-INGLES- UNIDAD 1 2011 GRAMATICA INGLESA IIT CAP I 1A 416 +GUIA_ 11 (COPIAS) ia pe fe Nominal Groups Nominal Group Structure Norninatisation and Grammatical Metaphor ‘Spoken ond Wiitisn Language Spoken arid Whitten Language and Mode Differences between Spoken ona Watten Language Cohesion Cohesion Reference - Lexical Cohesion ond Feld Conjunction 189 The Genve-Grammar Connection Genre Genes used kakisuok (tner Common Genres Mter10 ence Across the Curriculum 225 Genres and Curriculum How Do Different Subjects Work? Impications for Leaning and Teaching 283 ences 255, GEMRE AID GRAN AR, TEXT AID CONTEXT ‘cking Sense’6t Fuetional GrammarGerot ond Wignel! - \Whet do you think of when you hear the word "grammar’? As a stucient in school you may have thought of it cs a sst of exercises to get right in English clos. Now, as @ person who is studying language in some depth, ‘you wil find that grammar is much more. Ths section is organised around the questions: + whats grommar? + why do we need to know about grommer? = Row can we charecterss of tak about grammar? What Is Grammar? Grammor's a theory of language, of how language is put together and how it works. More particulaty tis the study of worcings. What ls mecnt by wording? Consider he folowing for a moment: Time flies ke on arrow. This sting of language means something: the meaning is accessible through the wording, that I, he words cri their order: and the warding in tun, B realsed or expressed through sound or letters. Folk terminology Linguistic terminology meaning nantics wording lesdeogrammar lettes/sounds _ _orthography/phonology Making Sense 6 Functional Grammar Genre and Grammar, Text and Context In some theories of grammar lexicogrammar is called ‘syntax’, which Is stugied independently of semantics. In other theories of grammer, word ings cre charactersed such that they are able to explain meaning, More con thisin amoment, Why Graramar? Why do we need fo know about grammar? We neéd a theory of gram- mar or fonguage which helps us understand how texts work. As teachers we need to know how texts work so we can explicitly help learners learn how to understand ond produce texts—spoken end written In vatous con texts for various purposes. : Several years ago one of us overheard a conversation between a Year 9 student ond his geogrephy teacher. The student was asking the teacher ~~why he had received a low mark for his project.. The teacher responded, that the wack ‘just didn’t hang together. The Boy asked, ‘But how uo T make it hang fagsther?"_ The teacher responded by suggesting that Ine student moks the work cohere. This example is not to criticise students or teachers. The student would have made the text “hang together’ In the fist place had he known how. ‘And the teacher would have expicined in good faith had he known explic- ity how texts, especially geography texts, worked. Systemic-functiondl ‘grammar, presented in this book. perhaps more than any other theory of Jenguags, explains how texts, inclucing texts read and wiltien in schools, work,Geret ond Wignst! Characterising Language ‘his b where viewpoints begin to diverge. Notice that we've not used the fern the’ grammar of Engish. Instead, there cre o number of grommars which ciferin how they cheractedse language, depending on the purpos- a otine user, How people have charactetsed wordings. that is, devised fhowties of grammar, depends on the kinds of questions they have asked ‘obout longuage; on what they want fo find out about i. Consider for a moment the experience of the six blirid men meeting an Slephant for the fest ime. One bind man fet the tall ond declared that fhe elephont wes ike a rope; cnother felt the trunk and decided that on ‘elephant was ke chose. Another, feeling the ear, felt on elephant was ee cn umbrel._ Each bind man developed a theory of whet elephants are Theories of language (grammar) are « bit ike the blind men’s experience of the elephent, Each ended up with c somewhat different perspective. Jha tke the bind men’s experience, theories of language of grammar ore fot inherently good of Bad. ight or wrong, tue of false. Rather, grammars the voldoted by thelr usefviness In describing and expiaining the phenom- tenon called language: : ‘As teachers, we can further oxk whether the grammar helps leamers ond thei Ieochers fo understand ond produce tex's. As discourse analysts, we ‘Can osk how the grammar shecs light on how fexts moke meaning. To the ‘extent that © grammar con help