reading compass is @ simple, self-contained instrument which operates on the principle of magnetic-2- For example, if a bar magnet is mounted on a pivot and is free to rotate, the magnet will assume a position with one of its nds pointing tovards the Earth's magnetic North poe; this is the north seaking end of the magnet. It follows therefore, that the opposite end of the bar magnet is south seeking, and it is usual to identify. the ends (or poles) of a magnet as North (north seeking) and South” (south Seeking) + Before ve move on to look at a typical aire Hirst discuss the Earth's magnetic field. compass, let us EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD ‘he surface of the Earth is surrounded by a field, which culminates in tvo magnetic poles, the North ané South geographic or true pol ‘The position of these poles is continually changing, for at any point on the Earth's surface the field Je not symnetrical, and is subject to periodic and irregular changes. ‘hese changes give rise to magnetic variation, which is defined as the angle between the true and magnetic direction, usually wich reference £9 North. Information regarding magnetic variation is given on special Charts, which cover most regions of the world, and are issued every few years. Pig. 1 on the next page identifies all these facts for you.aa- It consists of a liguid filled bowl, containing a pivoted float element to which a magnet is attached. A graduated card is allow the magnet to align itself “with the Earth's magnetic North and South poles. The card is referenced against lubber line fixed to the interior of the bowl, and lying on or parallel to the fore and ait axis of the aircraft. The compass may be designed to be fmounted in an instrument panel, on a coaming panel or suspended from a roof panel. In aircraft where the magnetic compass is a standby instrument, it is usually installed adjacent to the central “frame of the windscreen, mounted in a foldaway assembly, as shown in Fig. 3. forma pase, (913) COMPASS COMPENSATION The magnetic compass, when installed in an aircraft, is affected by the magnetic influences of the aircraft structure, and’ the electrical system. ‘These influences distort the Barth's magnetic field in the vicinity of the compass, and deflect the compass card avay from the magnetic heading. This deflection is known as deviation, and can be compensated for by placing small magnets in certain directions near the compass.Tt is usual to combine these snall magnets in a unit known as a Goupensator, and to provide a means of adjustment by two screws Seusily lebéled Nos and E-W, or C and B respectively (see Pig. rn ‘The actual amount of compensation required is calculated from « Procedure known as 2 compass swing. ‘The actual procedure is detailed in any aircraft's Maintenans Manval, and also in CAiPs Leaflet AL/10-5, but in this booklet THE COMPASS SWING in a compass swing, the aircraft is placed on fixed headings in a specially identified area of an airfield known as a compass base. This area ie surveyed to ensure that the Earth's magnetic field is free from interfering local magnetic fields, that may be caused by underground cables, drains etc. ‘he aircraft's compass reading is compared to a reference Feading from a calibrated conpass, readings are taken on the main cardinal points, i.e. North, South, Bast and West. The adjustments made are known as co-efficient ¢ and corefficient 8. They ere derived from two simple formulee:~ «co-efficient p = Deviation on East ~ Deviation on westare « covefticient c = Deviation on North = Deviation on South The value of the co-efficient is applied to the compass Compensator, to make the compass read correctly within a specified tolerance. The adjustment is first made with the aircraft on an easterly or westerly heading, and co-efficient & is applied to the =-" or B compensator sevew, shown in Fig. 4. ‘Then, with the aircraft on a northerly or southerly heading, co-efficient C is applied to the compass, by adjustment of the NS or C compensator screw, shown in Pig. 4+ There is a third co-efficient, known as A, which may have to be taken into account. It is derived by obtaining the deviation on four or eight headings, and finding the average. For example, if the co-efficient A was calculated using four headings, then: © co-efficient a = SUsof Deviations on NiE/SH Covetficient A is corrected by adjustment of the mounting Position of the compass, until the appropriate” ‘heading aligns Sith the lubber lines thie adjustment ig nade by rotecing ene Compass about bolts” in” slotted “aounting” luge, "or bythe Sedition or fenoval of non-magnetic” spacers ‘(vashers) bahing the mouneing screws. * e After the compensation has been carried out, it is necessagy to obgein deviations on standaré headings at intervals of 45° or 30 ‘The card readings are those which the compass must indicate in geder that the aircraft may be flown on the correct magnetic heading. The card must be positioned adjacent to the compass and be clearly visible to the pilot. Fig. 5 on the next page shovs a typical deviation card.‘There are a number of different occasions vhen a compass swing must be carried cut, in general it will be whenever the compass Or compensator device is installed or repiaced. ‘The other reasons are listed fully in CAIPs Leaflet AL/10-5, which you are sdvised to read, FUNCTIONAL CHECK ‘The compass is 2 delicate instrument and should always be handled with care, ‘The following check items are usually included: © the mountings must be secure, © the scale should be readable, © the Liguid should be clear and free from @iscolouration, sediment and air bubbles,© when deflected by a magnetic item (such as a Screwdriver), the card shoulé return smoothiy to the “original ‘reading with little or no overshoot, when the magnetic influence is, Fenoved, © the valid ‘steer-by' deviation card should be clearly visible and secure in its holder, © the compass illumination should be operable. You have now completed the section for the direct reading compass. carry out Activity 1 before looking at the remote reading ‘compass. ACTIVITY 2 4 Minutes Describe briefly a magnetic compass. 2. Define magnetic variation.comers, acriviry 1 Your anevers should be sonething Like these: A Liguid filled bowl containing a pivoted float assembly which consists of a magnet and greduated Gard, the front of the bowl is marked with a lubber Line, against which the magnetic heading is reed. Magnetic variation is the angular difference between geographical (true) North and magnetic North. I hope you did not find that too difficult. Review any section that you are not sure of before moving on. The magnetic compass, being a simple instrument, is subject to errors, especially during aireraft manoeuvres, ard is only Eeliable during straight, level and unaccelerated flight. From your previous work you will recall that the gyroscopic Sirection or heading indicator is used during aircrafe manoeuvres, but this instrument is 1a turn subject’ to. ezrers @uring straight and level flight. With the advent of modern high performance aircraft, it has becone necessary to combine both types of instrument’ to form the renote reading compass. REMOTE READING COMPASS In an aircraft that has a direct reading magnetic compass, and a gyroscopic direction indicator, the, pilot links the two fogether, by adjusting the direction indicator to read the same heading as the magnetic compass. However, in a remote reading compass, the Link between the two unite 1s made electronically, and the gyro remains slaved to the magnetic heading to provide the pilot with an isdication of the magnetic heading. This is the gyro“magnetic compass, and a simplified systen is shown in Figs 6 on the next page.-10- \@ARO-MAGNETIC COMPASS @ ‘The components of the gyro-magnetic compass include: Ss © Amagnetic reference, that derived from a unit connonly known as a flux valve, or detector unit, Tt is located in an area which is relatively fie from any. disturbing magnetic fields due to the aircraft itself, this, is usually in a wing tip or on” the vertical stabiliser. * The flux valve which supplies an electrical Signal that is proportional to the direction of the Earth's aagnetic field, that is, in turn amplified and used to precess a directional gytoscope, te ensure it renains aligned with the Earth's magnetic field,sue © A-synchronising indicator is used to provide an Indication to the pilot that the gyroscope is aligned with the magnetic. reference from the flue valve. @ A.synchronising knob is provided on the master indicator to, enable the pilot rapidly to Synchronize the gyroscope, whenever power is first applied to the system. Fig. 7 is a simplified schematic of a system currently in use on a modern jet transport aircraft. @ 4d euwnuisco uote wereance ‘COMPASS COUPLER Fig. 7 smoymnonerte comnss-az- The directional gyro and amplifier unit is mounted in the electronics bay of the aircraft, and provides” an electrical, Signal to drive the graduated compass card of the instrument, which is mounted on the panel. From (iis lustsument, output Lines provide additional heading reference signals for use by the flight cecorder and radio navigation systens, should they be fitted. These output lines are of the three phase synchro type, Swin ‘The procedure is basically the same as that described for the magnetic compass. Compensation is. generally achieved electrically, by adjustment of variable resistances mounted in a compensator unit, although some fltx valves do have a magnetic type of compensation, similar to that fitted to the magnetic compass. FUNCTTONAL CHECK As in all instrument systems, the components, especially the gyroscope and flux valve, are delicate, and) must always be handled carefully. To check the operation of the system: © Apply electrical power and allow time for the Gyfoscope to run up to speeds © Ensure that any system failure flags are withdrawn from view, and the indicated heading Beetles down. © Examine the synchronising indicator. If it is zero or at the reference datum, check that the indicated heading matches the’ actual magnetic heading of the aircraft (compare with the magnetic compass). * Operate the synchronising knob, and ensure the indicated heading moves smoothly avay from the initial value. © Check the synchronising indicator is offset. lease the knob and check that the indicated heading slowly changes towards that of the Bagnetic heading. (in this mode, th» cysten WSLl operate at up to 2° per minute to return to the magnetic heading.)-u- © rotate the synchronising knob in the opposite Girection, ensure the indication changes smoothly. © Finally, rotate the synchronising knob, untill the synchronising indicator reads zero, and Snsure the indicated heading is the sane a the Ragnetic heading. MODERN COMPASS sCHNOLOGY ‘The system that has just been described has evolved over @ umber of years to produce en accurate compass for use in modern “high performance jet transport aircraft. It Theerporates gyzoscopes, servo motors and associated electronic circuitry. However, modern technology has drastically altered the compass system, ang I wold now like to tell you about the techniques bseq in today's high technology aircraft, such as the Boeing 757/167. tn these systems, the flux valve has been removed, and in its place is a conpiter which has in its memory a| map of the Earth's magnetic field. The aircraft's position and direction is derived from an inertial. reference unit, utilising laser Gyro technology, between the tvo units a signal is derived Ghich is the aivezagt's magnetic heading. ‘This information is used by a display computer, and the aircraft's heading is displayed on a cathode ray tube (CRT) indicator, as shown in Fig. 8 on the next page. In addition, the aireraft's heading can be displayed on sexvo riven instruments. one advantage of this system is that a compass swing is not Recessary, 28 the indication ie ne lenger dependent upon measuring a magnetic Field. one point to renenber is that even on these modern aircraft, they do have to have a backup system, and the standby compass is oe the direct reading magnetic type, that does require a Compass swing and compensation at specified times. The compass shown in Figs 4 is of @ type that is fitted to these high technology. aircraft.-ue F9.oma TRKZE2M 0895.42 Pig. @ coamoe may ToRE sworeaToRane SELP ASSESSMENT Spend about fifteen minutes answering these questions. write your anewers in the boxes. 1. Describe the construction of a direct reading magnetic compass. Give the three equations for the calculation of the fhree co-efficiente used in a compass swing. @ tb) ro)~ 16 - 3. List four checks to be made on a compass to prove its serviceability. i) i) ro) «@ @irect reading ®-u- ‘SELE ASSESSMENT REVIEW Your answers should be something like these. 