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CHAPTER 5: SITE CHARACTERIZATION
Textbook - Muni Budhu “FOUNDATIONS AND EARTH

RETAINING STRUCTURES”, John Wiley & Sons, 2007
Lecture Slides Book section

12 1 to 18 5.0 to 5.4
13 19 to 56 5.5 to 5.6
14 57 to 72 5.7 to 5.9
15 73 to 83 5.10 to 5.11
Muni Budhu “Foundations and Earth1Retaining Structures”, John Wiley & Sons, NY, 2007
LECTURE 12
o Purposes of a soils investigation

o Phases of site characterization
o Mapping the subsurface using
geophysical methods
2 Muni Budhu “Foundations and Earth Retaining Structures”, John Wiley & Sons, NY, 2007
SITE CHARACTERIZATION
IMPORTANCE 1
 Adequate knowledge of ground conditions is very
important for analyses, design and construction of
geotechnical systems.
 Project delays, soil failures and cost over-run are the
results of inadequate and inappropriate site
investigations.
SITE CHARACTERIZATION
IMPORTANCE 2
 A site investigation must be part of the design process
and while it is important to keep costs down, you should
not sacrifice good ground information to save a few
dollars to meet minimum cost. In fact, the cost of site
investigations for foundation design rarely exceeds 0.5%
of project costs.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Understand the purposes of a site characterization.

 Plan a soils investigation
 Specify laboratory and field tests
PURPOSES
 To evaluate the general suitability of the site for the

proposed project including environmental impact.
 To enable an adequate and economical design to be
made.
 To obtain physical and mechanical properties of the soils
for design and construction.
 To obtain groundwater conditions.
 To disclose and make provision for difficulties that may
arise during construction due to ground and other local
conditions.
 To determine suitability of materials for construction.
PHASE 1
Phase I - Collection of available information such as

 Maps - an assortment of maps giving geology, contours and
elevations, climate, land use, aerial photos, regional seismicity,
hydrology, etc. are constructed using geographical information
systems (GIS) and are available on the Internet, e.g.
http://www.usgs.gov.
 Existing reports – check your company files or associates for any
existing information on the site and/or nearby sites.
 Newspaper clippings – these may provide historical information
such as if the site was flooded in the past or a building had existed
at the site.
 Site plans giving type of structure, location, size, finish grades, cut
and fill, and importance of the structure. Normally, a soil
investigation is conducted prior to the development of site plans but,
occasionally, they are available.
PHASE II
Phase II - Preliminary reconnaissance or a site visit to provide a general picture

of the topography and geology of the site. It is necessary that you take with
you on the site visit all the information gathered in Phase I to compare with
the current conditions of the site. Your site visit notes should include the
following.
 Photographs of the site and its neighborhood
 Access to the site for men and equipment.
 Sketch all fences, utility posts, driveways, walkways, drainage systems, etc.
 Utility services that are available such as water and electricity
 Sketch topography and include all existing structures, cuts, fills, ground
depression, ponds, etc.
 The state of any existing building at the site or nearby. Your notes should
include exterior and interior cracks, any noticeable tilt, type of construction
e.g. brick or framed stucco building, evidence of frost damages, molds and
any exceptional features.
 Geological features from any exposed area such as a road cut.
PHASE III
Phase III - Detailed soils exploration. The objectives of a

detailed soils exploration are:
 To determine the geological structures that should
include the thickness, sequence and extent of the soil
strata.
 To determine the groundwater conditions.
 To conduct in situ tests.
 To obtain disturbed and undisturbed samples for
laboratory tests.
PHASE IV
Phase IV – Laboratory testing. The objectives of

laboratory tests are:
 To classify the soils.
 To determine soil strength, failure stresses and strains,
stress-strain response, permeability, compactability, and
settlement parameters. Not all of these may be required
for a project.
PHASE V
Phase V – Write report

