Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 105 (2019) 332–348

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

The significance of pelletization operating conditions: An analysis of T

physical and mechanical characteristics as well as energy consumption of
biomass pellets
Mohamed E. Mostafaa,d, Song Hua,b, Yi Wanga,b, , Sheng Sua,b, Xun Huc, Saad A. Elsayedd,
⁎

Jun Xianga,b,
⁎

a
State Key Laboratory of Coal Combustion, School of Energy and Power Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, Hubei, PR China
b
China-EU Institute for Clean and Renewable Energy at Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, Hubei, PR China
c
School of Material Science and Engineering, University of Jinan, Jinan 250022, PR China
d
Mechanical Power Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University, 44519 Zagazig, Egypt

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Biomass raw materials are widely regarded as a significant source of renewable energy, which significantly
Biomass reduces the dependence on traditional fossil fuels, especially in the case of countries that are able to obtain
Pellets biomass from various sources. Recently, pelletization has been widely used for mass and energy densification of
Steam explosion biomass to overcome the problems associated with raw material use. As the global pellet market has developed
Torrefaction
quickly, the use of wood residues became no longer sufficient to fulfill the market needs. The standards of pellets
Binders
provide limits for both physical and mechanical characteristics of produced pellets. Characteristics of produced
pellets depend mainly on the feedstock characteristics as particle size and moisture content and operating
conditions as applied pressure and die temperature. Thus, this paper provides rich information on the factors
affecting the physical and mechanical properties of granules included in pellets. The main goal of the paper is to
review the latest and comprehensive research on the physical and mechanical properties of most types of single
and mixed pellets from biomass. The analysis of the effect of properties, adhesives, humidity, pressure and
temperature as well as the physical and mechanical properties of the pellets studied was carried out. In addition,
the critical and optimal values of various factors for different materials in which the following is of importance:
high quality of pellets and biomass from which they are produced were analyzed. The principle and effect of
applying post-production conditions as steam explosion and torrefaction on the characteristics of the pellets
were reviewed in details. Moreover, this study proposes some recommendations for further development of the
pelletization analysis and characteristics.

1. Introduction and transportation [1,14–18]. Burning biomass material in pellets form

Using biomass as the main source for heat and power production
resulted from the depletion of fossil fuels and climate change due to
CO2 emissions [1–4]. Biomass can reduce CO2 and acidic gas emissions
and can be used as a continuous source for heat and power [5–8].
Nowadays, thermal energy production using solid fuels as biomass
materials focused on the densified biofuels to overcome the dis-
advantages of raw biomass as irregular shape, low bulk density and
high moisture content which make it difficult and expensive to handle,
transport and store it [9–13]. Densification process of raw material
increases its bulk density which reduces the cost of handling, storage
for power generation overcomes the drawbacks of traditional use of
biomass as low thermal efficiency [19,20]. Biomass pellets could be
used directly as fuel for residential heating stoves, heating boilers and
large-scale power plants [21].
Quality of produced pellets is affected by the properties of the raw
material used as are particle size, moisture content and chemical
composition and operating conditions as die temperature, applied
pressure, holding time and die geometry [10,14,22–24]. The main types
of biomass feedstocks are agricultural residues [25–30] and forest
wastes [31–33]. In recent years, different types of biomass materials
had been used individually and mixed together or with sewage sludge

