Cryptography and

Network Security
Unit - II

Fourth Edition by William Stallings

RatnaKumari Challa
Assistant Professor
Dept of CSE
RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor
 Outline
• Confidentiality using Symmetric Encryption
• Traffic Analysis
• Key Distribution
• Random number generator
• Algebra
• Modular Arithmetic
• Primes
• Fermat’s Therem
• Chinese Remainder theorem
• Discrete Algorithm
RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor
 Confidentiality using
Symmetric Encryption
• traditionally symmetric encryption is
used to provide message confidentiality

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

 Placement of Encryption
• have two major placement alternatives
• link encryption
– encryption occurs independently on every
link
– implies must decrypt traffic between links
– requires many devices, but paired keys
• end-to-end encryption
– encryption occurs between original source
and final destination
– need devices at each end with shared keys

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

Placement of Encryption

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

 Placement of Encryption
• when using end-to-end encryption
must leave headers in clear
– so network can correctly route information
• hence although contents protected,
traffic pattern flows are not
• ideally want both at once
– end-to-end protects data contents over
entire path and provides authentication
– link protects traffic flows from monitoring

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

Placement of Encryption
• can place encryption function at
various layers in OSI Reference
Model
– link encryption occurs at layers 1 or 2
– end-to-end can occur at layers 3, 4, 6, 7
– as move higher less information is
encrypted but it is more secure though
more complex with more entities and
keys

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

 Traffic Analysis
• is monitoring of communications flows
between parties
– useful both in military & commercial spheres
– can also be used to create a covert channel
• link encryption obscures header details
– but overall traffic volumes in networks and at
end-points is still visible
• traffic padding can further obscure flows
– but at cost of continuous traffic

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

 Key Distribution
• symmetric schemes require both
parties to share a common secret
key
• issue is how to securely distribute
this key
• often secure system failure due to a
break in the key distribution scheme

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

 Key Distribution
• given parties A and B have various key
distribution alternatives:
1. A can select key and physically deliver to B
2. third party can select & deliver key to A & B
3. if A & B have communicated previously can
use previous key to encrypt a new key
4. if A & B have secure communications with a
third party C, C can relay key between A & B

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

 Key Hierarchy
• typically have a hierarchy of keys
• session key
– temporary key
– used for encryption of data between users
– for one logical session then discarded
• master key
– used to encrypt session keys
– shared by user & key distribution center

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

Key Distribution
Scenario

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 Key Distribution Issues
• hierarchies of KDC’s required for large
networks, but must trust each other
• session key lifetimes should be limited
for greater security
• use of automatic key distribution on
behalf of users, but must trust system
• use of decentralized key distribution
• controlling key usage

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

 Random Numbers
• many uses of random numbers in
cryptography
– nonces in authentication protocols to prevent
replay
– session keys
– public key generation
– keystream for a one-time pad
• in all cases its critical that these values be
– statistically random, uniform distribution,
independent
– unpredictability of future values from previous
values RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor
 Pseudorandom Number
Generators (PRNGs)
• often use deterministic algorithmic
techniques to create “random
numbers”
– although are not truly random
– can pass many tests of “randomness”
• known as “pseudorandom numbers”
• created by “Pseudorandom Number
Generators (PRNGs)”
RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor
 Algebra

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

 Introduction

• will now introduce finite fields

• of increasing importance in
cryptography
– AES, Elliptic Curve, IDEA, Public Key
• start with concepts of groups, rings,
fields from abstract algebra

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

 Group
• A group is a non-empty set with a binary
operation defined on it such that the
operation is associative, an identity element
exists, and every element has an inverse
• with some operation whose result is also in
the set (closure)
• Example with Six elements
G6 = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
• We define an operation on the set
which we call addition and denote by +
• clock arithmetic