 The report must contain a clear description of the soils at
the site, methods of exploration, soil stratigraphy, in situ
and laboratory test methods and results, and the location
of the groundwater. You should include information
and/or explanations of any unusual soil, water bearing
stratum, any soil and groundwater conditions such as
frost susceptibility and water logged areas that may be
troublesome during construction.
METHODS OF SITE CHARACTERIZATION
 Geophysical surveys
 Drilling and sampling
 In situ tests
 Laboratory tests
GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS - 1
 Ground Penetrating radar (GPR)
 GPR, also called georadar, is a
high-resolution high frequency (10
MHz to 1000 MHz) electro magnetic
waves technique for imaging soils
and ground structures. An antenna
is used to transmit and recover
radar pulses generated by a pulse
generator. The returned pulse is
then processed to produce images
of the soil profile.
 The key geotechnical uses are soil
profile imaging and location of
buried objects.
 GPR produces continuous
resolution images of the soil profile
with very little soil disturbance. GPR
are not suitable for highly conductive
(>15 millimhos/m) wet clays and
silts; GPR resolution decreases with
depth
 Seismic surveys
 Refraction, downhole and crosshole tests
Refraction (Source: Dr. Paul Mayne)
Downhole (Source: Dr. Paul Mayne)
Crosshole (Source: Dr. Paul Mayne)
 Electromagnetic survey (EMS)

 EMS involves measuring one or more electric or
magnetic fields induced by an applied or natural
electromagnetic current.
 EMS is mostly used to:
 Locate bodies of high electric conductivity such as buried metal
pipes and storage tanks, and
 Determine the saturation level and type of pore fluids present in
soils.
 EMS testing is often carried out from an airplane or a
helicopter. No ground control at the site is required.
 The EMS methods used for geotechnical studies are:

 Frequency Domain Electromagnetics (FDE) is a continuous wave
field method that is primarily used to map lateral variations of a
structure in the subsurface. A fixed transmitter is used on a single
frequency. The electrical conductivity of the soil is determined by
measuring the magnitude and phase of the electromagnetic current.
 Very Low Frequency Electromagnetic (VLFE) is also a
continuous wave field method that detects increases in electrical
conductivity by measuring the distortion of the very low frequency
waves. VLFE is very useful in detecting fractures.
 Time Domain Electromagnetics (TDE) measures the rate of decay
of pulsating currents over time. TDE is useful in determining the
variation of conductivity of soils with depth. You can, for example,
obtain variations of soil saturation with depth using TDEM.
KEY POINTS
 Non-destructive methods are useful in producing general

site data before embarking on a soils exploration using
destructive methods such as boreholes.
 GPR and SS are very useful in producing soil profile
imaging and in detecting buried objects.
 EMS is useful to detect lateral variation of soil structures
and to determine variations in soil saturation.
 The selection of a geophysical method depends on
availability of expertise and equipment, costs,
convenience, repeatability, depth of investigation and
efficiency.
LECTURE 13
o Mapping the subsurface and

sampling using destructive methods
o In situ tests
MAPPING THE SUBSURFACE AND SAMPLING
USING DESTRUCTIVE METHODS
 Which method is best for the project?

 Where should the borings be located?
 How many borings should be made and at what depths?
 What methods and procedures should be used to
advance the borings?
 How to sample the soils?
 What are the requirements for groundwater
observations?
 What type of tests should be conducted?
DRILLING PROGRAM
 Preliminary location of each borehole and/or test pits.

