2.1. INTRODUCTION Jn Chap. 1 we analyzed the stresses creted in various members and connections by the loads applied to a structure or machine. We also Teamed to design simple members and connections so that they would not fail under specified loading conditions. Another important aspect of the analysis and design of structures relates to the deformations ezused hy the loads applied to a stucture. Cleary, ts important to avoid de- formations so large that they may prevent the structure from fufling the purpose for which it was intended. Bu the analysis of deformations say also help us inthe determination of stresses. Indeed, itis not al sways possible to determine the forces inthe members oF siueture by applying only the principles of statics. Tis is hecause sates is hased on the assumption of undeformable. rigid structures. By considering en- ‘gineering structures as deformable and analyzing the deformations in their various members, it wil he possible for us to compute Forces that ae satcally indeterminate, ie. determinate within the framework of Statics. Also, a we indicated in See. 1S, the distribution of stresses in 2 given member is statically indeterminate, even when the force in that rember is knowa, To determine the actual distribution of tresses within a member, it is thus necessary to analyze the deformations that take place in that member In this chaper, you will eonsier the deforma tions of a structural member such as @ rod, hat, or plate under axial loading First, the normal stain in a member wil be defn as the defor- ‘mation ofthe member per unit enghPlting theses vers the sain asthe load applied tothe member is inereased will yield sresssrain agra forthe material wed, From sich a diagram we cen determine vne important properties ofthe material, such us its modulus of elastic. and ‘whether the material is ductile oe Brie (Sees. 2.2 o 2.3). You Wil also See in Sec. 25 hat, while the Dekusir of most materials is independent of the direction in which th lad is applied, the response of fber-seinforeed ‘composite materials depends upon the direction ofthe load. From the sress-stain diagram, we ean also determine whether the strains inthe specimen wil disappear afer the load ina been removed — in which case the material is said to Behave elatcaly—or whether a er ‘manent ser or plas deformarion wil resale See. 2.6) Section 27 is devoted to the phenomenon of frgue, which causes stniturl or machine components fo fall after a very large numberof 1 Pete Iadings, even thoagh the stresses remain inthe elastic range “The Fit part ofthe chapter ends with Sec. 28, which is devoted to the determination of te deformation of various types of members under ‘sions conditions of asi loin. Tn Secs. 29 and 210, taculy indeterminate problems will be con- sidered. i. problem in which the reactions and the intemal fores can- not be determined from sates alone. The equim equations derived from the fre-hody diagram ofthe member under consideration must be ‘complemented by relations involving deformations; these rations will be stained from the geometry ofthe problem. Tn Secs. 211 to 2.18, sdltional constnts associated with isotropic ‘materials. materials with mechanical characteristics independent of ‘irecton—will be intxtued. They include Poson’s rari, which relates cimeaicton 474 ste ans Seana 2809 lutea and axial stain, the bull modulus, which characterizes the change In volume of a material under hydrostatic pressure, and the modulus of rigidity, which relates the components ofthe searing stress and shearing Sean. Stese-strain relationships for sn isotopic material under a mal sual lading wil also be derived. In See. 2.16, stesesrain relationships involving several dstnct val ues ofthe modus of elastic, Poisson's rato, and the modulus of rigid fy, wil be developed for fierteinforced composi matenals under & rusia loading, While these materiale are not isotropic, they usualy d= play special properties, known as orthotropic properties, which facilitate their ts. ln the text material described 0 fr, stesses ae assumed uniformly Aistuted in any given cross section: they are also assumed Yo seman within he elastic range. The vay of the first assumption is discussed in Sec. 217, while stress concentrations near ctcular holes and filets in lt bats ae considered in Sec. 218. Seutions 2.19 and 220 are devoted tothe discussion of seas and deformations in member made ofa dvtile me terial when the yioll point ofthe materia is exceeded. As you wll see, pr manent plastic dformations an revidualsreses result from such loading conditions. 