⁎
Corresponding authors at: State Key Laboratory of Coal Combustion, School of Energy and Power Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology,
Wuhan 430074, Hubei, PR China.
E-mail addresses: alenwang@hust.edu.cn (Y. Wang), xiangjun@mail.hust.edu.cn (J. Xiang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.01.053
Received 25 June 2018; Received in revised form 7 January 2019; Accepted 26 January 2019
Available online 15 February 2019
1364-0321/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.E. Mostafa, et al.
for producing high quality pellets [6,15,31–43]. Characteristic para-
meters of various biomass pellets had been studied under different
operating conditions [12,37,40,44–48].
The price of woody materials increased and its availability in
market decreased which weakened market competitiveness of pellets
[36,43]. Using non-woody biomass waste into pellets production be-
came environment friendly and helped in facing the problem of raw
material high price and shortage in the market. Mixed pellets are found
to have sufficient hardness and heating values nearly similar to that of
wood pellets [11]. Therefore, a lot of previous studies have focused on
the production of raw and mixed pellets [15,19,27,41,43,49–58]. Ser-
ious problems as combustor corrosion and greenhouse gases emission
are produced when mixed biomass pellets are used in energy produc-
tion due to the presence of sulfur and chlorine [11,59]. Therefore,
specific characteristics for mixed pellets have been established for wood
and Agro-waste to be commercialized [11]. Mixing biomass materials
with sewage sludge became a new and effective trend for producing
pellets [6,17,36,43,60–62]. Sewage sludge contains a significant
amount of organic compounds as proteins and carbohydrates which act
as a natural binder that can improve the strength of fiber grid in pellet
[6,43,62].
The available recent review articles related to the area of pelleti-
zation focused on the combustion models, kinetics, development of
pellet industry and storage of pellets [11,16,63–65]. These studies have
to some extent neglected the discussion of factors affecting the char-
acteristics of biomass pellets. Thus, there is a need for updated in-
formation on the issue of the physical and mechanical characteristics of
the single and mixed biomass pellets and a need for up-to-date analysis
of the factors affecting these characteristics as well as the energy con-
sumption. This paper first provides a comprehensive overview of the
various characteristics of pellets, then prescribes the factors influencing
these characteristics accompanied by the critical and optimal values of
various factors at which high quality pellets are produced and finally
discusses the future prospects of the pellet production technology. Also,
a new vision about the future development of the pelletization process
is introduced.
2. Pellets production
Pelletization, briquetting, extrusion, and tumble are the different
types of biomass densification [66]. Pelleting can be performed either
by using a uniaxial piston-cylinder unit to produce single pellets or a
pellet mill that consists of a series of rollers to compress raw material
through a steel die. The procedure of pelletization process consists of a
three main steps; pre-production, pelletizing and post-production. Pre-
production steps depend mainly on the collecting, characterization,
drying, grinding and pre-treatment of the raw material. Pre-treatment
of the raw material includes mixing with additives and conditioned
with steam to increase the temperature and/or moisture level [67].
Post-production step includes cooling and screening [63,67,68].
2.1. Pelletization equipment
Some researchers used the mill design and others used the piston -
cylinder unit. Mill consists of rollers that force the biomass through the
cylindrical press channels of the perforated flat or ring die from inside
towards the outside [66,69]. Generally, overheating is produced during
the pelletization process from the friction between the biomass material
and the walls of the mill [1,69,70]. Resulted temperature and friction in
the die channels are hard to be controlled which made it difficult to use
a large-scale pellet mill to investigate the effects of operating para-
meters on the characteristics of pellets [47,71]. So, a single piston-cy-
linder unit is the most common method that used by researchers to
study the characteristics of new shapes and types of biomass pellets
[1,6,15,25,36,43,44,46,48,67,72–79]. The load is applied to the piston
of the piston-cylinder unit by a universal testing machine as shown in
333
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 105 (2019) 332–348
Fig. 1. The applied load is controlled by a computer program that able
to record the change of displacement versus the load until reaching the
desired pressure as illustrated in Fig. 1c.
2.2. Densified solid biofuel standards
It is necessary to fulfill and achieve the requirements of customers
regarding pellet quality and emissions generated by combustion