 Numbering of the boreholes or test pits.
 Planned depth of each borehole, or test pit.
 Methods and procedures for advancing the boreholes.
 Sampling instructions for at least the first borehole. The
sampling instructions must include the number of
samples and possible locations. Changes in the
sampling instructions often occur after the first borehole.
 The need for and type of in situ tests.
 Requirements for groundwater observations.
COMPARISON OF SUBSURFACE
METHODS
METHOD ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Geophysical methods  Non-destructive  Cannot inspect and/or
 Cost effective for soil sample soils
profiling and detection of
buried objects
METHODS
Test Pits  Cost effective  Depth limited to about
A pit is dug either by  Provide detailed 6m in stiff clays.
hand or by a backhoe. information of  May require side
stratigraphy supports in coarse-
 Large quantities of grained soils and soft
disturbed soils are clays.
available for testing.  Deep pits uneconomical
 Large blocks of  Excavation below
undisturbed samples groundwater and into
can be carved out rock difficult and costly.
from the pits.  Too many pits may scar
 Field tests can be site and require backfill
conducted at the soils.
bottom of the pit.  Time consuming.
 Limited to depths above
ground water level.
METHODS
HAND AUGERS  Cost effective  Depth limited to about
The auger is  Not dependent on 6m
rotated by turning terrain  Labor intensive
and pushing down  Portable  Undisturbed samples
on the handle bar.  Low headroom can be taken only for
required soft clay deposit
 Used in uncased  Cannot be used in
holes rock, stiff clays, dry
 Groundwater sand, caliche soils, etc.
location can be
easily identified and
measured
METHODS
POWER AUGERS  Quick  Depth limited to about
Truck mounted and  Used in uncased 15m. At greater depth
equipped with holes drilling becomes difficult
continuous flight  Undisturbed samples and expensive.
augers that bores a can be obtained quite  Site must be accessible
hole 100mm to 250 easily to motorized vehicle.
mm in diameter.  Groundwater location
Augers have solid can be identified
or hollow stem.
METHODS
WASH BORING  Can be used in  Depth limited to about
Water is pumped to difficult terrain 30m
bottom of borehole  Low equipment cost  Slow drilling through
and soil washings  Used in uncased stiff clays, and gravels
are returned to holes  Difficulty in obtaining
surface. A drill bit is accurate location of
rotated and dropped groundwater level.
to produce a  Undisturbed soil
chopping action. samples cannot be
obtained.
METHODS
ROTARY DRILLS  Quick  Expensive equipment
A drill bit is pushed  Drill through any type  Terrain must be
by weight of drilling of soil or rock accessible to motorized
equipment and  Can drill to depths of vehicle
rotated by a motor 7500m  Difficulty in obtaining
 Undisturbed samples location of groundwater
can be easily level
recovered  Additional time required
for set-up and clean-up
BOREHOLES
 The number of boreholes and depths are governed by

experience based on:
 The geological character of the ground
 The importance of the structure,
 The structural loads
 Availability of equipment.
BOREHOLE LOCATION
The initial borings should:

20 m 20 m 15 m
 give general geological
information about the site that
BH-4
can be used to plan and 6
execute the detailed soils BH-3
exploration. 5
 be located near heavily BH-2
Heavily loaded area
loaded parts of the structures, 4
10m 20m 20m
100 m BH-5
special structures, suspected
3
dumpsites, old landslides
BH-1
areas and ground depression.
2
 It is common practice that BH-6
these boreholes be located no 1
more than a radius of 5 m (15 A B C D E F G
ft) from the center of the load. A preliminary plan of borehole locations at a site
NUMBER OF BOREHOLES
Borehole depths
 In compressible soils such as clays - 1 to 3 times the width of the

proposed foundation or until the stress increment due to the
heaviest foundation load is less than 10%, whichever is greater
 In very stiff clays - 5 - 7m to prove that the thickness of the stratum
is adequate
 Rock - at least 3m
 Borings must penetrate below any fills or very soft deposits below
the proposed structure.
 The minimum depth of boreholes should be 6m unless bedrock or
very dense material is encountered
SOIL IDENTIFICATION IN THE FIELD
 Observations and common soil descriptions assist you to

make qualitative judgments on the nature of the soils as
a construction and/or as a foundation material. For
example, a soil that is very soft is weak and is likely to be
a poor foundation material unless it is treated to increase
its strength and deformation properties.
 Descriptive terms – color, moisture, structure, shape,
carbonates, smell, feel, consistency, dilatancy, packing.
GROUNDWATER
 The elevation of the natural groundwater is called the