2.2. NORMAL STRAIN UNDER AXIAL LOADING Let us considera rod BC, of length Land wniform cross-sectional area A, which is suspended from & (Fig. 21a). If we apply a load P to end CC. the rod clongates (Fig. 2.14). Plotting the magnitude P ofthe lad agains the deformation 5 (Greek letter delta), we obtain a certain load- deformation diagram (Fig. 2.2). While this diagram contains inform- tion useful 1 the analysis ofthe rod under consideration, it cannot be used directly to predict the deformation of a rod of the same material bul of dtferen dimensions. Indeed, we observe that, i deformation 8s produced in rod BC by a load P, load 2P is required to cause the ame deformation in a rod BC’ ofthe same length L, but of ross- sectional arca 24 (Fig. 2.3). We note that in both cases, the value of the stress isthe same: r= P/A. On the ether hand, 2 load P applied Fio.2222.Noma Sean oer Axalicasne 4g 5 to 8 ro B°C% ofthe same erst a A, tt of gh 2, Coicr eornaten 26 nthe vod (241 forma wie Stage se efron 8 rots ated BC: Burn bot ib Thera of te deformation ener length ofthe od isthe sans itis ay cal to /E Ts ctr eags 0 inoce ho oneopt of St: We Scie tenor ran ol ne ail oligo te 7 Acjormarion per nt toh it rod. Deng th oral sa by . Greener epen, we wre me en Plontng the stress. = P/A against the strain € = 8/L, we obtain ‘curve that is characteristic ofthe properties of the material and does not depend upon the dimensions of the particular specimen used. This curve i called a stress-strain diagram and wil be discussed in detail in See. 23, ‘Since the rod RC considered in the preceding discussion had ni form eross section of area A, the normal sires « could be assumed 10 ‘havea constant value P/A throughout the rod. Thus, it was appropriate to define the strain eas the ratio ofthe total deformation 8 over the 10- tal Iength L of the rod. In the case of a member of variable eross sectional area A, however, the normal stress a = P/A varies along tae ‘member, and itis necessary to define the strain a & given point Q by considering a small element of undeformed length Ax (Fig. 23). De- ‘noting by A the deformation ofthe element under the given loading, Wwe define the normal stain at point Q as a5 _ as «= ne - 2150 Svess an sant Losarg Fig.26 Typeal tenses specimen, Since deformation and length ae expressed in the same units, the normal strain e obtained by dividing 8 by L tor dB by dx) isa dimen- sionless quantity. Thus, the same numerical valve is obtained for the normal stain in a given member, whether SI metic units or US. customary units are used, Consider, for insance, a bar of length 1 = (1600 m and uniform cross section. which undergoes a deforms- tion 8 = 150 % 10." m. The corresponding stain is 3 _ 150 107m a nn = 250% 10 mim = 50 10° [Note thatthe deformation could have been expressed in micrometers: 4 = 150 um, We would then have writen 8 _1504m 1. 0,600 an and read the answer 38 “280 micros." FUS, customary units ae used the length and deformation of the same bar are, respectively, [= 338in, and 5 = 501 X 10"%in, The comesponding tain is 8 591 x10%m which i the same value that we found using SI uit. I is customary, however, when lengths and deformations are expressed in inches OF mir finches (jin) to Keep the original units im the expression obtained forthe stain. Thus, in our example, the strain would be recorded as € = 250 % 10°" inn, of alternatively, ss € = 250 windin, 23. STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM ‘We saw in Sec, 2.2 that the diagram representing the relation between stress and stain ina given material isan important characteristic ofthe ‘material. To oblaia the stess-stain dizgram of a material one usually conducts a tensile test on a specimen of the material. One type of spec- {men commonly used is shown in Fig. 2.6. The cross-sectional area of the cylindrical central portion ofthe specimen has been securatly de- termined and two gage marks have been inscribed on that portion st a distance £ fom each other The distance Lis known asthe gaxe feng ofthe specimen,Fig.27. The machin ls oad 1 et tenslae epacmons, ouch ae hose 25am n hs caer “The tes specimen i then placed in a testing machine (Fig. 2.7. which is used 10 apply a centric load P. As the load P increases the distance L between the two gage marks also increases (Fig. 2.8). The