1. Tt consists of @ liguid filled bowl, which contains a pivoted float element consisting of a magnet and Graduated compass card. The float assembly is free fo align itself with the direction of the Earth's nagnetic field, and the magnetic heading is read against a marked lubber line on the front of the Shetrument a co-efficient a = SUL Of the Deviations on N,S/E,W we) Deviation on E - Deviation on W Co-etficient 2 = Deviation on B— Devistion on W (e) covesticient ¢ = Deviation on N= Deviation on 3. Any four from those given below will do: (2) The liquid shall be free from discolouration, sedinent and air bubbles. (b) The card markings shail be clear. (©) The float assembly shall pivot freely and return tothe magnetic heading with little or no overshoot (2) the ‘steer by! card will be valid and readable. Hlunination shall work. (e) Phe instrument is secure in its mounting. I hope you have completed these questions satisfactorily. If you experienced any difficulties, then refer back to the appropriate sectiens in the booklet.-ta somary ie have covered the basic principles of aircraft compasses, the magnetic direct reading compass and the renote reading compass, fitted to most aircrare types. In addition we have covered the principles involved in compass calibration, known as a compass swing, You have also been. Introduced to the in eitu serviceability checks to be carried out on both types of compass. ESSEWPIAL READING CAIPS Leaflets AL/10-5 and AL/10-6. RECOMMENDED READING e ATA Chapter 34 Aircraft Maintenance Manual. Airframe and Powezplant Mechanics Handbook, EA-AC 65-15 Ay Chapter 12, Magnetic Compass. SUGGESTED PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES Tf possible exanine axanplas of both types of sonpace fitted to an aircraft, observe a compass swing, and check how the steer by' card is worked out.INSTROMENTScovrmers ‘Objectives /Advice introduction The Attitude Direction Indicator The Horizontal Situation Indicator Activity 1. Servicesbility checks Self Assessment Self Assessment Review Sunmacy Recommended Reading Suggested Practical Activities typical Exenination Questions Answers to Typical Examination Questions 20. 22. 2. 23.opgecrrves/apvice fihen you have completed this booklet you will be able to:~ © describe the indications that make up an ADI, © describe the indications that make up an HSI, © explain how to carry out a serviceability check onan ADI, © explain now to carry out « serviceability check This booklet is the first of a set of five in this Study Plan, and it will take you about one and a half hours to complete. mwrropuctroN For the safe and economic operation of all transport aircraft in today's crowded airspace, a large ancunt’ of complex instrumentation is required to indicate to the flight crew” the relationship of the aircraft to ite surroundings and the ground. In the early days of aviation this information was presented in the simplest focm of instrumentation, ics. an’ aitimerer, vertical speed indicator, an artificial horizon, a compass. and @ rate of turn indicator. With the rapid advance of aviation is has Decone necessary to supply additional informacion to the pilot to enable him safely to fly the aircraft in all levels of Visibility, both day and ight, This regu:renent nas led to an increase ih the nunber of instrusents located on the aircraft's main instrument’ panel. It therefore becane increasingly Gifficult for the pilot to assimilate rapidly the information Supplied to hin, especially during the most stressful periods of flight, such’as a landing at night, in the raint In order to overcone this problem, instrument manufacturers @esigned and produced instruments that incorporated a Large number of displays in one or to units. In this booklet, che first of five in this study Plan, we will look at the two main flight instrument display units,’ commonly known as the ADI and HSI.ane ‘THE_ATTIYUDE DIRECTION INDICATOR ‘to begir then, let us consider the attitude éirection Traicetor, or Abr as it is usually known. A typical ADI is shown in Fig. 1 Below, it supplies the pilot with information Concerning the aircraft's attitude relative to the ground, and @ direction in which to fly the aircraft to maintain a specific Flight path. ‘The ADI combines @ nuaber of different indicators in the one Common wiit; let us take a look at the function of each indicator on this ADI. The Artificial Horizon ‘his is shown in Pig. 2 on the next page. The aircraft is Fepresented by the fixed aircraft symbol, whilst the horizon Line fixed to the attitude tape represents the horizon position relative to the aircraft symbol. It is current practice to colour the sky areas blue, whilst the ground area: are brown or yellow: Pitch attitude is indicated in degrees marked on the Lape, whilet roll attitude is indicated by the moving pointer travelling over the fixed scale. ‘the norizon display is in the form of a roller blind mechanism, ariven by electrical servo motors which receive pitch end roll attitude information fron the aircraft's attitude reference System, a renotely located vertical gyro or inertial reference toniteTurn and slip This is shown in Fig. 3 below. The slip indicator is @ mechanical indicator, @ ball roliing in a liguid filled curved glass tube, that acts under che influence of gravity. to Indicate an uncaoedinsted turn when the aircraft ia subject eo skidding or slipping.-4- ‘The rate of turn indicator provides an indication of the aircraft's rate,of turning motion. The mark represents a rate one turn of 180°/minute. ‘The indicator is a moving coil meter movement, responding to @ Thenge in electromagnetic fix, which is prodiced by” the turn signal, and derived fron a rave gyro assembly; in some systems part of the aircrazt's yaw danper system is used. Glidestope the glideslope pointer and scale, also shown in Fig. 3, are functions of the VHP navigation system or instrument landing System (ILS). The pointer represents the position of the Glidsslope radio Dean relative to the aircraft. Each dot Eepresents approximately one third of a degree deviation away from the glideslope. ‘The indicator is a moving coil meter movement respondirg to & Change in electromagnetic flux produced by the deviaticn signal derived from the aircraft's VaF navigation receiver. Speed Indicator ‘This is shown in Pig. 4 below. The pointer indicates against the scale, the speed of the aircraft relative to a reference Speed conputed in an auto-throttie or speed command systen, the Pequired speed is the central position. The indicator is a moving coll meter movenent, responding to Changing signal supplied by the auto-chrottle or speed command system.-3- Flight Director Indicator Bars @irector system, to indicate to the pilot’ the direction in which the aireraft must be flown to maintain a computed flight path. This flight path could be a preset heading, a radio Ravigation course, localiser and giideslope beans, oF a Selected altitude. ‘The V-ars are positioned by servo motors, one responding to pitch commands, the other £0 roll commands originating in) the Elight director computer systen. Localiser and Radio Altitude Again this is shown in Fig. ¢. the localiser pointer and scale is a function of the VHP navigation (ILS) system. The runway symbol 1s positioned by the [L$ localiser deviation signal, to provide a Pictorial representation of the location’ of the Funway relative to the aircraft. The gots. represent approxinately one degree deviation (lef: or right) from the iscaliser, the centre position. In addition, the runway symbol is positioned by the radio altineter systen, to provide an indication of absolute (radio) altitude above the ground. Tt starte indicating at 200. feet, snd will Fise up to the aireragt symbol, giving) an indication £0 the pilot thst the aireraft is descending down to” the runway, which is hopefully immediately below the aircraft, not fo the lefe or right! The localiser indicator is an electrical servo motor, which Grives to position the runway symbol to the left or right from a'signal derived in the aircraft's VHF navigation receiver. Radio altitude is also a servo motor driven indicator, the error signal being derived from the radio altineter system. Decision Height Once again this is shown in Pig. 4. The DH indicator light illuminates when the aircraft's radio altitude is less than’ a preset value on the radio altimeter indicator. ‘The bulb filament can be tested by pushing on the light assembly (press to test). ‘This; completes our look at a typical ADI. We have covered the Andicators that may or may not be fitted to.an ADI, that you may be familiar with; some of the indications are optional. Let us then move on and look at our second instrument, the HSI, horizontal situation indicator.‘THE HORIONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR As its rame implies, the HSI provides the pilot with a Pictorial representation of the horizontal situation of ch Bircrafe, primarily its heading with reference to North. A typical HSI that may be fitted in conjunction with the ADT airenty covered is shown in Fig. 5. GND SPEED, Let us examine each part of the instrument in turn. Heading Indicator ‘This is illustrated in Fig. 6 on the next page. The aircraft is represented by the symbol, fixed in the centre of the instcunert, and the aircraft's heading {s indicated under the Eixed incex line (lubber line) by the rotation of the compass card.‘The compass card is driven by an electric servo motor from an error signal that is derived in’ the aircraft's main compass system, “The heading indication is generally with reference to sagnetic north, although in sone systens it is possible to Switch the signal co be with reference to true north, as in the case of aircraft flying Polar routes. Course Deviation Indicator ‘The aizcrate's required course, eed in conjunction with Btefafe's navigation aystensy’ is selected by che “piase Fenote control panei, and-is known "asthe ‘see, ceuras. course arrow pointer and tail are driven by a ‘serve mstor ‘te indicace tie course and its reciprocal on the compass cara, Tn shegexanpls shown in Fig. 7 on the ngxt page, the’ set courde ie 075° with an aircraft heading of ‘ose. As the course pointer rotates, an additional indicator, the deviation indicator, rotates, elong with it. Tne deviation indicator consists of s moving bar to indicate to the pilor the ‘amount of deviation away fron a selected track,-8- ‘This deviation could be radio deviation, or deviation from a Computed track, between route markers, known as waypoints. ‘The most common type of input is radio deviation, which can be avon or a localiser deviation, part of the VHF navigation system. VoR is an en-route navigation aid, and each dot Geviation away from a selected beam, owhereas localiser is a Tending aid and each dot represents 1° deviation avay from @ selected beam, which in this case is the extended centre line of the landing runway. ‘The deviation indicator is a moving coil meter movement, zero Geviation is indicated by the bar being in the centre. To and FROM Indicator qilustrated in Pig. 7, this moving coil meter movenent is Combined with the aircraft's set course input and VOR beacon Bearing to provide an immediate indication to the pilot of the Girection of a sadio beacon from the aircraft. For example, assune the aircraft is flying directly towards the beacon, the indicator is in front of the aircraft symbol Fepresenting a direction 70 the beacon. As the aircraft flies over the beacon, the indication rapidly changes to a FROM Gnaication, and the triangular flag appears behind the aircraft symbol. qeGlidesiope Indicator ‘This is shown in Pig. 8 below, and operates in exactly the sane way as that on the ADI. Refer back to that iten for a review Of the giideslope indicator. Fig. 8 oIGrTAL oxseiays oF orstce Avo croumerEED Preset Heading Indicator This triangular shaped marker, shown in Pig. 8, is positioned Over the scale of the compass card by an electric servo motor system which receives a comand Signal from a remote selector knob. Et enables the pilot to select a required heading and to turn the aircraft accurately until the heading marker, and selected heading are aligned with the lubber line on the Hist. An additional function of this facility is to supply an electrical signal known as heading error, i.e. the angular Gifterence between the preset heading marker and lubber lines £0 the autopilot and flight director systems. In the autopilot systen, the heading error signal will automatically turn the aircraft ‘onto’ the correc heading, whilst the flight director system will position the V-Bars for ‘the pilot to follow, and hence fly the selected heading.ore Distance and Ground speed These tvo displays are also shown in Fig. 8, and provide Additional navigation information, in the fern of numerical Gata representing aistance in miles to a navigation beacon end the aircraft's actual speed over the ground. ‘then by using @ simple mathematical calculaticn it is possible fo calculate the time taken to arrive at a selected beacon, which my be the destination airfield. Instruzent_Panol Fig. 9 below illustrates how these to instruments will be Todated in che instrument panel, in front of each pilot in the case of a large jet transport. However, it is now common practice to install these types of instrument in the more expensive light, single engine aircraft, ive. those that are fully equipped for instrunent flight rules (EPR) flight conditions, i.e, night and low visibility.