water table or groundwater level or phreatic surface.
 Groundwater condition that may affect the construction
and stability of a geotechnical system must be
identified and reported. Many foundation failures and
construction problems result from groundwater
 It is essential to identify the location of the water table
and its variation.
 Water trapped in a water-bearing stratum beneath
impermeable soils can cause considerable hydrostatic
pressures and must be identified and disclosed.
REQUIREMENTS FOR GROUNDWATER
OBSERVATIONS
 The water table invariably fluctuates depending on
environmental conditions (e.g. rainfall patterns, winter
rains, monsoons, tides, drought), human activities (e.g.,
pumping groundwater from wells and draw down during
construction) and geological conditions
 Groundwater level must be measured over a period of
days
 Do not use the water level in excavations as the
groundwater level
 Groundwater level is measured using piezometers
DRILLING AND SOIL SAMPLING
 Drilling and sampling
KEY POINTS
 For undistributed samples, a thin wall sampler should be

carefully pushed into the soil stratum.
 The standard or split spoon sampler can sustain high
driving stress but the sample is disturbed.
 It is essential to identify the location of the water table
and its variation.
 Water trapped in a water-bearing stratum beneath
impermeable soils can cause considerable hydrostatic
pressures and must be identified and disclosed.
IN SITU TESTS
 In situ tests are used to identify soils at a site and to

provide soil parameters for design
 The results are available quickly, often during the tests
or soon after, compared with laboratory tests
 there is a variety of in situ tools available; each has its
own advantages and disadvantages, and cost
implications
 As a geotechnical engineer, you would have to decide
on the in situ tools to be used, the frequency and the
location of tests required to provide design and
construction information for your project
IN SITU TESTS
The most popular in situ devices are

 Standard penetration tests (SPT)
 Vane shear test (VST)
 Cone penetrometer test (CPT)
 Flat plate dilatometer (DMT)
 Pressuremeter tests (PMT)
In situ testing devices (Source: Dr. Paul Mayne)
In situ testing (Source: Dr. Paul Mayne)
INTERPRETING IN SITU TEST RESULTS
 Requires experience.
 Some guidelines are presented here.
SPT corrections -1
Various empirical corrections are applied to the N values to account for energy
losses, overburden pressure, rod length, borehole site and sampler type etc.
Rod length – CR
Sampler type - CS
Size of borehole – CB
Hammer type (energy) – CE
Overburden pressures - CN
The corrected N value at 60% hammer energy is
N1, 60 = CRSBNEN
CRSBNE = C RCS CBCNCE

SPT corrections - 2
 Overburden pressure
1
 95.8 
2
CN  
  ; C N  2 ; z (kPa) (Liao and Whitman, 1985)
 z 
 Groundwater
1 1 z
CW  
2 2 (D f  B)
Meyerhof (1965) suggested that groundwater correction should not be

applied as this is already incorporated in the blow count.
SPT corrections - 3
SKETCHING SOIL PROFILE FROM SPT
 A soil layer can have

different N values.
 You can draw soil profile
using USCS
CPT 1
TYPICAL CPT RECORD OF TIP RESISTANCE VARIATION WITH DEPTH
CPT TIP RESISTANCE

qc (MPa)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
6
Depth (m)
10
12
14
16
18
CPT 2
 Results are average values of the soil resistance over a

length of about 10 cone diameters – about 5 diameters
above the tip plus about 5 cone diameters below the tip.
 In layered soils, the soil resistances measured by the
cone may not represent individual layers especially thin
layers ( < 5 cone diameters).
 For practical use, composite graphs of the variations of
tip and sleeve resistances with depth are made based on
visual inspection of the measured data. There is no
standard procedure.
CPT 3
CPT TIP RESISTANCE

qc (MPa)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
4 Approximation
6
Depth (m)
10
12
CPT record
14
16
18
CPT 4
 Divide the soil profile into layers such that each layer has
a different average resistance. The minimum size of the
layer should be about 10 cone diameters.
 You need to be careful with excessively large or very
low cone resistances. Excessively large resistances
over a depth of about 5 cone diameters may be due to a
buried object such as a boulder and should be
neglected.
 Low cone values are indicative of soft soils or pockets of
loose material that you need to carefully consider in
design and construction.
VST
 The measured peak torque from the shear vane shear