with these questions iis more useful thon canother grammar. There are three grammars which have had ¢ major infsnee on schoo in the westem world in this century, These ore os folows. Making Sense of Functional Genre and Grant na: Text end Traditional Grammar orn, coo Uk a, Sate a « parse textbook sentences and learn to correct so-called bed ‘grammar. \Witers are tought, for example, not fo start sentences with ‘ond’ to mcke arrow), fo say "I did it’ and not ‘I dane it’ eer [egattonc! grammar focuses on es fr producing conc sentences ES gah as io rien weclnenis Piny. e-hes T peceioes cro boted on tne language of @ Very smal group ot midle-cioss english Spesters. This # con be used fo eacrminate cgaint the jenguage of working clas, immigrant and Aboriginal students, (Const. ae heart "tave youre vf) Socencly, the rues deal only wine rst superficial ospects of wing. Folowing the rues in no way quarantess that wtten commun ie effective, for the lee soy nothing cbost aft tere Formal Grammar Formal grammes ore concerned to deterve the structure of nc Fema gor 2 the sructure of invicuot sarences, Such gras vow longuoge cr ato Res wien ew oF fsclow certain sentence sucturen Knowage of nese ros S00" Ss behng ceriee croune! nse the mins. The cena! question formal gan. mots oftempt to aacrens "How sts sontence structured?” Meonng typically shunted off into the too-hard box. mee‘weeor enc Functional Grammar functional grammars view language os c resource for making meaning, hese grommors attempt 10 describe language in actudl use and s0 focus fon texis ond their contexts, . They are concerned not only with the siruc~ fares bu! dso ‘with how those structures construct meaning. Functional gammars start with the question, "How ate the meanings of this text weolsed?” . ‘roditionel ond formal grammars would cnalyse our ecrlier clouse as fol- tows: Tims flies Ike an arrow. oun veh prepositional phrase im told of a tragic case. Systernic-functiunal grammet,.n the other hand, lebels elements ov the ‘louse in tors cf the function each is pleying in that clouse rather than by ‘word closs Time tes lke on arrow Partcipant: | Process:| Circumstance: Actor Material | Manner Tim told, otatragic case Paricipant: | Process: | Circumstance: [saver Verbal | Matter in these lost two clauses, the Participant (‘doer’) rolas are realised by ‘ours, the Processes Cacing’) by verbs and the Crcumstances by prepos! fonal phrases. But ‘fying’ and ‘teling’ are two quite different orders of “eee Making Sorse of Functional Seon Genre and Gromer, Text end Cont “dig eel nthe above cose cn atow tes how tr te, wa fe fog cae Toews ten os thing Coaut Wed clos label ore cerry not ols they il oh ‘ es but hey wil only tke you ofa They donot account orciferencesorsmlcmesin mesniigiccny exert To sum up the main differences In perspective omong the above grammes, the following table is presented. ° sboxe tree Formal (+Traditional) Functional primary Hows @houic) ths sentence How are the concem (be)sructured? ‘meanings of this text realea? senitep—— a= - et crane tentence telat fanguage syntax sem level of emantics concern Janguage =a set of rules for ‘= aresource for . sentence construction ‘mecning making = something we know something we doGore and Grammar, fex: and Context 1 Eoch of the sentences immediately below consists of two clouses, Undorine each of the two clauses in each sentence, Gat out of herelor I'l scream, Mike plays trongonefand Pete sox. She gets crcdoy/when her book hurts . * The possengencano was wecring.c seatbeltavasn't hurt. The pasrenger who was wearing a sectbett wasn't hurt, ‘but the lady in the back got a nasty bump. 2. “Time fos ke on arrow’ was segmented os folows: Time files. ike anarow 4 ieentity in your own wards what the purpose of each text below k. Cacie oll he Processes—the words which tell you that something Is doing something. or that something is/was. Moke a ist of the doing word for each Test: tkewise Ist oll he being/having words for each - text. How does the choice of Processes used in each text reflect the pur pose of the text? Textl ~ ‘Aman @aghDhe yee dog, s0 ne wen) to © paxchnts, Alera wile te Woe “ea wcScure. tne man mesg fend on the eet. The fignd| outa)? “Finns the mon Nosed Him“How 6 sci. "us{ feel ny rts” oldsweig, 1970) ‘Making Sense of Functional Grammer Text 2 Bis are the ony crimats with feathers. These structures moke up the greater part of the wing surface and also act cs insulation. helping them fo remain