The Harem: A Place of Power for Women

MIDN Teresa C. Meadows

Professor Tucker- HH362

December 14, 2015

What ways, in the Ottoman Empire, were women able to assert their power in an inherited
gender system that prescribed women as subordinate to men?
 The political power of the Ottoman imperial harem in the sixteenth and seventeenth

centuries, a period most notably known as “the sultanate of women,” was widely viewed as

illegitimate and corrupt, but through the examination of royal women’s sources of power, the

internal politics of the royal family made the power of women not only inevitable but integral to

the dynasty’s survival. Political action in the context of the household networks, demonstrates

that female power was a logical, indeed an intended, consequence of political structures. Royal

women were custodians of sovereign power and their power was manifested in day-to-day

politics. These privileged women played a dynamic role in the public culture of sovereignty and

ultimately, the exercise of political power in the Ottoman Empire was tied to definition of

sexuality.1 Royal women in the Ottoman Empire were able to assert their power in an inherited

gender system that prescribed women as subordinate to men through their role, actions, and

contributions to the Imperial Harem and Ottoman society.

The Imperial Harem of the Ottoman Empire was in existence from 1299-1923. The main

population of the harem was composed of the wives, servants, female relatives, and concubines

stemming from whoever the Ottoman Sultan was at the time. The institution composed of these

women, played an important social function within the Ottoman court while also demonstrating

considerable political authority in Ottoman affairs.2

For the perpetuation of the Ottoman Dynasty, young, beautiful, and intelligent girls were

captured during wartime. Most were European Christian recruited from the Balkans, but a vast

majority was also from the other surrounding countries. Upon their capture, these women would

become imperial concubines. As mentioned, these girls were young, and since they came into

1 Leslie Pierce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1993, vii-x.
2 Pierce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire, p.
the palace at such a young age they grew up understanding and abiding by the discipline of the

palace.34 As they grew up, the concubines were promoted according to their performance and

would become kalfas and ustas. Kalfa was a term used to describe the women who became

attendants and supervisors of service in the palace, whereas ustas was a rank higher than a kalfa

and the role of that woman meant she was the “master” and the leading administrative officer of

the harem. 5 The one fortunate enough to share the sultan’s bed, became a member of the dynasty

and rose in rank to attain status. The highest position to hold in the harem was known as the

Valide Sultan, but regardless of rank, the women were able to exercise considerable authority

and influence in their duties.6 Unlike ordinary women who were outside dynastic rule, they were

generally treated with a lot of respect by both subordinates within the Imperial Harem in addition

to members of the imperial family. 7

Valide Sultan, a title held by the legal mother of a ruling Sultan of the Ottoman Empire,

was head of the Imperial Harem. The female position was perhaps one of the most important

roles in the Ottoman Empire after the sultan himself. By Islamic tradition, the mother of the

sultan had significant influence on the affairs of the empire. Not only did this women have the

highest ideal of power in the court, her own rooms, and state staff, but traditionally, she always

had access to economic resources and funded major architectural projects. That being said, a

3 Joan DelPlato, Multiple Wives, Multiple Pleasures: Representing the Harem, 1800-1875, Madison: Fairleigh
Dickinson University Press, 2002, p.9.
4 Delia Cortese and Simonetta Calderini. Women and the Fatimids in the World of Islam. Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press, 2006.
5Douglas Scott Brookes. The Concubine, the Princess, and the Teacher Voices from the Ottoman Harem. Austin:
University of Texas Press, 2008, p 296.
6 Reina Lewis, Rethinking Orientalism Women, Travel and the Ottoman Harem. London: I.B. Tauris, 2004, p.131

7 Fanny Davis. The Ottoman Lady: A Social History from 1718 to 1918. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1986,
p. 10.
valide sultan typically came to the harem with pomp circumstances and almost always assumed

the title upon her son’s ascension.8

In the 17th century, the role of the valide sultan rose to new heights due to the lack of

leadership and power from either incompetent or child sultans in a period known as the

“Sultanate of Women.” During this time, women of the harem began to utilize their power and

knowledge to new extents. The Sultanate of Women was a 130-year time period during the 16th

and 17th centuries where the women of the Imperial Harem of the Ottoman Empire exerted

extraordinary political power and influence over state matters. The most remarkable aspect of

this time period was that the women held a higher political influence over the Ottoman sultan

who was a male. Like mentioned, many of the Sultans during this time period were minors, so

their mothers (valide sultans) or their wives (Haseki Sultans) were the ones to effectively rule the