-u- We have now completed our look at the two flight instruments, Known as the ADI and HSI, and the types of indication available to the pilot on these instruments. Before we take a look at some Sarry ove Activity 3) to test typical serviceability checks, instruments, Your knowledge of the basicSe acriviry 1 a Dray an ADI. and show on the diagram the Indications that would be seen by the pilot of an aircraft that: (a) is dn a 10° bank to the right, (b) has a 0° pitch angle, (e) is approximately 1/3 degree below the glidesiope beam, (4) is on the localiser with a radio altitude in excess of 200 feet. Draw an HSI and show on the diagram indications that woald be seen by the pilot of an” aircraft thats (a) is on a heading of 190°, (b) has a set_coyrse of 200° with @ VOR deviation of 10° (aircrafe is to the right of the beam), (©) has a preset heading of 270°, (4) ig 75 miles from the beacon, and the aircraft's ground speed is 405 kaots.-u- coments on ActIVvITY 1 Your two instruments should appear as shown in the to diagrans Delow. i hope you didn't fing it too difficult, “if you "did, refer back to the eppropriate section and repeat your ‘coverage ‘of that item. ‘One important point to note is that in Question No. 2 the glideslope indicator on the HSI, because it is not in use (the aircraft is in fact’ cruising en-route between navegasion Beacons) 1s driven out of view Behind a ask on the insesament face, and should therefore not appear on the diagram.ome SERVICEABILITY CHECKS Due to the complex nature and multiple systens associated with these two flight instruments, detailed serviceability tests must be carried out by an aircraft Engineer whose Licence qualifies hin for those tests. However, it is important for the A and C Licensed Engineer to Getect when a component is faulty in order to obtain the Necessary. assistance in maintaining his aircraft Serviceabilicy. To assist in checking the serviceability of these instruments, the manufacturers use a set of failure flags, which when in View clearly indicate to the pilot (and Enginger) a fault in the system (see Fig. 10). & ea ————— SS) flags that can appear on an ADI to indicate system = Gyro This indicates failure of the attitude reference/indication system. = Runway. ‘This indicates failure of the localiser or radic altineter systen.oe curs This indicat (veBare) sy: © Speed This indicates failure of the speed monitor systen. the flight director ‘This indicates failure of the glideslope systen. In some cases the ADI contains a self test switch that operated drives the horizon tape,to a fixed position, i.e. dovn (indicating a climb) and 20°" left {indicating @ roll the right). This enables a check to made cf the ADE acti tape drive system. Fig. 11 shows the flags related to the HSI. Plags that are incorporated into the HST can ber | Heacing ‘This indicates failure of the heading reference system. wheg 108 ude,@ -16- - KZA ‘This indicates failure of the navigation system Supplying information to the HST. ‘This indicates failure of the glidesiope systen, and should appear along with the Ges flag in the wr. ALL these lage are coloured bricht red/orange to draw the Pilot's attention to the failed system, and thus ignore. what Right be an incorrect indication. ‘The ground speed and distance display will blank to indicate failure of the system supplying the information. ‘thus, a pre-requisite to carrying out a serviceability check is fo ensure that all the flags renain out of view, with the appropriaze systems operating normally and fully powered. operation Prior to Plight As I mentioned earlier, a detailed test is normally carried out by the 'x' Licensed Engineer using the correct test equipment; however is ig possible to carry out a brief servicsability cheek to confire operation prior to flight. ‘The exact checks that are carried out depend very much on the type of equipment fitted to the aircraft, however 1 will) list some typical checks for you now. * apply power to all the systems and check that:~ = the horizon tape rotates smoothly without sticking and eventually settles down to Indicate the aircraft's attitude (compare this indication with other ADIs fitted to the instrument panel) = the compass card rotates smoothly without sticking, and eventually settles down to indicate the sizerafe's heading (compare this indication with other compass Indicators fitted to the instrument panel), = both the ‘Gyro' and ‘Heading! flags clear-u- © Set the flight dizector system to heading node, - check that the flight aizector v-Bars appear on the ADI; rotate the prescices heading knob to ‘align the ASI” preset heading marker with the index line, ‘check that the V-Bars rotate smoothly from 3 fixed ‘bank angle to a wings level = select the flight director system OFF, and check that the V-Bars drive smoothly ap and out of view at the cop of the ADI. In order to carry out a chtck on the navigation deviation indicators, it is necessary to carry out a” self test of the radio navigation systens. ‘This is usually achieved by operating a test switch or a nunber of test switches to simulate a fixed deviation indication. Atypical VHF navigation con:rol panel is shown in Pig. 12 Below. Tt contains four tes: switches: 1. VOR,test, ‘This simulates a radio bearing of 180° 2. ue/ut test, Tis simulates a glideslope and localiser deviation of 1 dot UP and LEFT. 3+ DN/RP test. This simulates a glideslope and tocaliser deviation of 1 dot DOWN and RIGHT. 4. DME test, This sinulates DHE distance of 000 miles. cnnueee wrt aan goer seuect 108.00 ‘ur nav/o0e rasgrcyee ‘The procedure for carrying out these tests on the flight instrunents is se follows? Ensure that pover is applied to the VHF navigation system. Select a localiser frequency, in the range Yoe.10 to 111.95 Mkz and obD decimal placings, Stel Lo9.s0 Mile ete. Press the UP/LT test switch and check that both glideslope indicators and localiser indicators Rove I dot UP and LEFT. During this test the GS na NAV flags Will appear. Release the test svitch and operate the DN/RT fest switch, and ensure that tne Geviations are in the correct direction. Release the test svitcn. Select a VOR frequency in the range 108.00 to 117-95," except. for the lecaliser frequency range Press the VOR test switch, and rotate the set Course knob to 180°. Ensure that the courge pointer rotates smoothly to indicate 180°, Seviation is zero and the 70 flag shows. With the VOR test switch ngid depressed, rotate Set course around tg 000°. As ene course pointer changes by 5° and 10°, check that the Correct deviation is indicated (1 dot, 2 dots respectively). As the course pointer rotates through 90°, check the To flag changes to a FROM flag. At 000° course pointer position, check that the deviation is zero. During this check the NAV flag will appear. Release the VOR test switch. Operate the DME test switch and check that the DME indicater reads 000 miles. Release the DME test switch.-19- To check the ground speed display it will be necessary to carry out a self test of che appropriate navigation system, that is Being used to supply this information. Te 4s not possible to list the steps taker in this booklet, due to variations in system operation, hovever the aarerate's Maintenance Manual will contain the necessary information to enabie you to carry out this test. Finally, check the instrument illuminat:on for correct and satisfactory operation, examine the markings of the indicators for legibility, and examine the instrument for signs of nechanical danage. In some cases the instrument glass may hare a ‘bloomed’ finish fo reduce surface reflection. These glastes are identified as having a bluish tint under normal daylight conditions, and care must be taken aot to touch or scratch the surface. Any marks or stains may be removed by using a clean lint-free cloth and ‘an approved isopropyl alcohol cleaning so:vent.-20- SELP_ASSESSMENT Spend about 15 minutes answering these questions Gives below is a schematic of an aircraft and its posstion in relacion co a VOR beacos, Prom the given {hfoemation, draw on the schematic HSI diagram what would be seen by the pilot of that aircraft, at that ve meaonne oro" sewn | " ia Describe how the glideslope deviation operates. Describe how the pilot would know that his @isplay had failea. Anatcator atLituae-2- SELP ASSESSMENT REVIEW Your answers should be something Like these. = ser conse ono" The glideslope indicator is a moving coil meter movement that responds to deviation signal supplieé from the VHP navigation system. When the aireraft is above the glideslope, the inéicator moves down, and when the “aircraft is below the giideslope| the Indicator moves up, When the aircraft is on the glidestope (no deviation), the indicator is in the A flag will cone into view on ADI, indicating to the Pilot’ that his attitude” refarence system is inoperative. “The flag is coloured red/orange and has the word GYRO printed on it. I hope you completed those questions td your own satisfaction. If you experienced some difficulty, then refer back to the appropriate section for a review of that eubject.-a3- SUMMARY We have covered the two flight instruments known as the ADI and HSt, and have looked at the indications that are incorporated in these inserumente. You now realise that they are complex instrunents utilising electronic componen:s for their operation, therefore they are expensive and do require careful handling and maintenance: You now have an appreciation of the systems that aze used to Supply information to these instruments, and in the next booklet ve will take a look at 2 basic inertial navigation system (INS) that can be used to supply information to the ADI ana HSI, RECOMMENDED READING Aircraft Instruments by E. H. J. Pallett. ATA Chapter 34, Aircraft Maintenance Manual. Aircraft operations Manual or Pilot's Guide, Flight instrument SUGGESTED PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES IE possible, examine an aircraft's ADI and HSI, and witness a complete system test’ on these instruments utilising the appropriate test equipment. If it is convenient, ask the Licensed test to explain the operation to you. gineer conducting theAlii.commen objectives/advice Introduction INS Theory The Acceleroneter Single Axis INS Dual axis ins activity 1. Triple Axis INS INS Navigation Theory Compensation ENS Control Pant Self Assessment, Self Assessment Review Sunnazy Recommended Reading Suggested Practical activities ‘Typical Examination Questions an wers to Typical Examination Questions a0. 2 20. a. a. au 22. 24OBJECTIVES/ADVICE (on completion of this booklet you will have a general appreciation of the principles involved in any inertial navigation system (INS). In particular you will be able ti © describe the operation of the basic INS sensor, * ascribe the difference between a stabilised Platform INS and strapdoun INS, © Sdentify the components of an INS fitted to the asrerafe. The booklet will take about one hour of study tine. To get the most from this booklet you are recommended to complete Booklet No. 1 of this Study Plan on the ADI. and HSI size. suwrropuerzoN Wich the advent of aviation, the early aviators were faced with the problem of navigating their aizcrafe between airfields. Initially, the aviators ased methods that had been devised by the marinérs, well proven methods that required the ase of & Sextant, compass, clock and map. However, with the development of faster an¢ more complex aircraft, it became necessary to devise other methods of havigation, and these included the development of ground based radio and radar systens, such as the present day systems known ‘as VOR (VHF Onni-Range) ané NDB (Non Directional Beacon). ‘These systems, however, are only useful over short to medium range, up to approwimacely S00 miles, raking them unusable ove> the vast tracts of ocean such az’ the North” Atlantic and Pacific, when aircraft are well out of range of any ground based radio and radar tranemicters. Therefore, additional systems, independent of any ground based transmitter were devised, which have found applications in = large nunber of modern aircraft. It is in this pooklet that we vill take a look at the systens known as INS dr Inertial Navigation systems, We will first of all cover the basi principles involved and then look at the Major components of @ typical system.-2- INS THEORY Any inertial navigation system operation is based upon theories originally expounded by Sir Isaac Newton and known as his © "Laws of Notion* We are specifically interested in his Second Lay of Motion which states:= ‘the rate of change of velocity is proportional to the resultant force applied and takes place in the direction in which the force is applied.’ or more simply:~ ¢ Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time, expressed as metres per second, per © Velocity is the rate of change of distance with tine, expressed ss metres per second. To measure the applied force due to aircraft acceleration (or deceleration) the INS utilises a device known as an ACCELEROMETER, the acceleroneter consists of » veight, which will be displaced by the force of acceleration or deceleration. In mathenatical term where F = Force acceleration and the displacement, proportional to the applied force, is therefore proportional to the acceleration, or deceleration. THE ACCELEROMETER A typical accelerometer consists of a weight supported by two Calibrated springs in a central position, qn electrical signal pick off unit and an amplifier, “(see Fig.l on the next page).EceRTRna (PESDOAGLD [oem > se ‘The operation of an acceleroneter is straight forward, and can be summarised as follow + The weight is displaced from the centre, by the acceleration force. * An electrical signal, proportional to the amount Of Hisplacement is supplied to the amplifier. The output signal from the amplifier is used to Generate an electro-magnetic force that drives fhe weight back into the central position. © Therefore the signal from the amplifier is a Reasure of the acceleration force, and is applied directly to additional electronic eiesuiery. NOTE: Througnout this booklet the term acceleration will be Used, but it dose include deceleration as well. SINGLE AXIS INS The electrical signal that relates to an acceleration force is applied to additional circuits that function co integrate the input signal with time. The output of the first integrator is then proportional to the Instantaneous velocity, of the aircraft. The velocity signal is again integrated, to produce a signal that is proportional to the total distance travelledThe schematic diagram given in Fig. 2 summarises the basic theory for any INS system. ocmITRING (FEEDBACK) verre (crenesre) POOL HOY erence DURE AXIS Ins The single accelerometer is only capable of sipplying # signal Gus to'acceleration ina strarghe Line. Ag an aircraft may fly in any direction the INS must be capable Of detecting she acceleration in any direction. mis is achieved by using two acceleroneters aounteé at right angles. tovone another, and-by combining the too sigeaie, 20205 porsibie vo produce a’xemuleant signel (a vector] ‘chat hes “a Settain vaiee ena aicection, "Once the ‘Gistance "signal io cbtained this wilt “be added to's signal repsesentiey the Starting position of the aizecaft, “to' derive’ a, signal’ thet Fepresente the present Potition se shown in Pig."3 onvthe next @ neease An important requirement for dual axis INS is to maintain the Platform on waich the accelerometers are mounted, in @ forizontal. position. ‘This will ensure. that the ‘measured Acceleration forces are only due to aircraft horizontal Rovenent and not being induced by gravity or aircraft attitude. ‘the platform is maintained in a horizontal position by a set of Gervo motors, (torguers), which receive command signals from two gyroscopes which detect the aircraft's attitude. ‘he gyros, platform and accelerometers are contained in a Single line replaceable unit (LRU) known as an Inertial Navigation Unit (INU). This unit will be located in the main electronics bay of the airerare. Fig. 4 on the next page is a simplified schematic of a gyro stabilised platform, contained within an INU.We have now completed our look at the basic principles involved To test your knowledge carry out the following Activity. ACTIVITY 1 10 Minutes In the box provided, draw a single axis acceleroneter and a schenatic of the electronic circuits involved. Clearly Label the output signals that are derived. ecomenrs oN ACTIVITY 1 Your answer should be similar to that as shown in Fig. 2. = hope you aid not find that too difficult. If you are happy with your ansver, let us move on, if not read the previous pages again. ‘TRIPLE AXIS INS ‘The dual axis INS and stabilised platform INS have been evolved over a number of years and have found service ina large number of civil jet transport aircraft. ive., Lockheed Tri-Star, Boeing 727 and 747 However it is now being superseded by a new generation system, known ae Triplesavis Serapdown INS and is fitted to” airerart such az the Boeing 757/767 and the Airbus A310. In this system in which three accelerometers are used they are hounted directly to the sirérane and aligned with the three main axes of the aircraft, to measure the acceleration forces Blong these axes, see Pig: 5 on the next page.SS cme To enable the accurate calculation of aircraft direction and position the acceleroneter signals are. compared to aizcrafe attitude which is detected by a set of highly accurate Syroscopes- Because the standard spinning rotor type of gyroscope is not aécurate “enough for this application, laser gyros. w Seveloped to be used in conjunction ‘with the “‘strapdown’ accelerometers. ‘Theee laser gyros are used, to detect aircraft movenent about the three main axes, i.e., lateral, longitudinal, and vertical: ‘The laser gyros, accelerometers and supporting electronics are Sontained within a single line replaceable unit (LAU), known 2s ‘Sn Inertial Reference Unit (RU)~ ‘The IRU is located in the main electronics!bay of the aircraft. elie have now completed our look at the sensors that are used in fan inertial navigation system. If you have completed Activity {"satistactorily, you have an understanding of the principles involved. Wwe must now take a look at how the INS systen carries out che process of navigation, involving present pesition calculation. INS RAVIGATION THEORY In order for the inertial navigation syster to navigate the alrerafe, it must be supplied with certain information that is fo be combined with the detected acceleration signals fron the Acceleroneters. The calculations are carried out within the digital computer circuits that are contained in the INU or 7AU. ‘The information supplied must bez © the starting point, © the destination. ‘The information is entered in the form of latitude and Longitude. With this information the computer can determine the required track over the surface of the Earth, that must be flown by the siserafe. Before the destination is reached, an aircraft's route will Consist of « number of pre-planned waypoints (intermediate Gestinations) ‘which again are entered initially into the computer. You will recall that the accelerometer signal is integrated twice to provide speed and distance information. Bf the distance flown information is added to the starting point position, then the airezafe's present position will be Ealeuleted. ‘the present position is then compared to the calculated track, and any errors can be Aisplaved to the pilot, or supplied £0 the aizeraft's autopilot system, to control the aircraft automatically along the desired track.-10- Fig. 6 summarises this information for you. CcoMpENsanzoN In any INS, errors will be introduced into the position gulelacions, which, if uncorrected, would cause very large @ errors is position Computation. Sone of these errors are very complex in nature but others are easier to understand, and it is this Last category thee we need to concentrace or. The first one, is the effect of the Earth's rotation on the gyro stabilised platform. To cancel this effects the Sompensation supplied to the platform is based on the Earth's rotational speec, and aircraft latitude. The amount of sompensation is calculated using the formula: 15 degrees fer hour x cosine of the latitude. ‘ame Fig. 7 sunmarises Earth rate compensation for you. ‘The second effect is due to the aircraft movenent over the Barth and is knovn as transport rate. It is due to the fact that the aircraft must fly in a curve over the Earth and is a function of aircraft speed and Ritieads. “Fig. “Go on” the “next page summarises transport Compensation for you. niririce oan srarte = p> surrror mare sum ovta | ____y araspeeo oe {> cw oar [———enrere ain re Figs 2 AIR BHTA GOWOTER - stock otageanADC OPERATION Within the ABC there axe two pneumatic transducers. These are Govices that convert a measured force to an electrical signal that is directly proportional to that force. En this case that force can be due to either static pressure (Qutitade), or the difference between pitot and static preseures (airspeed). Additional electrical/electronic circuits are used to provide Additional information such as:~ © Mach number (airspeed and altitude), © true airspeed (airspeed, altitude and temperature), © static air temperature. Fig. 2 is a block schenatic of an ADC. Fig. 2 AIN OXTA COMPUTER ~ BLO soHENAee ‘THE ADC TRANSDUCER There are a number of different types of transducer in connon Use dependent upon the manufacturer, however, they can fell into one of two groups: ©The enalogue servo mechanical transducer. © te digital force balance transducer Analogue Servo Mechanical Transducer ‘his type (Fig. 2) is used in an analogue air data computer. Te utilises a captule that applies a force to. an Glectronagnetic signal. detector. The resultant signal is Gnplified and used to drive a servo motor that, through the use error signal to sero, Thus motor rotation is proportional to the change in applied pressure, i.e. = static for altitude information, «© pitet-static for airspeed information. = se reece a oe peDigital Force Balance Transducer This type (Fig. 4) is used in a digital air data computer or babe. ‘Tt utilises a “diaphrage that consists of a quarez crystal type of material whose electrical resistance varies with applied force (in this case pressure). the change in Eesistance is detected by an electronic bridge circuit and converted to a digital signal by the use of micro-electronics, Under the control of a digital computers JL SL Before we continue our look at the ADC, carry out the following activity to test your understanding so far activiry 1 5 Minutes Identify the following statements ae true or false. 1. Altitude information is derived from a transducer that is supplied with static pressure only. True/Palse 2. the difference between pitot and static pressure (p-s) is used to. derive airspeed infarmation: true/Palse 3, A transducer in @ DADC utilises a servo motor @evice. True/Palse 4. Mach number is derived fron airspeed and altitude information. true/Palse 5. Output signals from an ADC consist of electrical and pneumatic pressure lines. True/Paisecomeenns ow acTIVETY 2 (a) teve. to) true. () Fase. (a) true te) False. I hope you didn't find those too difficult. If you did then Tefer back to the previous pages to review the appropriate Let us now move on with the ADC. QurpuT SIGNALS In order to supply the ancillary and instrument systens with an Glectrical signal that represents the altitude and airspeed of fhe aircraft, sone form of electrical transmitter is provided. ‘There are a number of different types in use but they fall into three distinct categories: © synchro transmitters, * potentioneters, digital data bus. Pig. 5 on the next page represents a typical arrangement of Soepue signals= $a—— The first tvo utilise the gearbox driven by the transducer servo motor to mechanically position the rotor vinding of synchro transmitter or the wiper arm of the potentiometer ‘Thus the output signal is either a rotating electromagnetic field, the resultant of the three phase currents induced in the transmitter lines, or a varying dic. potential derived from motor rotation = a function of altitude or airspeed.‘he third type ig utilised in the digital air data computer. The informacion is in effect packaged into groups of digital Binary deta ~ a pattern of Os and is that represents computed tititude and airspeed. the binary data is placed in a pair of conductors, one bit at a Times the value 0 is represented by a negative voltage value, [igs -10'V, wnilst the value 1 is represented. by a positive woltage, ies t0 V. This data is read by a receiver circuit that can identify the information received under the control of a digital computer. me data is supplied at @ speed of approximately ten thousand bits per second. it is known as the ARINC 429 Digital Data Bus and is now in Gonnon use on aireraft such as the Boeing 757/767, Airbus A310, Gnd Canadair Challenger ~ airerafe which employ digital systems for their operation. ‘the DADC also employs circuits that can simulate a synchro transmitter or potentioneter as mentioned earlier. Thus it is how common practice for aircraft owners to update their ADC tysten by replacing the analogue air data computer with = digitar air data computer, without necessarily replacing the ancillary and instrument systeus. A block diagram of a typical ade is given in Fig. 6. eae = + a romp cer EI E}--~a ses] Stee]-9- AIR DATA COMPUTER MAINTENANCE For the continued operation of all user systems of air data information fron the ADC, it must be reliable in operacion. However, faults can, and do, occur and to protect against unreliable and inaccurate opération of the user systems, an ADC valid signal is provided to control the operation of these systems. I£ a fault occurs in the ADC the valid signal, which is a voltage present on the line, is removed, ive. zero volts. All fhe user systens are signalled to go to'a fail safe condition, and failure flags drop into view on the appropriate inserumencs to warn the flight crew of an unreliable condition. ‘Tous if @ number of systens and instruments are reported to be © inoperative on an aircraft, a likely cause could be the failure of ‘the ADC, which is common to all” those systems, and To confirm a faulty ADC most systems employ some form of faut. indication on the front panel of the nodule. ‘This aay take the form of electro-nechanical doll's eyes, lights, of éisplay codes. Fig. 7 identifies three typical systems for you. Fig. 7 FAULT MHOTCATION srSTENs-10- ADC REPLACEMENT Replacenent of the ADC is straightforward. The points to Fenenber are: © isolate all power supplies to the Apc, ¢ Aisconnect the pitot and static lines, * release the ADC from its mounting tray and Fenove; without distorting the’ backplate electrical connector. be avare of electro static sensitive devices and 30 not touch any exposed pins, © refit the ADC after ensuring the connectors are Clean and in a serviceable condition, * lock the ADC into the mounting tray, © reconnect the pitot and static Lines. ENSURE YOU DO NOT CROSS CONNECT THESE LINES. (Note: Some aizcraft have differen connectors to prevent this happening), sizea * reapply power. ADC self Test After replacing the ADC, some form of functional test must te Carried out. ‘This may take the form of a self test activated by one of more switches (Fig. 7). The appropriate steps will be listed in the aircraft Maintenance Mangal but typically a self test operation, when activated, drives the ingeruments up toa sinulated airspeed, Rititude figure, with the appearance of failure flags. A valid Ade will be indicated by the correct meter indication light or Bode’ [Table Ton the nest page)ed ee eee fee [Re Shee ems i | ahr “alee: ve fmganes ose or | enesszo —° |arcen 2 arcs | vor ovtpos se © in addition, Because the sirorafe pitot and static lines have been disturbed, sone form of pressure leak test mist be carried ‘Before we move on to look at the ATC Transponder, carry out eoe acriviry 2 5 Minutes Name the three types of output signal from the air data computer, and in each case” describe a typical ancillary system or instrument that uses that type. fa () te-b- comments on activity 2 Your answer should =sbe_~— something Like this (2) synchro transmitter. The altimeter uses altitude data supplied on a synchro Eranamiseion Line’ () Potentioneter. potentiometer. (e) Digital bus bar. The digital date bus has many functions, typically the supply of true air’ speed” information to a navigation computer. ‘There are of course other systems or instruments for each of (2), (b); and (e) which would have been acceptable. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL s¥sTEM ‘One Amportant user system of altitude information is the Air ‘Traffic Control system (ATC). In this section of the booklet we will look briefly at this system, concentrating on the link with the AOC. Briefly then, the ATC system has its origins in the Identification Friend or roe (IFF) systen evolved curing the Second world war, to ensure positive identification of friendly aircraft on the fadar warning system. Today, the systen is used to enable the ground radar air trattic controller to positively identity s specific aircraft from the nass of return signals on his radar display unit~ ‘The identification takes the form of one of three different types: © A four digit code, 0000 te 7777. © An extra bright display of ewenty seconds duration. ¢ The aircraft alticude to the nearest 100 ft-ue the appropriate display is selected by the pilot on the ATC control unit. More about that later. Let us continue with the Outline of the systen operation. Fig. 5 is a schematic of AIC operation. | The aizcrage systen consists of a transmitter/receiver unit commonly known as 3 transponder. The ground radar station transmits a radar pulse thet is received by the aircraft, which Eeplies to this interrogation by transmitting a. reply signal Consisting of a spscial code which will be displayed on the Ground radar units Aircraft system Components A block diagram of a typical system is shown in Fig. 9 on the next page. It consists of a pilot operated control unit, the transponder and an aerial. ‘The control unit consists of a node selector switch, the code selector knobs and display. unit, an identification position Control switch, and some form Of self test switch and confirmation light.-as- = 7 a a) Lo Pigs 9 MIRGRAFD aveTeN cowovErTS The modes are selected by the pilot under the direction of the air traffic controller who will use this instruction: = tsquawk 422" This will instruct the pilot to select Mode A and code 4321. Alternatively the pilot may operate the 1/P switch (identify Position). This causes an extra bright display on the ground radar display, which lasts for approximately 20 seconds. ‘The final mode is Mode C and when selected enables the aircraft's altitude to be transmitted automatically to the ground radar unit, where it displays the aircraft's altitude to the nearest 100 feet. Mode C Altitude Reporting ‘The ATC Transponder receives altitude information from the ADC, (or in sone aircraft it may be from the pilot's servo driven pneumatic altimeter).-- The information is in binary form, and is in a special code, known as the Gray code, This code is unigue in that it has no Qlrect numerical value, but it is used because originally it enabled the angular position of @ rotating shaft to be derived Gn digital Comm for ase in computer switching circuits. its advantage is that between each position of the shaft, only one Bit changes at a time. ‘This reduces any error to a minimum. (Pig. 10:) somee YR sures aor co’ | oan Fig. 10 GRAY cOOe ceuenamoe the code is derived by a rotating disc especially engraved with ihe Code pattern, rorseing between s source of Ligit and a row of light sensitive transistors, which switch on” and off in turn, to supply the binary code. Naturally within the ADC the disc will be driven by the Eltitude servo-notor, whereas within the DADC (digital air data Computer) the code is Gerived within the computer circuits. on sone types of analogue air data computer # set of lights is nounted on the front panel to enable monitoring of the altitude Gncoder circuits during an ADC self test operation (refer to Pig. 7).-ue SELE_ASSESSMENT 1. Deseribe briefly the operation of computer airspeed or al 2. How Ls Ue ape valid signal used? 2. Liat the these modes of ANC operation their uses. val i) ter an air data ude transducer.-1e- SELP ASSESSMENT REVIEW Yours answers should be something like this: L.A digital air data conputer altitude transducer utilises = taall piece of crystal. that produces a change | in GlectriGel resistance when a force is applied to it | trom fhe static pressure diaphragm. The change in resistance ii measured by 2 bridge type circuit, which converts it to Aigitel format for use by the computer circuits. An alternative answer could be the servo motor transducer 25 used in the analogue air data computer. 2. Providing the ADC operation remains correct, the ADC valid Signal will be present and represented by the presence of PWltage signa’, Ef the ADC fails, the valid signal, is fonoveds eigaaizing failure to all the user systems. This Sill be indicated to. the pilot by the appearance of failure flags in the appropriate instruments. 3. fa) Mode a Four Digit Code between 0000 and 7777. (b) Mode ¢ Altitude Reporting. The aircraft's altitude is transmitted to the ground station. le) 1/P Identify Position. causes an extra bright display on the rader unit, Ssually Lasts for 20 seconds. If you experienced any difficulty with these questions, then Teftr back to the appropriate sections and repeat the work to your satisfaction. summary, fie have now covereé the basic principles involved in the Operation of an siz data conputer. We considered the reasons fer having an air deta computer, the operation of the two basic fypee, and the maintenance of these systens. In addition, we Biletiy considered the operation of the ATC Transponder system, Concentrating on its Mode C operation, altitude reporting, and {fe link with the air daca computer. The next step is to complete the next booklet in this study pian and lock at the operation of CRT indicators and computer Systems in airerart-- [RECOMMENDED READING Aircraft Instrument Systems by 8. H. J. Pallett Aircraft Radio Systems by J, Powell MEA Chapter 24 of an aircraft Maintenance Manual SUGGESTED PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES Ef you have access to an aircraft, examine both the ADC and ATC installations. Refer to the Maintenance vanual and eneck how the system is tested for satisfactory operation. Observe a. detailed systens test and note any relevant safety precautions. one other suggestion: make a list of all user systens of air Gata’ information, and identify the type of signal” line Supplying information, i.e, synchro, potentioneter, etc.Module Ho. 5. Study Plan No. 16. Booklet Wo. 4. INSTRUMENTS cat Displays Computer Inputs Allisconrenrs objectives /advice Introduction Cathode Ray Tube Construction err Display Activity 1, colour Cathods Ray Tube ‘Typical systens Activity 2. Computer and Symbol Generator Inputs controls System Mainterance Self Assesanest Self Assessment Review summary Recommended Reading Suggested Practical activities Typical Examination Questions Answers to Typical Examination Questions a as. 20. 20. 20. 20. aL 2.OBJECTIVES /ADVICE on completion of this booklet you will have @ ceneral Qpereciation of the principles involved in the complex oberetion of typical aircraft cathode ray tube displays. In farticular you will be able tor~ © descrise the construction of a typical cathode ray tue, © explain the eigference between monochrome and Golour cathode ray tubes, * describe a typical system, © explain the abbreviseions EPIS, ECAM, EICAS, and Gescribe the function of a symbol generator, © appreciate the complexity of display computer input circuits. ‘This booklet will take you about one hour of study time. awrropucrroN in this study plan we are considering the different types of Enstrument system found on any aircraft. Up to now we have Considered the cperation of analogue devices; the servo motor Griven instrumere, driving pointers, dials and counters such as However, an increasing nunber of new sircraft and to sone Cntent sone older types of aircraft have display systens based Upon the cathode ray tube (CRT), controlled by digital Computers, to display large amounts of different information to the flight crew. Aircraft that have CRT display systens incorporated into their Sesign include: @ Boeing 757/767, ¢ Airbus 4310/A320, © canagair challenger, aeA common form of terminology used to describe these aircraft is "glass cockpit aircraft’, In this booklet ve vill look at the different types of car system, their construction and operation, and typical display computer syatens (CATHODE RAY TUBE CONSTRUCTION To begin with we will take a brief look at the construction and operation of a typical, single colour {monochtone) CRT. Any CRT consists of a shaped glass tube, sealed and evacuated ko produce a vactum inside. Within the tube are a number” of Gifferent electsedes with their connections brought out at. one fend of the tube. This is the electron gun. ‘The othe: end of the tube is shaped to produce the screen, the inside of which is coated with a phosphor material that, when it is bombarded with electrons produced by the electron’ gun, emits a. glow caused by the transfer of energy when the electrons strike the The electron gun consists of a number of different electrodes: © the cathode, that produces the electrons, © the control grids, that focus the electrons into © the ancde, that accelerates the electron bean up to sufficient speed to produce a visible glow ab the sezeens ‘The electrodes operate by being supplied with an extra high voltage (EHT) sonewhere in the order of 15 to 20 thousand voles (25-20 kV), produced fron an internal power supply unit. A typical CRT is shown later in Fig. 1. caution ‘The EHP is lethal and tha CRT must never be operated with any of the casing removed,car prspLay To enable the electron beam to produce a useful display it is eved around the phosphor screen by the action of two pairs of plates, Pig. 1. © x plates, in the vertical plane, deflect the Glectron’ bean ina horizontal | direction, producing a horizontal line on the display. © —-¥ plates, in the horizontal plane, deflect the Giectron beam in a vertical cirection, producing a vertical line on the display. \ ‘The plates move the electron beam around by producing either an Glectrostatic or electromagnetic. field that defieces the electrons in the bean. The field is produced by applying contrel signals co the plates. ‘This basic monochrome CRT is found in systems that are Generally used for some form of complex calculation of Ravigation and performance parameters such as the flight Monagement contcol system (PHCE) and the area navigation eyeton (ans) ‘The CRE is part of the control and display unit (CDU). Typical CDUs are shown in Fig. 2 on the next pagelp 2 fo) Ooo BEOO0 200° BOSBUE ca) ves co) as e These displays are the reason for the term glass cockpit and are used for those systens vhose function is to supply data in the “forn of words and figures for” the flight crew's computer systems the computer can be utilised “co control the automatic pilot and auto-throtele systems, maintaining the sircraft on a predetermined and calculated flight path, The latest advances use multi-colour cRts, enabling more complex and informative displays co be produced. Before we discuss the operation of a colour CRT, carry out Aetiviey 1.activity 1 $ Minutes 1. Draw a diagram of © CRT and identify the main cenponent parts. 