device is converted to undrained shear strength using
2Tp
su 
3 h 1
d (  )
d 3
The ratio of the ratio of the peak torque to the residual torque
is the soil sensitivity, St, where
TP
St 
Tr
PMT
 Stress – strain relationship, shear modulus
 V  Vf  p
Volumetric
G   Vc  o 
deformation – cm3
 2  V
v2
Vc = initial volume of
probe before inflation
Vo and Vf are two points
on the straight portion of
the graph
Pressure (kPa)
DMT
 In the dilatometer test, the pressure (po) at which the membrane
displaces by 0.05mm and the pressure (pe) at which it displaces
1.1mm are recorded at the membrane center at penetration intervals
of 100mm to 200mm. The parameters of interest are the material
index, ID, the dilatometer modulus, ED, and the horizontal stress
index KD where
pl  po KD 
po  uo
ID  ED  D  pl  po 
pl  uo  zo
where uo is the hydrostatic pressure and zo is the vertical effective
stress at the depth of the test,  D is the dilatometer factor, which for
a 60mm membrane diameter and 1.1mm displacement is 34.7.
Example 1 - SPT
The blow counts for an SPT test at a depth of 5 m (15 ft)in a coarse-grained soil at every 0.152 m
( 6 in) are 8, 12, 15. A donut hammer with ER = 45% and a standard sampler were used in a
borehole 152 mm (6 in) diameter. (1) Determine the N value (2) Correct the N value for rod
length, sampler type, borehole size and energy ratio of 60% (3) Make a preliminary description
of the compactness of the soil. The rod length measured from the depth of the test to the anvil is
6 m (20 ft). Groundwater level is 10 m (30 ft) below the surface.
Strategy
The N value is the sum of the blow counts for the last 0.304 m (12 in) of penetration. Just add
the last two blow counts. US units will be used to solve this example problem.
Solution - 1
Step 1: Add the last two blow counts.
N = 12 + 15 = 27
Step 2: Obtain correction factors
From Appendix B – Table B5.1,
L = 20 ft
CR = 0.015L + 0.61 = 0.015 x 20 +0.61 = 0.91
CS = 1.0 for standard sampler and CB= 1.05 for a borehole of diameter 150mm.
45
For a donut hammer with ER = 45%, CE   0.75 .
60
From Appendix B – Table B5.2, the estimated unit weight is about 119 pcf for N = 27.
Solution -1
 z  119 15  1785kPa
1 1
 2000   2000 
2 2
CN       1.0  2; use 1.0

 z   1785 
Step 3: Calculate corrected N value
CRSBNE = C RCS CBCNCE = 0.91 x 1.0 x 1.05 x 1.0 x 0.75 = 0.72
N1, 60 = CRSBNE N = 0.72 x 27 = 19
Step 4: Use Appendix B – Table B5.2 to describe the compactness.
For N = 27, the soil is medium dense
Example 2 - CPT
 The results distribution of tip

qc (MPa)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
resistance (qc) from a CPT is 2
shown. Draw an equivalent 4
composite distribution of qc
Depth (m)
8
with depth. How many distinct 10
12
layers are present based on 14
16
the equivalent composite 18
distribution?
Solution
qc (MPa)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
6
Depth (m)
10
12
14
16
18
Estimate the number of distinct layers.
Number of layers = 9
Comparison of in situ tests
LECTURE 14
o Lab tests
o Empirical relationships
Laboratory tests
 Laboratory tests are needed to classify soils and to determine

strength, settlement and stiffness parameters for design and
construction.
 Laboratory tests allow you better control on the test conditions
applied to the soil than in situ tests. Laboratory test samples are
invariably disturbed and the degree of disturbance can significantly
affect the test results. Sufficient care must be taken to reduce
testing disturbances..
 Tests for physical parameters – water content, specific gravity, sieve
analysis, hydrometer analysis, Atterberg limits, compaction,
permeability.
 Tests for mechanical properties – direct shear, triaxial, direct simple
shear
 Special: True triaxial, hollow cylinder, resonance column, simple
shear, ring shear
Laboratory tests
 Laboratory tests are needed to classify soils and to determine