[21,66]. Due to mechanical failure of the pellets that results during
production, transportation and storage, fines and dust that have
harmful effect as fire hazards are formed [67,80]. These fines nega-
tively affect the process of automatic feeding system and the high
temperature resulted from their rapid combustion enhances the ash
melting [81]. The quality of the produced pellets depends on the raw
material and operating conditions [14,74,81,82]. To judge the quality
of the raw materials used and produced pellets, there are different
standards that provide a clear and specific values of different parameter
can be followed. The European Committee for Standardization (CEN)
developed standards for solid biofuels. For instance, the European
standard EN 14961-1 [83] for general use including pellets from dif-
ferent biomass raw materials, EN 14961-2 [84] for wood pellets for
non-industrial use and EN 14961-6 [85] for non-woody pellets for non-
industrial use. The International Organisation for Standardization (ISO)
had prepared about 60 standards for solid biofuels [86]. Standards for
pellets include: EN ISO 17225-1 [87] for general requirements, EN ISO
17225-2 [88] for graded wood pellets for industrial and nonindustrial
use and EN ISO 17225-6 [89] for graded non-woody pellets. EN ISO
17225 series has replaced EN 14961 to become the national standard in
Europe.
3. Physical and mechanical properties of pellets
3.1. Pellet size (diameter and length)
The diameter and length of produced pellets are standardized which
made it easy to choose the feeding and furnace facilities. As stated by
EN ISO 17225-2 [88], the length of produced pellets is set to be no more
than 40 mm. After the production of pellets and during the storage
period, pellets can dry up and expand [44]. The expansion ratio (ER)
could be calculated based on the dimensions of pellets that measured
immediately and after several days of production according to the fol-
lowing formula in Eq. (1) [45]:
Df D0 Lf L0
ER = /
D0 L0 (1)
where: Df is the final diameter of the pellet after several days (mm), Do
is the initial diameter of the pellet measured immediately after extru-
sion (mm), Lf is the final length of the pellet after several days (mm),
and Lo is the initial length of the pellet measured immediately after
production (mm).
3.2. Single and bulk densities of produced pellets
The bulk density of produced pellets depends on the pore volume
and pellet density and it can be calculated by dividing the mass of the
bulk materials by the volume of the container according to the standard
EN ISO 17828 [90] which replaced the old one EN 15103 [91]. Bulk
density can be roughly estimated be by dividing the particle density by
two. ISO standards for solid biofuels set down 600 kg/m³ as a minimum
value for bulk density of the produced pellets. The particle pellet den-
sity is defined as the mass of a pellet divided by its volume. This density
is determined based on the standard EN ISO 18847 [92] that replaced
the old standard CEN/TS 15150 [93]. According to European guide-
lines, Emadi et al. [94] stated that the accepted standard range of a
single pellet’s density is 1000–1400 kg/m3.
M.E. Mostafa, et al.
Fig. 1. Set up, schematic diagram of the pelletization process and hardness test of biomass pellet: (a) compression testing machine; (b) piston cylinder unit; and (c)
recorded force-displacement curve; (d) diametrical compression of the pellet and (e) breaking force versus displacement (i.e. load-deformation curve).
3.3. Moisture content of pellets
The moisture content of pellets could be analyzed based on the ISO
18134–1 standard which limited its value to be less than 10% [95]. In
most studies, researchers focused on the moisture uptake of the pellet
[36,43,67]. Moisture uptake is considered an important parameter be-
cause it affects the moisture content of the pellet over time especially
pellets are stored before being used for energy production. Moisture
uptake of is measured by placing pellets in a humidity chamber set at
30 °C and 90% relative humidity for five hours. At the first hour, the
weight of the sample is measured every 10 min followed by every
30 min for the next four hours. The kinetic of moisture sorption is
calculated according to Eq. (2).
M Me
=e kt
Mi Me
where M is the instantaneous moisture content (%), Me is the equili-
brium moisture content that can be estimated after exposing the pellets
in the humidity chamber over 48 h (%), Mi is the initial moisture con-
tent (%), k is the absorption constant (min−1) and t is the exposure time
(min).
3.4. Durability
Mechanical durability (abrasive resistance) is defined as the ability
of pellets to remain intact during handling. High mechanical stresses
that lead to pellet failure are created from pumping, transport snails
and conveyor belts. High durability means high quality pellets [10,37].
Low durability leads to high amount of fines which change the bulk
density of the pellets, increase the losses during transport and storage
and make disturbances within the pellet feeding systems. Durability is