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

 Group Properties
• 0 is an identity i.e x + 0 = x

Every element x has an inverse
element x' such that x + x' = 0
• Obeys 5 axioms:
– Closure: If a and b belong to G, then a · b
is also in G
– associative law: (a.b).c = a.(b.c)
– has identity e: e.a = a.e = a
– has inverses a-1: a.a-1 = e
• if commutative a.b = b.a
– then forms an abelian group
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 Examples of Addition
3+2=5
3 + 3 = 6, so 6 - 6 = 0 is the sum
3 + 4 = 7, so 7 - 6 = 1 is the sum
4+1=5
4 + 4 = 8, so 8 - 6 = 2 is the sum
5 + 5 = 10, so 10 - 6 = 4 is the sum
Note how similar this is to clock
arithmetic
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Examples of Multiplication
2*2=4
2 * 3 = 6, so 6 - 6 = 0 is the product
3 * 3 = 9, so 9 - 6 = 3 is the product
3 * 4 = 12, so 12 - 6 - 6 = 0 is the product
1*5=5
4 * 4 = 16, so 16 - 6 - 6 = 4 is the product
5 * 5 = 25, so 25 - 6 - 6 - 6 - 6 = 1 is the
product

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

 Cyclic Group
• define exponentiation as repeated
application of operator
– example: a3 = a.a.a
• and let identity be: e=a0
• a group is cyclic if every element is a
power of some fixed element
– ie b = ak for some a and every b in group
• a is said to be a generator of the group

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

 Definition of a Ring
• A ring <R,+,*> is a non-empty set R
together with two operations + and *,
called addition and multiplication, such
that
• <R,+> is an abelian group (satisfies 5
axioms of groups)
• 1) Multiplication is associative  a(bc) =
(ab)c for all a, b, c in R
• 2) Closure under multiplication  If a and b
belong to R, then ab is also in R.
• 3) Multiplication is distributive  a(b + c) =
ab + ac for all RatnaKumari
a, b, Challa,
c inAsstRProfessor
 Additional Properties
• 4) A commutative ring with unity is a ring in
which multiplication is commutative and there
exists a unity element  ab = ba for all a, b in
R
• 5) Multiplicative identity: There is an element 1
in R such that a1 = 1a = a for all a in R
• 6) No zero divisors: If a, b in R and ab = 0, then
either a = 0 or b = 0.
• Ring is Integral domain if it satisfies the
above all (5 plus 6 properties)

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

 Field
• A field F, sometimes denoted by {F, +, x},
is a set of elements with two binary
operations, called addition and
multiplication, such that for all a, b, c in F
the following axioms are obeyed:
– F is an integral domain; that is, F satisfies
axioms 5 group and 6 ring properties
– Multiplicative inverse: For each a in F, except
0, there is an element a-1 in F such that aa-1 =
(a-1)a = 1.

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor
 Modular Arithmetic
• define modulo operator “a mod n” to be
remainder when a is divided by n
• use the term congruence for: a = b mod n
– when divided by n, a & b have same remainder
– eg. 100 = 34 mod 11
• b is called a residue of a mod n
– since with integers can always write: a = qn + b
– usually chose smallest positive remainder as
residue
• ie. 0 <= b <= n-1
– process is known as modulo reduction
• eg. -12 mod 7 = -5 mod 7 = 2 mod 7 = 9 mod 7
RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor
 Divisors
• say a non-zero number b divides a if
for some m have a=mb (a,b,m all
integers)
• that is b divides into a with no
remainder
• denote this b|a
• and say that b is a divisor of a
• eg. all of 1,2,3,4,6,8,12,24 divide 24
RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor
 Modular Arithmetic
Operations
• is 'clock arithmetic'
• uses a finite number of values, and
loops back from either end
• modular arithmetic is when do
addition & multiplication and modulo
reduce answer
• can do reduction at any point, ie
– a+b mod n = [a mod n + b mod n] mod n

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

 Modular Arithmetic
• can do modular arithmetic with any group
of integers: Zn = {0, 1, … , n-1}
• form a commutative ring for addition
• with a multiplicative identity
• note some peculiarities
– if (a+b)=(a+c) mod n
then b=c mod n
– but if (a.b)=(a.c) mod n
then b=c mod n only if a is relatively prime
to n
RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor
RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor
Modulo 8 Addition
Example
+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
2 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1
3 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2
4 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3
5 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4
6 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5
7 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor
 Greatest Common Divisor
(GCD)
• a common problem in number theory
• GCD (a,b) of a and b is the largest number
that divides evenly into both a and b
– eg GCD(60,24) = 12
• often want no common factors (except
1) and hence numbers are relatively
prime
– eg GCD(8,15) = 1
– hence 8 & 15 are relatively prime

