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Bladder rupture, a relatively rare condition, is most commonly due to abdominal and/or pelvic
trauma but may be spontaneous or iatrogenic in association with surgical or endoscopic
procedures. In adults, the bladder is well protected within the bony pelvis. As such, the vast
majority of bladder injuries occur in association with pelvic fractures, particularly those
involving the pubic rami. Pelvic pain and gross hematuria are present in most patients. Diagnosis
is confirmed with retrograde cystography, either with computed tomography (CT) or plain films.
Bladder ruptures may occur in the peritoneal space but are more commonly extraperitoneal.
Uncomplicated extraperitoneal ruptures are frequently managed non-operatively with a Foley
catheter, while intraperitoneal ruptures require surgical repair.[1][2][3][4][5]
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Etiology
Blunt force trauma in association with motor vehicle crashes accounts for most cases of bladder
rupture. Motorcycle crashes are also commonly associated with pelvic trauma and can be
associated with bladder rupture as well. Intraperitoneal ruptures usually occur when the full
bladder is subjected to compressive forces on the lower abdomen. Extraperitoneal ruptures are
usually associated with pelvic fractures either due to compressive forces on the pelvis causing
rupture of the anterior or lateral bladder wall or from direct penetration of the bladder by bony
fracture fragments. Falls and penetrating missiles are less common causes.[6][7][8]
Iatrogenic injury to the bladder may be associated with gynecological and colorectal surgery,
urologic procedures, and Foley catheter placement. Bladder punctures most commonly occur in
association with midline trocar placement below the umbilicus during laparoscopic procedures.
Ensuring the bladder is empty, preferably with a catheter inserted prior to trocar placement, helps
to minimize this risk.
Spontaneous bladder rupture is quite rare and is associated with high mortality. Cases have been
reported in association with vaginal delivery, hemophilia, malignancy, radiation, infection, and
urinary retention.
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Epidemiology
Bladder injuries occur in about 1.6% of patients with blunt abdominal trauma. Approximately
60% of bladder injuries are extraperitoneal, 30% are intraperitoneal, and the remaining 10% are
both extra and intraperitoneal.
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Pathophysiology
In adults, the empty bladder is well protected within the bony pelvis, but a full bladder may be
distended to reach the level of the umbilicus, making it more vulnerable to injury. In very young
children, the bladder is an intraabdominal organ, exposing it to injury in the setting of trauma.
The weakest part of the bladder is the peritoneal dome. Spontaneous and iatrogenic ruptures are
usually intraperitoneal while traumatic ruptures, especially those associated with pelvic fracture,
tend to be extraperitoneal.
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History and Physical