Empire.9

One of the most influential women of the Ottoman Dynasty, Hurrem Sultan, served as

Valide Sultan during the Sultanate of Women era. Her husband, Suleiman I (Suleiman the

Magnificent) became the longest reigning sultan of the empire.10 Breaking nearly two years of

Ottoman tradition, the two married and the future of women’s power in the Ottoman Empire

would be forever changed. Over time, she accumulated much power and was able to influence

the politics of the Ottoman Empire through her husband. Not only was she able to influence

decisions, but she was also able to play an active role in state affairs.11

8Pierce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire, p7.
9 Pierce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire, p229-258.
10Pierce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire, p58-59.
11 Pierce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire, p58-59.
 Similarly, predecessors of the Ottoman Empire often had women who were held in high

regards play an active role in state affairs as well as public policy, despite other male officials.

Even in the early years of the Ottoman Empire, there were only a few women who held positions

of power that were known to the empire, but due to expansion, the role of women in government

began to downsize considerably.12 Before the Imperial Harem was established, women were

kept at far-reaching distances that did not enable them to have any meaningful power, but two

significant events changed the future of women’s power in the Ottoman Empire. The first reason

that power shifted was due to the end of expansion of the Ottoman Empire. Expansion called on

men of the empire, such as viziers, court of advisors, and religious leaders, to make decisions

dealing with state affairs, public policy, and the conquering of land. During the reign of

Suleiman I, he ended expansion of the empire because it became evident that he could no longer

partake in extended military campaigns due to the vastness of his land. Secondly, the Imperial

Harem was relocated into the palace by Suleiman I, which enabled women through a means of

prime location near the sultan.13 Suleiman’s wife, Hurrem, gained an enormous amount of

wealth upon moving to the capital and she had greater opportunities to form political alliances.14

His act of officially merging the harem into the palace and political spheres would ultimately

change the way the sultan ran his empire.

As Suleiman I enacted these changes under his reign, in addition to marrying Hurrem

Sultan, the empire’s power began to shift from just the sultan to much more. Hurrem began to

act as a political confidant to the sultan. Her position gave her access to sources of power that no

other woman had ever enjoyed. Letters from Hurrem to Suleiman I when he was out on military

campaigns, proved that his wife and their communication was very valuable in terms of
12 Lewis, Bernard (1962). Ottoman Observers of Ottoman Decline. Islamic Studies I.
13 Lewis, Bernard (1962). Ottoman Observers of Ottoman Decline. Islamic Studies I.
14 Pierce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire, p. 90.
information that was passed his way that only she knew. In the early letters of their relationship,

she acted like a true political actor, as she sent her husband letters about problems with the grand

vizier, information on important events, and coverage on the situation in the capital. Of these, it

was important to him that his wife notified him on information regarding the capital because it

was a common fear among sultan’s that their son might be enthroned to their place while absent.

She also informed him of things such as an epidemic that spread through the region which was

affecting those who lived in the empire.15 Their communication was vital and they were both

able to recognize that fact. Often times, Hurrem would warn her husband of the consequences of

poor communication, and one time said to him,

“I ask you, I beg you, to send news quickly, very quickly, because—and I swear I am not

lying—no messenger has come for the last week or two. The whole world is clamoring,

all kinds of rumors are circulating. Don’t think that it is just for myself that I am

asking.”16

As he received those letters away on campaign with the grand vizier and other important

statesmen, her role to inform these highly regarded men of affairs in the capital became crucial.

Her vigilance in obtaining and passing along the information was greatly respected so the sultan

also entrusted her to send letters to other family members serving as a secure communications

link.17 The letters that were exchanged between Hurrem and the sultan proved that her

communication with him was extremely powerful and that her opinions on political matters and

state affairs were highly influential to both her husband and other men.