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

 Euclidean Algorithm
• an efficient way to find the GCD(a,b)
• uses theorem that:
– GCD(a,b) = GCD(b, a mod b)
• Euclidean Algorithm to compute GCD(a,b)
is:
EUCLID(a,b)
1. A = a; B = b
2. if B = 0 return A = gcd(a, b)
3. R = A mod B
4. A = B
5. B = R
6. goto 2 

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

Example GCD(1970,1066)
1970 = 1 x 1066 + 904 gcd(1066, 904)
1066 = 1 x 904 + 162 gcd(904, 162)
904 = 5 x 162 + 94 gcd(162, 94)
162 = 1 x 94 + 68 gcd(94, 68)
94 = 1 x 68 + 26 gcd(68, 26)
68 = 2 x 26 + 16 gcd(26, 16)
26 = 1 x 16 + 10 gcd(16, 10)
16 = 1 x 10 + 6 gcd(10, 6)
10 = 1 x 6 + 4 gcd(6, 4)
6 = 1 x 4 + 2 gcd(4, 2)
4 = 2 x 2 + 0 gcd(2, 0)

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

 Galois Fields
• finite fields play a key role in
cryptography
• can show number of elements in a finite
field must be a power of a prime pn
• known as Galois fields - denoted GF(pn)
• in particular often use the fields:
– GF(p)
– GF(2n)

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

 Galois Fields GF(p)
• GF(p) is the set of integers {0,1, … , p-
1} with arithmetic operations modulo
prime p
• these form a finite field
– since have multiplicative inverses
• hence arithmetic is “well-behaved” and
can do addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division without
leaving the field GF(p)
RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor
GF(7) Multiplication
Example
 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 0 2 4 6 1 3 5
3 0 3 6 2 5 1 4
4 0 4 1 5 2 6 3
5 0 5 3 1 6 4 2
6 0 6 5 4 3 2 1

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

 Finding Inverses
Inverse of b in GF(m)
EXTENDED EUCLID(m, b)
1. (A1, A2, A3)=(1, 0, m);
(B1, B2, B3)=(0, 1, b)
2. if B3 = 0
return A3 = gcd(m, b); no inverse
3. if B3 = 1
return B3 = gcd(m, b); B2 = b–1 mod m
4. Q = A3 div B3
5. (T1, T2, T3)=(A1 – Q B1, A2 – Q B2, A3 – Q B3)
6. (A1, A2, A3)=(B1, B2, B3)
7. (B1, B2, B3)=(T1, T2, T3)
8. goto 2
RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor
Number Theory

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

 Prime Numbers
• prime numbers only have divisors of 1 and
self
– they cannot be written as a product of other
numbers
– note: 1 is prime, but is generally not of interest
• eg. 2,3,5,7 are prime, 4,6,8,9,10 are not
• prime numbers are central to number theory
• list of prime number less than 200 is:
2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29 31 37 41 43 47 53 59 61
67 71 73 79 83 89 97 101 103 107 109 113 127 131
137 139 149 151 157 163 167 173 179 181 191 193 197
199
RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor
 Prime Factorisation
• to factor a number n is to write it as a
product of other numbers: n=a x b x c
• note that factoring a number is relatively
hard compared to multiplying the factors
together to generate the number
• the prime factorisation of a number n is
when its written as a product of primes
– eg. 91=7x13 ; 3600=24x32x52
 Relatively Prime
Numbers & GCD
• two numbers a, b are relatively prime if
have no common divisors apart from 1
– eg. 8 & 15 are relatively prime since factors of
8 are 1,2,4,8 and of 15 are 1,3,5,15 and 1 is
the only common factor
• conversely can determine the greatest
common divisor by comparing their prime
factorizations and using least powers
– eg. 300=21x31x52 18=21x32 hence
GCD(18,300)=21x31x50=6

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

 Fermat's Theorem
• If p is prime and a is a positive integer
not divisible by p, then