determined according to the standard EN ISO 17831-1 [96] which re-
placed the standard EN 15210-1 [97]. According to ISO 17225-1 [87]
for general requirements of solid biofuels, the minimum value of dur-
ability was set to be 97.5%.
Simulating the mechanical stresses that applied on the pellets from
different sources is the best way to study the durability of produced
pellets. These mechanical stresses were created either by Ligno Tester
[98] or by rotational movement as recommended by ISO 17831–1 [96].
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 105 (2019) 332–348
The pressurized air method (Holmen tester or Ligno Tester) simu-
lates the mechanical stress that result when pumping the pellets from a
truck using about 100 gm of pellets [98]. In the rotational movement
(tumbling can tester), about 500 gm initial mass of the hand sieved
pellets are tested in rotating chamber. The mechanical durability from
the two methods could be determined using the formulae presented in
Eq. (3).
mf
Durability = ×100
mi (3)
where: mi is the initial mass of pre-sieved pellets before the handling
process (gm) and mf is the remaining pellets mass after the handling
process (gm).
For studies that produce pellets using single pelletization unit, it is
(2) hard to apply these methods to perform the durability test due to the
relatively huge number of pellets required. Therefore, other researchers
conducted the durability test by sieving a randomly selected number of
produced pellets in a sieve with relatively big screen size (i.e. 3 mm
wire screen) for a period of time (~ 10–30 min) [49,99]. The durability
was calculated by weighting the pellets before and after vibrating
process using the same formulae of the previous methods (see Eq. (3)).
3.5. Hardness
The pellet hardness (compression strength) is defined as the max-
imum crushing force a pellet can withstand before breaking when it is
subjected to a diametrical compression force between two horizontal
metal plates as illustrated in Fig. 1d. The hardness is one of the most
essential characteristics of commercial pellets that must be taken in
consideration as it affects the mechanical strength of a single pellet and
efficiency of storage and feeding processes [6,14]. Hardness test si-
mulates the compressive stress of pellets on each other during crushing
in a screw conveyor and storage as a result of the weight of the pellets
on the top [14].
Some researchers analyzed the Meyer hardness (HM ) of a pellet by
placing it horizontally on a steel plate and subjecting it to a diametrical
compressive force at low speed (nearly 2–6 mm/min) until breakage as
shown in Fig. 1d and e [1,6,36,67,72,99]. Meyer hardness (HM ) is de-
fined as the applied force divided by the projected area as illustrated in
334
M.E. Mostafa, et al.
Eq. (4) [6,36,67]:
F
HM =
(Dh h2 ) (4)
where: h is the indentation depth (mm), F is the maximum force at
which the pellet is broken (N) and D is the diameter of the pellet (mm).
According to Fell & Newton [100], the compression strength ( t ) can
be used to represent the hardness of the pellet as shown in Eq. (5)
[15,25,77,101,102].
2F
t =
(5)
DL
where: t is the compressive strength (MPa), F is the maximum force at
which when the pellet is broken (N), D is the diameter of the pellet
(mm) and L is the length of the pellet (mm).
Some researchers expressed the hardness of the pellets by dividing
the maximum breaking force by the pellet length [46], while others just
judged the hardness of the pellets by recording the maximum force at
which the pellet break [37,40]. Generally, no limits were established
for hardness in pellets standards. According to the literature, the
hardness value of different biomass materials reached 25 kgf and the
ideal value that ensures high-quality pellets was found to be 22 kgf
[37,40,103,104].
3.6. Energy consumption
Applied energy mainly used to compress the biomass material and
overcome the friction between the material and the cylinder. Therefore,
the energy consumption is defined as the work done by the force during
the pelletizing process. During the compression and ejection of the
pellet, the force-displacement data were recorded by the control pro-
gram that connected to the compression machine as shown in Fig. 1c.
The energy consumption in case of production (Ec, p ) and ejection (Ec, e )
of the pellets could be obtained by integrating the force-displacement
curve as shown in Eq. (6).
x components of inherent or added binders which affects the self-bonding
Ec =
0
F (x ) dx (6)
4. Effect of different parameters on the characteristic properties of
pellets
The quality and characteristics of produced pellets are determined
based on different operating conditions as pressure, temperature,
moisture content, binder material and particle size. Although the sus-
tainability of the energy from biomass pellets depends mainly on the
quantity of the valid sources of feedstocks as claimed by most re-
searchers, the operating conditions of the pelletization process are
considered the spine of the sustainability. If these parameters were