2. Deseribe briefly how 2 horizontal line can be produced on the screen.aicre ‘COMMENTS ON ACTIVITY 1 1. Your iagran should be something Like that shown in Fig. i Girected towards the screen. When they strike. the phospher coating of the screen a glow is emitted. To produce a horizontal line the electron bean Ss deflected by the field generated by the vertical x plates. I hope you did not find that too difficult, if you are happy ith your answer, move on to look at the operation of tne colour cer. COLOUR CATHODE RAY TUBE @ Any colour CAT consists of three individual electron guns in one tube. Bach electron gun produces a specific colour, red, Blue, and graen, that when directed towards the screen can De Combined co sroduce seven efferent colours: rea, 2 blue, * green, 2 yertow (amber), © cyan (pate blue), © magenta (purple), If the electron guns are switched off completely then black, the sereen background colour, vill be apparent. Pig. 3 on the next page is a schematic of a colour CRT.‘The use of colour enhances any CRT display and makes any system hore versatile allowing the complex diagranmatic displays seen fon the glass cockpit aircraft. ‘typical exanples are shown in Fig. 4 on the next page.In all these systems sone standardisation of the use of colours has been stilised. For exanple: © green: generally denctes a normal eondition, © yellow (amber): denotes a caution condition, 2 rea: denotes a warning condition, = whiter information messages, Fig. 5 is 2 typical engine Nl display, highlighting the use of the different colours. Peete ager spe (REQUIRED (rmere) Nt TPICAL systems ‘To control the CRT display the system nas its own indiviaua supporting computer or symbol generator. The units are complex and expensive, utilising powerful digital conputers with their own memory to\ control the display. The connection from the CRT fo the computer is made via an ARINC 429 digital data Dus ine, and a changeover relay system for built in recundancy. Fig. 6 on the next page is a typical example of an EF! system.= 10 - al L S61 5S S63 Pp SG2 Ea f FF PF F ott Note the important feature of this typical system. three symbol generators are provided, No. 1 and No. 2 are normally connected to both pilots’ displays and No. 3 is in reserve "and gan be selected by either pilot to back up a failure of either No. 1 or No, 2 symbol generators. ‘The operation of these complex display eystens requices « larye amount of information from external systems, Before we cake ’s ook at the supply of information, carry out Activicy 3. e-u- Acrivrry 2. 5 Minutes 1. Briefly describe the difference between a Sonochzome and a colour CRT. 2, List the seven colours that can be derived. 2. tad 0) te fa te co)-a- commumers om activiry 2 Your brief ansver should be something like this. 1, A monochrome CRT has one electron gun, whilst a colour CRT hag three electron guns, producing the three basic colours of red, blue, and green. 2. fa) reds tb) dive, (ec) green, (a) evan, (e) magenta, (4) yellow, (3) white. TE you are happy with your answers, let's move on.-u- COMPUTER AND SYMBOL GENERATOR INPUTS fo help us in this section we vill first look at the BICA Tysten followed by a typical EFT syst. EICA systen fh typical dispiey is shows in Pig ‘The supply of information for this systen is derived from humerous signal” sources’ and. sensors. You may already be familiar with them. They include © three phase tacho-generator - engine rpm, ¢ thermocouples = BGT, synchro transmitter ~ oil pressure, © temperature bulb (thermo-rasistive) - oi2 Eamperarire.-ue © float actuated proximity switches - oft Guantizy, © relays and suitch contacts - system status ON/OFF /FArL. All these different signals are known as analogue signals, and for operation in the CRT display system, they must be converted fo equivalent digital signals, representing the analogue velues. Thuy complex e1ecefonse careuits are used.” These. Se known as analogue to digital converters and they form wnat “is knoe es the input port to the computer system. Multiplexing A common practice used in these computer systens is to group together identical analoque inputs and apply then to 2 single analogue to digital (4/0) converter via additional ‘circuits knovn ae multiplexers, Pig. 8. Multiplexing applies one input at a time to the A/D converter. ‘The multiplexer circuit is avicched rapidly hy ene compuees to Allcw each input sensor to feed che converter in turn. The switching is extremely rapid. and cen be ‘considered Anstantaneous giving rise to an apparent instantaneous change of Gisplay as,” for example, in the case of engine spm when the throttles are moved to 4 new position.EPI system A typical EPI display is shown in Fig. 9. It consiete of two Gisplays, the display is Pig. 9(a) known as the electronic Gttitude direction indicator (EADI) and the display in Pig. Sib), known as the electronic horizontal situation indicator tenet () mist ‘the information displaysd consists of a multitude of date itene, depending onthe flight mode of the aircraft. The principle factors are: ¢ aircraft attitude in roll and piteh, i.e. the moving horizon, © aircraft heading, the conpass card, = Lecaliser and glidesiope deviation during the approach mode eo land, ¢ pavigation information, waypoints, radio beacons, airfields, © auto pilot and flight director modes, as Selected by the flight crew. once again this information is derived from many different systems and generally the informacion is supplied by an ARINC 429 ata bus, where the information is already in digital format, allowing one conputer to talk to another in irs” own language.18/6 ‘cowmrons Control units are used to switch to different displays and an integral pact of a display system. Some are positioned use by the flight. crew whilst. others are for use. sy maintenance engineer once the aireraft is on the eround. ‘Three typical con units are shown in Fig.10. mse éeF © Fig. 10(a) is an EICAS control unit, enabling the flight crew to select status or” engine, Peraneters, or to set. the appropriate engine, thrust limit. ‘the computer” select switch enables the ‘connection of either computer (designated lee or right) to the display. a ==] OO © Fig. 10(b) is an BICAS maintenance select panel. The appropriate information is, displayed as selected. oo for the= Fig. 10(e) is an FETS contrat panel, allowing the required mode to be selected. SYSTEM MAINTENANCE Even though the detailed operation of these display systens is extremely conplex, systen maintenance is based upon automatic Built in test equipment (BITE). In operation the systens are Self monitoring, whilst for ground operation an automatic self fest can be activated. Atypical self test switch is shown in Fig. 10(c). Once activated the test pattern is as shown in Fig. il on che next page. Any faults will be Sisplayed in the eppropriate biock as Shown. “The test display utilises all generated colours to demonstrate the correct operation of the three electron guns.-1e- + Lewastesr + PROG PINS 18319 a11 Eu'nouiros S900 8908 Sts bre Sischece DISCRETE DISAGREE 9000, milii* Bee * ABCOEFGHIKLNOPORSTUVWXY20 r2haseregat2ae88.8. Fig. 2 Replacement of the major components requires no special techniques although care in handling is required. ‘The computers are mounted in the backplate. “Care is @uring replacement. trays with multiple pin connectors equired not’ to damage the pins Both the computer and the CRT display unit will be cooled with forced air, and again care must be taken not to demage or block ‘the air exit holes. ‘The CRT display face, which in normal use can become greasy and dirty, mist be “cleaned with” care, using the” recommended Cleaning agent and soft lint free cloth. A gentle polishing action is required So as to prevent fine scratenes reducing the visible display. @-u- SELP ASSESSMENT 1. Describe how an electron beam is used to derive a Sispley ina CRP. 2, Deseribe the term multiplexing as applied to computer input port. 3, Draw in schenatic form a typical EFI system.-20- SELE ASSESSMENT REVIEW 1. The electron bean is positioned vertically and horizontally by the” action of the electromagnetic oF electrostatic fields, generated by x and ¥ plaves. 2. Analogue inputs are multiplexed, that is each analogue input is switched and sppiied £0 the analogue to sigssal converter one at a tine. 2. Your @iagran should be similar to that in Fig. 6. IE you experienced any aifficuity with these questions, refer back tothe appropriate sections and repest the work to your oun satisfaction. sumARY ‘This booklet has covered the basic principles of aircraft cRT @isplays. We have looked at typical aircraft systems; monochrome flight management displsys, and the colour Bet system, EICA systen and ECAM system. We considered computer inputs, and even ehough the deesileé operation is extremely complex, systen maintenance consists of initieting a self test at the control panel The next step is to complete this study plan by moving on to the final booklet, Plight Data and Cockpit Voice Recorders. Nicro-Electronies in Aircraft systems, E, H. J, Pallest. SUGGESTED PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES If possible, view an aircraft chat has any type of CRT display fitted to it, and, with reference tothe appropriate Maintenance Manual, identify the sveten inputs. Observe a self test of the systen’and identify the components fitted to che aircraft. Note any cautions of warnings associated with the maintenance of the systen.e Module Ho. 5. study Plan No. 16. Booklet No. 5. INSTROMEDTS Flight RecordersCONTENTS, objectives /advic: Introduction ‘The Requirements Recorded Information Activity 1. ‘The Fatigue veter ‘The Flight Data Recorder activity 2. Cockpit Voice Recorder Activity 3. Selé Assessment Self Assesenent Review summary Reconnended Reading Suggested Practical Activities Typical Examination Questions Answers to Typical Examination QuestionsOBJECTIVES/ADVICE On completion of this booklet you will have a general appreciation of the principles involved in aircraft flight daca and cockpit voice recorder systems. In particular you will be sble tor © state the requirements which relate to aircraft mounted recorders, © describe the types of recorded information, © leentity the types of recorder mechanism, © identify the location of the unite in any aircraft (with the aid of the neintenance manual). This booklet will take you about one hour to study. aerropucrioN In this study plan we have been looking at typical flight instrument display systens, those that’ measure and display information to the flight crew, to enable them to safely fly and operate the aircraft. In addition to those instrument systems already covered there is another type of instrument system thet is a mandatory requirenent for all public transport aircraft, ané that is some form of instrument recording system. ‘This recording system can be either manual or automatic. the anual metho? is simply handwritten entries in the aircraft's technical log. whilst tha automatic ayatem employs “a £lighe data recorder (FOR) or cockpit voice recorder {EVE}. An eutonatic system is naturally more efficient than the manual method, espesiatly in “the case of modern two man crewed aircreft, and can in fact record a large amount of information guickly na accurately. ‘This informacion will enable the operating characteristics of the aircraft to be recorded and analysed at some later date, after a flight. This may be as the result of a crash of an aircraft, of some minor incident such as excessive 9 forces due to in-flight turbulence. |In both cases it is useful to be able to determine any Gontrinutory causes in order to prevent a repeat of the Sneidene. In this Booklet we will be looking at typical flight data Fecorder and. cockpit voice recorder’ systens, their Fequirenents, operation, and characteristics. ‘ro begin with let us consider the mandatory requirements for the flight data recorder systen. THE REQUIREMES The Air Navigation Order (AMO) contains the legislation thet Governs ail aspects of civil avistion in the United Kingdom, Gna one item that it requires is the fitting of sone form of Flight data recorder (FDR) and/or cockpit voice recorder (CVR) to certain types of aircraft. ‘the requirenents are specified in the ANO at Schedule 5, Scale 5. They are as follows © Group 2. Aireraft greater than 5,700 kg but less than 21,400 kg must have either an FOR or a CVE sittea. © Group 2. Airecaft greater than 11,400 kg but less than 27,000 kg must have both an’ FDR and a CVR Hittea. © Group 3. Aireragt greater than 27,000 kg must have an FDR capssle of recording extra information and a CVR sited. © Group 4 Helizopters greater than 2,700 kg or capable of Seating more than 9 passengers must have a CVR fitted that is capable of recording the speed of the rotor. 1RECORDED _INPORMATION ‘The items of recorded information are often known as parameters and the record will enable the following to be determined? ¢ Alrcrafe's light path and attitude. © Basic forces of Lift, drag, thrust, and vertical acceleration (g force). © Origin of influencing factors and basic forces acting on the aircraft, i.e. position of flight Control surfaces, autopilot” system, warning indications such as engine fire, lose” of cabin pressurization, ete. The specific itens that must be recorded are contained in the @D ANO Schedule $, Seale S. They ars © Timescale, usually in seconds. © Altituce, compass heading, and vertical Beceleration © Pitch and roll attitude. * Airspeed, engine power, and flap position. ‘These are the basic requirements and mandatory for aircraft within Group 1. Group 2 includes all of the above plus a press to transmit marker that is recorded whenever a radio transmission takes place. ‘This will enable the recorded intormation to be Synchronised with the recorded ‘speech information on” the Sockpit voice records: e@ Group 3 aeroplanes include all the above plus the following xtra information: © Longitudinal and lateral acceleration. Plight control surface position. © Undercarriage selection. Radio navigation information.