• also known as Fermat’s Little Theorem

• also ap = p (mod p)
• useful in public key and primality testing

RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor

Example

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 Euler Totient Function
ø(n)
• when doing arithmetic modulo n complete
set of residues is: 0..n-1
• reduced set of residues is those numbers
(residues) which are relatively prime to n
– eg for n=10,
– complete set of residues is {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}
– reduced set of residues is {1,3,7,9}
• number of elements in reduced set of residues
is called the Euler Totient Function ø(n)
 Euler Totient Function
ø(n)
• to compute ø(n) need to count number
of residues to be excluded
• in general need prime factorization, but
– for p (p prime) ø(p) = p-1
– for p.q (p,q prime) ø(pq) =(p-1)x(q-
1)
• eg.
ø(37) = 36
ø(21) = (3–1)x(7–1) = 2x6 = 12
 Euler's Theorem
• a generalisation of Fermat's Theorem
• aø(n) = 1 (mod n)
– for any a,n where gcd(a,n)=1 ()
• eg.
a=3;n=10; ø(10)=4;
hence 34 = 81 = 1 mod 10
a=2;n=11; ø(11)=10;
hence 210 = 1024 = 1 mod 11
 Primality Testing
• often need to find large prime numbers
• traditionally sieve using trial division
– ie. divide by all numbers (primes) in turn less
than the square root of the number
– only works for small numbers
• alternatively can use statistical primality
tests based on properties of primes
– for which all primes numbers satisfy property
– but some composite numbers, called pseudo-
primes, also satisfy the property
• can use a slower deterministic primality test
 Miller Rabin Algorithm
• a test based on Fermat’s Theorem
• algorithm is:
TEST (n) is:
1. Find integers k, q, k > 0, q odd, so that (n–
1)=2kq
2. Select a random integer a, 1<a<n–1
3. if aq mod n = 1 then return (“maybe prime");
4. for j = 0 to k – 1 do
5. if (a2jq mod n = n-1)
then return(" maybe prime ")
6. return ("composite")
• n = 29
Example
n-1 = 28 ; 2 (7)  k = 2 and q = 7
2

• First, let us try a = 10

• Compute 107 mod 29 =17
• Compute 1014 mod 29 will give 1 or 28
• n may prime (in - conclusive) then try with other value of
a;
• Example 2
n = 13 x 17 = 221; n-1 = 220; k=2 and q=55;
Let us try a = 5
• 555 mod 221 = 112, which is neither 1 nor 220
• (555)2 mod 221 = 168, which is neither 1 nor
220
RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor
 Probabilistic
Considerations
• if Miller-Rabin returns “composite” the
number is definitely not prime
• otherwise is a prime or a pseudo-prime
• chance it detects a pseudo-prime is < 1/4
• hence if repeat test with different random
a then chance n is prime after t tests is:
– Pr(n prime after t tests) = 1-4-t
– eg. for t=10 this probability is > 0.99999
 Prime Distribution
• prime number theorem states that
primes occur roughly every (ln n)
integers
• but can immediately ignore evens
• so in practice need only test 0.5 ln(n)
numbers of size n to locate a prime
– note this is only the “average”
– sometimes primes are close together
– other times are quite far apart
 Chinese Remainder
Theorem
• used to speed up modulo computations
• if working modulo a product of numbers
– eg. mod M = m1m2..mk
• Chinese Remainder theorem lets us
work in each moduli mi separately
• since computational cost is proportional
to size, this is faster than working in the
full modulus M
 Chinese Remainder
Theorem
• can implement CRT in several ways
• to compute A(mod M)
– first compute all ai = A mod mi separately
– determine constants ci below, where Mi = M/mi
– then combine results to get answer using:
 Primitive Roots
• from Euler’s theorem have aø(n)mod n=1
• consider am=1 (mod n), GCD(a,n)=1
– must exist for m = ø(n) but may be smaller
– once powers reach m, cycle will repeat
• if smallest is m = ø(n) then a is called a
primitive root
• if p is prime, then successive powers of a
"generate" the group mod p
• these are useful but relatively hard to find
Example:
• prime number 19, its primitive roots are 2, 3,
10, 13, 14, and 15
 Discrete Logarithms
• the inverse problem to exponentiation is to find
the discrete logarithm of a number modulo p
• that is to find x such that y = gx (mod p)
• this is written as x = logg y (mod p)
• if g is a primitive root then it always exists,
otherwise it may not, eg.
x = log3 4 mod 13 has no answer
x = log2 3 mod 13 = 4 by trying successive powers
• whilst exponentiation is relatively easy, finding
discrete logarithms is generally a hard problem
 Summary
• have considered:
– prime numbers
– Fermat’s and Euler’s Theorems & ø(n)
– Primality Testing
– Chinese Remainder Theorem
– Discrete Logarithms
RatnaKumari Challa, Asst Professor