adapted correctly with different biomass materials, high quality pellets
with good combustion characteristics would be produced which could
be considered a great economic and environmental gain. Table 1
summarizes the factors influencing the physical, mechanical and che-
mical properties of different biomass pellets under different operating
conditions.
4.1. Effect of applied pressure
Physical and mechanical properties of pellets are strongly affected
by the applied pressure [10,14,74,82]. Any biomass material contains
natural binders as lignin, starch, protein and water soluble carbohy-
drate [10,17,36,48]. These binders are strongly affected by the applied
pressure during pelletization process. As pressure increases, solid
bridges, hydrogen bondings and van der Waals’ forces are formed be-
cause the binding components inside the material are squeezed
[6,17,105].
335
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 105 (2019) 332–348
4.1.1. Effect of applied pressure on the density of pellets
It was reported that applied pressure has a positive effect on the
pellet density [37,48,110–112]. The density of pellets increases with
increasing the pressure until reaching a certain value beyond which the
pressure has no longer an effect [113]. Through the literature, this
positive effect was emphasized by drawing the effect of pressure on the
pellet density for various materials at different operating conditions as
shown in Fig. 2. Jiang et al. [6] stated that the pellet density of mixed
sewage sludge with and Chinese fir (CFSP) and rice straw (RSSP) in-
creased with increasing the applied pressure above 55 MPa as shown in
Fig. 2. At high pressure and temperature, protein and lignin of the
materials squeezed out and the sludge particles diffused into the void
fractions of biomass particles which increased the density of the pellets.
Stelte et al. [76] showed that the density of beech and spruce straw
pellets increases greatly with increasing the compaction pressure as
clear in Fig. 2.
4.1.2. Effect of applied pressure on durability and hardness
The applied pressure during the pelletization process activates the
different binding mechanisms as the natural binders as starch, protein
and lignin in the material are pressed out and produced good inter-
particle bonding [10,46]. Durable and hard pellets are produced at high
pressures. The durability of pellets produced from maize residues in-
creased when the compaction pressure increased from 150 to 250 MPa
[45]. Carone et al. [48] found that there is no difference in the dur-
ability of olive pruning residues pellets when densification process
performed at a pressure between 70 and 175 MPa. Jiang et al. [6] stated
that the hardness of sewage sludge-biomass mixed pellets increased
with increasing the applied pressure.
4.2. Effect of die temperature
The quality of pellets is determined based on the temperature
reached during the pelletization process [74,81,82,116–118]. In-
creasing the temperature of die helps in softening and activating the
processes and the pellet quality [14,37,74].
4.2.1. Effect of die temperature on the dimension and density of pellets
A reduction in expansion ratio of the produced pellets is caused by
increasing the die temperature [37,48]. For maize residue, it was found
that the expansion of pellets at high temperatures (> 60 °C) is lower
than that at low temperatures at the same compaction pressure [45]. As
the die temperature influences the density of the pellets, it would
therefore, be interesting to discuss some experimental results on the
temperature and density relationship from previous studies as shown in
Fig. 3. High protein content in the component leads to high pellet
density at low pressure and high temperature as protein melts and flow
between the layers of biomass material acting as a binder during the
compression process [45,79]. After the produced pellets are left to cool
down, lignin is hardened and protein is re-associated which enhanced
the strength and density of pellets [48,72]. Jiang et al. [6] found that
the density of mixed pellets increased with increasing die temperature
in the range of 30–110 °C and then decreased with further increasing of
die temperature. At low die temperature (i.e. 30 °C), the lignin and
protein contained in raw material didn’t act as a binder. Thus, resulted
bonding forces were limited to short-range forces as hydrogen bridges,
van der Waals’ force, mechanical interlocking and free chemical bonds
which explain the low pellet density at low temperature [101]. On the
other hand, in some previous studies, the temperature was found to
have a negative effect on density of the pellets [37,119]. Further in-
creasing in die temperature resulted in lignocellulosic fibers plastici-
zation which lowered the modulus of elasticity of biomass particles and
made them more flexible. Therefore, empty spaces between and within
the particles were formed which reduced the density of pellets. At ex-
tremely high temperature (i.e. 130 or 150 °C), nearly all moisture had
 M.E. Mostafa, et al.