distance Lis measured witha dil gage, andthe elongation 3 = 1. ~ Ia is recorded for each value of P. A second dial gage is often used s1 ‘multanoously to measure and focord the change ia diameter ofthe spec men. From each pair of readings P and 3, the stress «i computed by dividing P by the orginal cross-sectional aca Ay ofthe specimen. and the sain by dividing the elongation 8 by the original distance Ly be- tween the to gage marks. ‘The stress-strain diagram may then he oh tained by ploting « as an abscissa and a as an ordinate, Swessstrain diggrams of various materials vary widely, and differ- ‘ent tensile ests contacted on the same material may yield different re sults, depending upon the temperature of the specimen and the sposd ‘of loaling. Ie is possible, however, w distinguish some common har clerstics among the stress-strain diagrams of various groups of mate- Fials and 10 divide materials into two bread categories on the basis ‘of these characterises, namely, the ductile materials and the brite materials, Ductile materials, which comprise structural steel as well as many loys of ether metals, re characterized by their bility wo yield at nor ‘al temperatures, As the specimen is subjected fo an increasing lod its lent fist increases linearly withthe load and ata very slow rate Thus the initia portion of the eessstrain diagram i a straight line 25. svesssran Dugan § 4 ' Fig. 28 Test specimen mh oe n152. Svess an art Losarg ig.29 Svess-trin agar of wo ‘ypeal dute raters Fl |b Fig. 210 Tested specimen ofa ct materia, Fig 211. Sreseatnindagran fr peal tie mora with a steep slope (Fig. 2.9). However, after aeritical value a of the stress has been reached. the specimen undergoes a. large deformation with a relatively small increase in the applied Toad. This deformation is caused by slippage of the material along ablique surfaces and is due, therefor, primarily to shearing sreses. As we ean noe from the stress- strain diagrams of two typical ductile materials (Fig. 2.9), the elonga- tion of the specimen after it has started to yield can be 200 mes as large as is deformation before yield. After a certain maxim value of the lond has been reached, the diameter of a portion of the specimen begins to decrease, because of local instability (Fig. 2102) Tis phe- nomenon is known as necking. After necking has begun, somewhat lower loads are sufficient to Keep the specimen clongating further, ut- tit finally ruptures (Fig. 2.106). We note that rupture occurs along a «cone-shaped surface that forms an angle of approximately 45° with the original surface ofthe specimen. Ths indicates that shear is primatily responsible for the failure of ductile materials, and confinms the Fact that, under an axial load, shearing stresses are largest on surfaces form Jing an angle of 45° with he load (See. 1.11). The stress or a which yield is initiated is called the yield strength of the material te stress ‘2. comesponding to the maximum load applied to the specimen is [known asthe ultimate strengrh, and the stress, corresponding to rup- led the breaking strength materials, which comprise east iron, glass, and stone, are characterized bythe fat that ruptre aecurs without any nsiceabl prior change ia the rate of elongation (Fig. 2.11) Thos, fr bite material, there is no diference between the uhimate strength and the breaking ‘strength. Alb, the strain a the time of rupture is much smaller fo bei te than for dactle materials. From Fig. 2.12, we note the absence of any necking ofthe specimen in the case of a britle material, and ob Serve that rapture occurs along a surface perpendicular to the toad. We conelude fom this observation that nomial tresses are pinay e- sponsible forthe flare of bite materials. + erases Henver 9 ntl ht dase ener ds the ae ‘Scheel a ey empath aera map ie te ion ve Meh eters A epee a me12. Tested specimen of abe mate ‘The stress-strain diagrams of Fig. 2.9 show that structural stel and sluminum, while beth dui, have different yield characteristics. Inthe ‘case of structural stel (Fig. 2.90), the stress remains constant over a large range of valucs of the strain after the onset of yield. Late the stress must be inreased to keep elongating the specimen until the mix- mum value a, his been reached. This is de toa property ofthe ma- terial known as strain-hardening. The yield strength of structural steel ‘ean be determined diring the tensile test by watching the load shown, on the display ofthe testing