warm. Birds are the most active of the vertebrate ani= mais and they consequentiy consume large quantities of food. Gource: Yeor7 Science student) ‘Change the wording of the following to make them less ambiguous. Caution! Thi céoFs alormedi (K-Mart, Chatswood, New South Wes) Please excuse Loralle; she has been under'ihe doctor with pneume- nia. (Note from parent to ral marking teacher) me Itfice lar bet ngs, evacuate @ickly and quit. (Official safety notices on back af follat doors, Tie Univerity of«tt was suggested above that we need a model of language that heips us understand how fexts work fo make meaning: this in turn enables Us to fociftate lecrners’ interpretation ond production of texts. Systemic-func- tonal grammer can do this. How? Because of the way this model of Ion- ‘guage explains the connections batween context and text. We'd fie to begin explaining the context-text connection with @ proposition: Almeoning is stuated . + inacontext of suction * inacontext of cuture. Take the utterance: ‘Just put it beside those other ones.” The mening __temoins obsoure unt we know that itwos scidto @ removaist who had just luge! in another eciion of household goods during moving one of us to Bisbane. Knowing the context of stuation makes the uttaronce intellaibe, Note that the mecning is cso cuturclly stuated.’In the Anglo way of deing things, it is permissible fo hike, total strangers to pack our material goods into boxes, haul thent hallw3Y Scies:'the country and then for these or other total strangers to tolerate carrying and being told where fo put these boxes by women half thelr ize! Removal is ¢ culture! act no less than folk dancing. The utterance ‘just put It beside the other ones’ is meaningful within a context of culture cind d context of stuation. Context of culture determines what we can miéan through = being ‘who we ore’ = dong ‘what we do = saying ‘what we say’. . ‘This oppiies to ail of us. Suppose, ike one of us, you grew up in mid-western United States, the eldest daughter in a large farming family. Being the fcmmnar, Text end Context 11 eldest daughter inthis citcumstonce automaticaly casts one in the role of ‘momna’s itis helper’. That's who you ote in the forily. This in turn lorgely etermines what you do within the fomy ond what you scy. Protesting thet you don't want fo do the ironing or that the baby’s a snellyhrenisn’t alowed, xt of stuation con be specified through ise of the register varia feneranc mode. Fig refers to what i going on. including + activity tocus (nature of social activity) +) object focus (subject matten, So feld specifies what's going on with reference ta wht. Tenor refers to the socio! relationships between those taking port. These cre spectficble in terms of selhoetan, + status of power (agent sles, peer oF hierarchic relations) + affect (degree of ke, aistke ot neutrality) oe + contact (requency, duration and intimony of soc! contact. Think, for example, how you say ‘good momning’ to members of your family, shop ossistants, work coleagues, This simple act is very much eurtural ‘one and clearly espeaks social relationships (tenon). Made refers to how language is being used. whether “ + the chénnet of cornmunication Is spoken or written + “longuage is being used as « mode of action or reflection For example, a mother talking her young child through a tollettaining ses- son is spoken channel, language as action. Dr Chyjs Green wilting about follet training In his book Todaller Taming is waltten channel, languege os reflection. ‘As language moves from action 19 reflection there is a progrestive distancing ‘tom the actual event and the experience becomesincreasingly vicarious. 1 Making Sense of Functional Grammarte our ene ign :—Reconsiructing the Context Understanding Texts When we (ovenhear or read ¢ text, we con reconstruct its context of stuc- * ion. For example: We supeiise the plonting and Inspect the harvest. And-we buy only the BBick of the crop. Our experienced buyers look for lack of blemish minimum umber of eyes, pure white ‘meaty’ interiors with frrn frying consistency, What is the topic of the above text? Fol \Who/what kind of person produced this text? For whom? Tenor Do you think the original was written or spoken? Mode ‘Answers: page 20) We are cbe iv .econstruct this context of stustion becouse there is a sys tematic relationship between context and text.. The wordings of texts smut taneously encode three types of meaning: ideational (see below), inter