© outside air temperature. © Electrical power. = Autopilot operation. = Plight deck warnines. Note: This is an extensive list! Check your knowledge of these requirements by carrying out Activity 1 now. Acraviry 1 5 Minutes here are the mandatory requirements relating to nirerafe flight recorders found? 2. flow are aircraft defined in these requirenents? State five parameters that mst be recorded by all aircraft,Comments ON ACTIVITY 1 1, the Air Navigation Order, Schedule 5. 2. By weight, i.e. less than 11,400 kg, less than 27,000 kg 3. (a) Tine. (b) Ateituee, (©) Compass heading. (2) Vertical acceleration. (e) Ateieuce, (4) Airspeed. (3) Engine power. (n) Flap pesition. T hope you managed to answer those questions quite easily. To summarise the requirenents, 611 aircraft above a certain weight must have sone form of recording systen fiteed” The Fequirenents are contained in the Air’ Navigation Order, Schedule 5. the information recorded by the FDR enables the aicceafe “fiighe path, actitude ané basic forces ts “be determined. Tf you are happy with this section, then we can move on to look at atypical aircraft systen.HE PATIGUE METER Before we look at typical modern systens, it is worthwhile to take 2 quick look at an original type of recorder, one that sone of you may be familiar vith already. This is the fatigue meter, Fig. 1. Tt was mounted near the aircraft's main structural point, the wing spar, and recorded the g forces acting on the aircraft. The figures were read and recorded in the Technical Log. and formed the basis of fatigue monitoring the ultimate life of the airfrane. Because of the introduction of the FDR which also records ¢ forces, the vertical acceleration, the “fatigue meter Deceme redundant and is now no longer in general use- ‘THE PLIGHT DATA RECORDER A typical flight data recorder can be congidered to consist of two Separate units in one box. One unit measures the information and packages the data into 2 format that canbe recorded by the seconé unit, “the dete recorder.it is the second unit, che data recorder, that is contained in a crash proof, fire proof and water proof housing to, provece the recorded information. "A requirement is to store at” least the last 25 hours of flight da Buth units are contained within a common housing coloured Hluorescent orange, secured in a standard mounting tray with a standard back plate electrical connector. The unit {s usually located somewhere at the rear of the aircraft, the part of the aircrafe that is least likely to be damaged ina crash, Fig. 2- Qn some units an underwater locater beacon is mounted on the flight data recorder. ‘this contains » small radio. transmitter powered by a vater activated battery unit, and enables che unit to be located in the event of the aircraft crashing in’ waver Sone units may have “pitot and static connections for he Measurement of altitude and airspeed. A typlesi unit is” shoes in Pig. 3 on the next page.Recorder Mechanism As mentioned earlier the recorder mechanism is crash protected, and must be capable of retaining at least the last 2) hours of Flight data. Early units, commonly found on early model Soeing 707, 727, and 737 aircraft, employed a length of metal foil wound on a motor driven rotor assembly. “The foil was approximately 6 inches wide, and generally 200 feet in length. In operation the foil was driven by an electric motor at a controlled rate and data Was recorded by electrically positioned scribers which engraved the information on the foil. A typical metg] foil recorder and record is shown in Fig. ¢ on the next page. 4‘the accibers are positioned by servo motor driven mechaniene ae Shown in Fig. 5: This metal foil recorder mechanism has largely been superseded by some form of electronagnetic recording system, very similar £0 an audio cassette recording/playback unit that you nay be familiar with The recording medium will either be * an oxide covered mylar (plastic) tape, or ¢ stainless steel wire. In both cases the recording unit is designed as an endless Loop, new information being recorded over information that was recorded at least 25 hours ago. Fig. § on the next page shows S typical electromagnetic recorder unit.we In the electromagnetic recorder information is packaged inte binary signals, i.e. a pattern of 0s and ls. ‘this is, recorded by aligning the magnetic field on the tape or the wire in. one Girection or the other. Fig, 7 illustrates this. form “of recording. e@ CTEFPLOLELEELEae Information storage U ‘This is the second unit contained in the FOR. Its purpose is fo receive. the measured information and convert it to a signal that can drive the recorder unit, either by positioning the Scribers in the metal foil” type, or electromagnetically Fecording on the tape or wire recorder The information may be supplied in a number of different ways, Gepending upon the signel sensor, i-e-:~ © 3wire synenro input - e.g. piteh and roll attitude from the vertical gyro, © 2 wire a.c. voltage - e.g. vertical acceleration from the accelerometer, © Lwire dic. voltage ON/OFF - e.g. press to tranemit switen. in modern aircraft such as the A310 and 8757/7867, the signal Will be inthe form of ARINC 429 digital data ‘signals from Various sources such as the air data computer and. inertial reference unit, for exanple. Fig. @ is a typical FOR system block éiagran. Eee val-1ua- FDR operation Power to the FDR must be applied once the aircraft is capable of flight. Tt must be automatic in operation. This is achieved in a number of different ways. Common methods employ the use of one or more of the following: © an airspeed activated switen, © an engine operated switeh, i.e. engine oit pressure present, + gust Lock release, © air/around sensing is used to ensure operation e once the aircraft is in the air. A fest switch, to enable ground testing of the flight data recorder, is provided to bypass the above conditions. This fest switch is co-located with a warning light’ or indicator Ehat will indicate whenever pover is renoved from the FDR, ora self detected fault has occurred. This provides a positive indication of FOR failure. Adjacent to this switch and light panel is usually located a ‘trip and date module. This vill enable a code representing the flight and the date to be recorded anytime power is first applied to the recorder, These modules are shown in Pig. 9. > FLIGHT RECORDER Fug. 9 FOR TEST Am TRIP ap DATE HOOMLES-ue fie have now conleted our look at typical flight data Tecorders. Test yeur knowledge by carrying out Activity 2. ACTIVITY 2. Minutes Answer, briefly, the following questions. 1. What colour is the flight recorder unit? 2, Where woule st be located in an airerafe? 3. How many hours of flight data must be stored? 4, Describe a typical recorder mechanism?-as- \COMMEW?S ON ACTIVITY 2 1. Fluorescent orange. 2. At the rear of the aircraft. 3. At least 25 hours. 4. Your answer could be either the metal foil and scriber, or electronagnetic recording on plastic tape or stainiess steel wire, If you experienced any difficulty with those questions, review the appropriate sections and complete to your satisfaction. We have now completed our consideration of tie flight data recorder. We must now move on to consider the cockpit voice recorder. ‘COCKPIT VOICE RECORDER You should recall that it is a sendatory requirement for aircraft above 5,700 kg flying for public. transport use, to have a cockpit voice recorder fitted. These requirements are specified in the Air Navigation Order, Schedule , Seale § ‘the requirement is for the cockpit voice recorder to record four channels of audio inforretion simultansously, ané De capable of storing the last 30 minutes of information during 3 flight. The requirenents are met by a unit that can be considered similar to the flight data recorder in’ that iz contains eve Gistinct parts. One unit measures the audio information and Supplies it to the second unit, the crash proof recorder unit. Poth units are combined together in the one common housing hich, like the FDR is located at the rear of the alccrafe, ia sone installations adjacent to the flight data recorder itself. underwater Iocater beacon attached to the unit. A typical unie is shown in Fig. 10 on the next page.Recorder Unit ‘The recorder unit operates in the sane way as a commercial tape/cassette recorder, utilising electromagnetic principles. ‘The endless tape is driven by a motor, past four recording heads, which record the audio signal onto the tape. The endless: tape will take at least 30 minutes to go round once and this ensures that the last 30 minutes of recorded information is Fetained ‘The recorder unit also contains » bulk erase coil, that when activated will remove all recorded information. Information Storage unit This unit contains audio amplifier circuits that rective audio signals from the four different sources, and supply the four Fecording heads with the required signals. ‘The four sources are defined by the requirements and will be as follows: © Channel 1, = Flight engineer/3rd crew nember microphone and telephone (MIC/TELS), or public address, or rotor” speed information” (for helicopters).sare Channel 2. ~ First officer mic/TELs. | channel 2. = Captain nzc/zee. © Channel 4. - Flight deck area microphone. When recorded the channels appear on the four track tape as Shannei 2 Track | “cnennei4———"track 31 Tape Note that the two most important channels are in the centre of @ the tape, which is the least likely part to be danaged A schenatic of # typical cockpit voice recorder is shown in Fig. Ile Fig. 12 coeKprT VoICE RECORDER - scHENa Operation ‘The power supply is arranged to ensure continuous operation under all normal flight conditions and is usually taken from an essential a.c. supply line. The bulk erase circuit can only be operated when the aircraft: is on the groua, © has its parking brake set, hag ite ERASE button held for at least 2 seconds before erasure commences. ‘This will ensure that inadvertent erasure cannot take place. A self test facility is usually provided to confirm operation of the unit. Satisfactory operation is indicated by the neter Fig. 12 le a typical cockpit voice recorder control nit, located on the flight deck. saucee —retcnur omen 5 ser apna We have now completed our look at a typical cockpit voice recorder. Test you know.edge by carrying out Activity 3.~ae aCrIviry 3 5 Minutes Answer, briefly, the following questions. How many recording channels are there? What is the duration of the stored information? 3. Wow is the bulk erase circuit connected? What colour is the cockpit voice recorder?-2- commenrs oN ACTIVITY 3 4 2, 30 minutes. Aircraft on the ground, parking brake set, and ERASE Button held for at least’ 2 seconds before erasure 4. Fluorescent orange. IE you experienced any difficulty with these questions then Eeview the appropriate sections and complete to your Satisfaction.ai 1. Describe, briefly, the type of information that is recorded by a flight data recorder system and’ state how mmuch information shows be reeaineds 2, Wich the ald of @ schematic diagram, desuribe the ‘operation of a cockpit voice recorder. Include the bulk © Srase circuit in your diagram.ore SELP ASSESSMENT REVIEW Your answers should be something like these 1. Recorded information must enable the aircraft's Hight path ana attitude, basic forces of lift, drag, Ehrast and vertical acceleration, and the origin of Influencing factors to be determined. At least 25 hours of recorded information aust be retained. 