machine, After increasing steadily, the load is observed 1 suddenly drop 1a lighly lower value, which is main tained fora certain period while the specimen keeps elongating. In a very caefilly conducted test, one may’be able to distinguish between the upper yield poinz which corresponds to dhe load reached just be- fore yield stats, and the lower yield point, which corresponds to the load required to maintain yield Since the upper yield points transient, the lower yield point should be used to determine the yield strength of the material In the case of aluminum (Fig. 29h) and of many other ductile ma- terial, the onset of yield is not characterized by a horizontal portion of the sttess-strain curve. Instead, the stess keeps incressing-—ahough ‘ot linearly —nti the ulimate strength i reached. Necking then begins. leading eventually to rupae. For such materials, the yield strength 0 can be defined by the offset method. The yield strength at 02% ost, forex ample, is obtuined by deaving trough the point of the horizontal axis of shacinsa€ = 0.2% (Or € = 0.002}, ine pra! the iil straigh-ine Potion of the stress-strain digram (Fig. 2.13) The sess er corespon- ‘ing othe point Y obtained in his fashion is define as the yield stent 0.2% offi. 2a smeesman oun 53 ig.238. Determination of yt strong by ‘feet mated54 Svess an Sart Losarg [A standard measure ofthe ductility of « material i its percent elon ation, wich is defined a Percent elongati where Land Ly denote, respectively the inital length of the tensile test specimen and its final eagth at rapture. The specified minimum clongation for a 2-in. gage length for commonly use stces with yield Strengths upto 0 ksi is 214, We note that this means thatthe average strain at rupture should be atleast 0.21 inn, ‘Another measure of ductility which is sometimes used is the per- cent reduction n area, defined 38 Pervent seduction where Ay and A, denote, respectively, the initial erss-setional area of the specimen and its minimum cross-sectional area at rupture, For stuc- ‘ural see, percent reductions in area of 60 10 70 percent are common. ‘Thus far, we have discussed only tensile fests. If specimen made ff a ductile material were loaded in compression instead of tension, the Sres-srain curve obtained would be essentially the same though is inal straight-line portion and through the begining ofthe potion cor- responding to yield and stsin-hardening. Particularly noteworthy isthe fact that fora given steel, the yield strength isthe same in both tension and compression. For larger values ofthe stain, the tension and com- pression stress-strain curves diverge, and it should be noted that neck- {ng cannot occur in compression. For most brie materials, one finds thar the ultimate strength in compression is much Tanger than the ut sate strength in tension. This is due tothe presence of flaws, such as microscopic cracks oF cavities, which tend to weaken the material in teasion, while not appreciably affecting is resistance wo compressive failure. FF. 218 suess-sain daar bx concrete{An example of brite material with diferent properties in tesion and compression is provided by concrete, whose siress-strain diagram is shown in Fig. 2.14. On the tension sie of the diagram, we first ob- serve a lncar elastic range in which the strain is proportional to the stress. After the yield point has been reached, the strain increases fascr than the stress until rupture occurs. The behavior of the material in com- pression is ifferem. First, the linear elastic rang is significantly lng. Second, npr does not occu a he stress reaches ts maximum value Tastead, the stress decreases in magnitude while the strain keeps in ‘creasing unl ruptare occurs, Noe tha the modulus of elasticiy, which is represented by the slope of the stress-strain curve ia is linear por tion is the same in tension and compression. This is true of most brit te materials "24, TRUE STRESS AND TRUE STRAIN We recall thatthe stress plotted inthe diagrams of Figs. 2.9 and 2.11 was obtained by dividing the load P by the cross-sectional area Ay of the specimen measured before any deformation had taken place. Since the cross-sectional area of the specimen decreases as P increases the ‘res pote in our diagrams does not represent the act stress i the specimen. The difference between the engineering stress ¢ = P/Ay that We have computed and the true strest c= P/A obtained by dividing P by the cross-sectional area A of the