personal (p.1) and textual (p.14). Ieational mecnings are medrings about phenomenc—about things Gv= Ing and noniving, abstract ond concrete), about geings on (what the tings axe or do) and the clicumstances surrounding these happerings ‘ond doings. These meanings are realted in worcings through Participants, Procestes ond Cicumstances. ‘Meaning of ti Kid are most cena inuenced by the feld of discourse. Field: growing quality potatoes for french fries We * buy "only the pick of he crop [Paricipant: | Process: | Paricpant Actor Matera! | Goal ‘Making Sense of Functional Grammar Genre ond Grammar Texan Context 13 coir beos Polarbears are expert hunters Eee | Resse Pariipant JCarter | Atrfoutve) Atibute Interpersonal mecnings are meanings which express © specker's attitudes nd judgments, These are meanings for acting upcn and with others. | Mecnings are realised in wordings through what is coled MOOD ond ~ modality. Meanings of this kind are mast centraly influenced by tenor oF escourse, Mood Wwe inspect the growing plants every week. Declrative Brock. get those plants inspected right now!” Imperative *- Cortider which kind of peopie are allowed to order others about, Brock, do you really expect me to believe this crop? Mr Brock. Hind your postion untenable. ft venanet Wi da leecelad + Considerthe dagree of informality or formatty. Mr BR&ck is a fine, upstanaing empioyee, Brock's @ lazy, incompetent foot + Consider the attitucinal lexis (in alles) which expresses affect, the degree of ke or distke - Modality Fortunately, Brock s on inspector. Unfortunately, Brock is on Inspector + Consider he Mood Adjunct (talicsed) which revel atitude or ucorient14 Gaetand wignel, . Genre erg Grammar, Text ond Context 15 Theccop might be inspected, ‘The crop should be inspected. ‘The crop must be inspected. Context -—_—_———> Text + Consider he modal operators (italicised) which reveal the speaker's = Semantics <—> Lexicogrammer certainty. meaning). (wordings) Textual mecnings expres he relation of longuage to Is environment, fete tdectlonci<—> Tonsivy TEaShg bon ine verool envionmment—whet hes been sald or wien (unas going ond Processes Fete po na the nowverba, stuctional environment (context). Portelants. = These meanings are realised through pattems of Theme and cohesion. CCirournstances) Jectual moonings are most central influenced by mode of discourse. Tener <——> Interpersonal<> Mood and Modality The linguistic differences between the following spoken and written texts (ocial elations). (Gpeech roles, tas below relate primarily to differences in thematic choices and pattems of cues) wn cohesion (see Chapters 6, 7 ond 8 for ful detoils). Mode<——» Texhicl > Theme, Cohesion. (contextual coherence) bii'SHG you Haitfa'go to the Post _ =po7 Office fo pay - un, by next Monday ~ that’s what this box tels ya- or they'Ilcut yer prone off! All phone bills must be paid by the date shown or Because of the bi-directionality between situation and meaning, and service will be discontinued. meaning and wording. in tur, we con predict from text to context. os you've done above... We can cise move fiom confext to text, as we do in wing or speaking, Given the following contextual configuration, we can predict, within rea- son, how the text might go: Textuol meoning, or texture, is ke @ sweater. Two sweaters might be mods ging the some patter, with wool of the same type. But one is knitted ising large, loose stitches. This is ke spoken language. The other i knitted Fleid activity focus = request for repair fnely, wiih close sltches, This is ke witten language. Both garments are - object focus = security screen doorin rented unit | made of the some materials ond serve to keep their owners warm, But the status ~sred estate agent ond eldery, texture of each is diferent. . ‘widowed tenant ottect favourable, agent'end deceased The relationship between context, meanings and wordings can be sum- husbond were long time fiends} ‘marised os shown cn the following poge: contact ‘= occasional Mode channel = spoken; language os action 1 Moking Sense of Functional Gramroar18 Gert and Wig The ability to predict from context to text is ctticclly important for text pro- duction Gpeaking or wring) and the ability to predict from text fo context 's ecantial for text comprehension Gistening or reading). To understand, something of the text-context relationship Is to understand something of how fteracy is possibe. 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