15 Pierce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire, p. 64.
16 Pierce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire, p. 64.
17 Pierce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire, p. 65.
 At a time when women were inherently subordinate to men, Hurrem faced the struggle of

proclaiming her power to the people of the empire. Many believe that she only aggrandized

power for her own self-interest. While this may have been true, it is important to recognize that

she was part of a much larger scope, and the role that she obtained was far more encompassing

than the role any other woman of the harem had to previously exercise. Her decisions and

exertion of power was for more than just herself. It was for the various factions and networks of

influence for which she held a collective interest in.18

Already mentioned, Hurrem Sultan and Suleiman I began their reign at a time known as

the Sultanate of Women. Throughout this time period there were six sultans who had reigned

either incompetently or as a child. Due to this negligence of power in the Ottoman Empire, the

women of the harem stepped up to help take political action, but this radical prominence was not

easily accepted by those who also held power in the empire. Often times, the valide sultan faced

opposition and negativity from those who worked for the sultan such as his viziers. It was

somewhat easier for males to assert their dominance through both politics and military conquest.

The public appreciated their contributions to society, but for the women of power it was much

more difficult to sway the public opinion. In order to have the public favor them, these women

would rely on their contributions to society through the construction of monuments, public

works, and royal ceremonies that they spearheaded. This philanthropy on an empire scale would

showcase the power they held. 19

During the reign of Suleiman I, public-building roles became a new standard for the

valide sultan. In previous years, the women of the harem had taken part in building projects and

public works creations, but Hurrem began to build on a grander scale than anyone before her
18 Pierce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire, p. 112.
19 Pierce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire, p. 64.
had. She built many major monuments in the empire’s capital and the fact that she commanded

these projects directly shows that the sultan trusted her actions. He gave her power and leverage

to do as she wished. Hurrem became so significant in the construction industry due to the fact

that there were a number of monuments not only built by her, but also for her. For the first time

in Ottoman dynastic rule, the influence from royal women within the harem was said to

constitute architecture of power. What made Hurrem so unique in her building enterprise was

that she constructed monuments and works within the urban capitals of the empire. Before, any

work commanded by a woman was located in provincial places.20

During their reign, many of the monuments constructed were named after Hurrem Sultan.

The sultans before Suleiman limited themselves to the construction of maybe one mosque under

their reign, but Hurrem directed the construction of six mosques during her time as valide sultan.

In the Imperial Harem, Leslie Pierce states,

“The numerous endowments for the public welfare were visible and lasting testimony to

the ruling family’s piety, its solicitude for its subjects, and the sultans victories as ghazi

(a sultan’s own mosque could only be built with war booty).”21

Hurrem constructed two monuments in Istanbul- a large mosque complex and pubic bath. Pierce

argues that the two monuments were deliberately selected to help shape Hurrem’s public image.

The site was chosen to serve the women of the Ottoman Empire who lived in that area.

Historical record of women in the Ottoman Dynasty, shows that they held compassion for

women who were not lawful to the harem. Many stories have been passed down about the

compassion and concern they held for ordinary women who faced struggles and fell on hard

20 Pierce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire, p. 199.
21 Pierce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire, p. 200.
times. As valide sultan, Hurrem was able to project the dynasty’s concern for its female subjects

through her power to influence, and the construction of the mosque complex demonstrated her

concern for the common people.22 Secondly, the bath that she constructed demonstrated her

piety and imperial status. Pierce states, “Even as structure as mundane as a bath could be

elevated to a statement of magnificence and power through its placement.” 23

The philanthropy of the valide sultan thrived in the Ottoman Empire. The wealth that

stemmed from these women was returned to the Ottoman Empire through the services they

established for the public welfare.24 The power of the dynastic family would then on be directly

correlated with the number of building projects and philanthropy the valide sultan and women of

the harem would enact. The dynasty was served in a number of ways, one of which enabled

women of the harem to exert their power through architecture. Their public appearance, mostly

the valide sultans, was orchestrated in order to provide a “symbol of the legitimacy and

benevolence of the dynasty and to cultivate subjects’ loyalty and sense of community.” Her

contributions to Ottoman society were also useful since she diverted attention away from

military, economic, and social problems. The construction of monuments in addition to the

wide-spread variety of other projects also opened the general public’s eyes and made them aware

in a number of ways.

Although the women were able to gain and showcase their power through loyalty and

architecture, they also played a major role politically where the power they were able to exert

was much more prominent. Like most political positions that were highly influential, the valide

sultan could provoke considerable disapproval; occasionally even that of her son, the sultan.