deformed specimen becomes a= parent in ductile materials after yield has started. While the engine ing sites, which is directly proportional tothe lou P, decreases with P during the necking phase, the ue stress, which is proportional 10 P but also inversely proportional to A, is observed to keep increasing until rupture ofthe specimen occurs. Many scientists also use a definition of siran different from tht of the engineering strain ¢ ~ 8/L, Instead of using the tral elongation 5 1nd the original value Lo ofthe gage length, they use all the suocessive ues of L that they have recorded. Dividing each increment AZ of the listance between the gage marks, by the corresponding value of L, they obtain the elementary strain Ae = AL/L. Adding the successive wales of Ae, they define the tre strain = Eke = SAL/L) ‘With the summation replaced by an integral, they can also expres the teve train as follows TE ea a= [Sond “The dgran chitin by plouing rss no tos ssn (Fig 2.18) reflects more accurately the bavi ofthe materi A we bane ready noe, threo derese in tr tes during th necking pice. Also, the rss ohne fom tem and fo compressive z ine ig 215 The sose vous i sin er & ‘pea! ate mater156 Svs an sare Losarg pt emp sent lay ‘Solan Fig. 236. Svesyatin dugams or Fo an fren grade of too ‘ests wl yield essentially the same plot when tre stress and true stain sare used. This isnot the case for large values ofthe stain when the ngineering sires is plotted versus the engineering strain, However, engineers, whose responsibilty isto determine whether a load P wi produce an aceplable stress and an acceptable deformation in a given ‘member, wll want to use a diagram based on the enpncering stess = P/A,and the engineetng suain € = 6/L,, since these expressions involve data that are available 1 them, namely the erss-sctional area ‘A and the length of the member in is undeformed state 25. HOOKE’S LAW; MODULUS OF ELASTICITY Most engineering structures are designed to undergo relatively small deformations, involving only the straight-line portion af the comespond- ing stress-strain diagram, For that initial portion of the diagram (Fig. 2.9), the stesso i directly proportional to the strain €, and we can write onke es This relation is known as Hooke's law: after the English mathematician Robert Hooke (1635-1703). The coelicient & i called the menus of clastciey of the material involved, of also Youne’s modus, after the English scientist Thomas Young (1773-1829). Since the stain « is @ dimensionless quantity, the modulus E is expressed inthe same units ax the sess namely in pascals or one of is multiples if Suns are used, and in ps or ks if US, cusomary nits re sed ‘Tne largest value of the stress for which Hooke’s law can be used fora given malerial is known as the proportional limit ofthat material. In the case of ductile materials possessing a well-defined yield point, as in Fig. 29a, the proportional limit almost coincides with the yield point. For ther materials the proportional limit cannot be defined as tasily since its dificult to determine with accuracy the value of the stress. ¢ for which the relation between ¢ and e eases 10 be lincat. But from this very dificully we can conclude for such materials that using Hooke's law for values of the sizes sliphly Target than the seta pro= portional limit will ot result i any significant error Some of the physical properties of structural mils, such as strength, ductility, and corrosion resistance, canbe greatly affected by alloying, heat weatment, and the manufacturing process used. For ex- ample, we noe from the stress-strain diagrams of pure iron and of three different grades of steel (Fig. 2.16) that large variations inthe yield Strength, lkimate strength, and final strain (ett) exist among these four meals. All of them, however, possess the same modulus of eas- Sei: in other words, their stiffness” or ability to resist a deformation within the linear rang, is the same, Therefore, if high stength ste is subsiuted for a lower strength sts! in a given structure, and i dimensions are kep he same, the structure wil have an increased load- carrying capacity, but its sifness will remain unchanged.For etch of the materials considered s0 fat, the relation between normal stress and normal strain, = Ee, is independent of the direc tion of lading. This is because the mechanical properties of each ma terial, including its modulus of elasticity E, are independent ofthe di- rection