strength, settlement and stiffness parameters for design and
construction. Laboratory tests allow you better control on the test
conditions applied to the soil than in situ tests. Laboratory test
samples are invariably disturbed and the degree of disturbance can
significantly affect the test results. Sufficient care must be taken to
reduce testing disturbances..
 Tests for physical parameters – water content, specific gravity, sieve
analysis, hydrometer analysis, Atterberg limits, compaction,
permeability.
 Tests for mechanical properties – direct shear, triaxial, direct simple
shear
 Special: True triaxial, hollow cylinder, resonance column, simple
shear, ring shear
Direct shear test
 Advantages
 Commonly available
 simple
 Disadvantages
 Failure plane is fixed horizontally
 Strains cannot be calculated
 Non-uniform stress and strain distributions
 Cannot control drainage condition
Source: www.ele.com
Triaxial test
 Advantages
 Commonly available
 Versatile
 Disadvantages
 Principal axes can only
rotate by 90 deg.
 Only two stresses can
be controlled
Simple Shear
 Advantages
 Closely mimics many soil conditions in
the field
• Principal axes freely rotate
• Plane strain conditions z
 Disadvantages
 Stress and strains are not
uniform with the soil
 Difficult to impose shear stresses
on vertical face
Simple shear devices 1
 NGI type – called direct simple shear; tests a cylindrical

soil sample, commercially, suitable for routine soil testing
 Cambridge type – tests a cuboidal soil sample,
sophisticated instrumentation, not commercially
available, best used for research.
Simple shear devices2
Direct simple shear

- Cylindrical soil sample
http://www.civil.ubc.ca/research/geotech/i
mages/gradlab/simpleplus2.jpg
Click on image
Simple shear
- cuboidal soil sample
Simple shear apparatus at UA
Hollow cylinder
 Advantages
 Apply various stress
conditions to soils
 Principal axes rotate
 Disadvantages
 Difficult to prepare
hollow cylindrical soil
sample
 Stress and strains conditions
are not uniform
Resonance column test
 Advantages
 Measure the wave velocity
and damping at
fundamental resonance
frequency.
 Parameters: Shear
modulus,
shear wave velocity,
damping
 Disadvantages
 Specialized equipment,
not
available on a routine
basis
•www.gdsinstruments.com/.../resonant_column.htm
Centrifuge
Shake table
STRESSES AND POSSIBLE LAB TESTS
BASED ON STRESS PATHS
Soils report
 Clear and concise

 Disclose all soil and groundwater conditions
 Contextual description of project
 Describe field conditions, drilling, sampling and field
testing
 Recommendations for construction and design
Part of a soils report 1
Part of a soils report 2
LECTURE 15
o Soil liquefaction potential
LIQUEFACTION 1
 Seismic and other dynamic loading can cause

soils to liquefy.
 Dynamic liquefaction of soils is usually
catastrophic and is manifested by boiling, land
subsidence, local flooding, sudden failure of
foundation of structures and uplift or floatation
of buried structures.
 You need to identify soils that have the
potential to liquefy and, if they do, take
measures to prevent or ameliorate damage
LIQUEFACTION 2
1964 Niagatta
1989 Loma Prieta
LIQUEFACTION 3
 Consider a soil element at a depth, z, below the ground and ground

water is at the surface. Under static condition,
zo   zo  u o
 During an earthquake event, the pore water pressure increases by

ud where the subscript d denotes dynamic and the effective stress
in the soil reduces to:
z   zo  u o  u d   zo  u o  u d 
 Dynamic liquefaction occurs when the (mean) effective stress
becomes zero. The soil then loses its intergranular frictional
resistance, viscous resistance then occurs.
LIQUEFACTION – 4
EVALUATING LIQUEFACTION POTENTIAL
 Procedures based mainly on experience from post-

earthquake events
 These procedures gives a “gross” estimate on whether a
soil (essentially sandy soil) has the potential to liquefy
under a given seismic event.
 Most popular method is SPT
 CPT is gradually replacing SPT
LIQUEFACTION POTENTIAL FROM SPT
 Correct the N value from SPT to N1, 60 as described in

Section 5.6.1
 Correct N1, 60 for fine content.
N1,60,cs  1  0.004FC  N1,60  0.05FC; 35%  FC  5%
where FC is the fines content (% finer than #200 sieve

expressed as an integer); is an integer value.
 Determine the maximum horizontal acceleration, amax,
from previous earthquake records at or near the site.
Earthquake records are available at
http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/epic/ and
http://peer.berkeley.edu/smcat/search.html
Liquefaction potential from SPT