2. Your schenatic should be something like that in Fig. Il. Important points are: * four channels of recorded audio, © L channel is from the area microphone, @ bulk erase circuit interlocked to prevent Tnadvertent operation when aizcraft is in the 1£ you experienced any difficulty with these questions then Fefer back to the appropriate sections and carry out a review Of the information SUMMARY We have now covered the requirements, operation and typical System characteristics of aircraft flight data and cockpit voice recorders. ‘This is the final booklet in this study plan that has covered typical Aeroplane 2 instrumant systems. z hope you have found this study plan interesting and not too Gifficult and that” you now realise that these instrument Systens do form an integral part of any modarn public transport Sirerafe. RECOMMENDED READING Microelectronics in Aircraft Systems by B. H. J. Pallett | (for the flight data recorder) Aircraft Radio systems by J. Powell (for the cockpit voice recorder)- 2 SUGGESTED PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES X£ available to you, study an aircraft Maintenance Manual, with reference to the flight data recorder’ and cockpit voice Fecorder systens. Note the power supply arrangements and bulk erase circuit decails. XE possible study the actual units on board an aircraft, and view typical self teste of the units. Tt will also benefit you to read the actual requirements in the Air Navigation Order. Don't forget that you will find them at Schedule 5.Module Ho. 3. study Plan No. 9. Booklet No. 1: VER COMMUNICATIONS Basic System ———ATITINconmewes Objectives /advice Introduction Basic Radio Principles Activity 1. A typical Aircraft VHF system Light Aircraft system Activity 2. operating Procedure: Self Assessment Self Assessment Review Summary Reconmented Reading Suggested Practical Activities typical ixenination questions Answers to Typical Examination Questions ao az. a3. as. 1s. 16. ay a. as. as.OBJECTIVES /ADVICE When you have completed this booklet you will have an appreciation of the basic principles of radio theory. in aadition you will be able to © state the relationship between frequency, wavelength and the speed of light, © explain the tezm modulation, © describe the components that make up a typical VEE system, * describe the actions that are carried out during a system functional check. Tt is advisable that you have studied the Basic Electrics @ content in Nodule “No. 2, study Plan Ne. 9, and have. an understanding of the terns alternating current,’ frequency and electromagnetic energy before attenpting this bookler. ‘This booklet will take you about one hour to complete. merropucrzoN With the large nunber of aircraft flying in the crowded airspace of today, it is vitally inportant to have a safe and Felisble means of connunication between the crew and air traffic control. in addition, the aircraft engineer, in carrying out his normal @uties, needs to be able to conminicate with airfield ground control to obtain the necessary clearances prior to towing an gizcraft, running aa engine or even "to ‘summon the “necessary @ emergency vehicles for any type of incident. In this booklet we will look at the basic principles of an aircraft VHP communication systen, the operating procedures and Sone typical maintenance inspections. Before we look at a typical system, it is worthwhile to consider sone of the basic principles of radio communication. BASIC RADIO PRINCIPLES The basic concept of radio communication | involves the transmission and ‘reception of radio’ waves” (electromagnetic energy) that travel through space at the speed of lignts 300 million metres per second (186,000 miles per second)~These radio waves are produced when a high frequency Zlternating current is applied to a conductor known as an aerial or antenna. inen the electromagnetic energy leaves the aerial it travels in Gil directions, similar to the ripples on a pond into which @ Stone has been’ chrown. IE the radio wave passes through a conductor (the receiving Zerial) the energy in the wave will induce an alternating Gsrrent to flow in the conductor, the value of current varies With the electromagnetic energy: Thus a variation of the Current in the transmitter causes a variation in current at the Feceiver aerial located sone distance away. by international agreement, frequencies for radio transmission have been categorized as shown in the following table. Name Frequency Band Very low frequency VLF 3 = 30 KHz Low frequency LP 30 ~ 300 Kaz Medium drequency MP 300 - 3,000 kuz High frequency AF 3 = 30 te Very high frequency VaP 30 - 300 Maz Ulera high frequency UHF 300 - 3,000 maz Where kHz is kilo Hertz (1/0008), and MHz is mega Hertz (1,000,008). Also Hz = cycles per’ second. Each one of these frequency bands has its own specific properties, and hence finds its ovn use aircraft systems; Perhaps you know of some? ‘The one we are interested in is tne Vue band, 30 ~ 300 Miz. Another important factor to consider is the term vavelength. This can be defined as the length of one cycle of the Transmitted signal, and is used to calculate the size of the ferials for mavimun transmission efficiency, the aerial should be halé of the signal's wavelength. There is a simple relationship between frequency and wavelengeh, and it 1 © wavelengen = $E2SGLE. (spged of Light)-3- © A Greek symbol Lamba) = ¥ where v = 300 x 106 a/sec. For example, if the signal frequency is 100 Miz:~ 300 x 108 oo x 10) thea 3 metres and the length of aerial for maximum efficiency of transmission igo.5 metres. However, it is common practice to produce an aerial that is 1/4 of the ‘wavelength, and use the reflective effect of the Birfrane to reprodice the second half of she aerial, thus in our example to transmit a signal of frequency 100 Maz requires quarter wavelength aerial of 75 cm in length. One final factor to consider is the tern nodulation. this is @efined as the mixing of two alternating signals to produce a composite signal that contains the characceristics of the two original but separate signals. it is necessary to enable the iow frequency voice audio signal to be transmitted at the required higher frequency, without which radio transmission would not be possible. ‘There are two types in common use, anplizude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (Fa); for aircraft use AM ie more Common, whilst 2M is utilised for comercial radio broadcasts. Perhaps you have a broadcast receiver that has a channel selector marked as AM/PMi To show what vo mean by the term AM, examine Pig. 1 on the next page. Notice that the amplitude (strengti) of the carrier wave Varies exactly with the changing anplitads of the audio signal.2 +h i tl Ke have now completed our took at sone of the basic principles involved in radio communication. Test your new found knowledge by carrying out Activity 1 before moving on to look at @ typical system.acrIviry 1 10 Minu 1. What does VHF stand for? 2. What values define the VHF band? 3. What is the wavelength of a signal that has a frequency of 150 Mi2? 4. what size aerial would be used for the previous signal? (Give two possible sizes.)COMMENTS ON ACTIVITY 1 Your ansvers should be something like these. 1. Very High Frequency. 2. 30 = 300 Miz (mega Hertz). 6 ya ¥ = 300x201 = 150x120 = 2 metces. 4. (a) Halé wavelength = 1 metre. () quarter wavelength = 0.5 metre. i hope you didn't find those too difficult, Let us then move on to 100k at a typical aircraft system. ATYPICAL AIRCRAFT VEF SYSTEM Pig. 2 below is a simplified schematic of a typical VHP system, fitted to a modern jet transport aircraft co Let us examine in more detail the component parts that make up the eyeten.-o- the Aerial The aerial (or antenna, the american term) enables the transmitted signal to leave the aircraft or connects the Feceiver to the incoming ‘signals. “Ie consists of 's\ netal blade, whose dimension is carefully chosen to derive ‘maximum transmission efficiency over the frequency range, and is” seced upon 1/4 wavelength concept. The blade is, covered in a fibreglass aerofcil section to reduce the drag on the aircraft (see Pigs 3ta))e Tt is usually mounted on the centreline of the airframe, in Line with the fore and aft axis, and in. dual system Gonfiguration (i.e. two separate systems}; there will be’ one above and one below the fuselage, as shown in Pig. 3(b) on the next page.igs 32) WP ABRIAL LoeArTONS the transceiver the word transceiver is an acronym for the two words Transmitter and receiver, it can also be shortened to 7/8. Tt Clearly defines the function of the single uni @ to transmit messages from the aircraft to ground or to another aircraft, © to receive messages from ground control oF another airerafe. Te contains the necessary circuits to carry out both operations When selected by the crew, it operates using amplitade Rodulation and operates over a frequency range of 118 to 136 tite (typical figures) at 25 kitz spaces. 118.225 138.250 ae 138.275 118.200 wiz ete. these figures provide an operating raige that is defined as Tinetoe lone, ices between airerace and ground station, and Varies from a few miles when the aircraft is on the ground, to 200 miles (approx.) at cruising altitude.-9- Fig. 4 below shows a typical VHF transceiver. rt will be mounted in a radio equipment bay, renote from the flight deck, and usually operates from the aizcrate's 26 vot a.ce supply, and in sone systems directly fron the aircraft battery” for energency use. The front panel includes connections and controls for ground test capability. The Control unit A typical control unit is shown in Pig. 5 below. tt contains the secessary controls and indicators to select and dispiey Fequired frequency. This unit has the facility to preselect second frequency end a transfer’ switen to enable. a rapid channel change. An indicator above the window illuminates co. confit the selected frequency. @ WF Gum Fig. 5 TrereaL mr commot UIT @ae Audio Signals ‘the audic input is supplied from the microphone via the Zircraft’s inverphone system, which acts like a telephone Gxchange to divert the signals in the correct direction. The {heeephore will also direct the received audio signal to the Grew heacsets or speakers. LIGHT AIRCRAFT SYSTEM The system ve have just locked at is typical of large jet Transport aircraft. Systens for general aviation use do differ in'some areas, namely? the serial will probably be of the whip type, Sle. a setallic rod, + the control unit and transceiver are conbined in one unit, mounted in the instrument panel, © the microphone and headset/speaker are connected Girectiy into che transceiver. A typical system is shown in Fig. 6 below, whilst the front Panel of a unit in current use is shown in'Pig. 7 on the next Page. Fig. © TYPIORL LIGHT AIRCRAFT VHF SYSTEHeu a ws cS tS bi H1Gso = ot Fig. 7 TYRrCAL LiGHR ATRCRAE VAP PROET PANEL We Nave now covered typical aircraft systems. Before we look at ithe final section on operating procedures, carry out @ Aecivity 2.Srp ACTIVITY 2 5 Minutes 1. What type of modulation is used? 2. what is the frequency range? 3, What is the range of operation?=a comments ON ACTIVITY 2 Your answers should be something Like this. 1. Amplitude modulation. 2, 48 = 136 mite. 3. Line of sight, dependent upon altitude. Let us now move on to operating procedures. OPERATING PROCEDURES An in situ check consists of two parts:~ © inspection, © operation. Inspection An Anepection consists of ensuring that all components are Securely mounted and free from mechanical damage, in addition itvensures thet all electrical connections are secure. operation To operate the system, apply power to the transceiver and ellow a short warn ip period. Select a frequency that is in use, and ensure the received audio 18 loud and clear. Check’ the operation of a volume control {if fitted) and adjust to a Comfortable level. Select the frequency of the ground station that is going to be used for the check, and ‘listen out’ to ensure that no other Ezansmissions are taking place. Hold the microphone close to the mouth, select the tranemitter on, usually by operating a button on the microphone, and speak Slowly and clearly into the microphone to transmit, end to establish two way communication with the ground’ stations Téentify your position by airline and aircraft registration, using the standard phonetic alphabet, i.e.: A= Alpha, B = Bravo etc. @ue once you have finished speaking, release the transmitter button, and listen for the reply, ensuring that it is loud and clear. Complete the check by confirming to the ground station the receipt of the reply. Some important points to note are: © DONOT TRANSMIT ON 121.50 MHz. This is @ recognised energency/distress channel. © DO.NOT TRANSMIT WHILST REFUELING IS TAKING PLACE. © 00 NO? INTERRUPT ATC-AIRCRAPT COMMUNICATION.ae SELP ASSESSMENT Spend about tea minutes answering these questions. 2. (a) State the formula that defines the relationship between frequency (£), wavelength (AJ, and speed of light (v) () From this formula, calculate the wavelength of a signal whose frequency 18 125.00 Miz. @ @) 2. Draw the block aiagram of a typical VHP systen and Adoneisy the component pareseee SELP ASSESSMENT REVIEW Your enswers should be as follows: Le tay va th or ded or eed 6 tb) Wavelength (4) = 300220 netres = 2.4 metres 125 « 10% Your schematic should appear as something like Pig. 2, reproduced here for you. om Ie SUMMARY In outline, we have looked at the principles involved in aircraft Vir communication. We have looked at the basic Principles cf radio transmission theory in a very simplifies Manner, and locked at the individual components that make up 2 typical system. In conclusion, we have covered the inspections and operating procedures of a typical systen.au RECOMMENDED READING CAIPs Leaflet RL/2-2 Paragraph 3 for VHF aerials, Paragraph 8 for repair of VIP aerials. Airframe and Powerplant Mechanics Handbook EA-AC 65-154, Chapter 13. ATA Chapter 23 VHP Communications, aircraft Maintenance Manual. SUGGESTED PRACTICAL ACTIVITES If possible, examine an aircraft's VHP system, identify the component Location, aerials, control units and, in conjunction with the Maintenance Manual, identify the power sours: Accompany a licensed Radio Engineer when he carries out a functional check of a VHF system, and listen to the two way broadcasts. caution Do not carry out a transmission yourself, unless you are fully supervised or approved to do 36.