considered. Such materials ate said to be isorapic. Materials whose properties depend upon the direction considered are said w be “anisorrpie. An important class of anisotropic materials consists of iber- tinforced composite materats. "These composite materials ae obtained by embedding fibers of a strong, siff material into a weaker, softer material, refered to as 2 ma- trix Typical materials usel a fibers are graphite, plas, and polymers, ‘while various types of resins are sed as a matin. Figure 2.17 shows @ layer, or famina of composite material consisting ofa large number ‘of parallel fibers embedded in a mauris. An axal load applied to the lamina along the x axis, that is, in a direction parallel to the fibers, il create 4 normal sess a, in the kimina and 2 corresponding nom Strain e, which will satisfy Hooke’s law as the load i increased and as Tong as the elastic Limit ofthe lamina isnot excseded. Similarly, an a ial load applied along they axis, that is, in advection perpendicalar to the lamina, will eeate a normal stress cy and a normal strain e salis- fying Hooke's law, and an axial load applied along the = axis will ee- se anormal stress. and normal strane, which again satisfy Hooke's law. However. the moduli of elasticity and E. corresponding. re- spectively, to each ofthe above loadings willbe diferent, Because the fibers are parallel tothe x axis the lamina will offer a much stronger resistance toa loading directed along the + axis than 10 a loading d- rected along the yor £ axis, and E, will be much larger than ether E, or ‘A fat laminate is obwained by superposing a number of layers oF laminas. Ifthe laminate is to be subjected only to an axial Tos eaus- ing tension, the fibers in all ayers should have the same orientation as the load inorder to obtain the greatest possible strength But if the Lam- inate may be in compression, the matrix material may not be sufficiently strong to preven the fibers from kinking or buckling. The lateral st bility ofthe laminate may then be increased by positioning some of the layers so that their fers will be perpendicular tothe load, Pesitioning some layers so that their fibers are oriented at 30°. 45°, or 60° to the load may als be used to increase the resistance of the laminate to in- plane shear Fiber-reinforced composite materials will he farther dis. cussed in Sec. 2:16, where their behavior under muliasal loadings will he considered 26. ELASTIC VERSUS PLASTIC BEHAVIOR OF A MATERIAL 1 he strains caused in a test specimen by the application of a given load disappear when the load is removed, the mater is sid to behave elastically. The largest value of the stress for which the material be- haves elastically is ealled the elastic li of the materi IK the material has a well-defined yield point asin Fig. 24, the clastic limit, the proportional Limit (See. 25), and the yield point are ‘essentially equal. In other words. the material behaves elastically and 265. ae vermis Parte Btavor 57158 Svess an svar Losarg Fg 218 Fig 219 Ropar Tinearly as long asthe stess is kept below the yield point. Ithe yield point is reached, however, yield takes place as described in See. 2.3 8nd, when the load is removed, the sires and strain decrease in Tin- ar fashion, slong a line CD parallel to the straight-line portion AB of the loading curve (Fig. 2.18). The fact that dees not rete to 2210 af ter the load has been removed indicates that a permanent se! of plastic deformation of the material has taken place. For most materi, the plas detormation depends not only upon the maxim vale reached by the tess, but so upoa the time elapsed before the lad is emoved. The stress-dependent part of the plastic deformation is referred to slip, and the time-dependent part which i alo influenced by the tempeature—ascrep, ‘When a macrial does not possess. well-defined yield point the elas- tic limit cannot be determined with precision. However. assuming the clastic limit qual the yield strength as defined by the offset method (See. 2.3) results only a stall err. Indeed, referring to Fig. 2.13, we note that the straight line used to determine point ¥ also represents the wnload- ing curve after a maximum stress has been reached. While the material does nat behuve rly elastically, the revalting plastic stain is a smalls the selected offset after being Joaded and usloaded (Fig. 2.19), the test specimen is Joaded again. the new loading curve will closely follow the earlier unloading Curve