Table 1
Summary of pellets characteristics at various operating conditions for different biomass materials.
Ref. Biomass material Operating parameters Characteristics of produced pellets

P T M dp Dp Lp bulk pellet Mp Ash HHV Du Strength

(MPa) (oC) (%) (mm) (mm) (mm) (kg / m3 ) (kg / m3 ) (%) (%) (MJ/kg) (%)

[40] Olive leaves (OL) Pelletizer Kahl 14–175 ˃60 9.0 < 2.50 6 12.3 < 600 < 1000 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 19.64 88.6 13.3*
Olive prunings (OP) ˃60 9.0 2.50–4.00 6 24.0 ˃600 ˃1000 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 21.0–24.86*
Olive wood (OW) 40–60 9.0 4.00–5.00 6 28.7 ˃600 ˃1000 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 17.53 91.7 21.0–24.86*
[49] mixing moso bamboo with rice straw at ratio Laboratory pellet mill (L-175),
(5:0) ‫ــ‬ 16.0 < 2.00 6 13.8 540 1250 ‫ــ‬ 2.0 18.25 94.1 ‫ــ‬
(4:1) ‫ــ‬ 15.8 < 2.00 6 13.5 560 990 ‫ــ‬ 4.0 18.10 95.3 ‫ــ‬
(3:2) ‫ــ‬ 15.7 < 2.00 6 13.6 570 1000 ‫ــ‬ 6.0 17.5 97.5 ‫ــ‬
(2:3) ‫ــ‬ 15.6 < 2.00 6 13.8 600 1040 ‫ــ‬ 10.0 16.20 99.0 ‫ــ‬
(1:4) ‫ــ‬ 15.8 < 2.00 6 13.4 620 1050 ‫ــ‬ 13.0 16.00 98.7 ‫ــ‬
(0:5) ‫ــ‬ 15.9 < 2.00 6 13.2 635 1350 ‫ــ‬ 16.0 15.40 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬

336
[6,43] Chinese fir-SS (CFSP) ˃55.0 ˃70 10.0–15.0 < 0.45 7 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 1110 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 5.0***
Camphor-SS (CSP) ˃55.0 ˃70 10.0–15.0 < 0.45 7 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 1105 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 4.7***
Rice straw-SS (RSSP) ˃55.0 ˃70 10.0–15.0 < 0.45 7 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 1180 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 5.3***
[67] Softwood Douglas fir 126.0 ˃200 10.0 0.35–0.45 6 21.0 ‫ــ‬ 111 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 6.0*
[1] vigorous sugar maple 49–81.5 75–125 8.1–17.2 0.25–1.00 6 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 1026 2.1–11.9 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 4.03**
Non-vigorous sugar maple 49–81.5 75–125 8.1–17.2 0.25–1.00 6 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 1038 2.1–11.9 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 46.6**
[106] Mixed garden waste Flat pelletizer 80–90 5.0–35.0 6.25–25.4 12–15 31.1–45.1 ‫ــ‬ 409–1482 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 64.6–98.3 3.9–55.1*
[102] Treated wheat straw (TVm4D) ‫ــ‬ 95 ‫ــ‬ 1.00–1.6 6 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 969–1036 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 0.4–0.7***
[107] Corn cob Flat pelletizer 85 15.0–20.0 3.15 6 ‫ــ‬ 560–690 ‫ــ‬ 10.5–12.0 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 70.0–95.0 ‫ــ‬
[108] Corn stover with starch flour Flat pelletizer 50–65 15.0–19.0 2.00–8.00 6 ‫ــ‬ 548–720 ‫ــ‬ 11.0–16.0 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 88.0–98.8 ‫ــ‬
Corn cob with starch flour Flat pelletizer 50–65 15.0–19.0 2.00–8.00 6 ‫ــ‬ 510–644 ‫ــ‬ 8.0–15.0 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 77.9–99.2 ‫ــ‬
[109] Canola meal Bench-scale extruder ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 0.35 6 ‫ــ‬ 936 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 6.5 ‫ــ‬ >99.0 6.4*
Torrefied canola meal Bench-scale extruder ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 0.35 6 ‫ــ‬ 747 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 7.8 23.50 >99.0 3.8*
[79] microalgae 79.7–111.6 50–100 10.2 6 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 1192–1229 ‫ــ‬ 2.5 27.80 82.0–96.5 ‫ــ‬
Sawdust 79.7–111.6 50–100 9.9 0.58 6 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 817–1038 ‫ــ‬ 0.1 19.42 29.0–85.8 ‫ــ‬
25% sawdust+ 75 microalgae 79.7–111.6 50–100 ‫ــ‬ 6 ‫ــ‬ ‫ــ‬ 1155–1207 ‫ــ‬ 1.7 25.32 72.4–97.7 ‫ــ‬