In most cases, patients with bladder rupture have gross hematuria (77% to 100%). Other signs of
bladder rupture include pelvic pain, lower abdominal pain, and difficulty voiding. It is important
to note that trauma to the urinary tract is frequently associated with other traumatic injuries.
Pelvic fractures should raise the suspicion of injury to the bladder, urethra, rectum, and vagina. A
careful physical exam is critical to the timely diagnosis of these injuries. Any pelvic fracture may
be associated with bladder rupture, but fractures that involve the anterior arch or all four pubic
rami significantly increase the risk. Pelvic fractures with ring disruption and those associated
with posterior injury through the sacrum or ileum are also high risk for bladder rupture.
Spontaneous ruptures present with pelvic pain, renal failure, urinary ascites, and sepsis.
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Evaluation
Urinalysis will show gross hematuria. Fewer than 1% of patients with bladder rupture present
with urinalysis containing less than 25 red blood cells per high power field. Spontaneously
voided specimens are preferable but often not practical in patients with severe injury. Blood urea
nitrogen and creatinine may be elevated due to peritoneal absorption of urine, especially if
delayed presentation after injury.[9][10][11]
Focused assessment with sonography for trauma (FAST) exam may show free fluid in the pelvis
in patients with intraperitoneal bladder rupture. The FAST exam does not distinguish urine from
blood, making ultrasound less specific for intraperitoneal bleeding in patients with pelvic trauma.
Pelvic trauma and blood at the urethral meatus should raise the concern for urethral injury, and a
retrograde urethrogram (RUG) should be performed before blind placement of a urinary catheter.
Stable patients with gross hematuria and pelvic fractures require a retrograde cystogram to assess
for bladder rupture. A retrograde cystogram is also recommended to assess patients with gross
hematuria or symptoms suggesting bladder rupture even in the absence of pelvic fracture.
However, the presence of pelvic fracture does not require a retrograde cystogram in all patients,
especially those without hematuria or high-risk fracture patterns. Plain film and CT cystograms
have similar sensitivity and specificity. Mechanism and associated injuries often determine the
type of imaging a clinician uses. Passive bladder filling by clamping the foley is inadequate, and
bladder distention with retrograde filling is necessary to avoid missing more subtle
injuries. Retrograde cystogram and urethrogram may interfere with interpretation of pelvic
angiography and should be deferred in unstable patients requiring embolization for control of
pelvic hemorrhage.
Patients with penetrating pelvic trauma and gross or microscopic hematuria require an evaluation
of the bladder. Depending on the clinical situation, this may be surgical, endoscopic, or
radiologic.
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Treatment / Management
American Urological Association (AUA) guidelines recommend that intraperitoneal bladder
ruptures be surgically repaired. Most intraperitoneal ruptures associated with blunt trauma are
large “blow out” injuries to the dome of the bladder. They will not heal spontaneously with
urinary catheter drainage alone. Unrecognized and unrepaired intraperitoneal bladder ruptures
may lead to peritonitis, sepsis, and renal failure. Since many are associated with major trauma,
open repair is most common, but laparoscopic repair may be appropriate in some circumstances.
During operative evaluation of bladder rupture at the dome, it is recommended to evaluate the
entire bladder and not just repair the obvious injury. This may require enlarging an
existing injury in order to evaluate the trigone area of the bladder. Repair of the bladder injury
may be single or double layered closure. It is recommended to avoid permanent suture on the
mucosal repair as this may be a nidus for future stone formation. A Foley catheter is routinely
left in the bladder after repair. Follow-up cystography should be performed to confirm healing in
complex cases.[12]
AUA guidelines recommend that uncomplicated extraperitoneal bladder injuries be managed
conservatively with catheter placement. Standard therapy involves leaving the catheter in place
for 2 to 3 weeks, but it may be left in longer in some cases. Extraperitoneal ruptures that do not
heal after 4 weeks of catheter drainage should be considered for surgical repair. Complicated
extraperitoneal bladder ruptures, such as those associated with bone fragments within the bladder
and those associated with vaginal or rectal injuries, often require operative repair. Bladder neck
injuries often will not heal without surgical repair. Follow-up cystography should be used to
confirm healing after treatment with a urinary catheter.
Catheter drainage can usually be performed with a urethral catheter. A suprapubic cystostomy is
rarely required following surgical repair unless a urethral injury is also present and a catheter is
unable to be placed secondary to urethral disruption. Urinary catheters have shown to be
adequate, resulting in a shorter length of stay and lower morbidity.
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Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes

Bladder rupture is not a common injury but when it presents its diagnosis and management are
best done with a multidisciplinary team that consists of a surgeon, urologist, nephrologist, trauma
surgeon and emergency department physician. Today there are guidelines released by the AUA
for repair of bladder rupture. These patients do need close follup after surgery to ensure that
bladder function is intact. In some patients, catheter drainage can usually be performed with a
urethral catheter. A suprapubic cystostomy is rarely required following surgical repair unless a
urethral injury is also present and a catheter is unable to be placed secondary to urethral
disruption. Urinary catheters have shown to be adequate, resulting in a shorter length of stay and
lower the morbidity. Overall, prompt repair of bladder injuries are associated with good
outcomes. [13](Level V)
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Questions

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470226/