uni almost reaches pint C: it wil then bent the right and con- ‘ect with the curved portion of the exgialsres-tain diagram. We note thatthe straight-line portion of the new loading curve is longer than the corresponding pertion of the intial one. Thos, the proportional limit snd the clastic limit have increased as a result ofthe strain-hardning that oc cured during the elie loading ofthe specimen. However, since the pont of rupture R remains unchanged the ductility of te specimen, which should nov he measured from point D. as decease. ‘We have assumed in our discussion thatthe specimen was loaded rwice inthe same direction, i, that bth lods were tele loads, Let us now consider the cise when the second Toad is applied in discon opposite 1o that ofthe fist on. ‘We assume tht the materials mild steel, For which the yield srength Js the same in tension and in compression. The initial load is tease and 4s applied unl point C hasbeen reached on the sess-srain diagram (Fig. 2.20) After unloading (point), a compressive lad is applied, casing the material to reach poit HH, where the sess is equal 10 ay, We note that portion DH of the stest-stran diagram ie curved and doesnot show any clearly defined yield point. This i referod to asthe Bawichinger ‘fect. As the compressive loud is maintained, the material yields along line 1. tne load is removed afer point has been reached, the stress retms to 210 along line /K tl we note th the slope of J fs exalt the moa uly of elasticity The resulting permanent set AK may be positive. neg- tive, of 200, depending upoa the lengihs ofthe segments BC and H/F ‘tems load is applied again othe test specimen, the portion ofthe ses- stein diagram beginning at K (dashed ie) will cave up and tothe right ‘until the yield sess has been reached1 the inital Loading is large enough to cause strain-hardening of the material (point C*), unloading takes place along ine C'D'. As the reverse load i applied, the stress becomes compressive, reaching its maximum value af "and maintaining it as dhe material yickls along line HP". We note that while the maxinwm value of the compressive stress is ess than o, the total change in stress between C” and His still equal to 2a, point Kor A’ coincides withthe origin A ofthe diagram, the per= smanat set i equal to zero, and the specimen may appear to have 1e tuned 10 its eriginal condition, However, interal changes will have taken place and, while the same loading sequence may be repeated, the specimen will rupture without any warning after relatively few repet tions. This indicaes thatthe excessive plastic deformations (o which the specimen was subjected have eaused radical change in the chat- acteristics of the material, Reverse loadings into the plastic range, thene- fore, are seldom allowed, and only under carefully controlled condi tions, Such situations occur i the faightoning of damaged material snd inthe final alignment of a structure or machine 2.7. REPEATED LOADINGS; FATIGUE Inthe preceding sections we have considera the hehavior of atest spec- imen subjected an axial loading. We recall ha, ifthe maximum stress in the specimen does not exceed the clastic limit of the material, Uae specimen retams to its initial condition when the load is remeed. You might conclude that a given loading may be repeated many times, pro- vided that dhe sreses remain in the elastic range. Suc conclusion is correct for loadings repeated a few dozen or even a few hundred times. However, as you will Se, itis not correct when loadings are repeated thousands or millions of umes, In such eases, rupture will occur al & stress much lower than the static breaking strength: this phenomenon is known as farigue. A fatigue failure is ofa brite nature, even forma terials that are normally di 27. RepenesLaeoron Fee 5960 Stes ans Seana tosang Siesta) Stim ED WW eo Number femme red pes Fig 221 Fatigue must he considered in the design of all structural and mi- chine components tha are subjected to repeated orto fctuating lads. The number of loading cycles that may be expected during the wseful life ofa component varies greatly. For example, a beam supporting an industrial erane may be loaded as many a two million times i825 years (about 300 loadings per working day). an automobile crankshaft wil be leaded about haf billion times if te automobile is driven 200.000 miles, and an individual turbine blade may be loaded several hundred Billion imes during its Kietime ‘Some loadings