* ** ***
Notes: dp the particle size of raw biomass material, Dp the pellet diameter, kgf, N/mm, MPa.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 105 (2019) 332–348
M.E. Mostafa, et al.
Fig. 2. Effect of compaction pressure on the pellet density for different biomass
materials (produced from data in [43,45,76,114,115]).
Fig. 3. Effect of die temperature on pellet density for different materials (pro-
duced from data in [1,43,45,79,120]).
evaporated, which left a negative impact on the quality and density of
the pellets. These findings are supported by Gilbert et al. [14] who
reported the similar result which showed that pellet density decreased
at 125 °C.
337
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 105 (2019) 332–348
Fig. 4. Effect of die temperature on the durability of pellets for different ma-
terials at different operating conditions (produced from data in
[38,45,79,120,124]).
4.2.2. Effect of die temperature on durability
When the die temperature exceeds the glass transition temperature
of the biomass material, wax and lignin move from the inside towards
the outside of the pellet. Wax coats the outside surface of the pellet
while lignin bonds to layers. Too high temperatures could dry the
biomass material leading to blockage of the materials inside the die and
reduction in the durability of the pellet [121]. Natural binding in-
gredients as lignin, hemicellulose, sugar, fat, protein and starch in
biomass materials could be activated at a temperature ranging from 75
to 150 °C [122]. Starch, protein, and lipids binding are caused by the
effect of gelatinization of starch at higher temperature 100–200 °C [45].
Different biomass materials have different values of glass transition
temperature [45,123]. With increasing the die temperature, most re-
searchers found that the durability of produced pellets increases
[23,74] while others noticed a negative effect on the durability
[119,120]. These two effects are summarized in Fig. 4 based on the data
collected from previous studies for various materials. The durability of
maize residues pellets increased when the pelletization temperature
increased from room temperature to 80 °C [45]. The durability of pure
microalgae and mixed microalgae with sawdust increased with in-
creasing the temperature because the protein denaturation and starch
gelatinization of microalgae material acted as a binder during pelleti-
zation [79]. Besides the positive effect of the temperature on the dur-
ability of pistachio pellets, Ramezanzade and Ghazanfari Moghaddam
[120] noticed high durability values of the pellets that heated at higher
moisture levels (i.e. 12%) due to the liberation of the lignin and resins
that formed strong bonds between the particles when contacted with
the moisture. The negative effect of the temperature on the durability
was noticed by Ishii and Furuichi [38] who noted that the durability of
rice straw pellets decreases with increasing the die temperature as
shown in Fig. 4. This phenomenon can be interpreted in light of the
plasticization of lignocellulosic fibers, low modulus of elasticity of
biomass particles and the formed voids between particles.
M.E. Mostafa, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 105 (2019) 332–348

Fig. 5. Effect of die temperature on the compression strength of different bio-

mass pellets produced at different conditions (produced from data in
[1,6,74,120,125]).

4.2.3. Effect of die temperature on hardness

At high temperatures, the binding mechanisms are activated which
results in pellets with high strength as illustrated in Fig. 5a for various
types of biomass materials [45,46]. Through the analysis of fracture
surface, Stelte et al. [104] reported that weak bonding appeared be-
tween adjacent particles in pellets at low temperature. Nguyen et al. [1]
ascribed the enhancement of the durability of least and most vigorous
trees pellets, as shown in Fig. 5a, to the presence of hot water ex-
tractives as simple sugars and starches that plasticized and acted as a
binder in the presence of heat and moisture. The increased strength of
pistachio tree pruning pellets was attributed to the extracted resins and
lignin from the cells at elevated temperatures which bond the pellet
particles together with high forces [120]. Jiang et al. [6] stated that the
hardness of RSSP, CFSP and CSP pellets increased at low die tempera-
ture (up to 70 °C) and then decreased at high temperature levels (150
Fig. 6. Effect of pressure, temperature, and moisture content on the energy
°C) especially for RSSP as shown in Fig. 5b. At high temperature, the
consumption of pellets production (produced from data in [43]).
protein became brittle after excessive denaturation and straw materials
had chemical weak boundary layer caused by the wax in the straw
which lowered the compression strength of straw pellets (RSSP) com- elastic when the temperature of the material is lower than the glass
pared to wood pellets (CFSP and CSP) [104]. The compression strength transition temperature and viscoelastic when this temperature becomes
of water hyacinth showed a positive increased at the temperature range near or higher than the glass transition temperature [44]. The con-
of 80–100 °C due to the plastic deformation of biomass material that sumed energy decreases with increasing the die temperature due to the
enhanced the permeant bonding between particles. At high levels of improvement of the plasticity of particles that resulted from the acti-
temperature (>100 °C), charred and discolored water hyacinth pellets vation of lignin, protein and carbohydrate as shown in Fig. 6a [43,69].
were produced which reduced the strength again [125] as shown in Hosseinizand et al. [79] stated that the compression and extrusion
Fig. 5b. energy of mixed sawdust and microalgae pellets decreased with in-
creasing the temperature due to the enhancement of hydrogen bonding
and solid bridges between particles that resulted from gelatinized starch
4.2.4. Effect of die temperature and pressure on energy consumption
and the formation of amine, hydroxyl and carboxyl functional groups.
The temperature of the material affects positively the applied work.
The energy consumption increased with increasing compaction pres-
Lower work and compression pressure are required at high temperature
sure at the same die temperature as shown in Fig. 6b [43]. This effect
as a result of the thermal softening of fibers [43,44]. The reaction of the
could be changed if the pelletization process performed under the
biomass material with respect to the applied pressure is considered