22 Pierce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire, p. 202, 203.
23 Pierce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire, p. 203.
24 Pierce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire, p. 205.
Although her political opinion was only one of seven people in the political sphere, her opinion

was highly regarded because she was one of the few members who represented the dynasty as a

whole. Also as the dynasty’s senior member, the valide sultan was able to act as an integrating

force in the polity, calming situations even those that were against the sultan. Through changes

in the Ottoman Empire, the status of the valide sultan remained unchanging and her authority

remained respected.25

Growing up, many princes were unable to receive one-on-one training with their father

on how to be a sultan. That being said, the mother, valide sultan, was able to assume much of

the burden of his political education. In most cases, the valide sultan had a wide range of

political knowledge since she worked closely with the sultan for a vast amount of time. Through

that time, she was able to understand problems as well as the protocol for government. Since

Suleiman merged the Imperial Harem into the palace, both the valide sultan and the prince lived

at the center of official government business. These women truly lived at the heart of political

life.26

It became both her duty and her right to mentor her son as a prince. When the prince

became the sultan, this did not change the relationship he had with his mother. She still

continued to mentor and proctor her son just as she had when he was a prince. Pierce states,

“The extent to which her influence on her sons decisions or her direct influence on

political affairs was publicly evident depended on a number of factors, including the

sultan’s independence of spirit, the number of other mentors with whom he had

25 Pierce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire, p. 229.
26 Pierce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire, p. 235.
 developed a close relationship, and the degree to which he was devoted to his political

office.” 27

When her son became a sultan, she also served as the intermediary to whom higher officials

could influence to temper the sultan’s behavior if anything went awry. While her son was away,

she protected him position and became his most trusted ally. 28

It has become increasingly evident that the valide sultans role in her sons life was

extremely important. His mother’s career ultimately depended on his own, but her power was

not derived from his. Throughout the course of Ottoman dynastic rule, not all sultans were

welcoming of their mothers influence and decision-making once they reached the throne. That

being said, these women still held an important role in mentoring their sons on politics and

government as they matured. 29

Women were able to exert their power in the Ottoman Empire through their involvement

with the Imperial Harem. Whether it was Hurrem Sultan who became the wife of a sultan, or the

valide sultan’s who served as a mother to the sultans, women in the Imperial Harem marked their

stance and exerted their power throughout the empire. Through loyalty, dedication, and

commitment many women in the harem became the sultan’s most trusted advisors. Philanthropy

and the building enterprise, allowed women to have their niche of exerting power in the empire,

which not only gave a face to her but to the entire Ottoman Empire. Lastly, as valide sultan’s,

the mothers of future sultan’s were able to politically guide and influence their sons decisions

based on political affairs and government. The era of the Sultanate of Women, gave women a

more important role within the empire than they had ever seen. Hurrem Sultan’s life was able to

27 Pierce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire, p. 236, 237.
28 Pierce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire, p. 240.
29 Pierce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire, p. 241.
depict these new changes within the empire as well as the power she was able to exert over her

time in the Imperial Harem. Regardless if society viewed women subordinate to men, the

women in the Imperial Harem were able to prove that they had just as much power, if not more

sometimes, than the sultan himself.30

30 Amira El Azhary Sonbol, Beyond the Exotic: Women's Histories in Islamic Societies.
Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 2005.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brookes, Douglas Scott. The Concubine, the Princess, and the Teacher Voices from the Ottoman
Harem. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2008.

Cortese, Delia, and Simonetta Calderini. Women and the Fatimids in the World of Islam.
Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006.

Davis, Fanny. The Ottoman Lady: A Social History from 1718 to 1918. Westport, Conn.:
Greenwood Press, 1986.

DelPlato, Joan. Multiple Wives, Multiple Pleasures: Representing the Harem, 1800-1875,
Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2002.

Goodwin, Godfrey. The Private World of Ottoman Women. London: Saqi Books, 1997.

Lewis, Bernard (1962). "Ottoman Observers of Ottoman Decline". Islamic Studies I.

Lewis, Reina. Rethinking Orientalism Women, Travel and the Ottoman Harem. London: I.B.
Tauris, 2004.

Peirce, Leslie P. The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire. New
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Sonbol, Amira El Azhary. Beyond the Exotic: Women's Histories in Islamic Societies. Syracuse,
N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 2005.

Woodhead, Christine. The Ottoman World. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2012.