are ofa fluctuating nature, For example, the pas- sage of traffic over a bridge will cause stress lvels that sill tia about the stress level due to the weight ofthe bridge. A more severe condition occurs when a complete reversal of the load occurs during te loading cycle. The stresses in the ale ofa railroad car. for exam ple, are completely reversed after each half-revolution of the wheel ‘The number of loading eyeles required to cause the failure of a specimen through repeated scessive loadings and reverse haadings ‘may be determined experimentally for any given maximum stress level. fa series of tests is conducted, using different maximum sess lve the resulting data may be plated asa - cure. For each test the max- imum stesso is plowed as an ordinate andthe numberof cycles n as an abscissa: because of the large number of cycles required for rupture, the eyeles are ploted on a logarithmic seal. ‘Atypical o-» curve for steel is shown in Fig, 2.21. We note that, ithe applied maximam stress is igh, relatively few cycles are required to cause rupture. As the magnitude of the maximum stes is reduced, the number of cycles required to cause rupture increases, unl a sres, known as the endurance fami, is reached. The endurance limit isthe stress for which failure does not occur, even for an indefinitely large ‘umber of loading cycles, Fr a low-carbon steel, sich a8 stuctral See, the endurance limit is about one-half ofthe altima stength of the steel, For nonferrous metals, such as aluminum and copper, typical 0 curve (Fig. 221) shows that the stess at failure continues to decrease athe numberof loading cycles is increased. For such metals, one de- fines the farigue limit asthe stress corresponding to failue after aspee- ified number of loading eyes, such as 500 milion. [Examination of fest specimens, of shall, of springs, and of other components that have failed in fatigue shows thatthe failure was init ted at a microscopic crack or at some similar imperfection. At cach loading the crack was very slightly enlarged, During suocessive load- Jing cycles, the crack propagated through the material uni the amount fof undamaged mera was insufficient to carry the maxima load, and lan abrupt, rite failure occured. Because fatigue failure may be in tiated a any crack or imperfection. the surface condition of a specimen has an important effect on the value of the endurance limit obtained in testing. The endurance limit for machined and polished specimens is higher than for rolled or forged components, or for components that are corroded. Ia applications in or near seawater, or in ether applieations ‘where corrosion is expected, a reduction af up to S0% in the endurance Timit ean be expected2.8. DEFORMATIONS OF MEMBERS UNDER AXIAL LOADING. ‘Consider a homogencous red BC of length Lan uniform cross section of area A subjected to a centri axial load P (Fig. 2.22). IF the resul ing axial stress o = P/A does not exceed the proportional limit of the material, we may apply Hooke's law and write one eH from which i follows that oP -o-e es Recalling thatthe strain was defined in Sec. 2.2 a «= 3/L, we have bret eo and, substituting for € from (25) into (2.6) PL. s 0-7 en Equation (2.7) may be used only ifthe rod is homogeneous (con- stant), has unifoem cross section of area A, and is loaded at its ends 11 the rod is loaded st other points, or fH consists of several potions fof various cross sections and possibly of different materials, Wwe must ‘divide it into component parts that satisfy individually the required ‘conalitions forthe application of formals (2.7). Denoting, respectively, 1,,A, and E; the internal force, length, cross-sectional area, and ‘modulus of elasticity comresponding to part we express the deforma- tion ofthe entire rod as 1-3 ex ‘We recall fom Sec. 2.2 that, inthe case of a ro of variable cross section (Fig. 25), the strain depends upon the postion of the point Q here itis computed and is defined as € = d8/ds. Solving for d8 and substituting fore from Ei. (2.5), we express the deformation of an el- cement of length di as Pas AE ‘The lotal deformation 8 of the rod is obtained by integrating this ex pression over the length of the od: “Pde B mee eo Formula (2.9) should be used in place of (2.7) not only when the eross- sectional area As a anetion of x, but also sehen the internal force P ‘depends upon x, as is the case for arod hanging under its own weight, B= ed 28. Ooematons Ura Axa Loans G1