 Calculate the shear stress ratio, CSR  , for a magnitude (Mw) 7.5 earthquake from the
 z
following equation.
amax  z
CSR  0.65 rd
g  z
where  is the average shear stress,  z and  z are the effective and total vertical stresses, g is
acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2 or 32 ft/ s2) and rd is a non-linear shear mass participation
factor (Fig. 5.25).
 Calculate the modified shear stress ratio, CSR*
CSR
CSR* 
DWFm   
where DWFm is a magnitude duration weighing factor for the design earthquake (Fig. 5.26) and
Κσ is an overburden reduction (Fig. 5.27).
 Plot the point (CSR*, N1,60,CS) on Fig. 5.28 PL
 Identify the probability for liquefaction (PL).
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER
 Soils are products of nature that have been subjected to a variety of

natural processes over space and time. Thus, a site investigation is
necessary to determine the nature of the soils at a proposed site for
design and construction.
 A site investigation needs careful planning and is usually done in
phases.
 The extent of a soils exploration program depends largely on the
geology of the site, the type and importance of the structure, the
structural loads and groundwater conditions.
 A number of tools are available for soil exploration. You need to use
judgment as to the type of tools appropriate for a given project, and
the type of in situ and laboratory tests required to characterize the
soil and to determine soil strength and deformation parameters.

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CHAPTER 5: SITE CHARACTERIZATION

Textbook - Muni Budhu “FOUNDATIONS AND EARTH

Lecture Slides Book section

o Purposes of a soils investigation

 Understand the purposes of a site characterization.

 To evaluate the general suitability of the site for the

Phase I - Collection of available information such as

Phase II - Preliminary reconnaissance or a site visit to provide a general picture

Phase III - Detailed soils exploration. The objectives of a

Phase IV – Laboratory testing. The objectives of

Phase V – Write report

 Electromagnetic survey (EMS)

 The EMS methods used for geotechnical studies are:

 Non-destructive methods are useful in producing general

o Mapping the subsurface and

 Which method is best for the project?

 Preliminary location of each borehole and/or test pits.

METHOD ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Geophysical methods  Non-destructive  Cannot inspect and/or

 Cost effective for soil sample soils

profiling and detection of

Test Pits  Cost effective  Depth limited to about

A pit is dug either by  Provide detailed 6m in stiff clays.

hand or by a backhoe. information of  May require side

stratigraphy supports in coarse-

 Large quantities of grained soils and soft

disturbed soils are clays.

available for testing.  Deep pits uneconomical

 Large blocks of  Excavation below

undisturbed samples groundwater and into

can be carved out rock difficult and costly.

from the pits.  Too many pits may scar

 Field tests can be site and require backfill

conducted at the soils.

bottom of the pit.  Time consuming.

 Limited to depths above

ground water level.

HAND AUGERS  Cost effective  Depth limited to about

The auger is  Not dependent on 6m

rotated by turning terrain  Labor intensive

and pushing down  Portable  Undisturbed samples

on the handle bar.  Low headroom can be taken only for

required soft clay deposit

 Used in uncased  Cannot be used in

holes rock, stiff clays, dry

 Groundwater sand, caliche soils, etc.

easily identified and

METHOD ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

POWER AUGERS  Quick  Depth limited to about

Truck mounted and  Used in uncased 15m. At greater depth

equipped with holes drilling becomes difficult

continuous flight  Undisturbed samples and expensive.

augers that bores a can be obtained quite  Site must be accessible

hole 100mm to 250 easily to motorized vehicle.

mm in diameter.  Groundwater location

Augers have solid can be identified

METHOD ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

WASH BORING  Can be used in  Depth limited to about

Water is pumped to difficult terrain 30m

bottom of borehole  Low equipment cost  Slow drilling through

and soil washings  Used in uncased stiff clays, and gravels

are returned to holes  Difficulty in obtaining

surface. A drill bit is accurate location of