338
M.E. Mostafa, et al.
interaction effect of different operating conditions as pressure, tem-
perature and moisture.
4.3. Effect of material characteristics
The type, chemical composition, moisture content and particle size
of biomass materials have an essential effect on the quality of produced
pellets [14,37,48,74,82]. Natural binding components as hemi-
celluloses, cellulose, lignin, starch, protein and water soluble carbo-
hydrate in biomass materials play an important role regarding to phy-
sical properties of produced pellets especially at high pressure and
temperature [6,36,43]. These natural binders are the main cause of
solid bridges which creates bonding between particles [17,43,49]. The
moisture content of the biomass material is considered to be the most
important factor that affects the quality of the pellets [105,125,126]. It
acts as a lubricant and binder in the pelleting process [6,43]. The water
content of any biomass material increases the contact area of the
particles which in turn makes water to be as a film type binder
with hydrogen bonding. Denaturation of proteins, gelatinization of
starch, thermal softening of biomass and recrystallization of carbohy-
drates change with increasing the temperature in the presence of
water [6,17]. The optimum amount of moisture content that re-
commended for high quality pellets from woody and biomass materials
at different conditions were found to be in the range of 5–28%
[1,10,37,38,46,48,69,70,76,105,119,125]. Hydrogen bonds and van
der Walls’ forces are the most common inter-molecular attractive forces
that produced during densification. Van der Walls’ forces are strongly
affected by the particle size of the biomass material as its value decrease
with increasing particle size [7].
4.3.1. Effect on the dimension and density of pellets
Increasing the moisture of the biomass material can make particles
agglomerate better, which in turn provides long pellets [37,48,70].
After storing the produced pellets at 4 °C for two weeks, Jiang et al. [6]
observed a big difference in the resulted expansion ratio when different
materials were used. They found that the expansion ratio of RSSP pel-
lets was lower than that noticed for the CSP and CFSP pellets. This
result was regarded to the low lignin glass transition temperature of rice
straw material compared to Chinese fir and camphor [127]. Lower
volume expansion was noticed for biomass-sludge mixed pellets when
compared with the expansion of pure biomass pellets which indicated
that the compression deformation of the particles was not entirely
plastic [36].
Obidziński et al. [128] found that the highest pellet density could be
obtained when potato pulp added to the buckwheat hulls material with
a percent of 10%. The bulk density of Moso bamboo pellets increased
when mixed with rice straw and pine [26,49]. Higher pellet density was
obtained when the sewage sludge material mixed with rice straw
(RSSP) compared to that obtained when it was mixed with Chinese fir
(CFSP) and camphor (CSP) as shown in Fig. 7a [6]. These results can be
ascribed to the presence of the silica in the rice straw and sewage sludge
[101]. The density of CFSP pellets exceeded that of CSP pellets because
the softwood Chinese fir particles are composed of thin strips that can
form more structural gaps in which sewage sludge particles were settled
and formed more compact structure, while camphor particles are like
square block and have high content of cellulose and hemicellulose that
weakened the bonds between the particles due to their elasticity and
stiffness. Returning to Fig. 2, Mani et al. [115] reported that the pellet
density of corn stover showed high values at low compaction pressures
compared to wheat and barley straws and switchgrass pellets due to the
high protein content in the corn stover material that melted at high
temperature and acted as a binder during pelletization. The density of
spruce sawdust pellet is higher than that of birch due to the high con-
tent of extractives on birch material which formed a weak boundary
layer and blocked the sites of hydrogen bonding [46]. Regarding the
effect of particle size, high-density pellets are produced from fine
339
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 105 (2019) 332–348
materials due to filling the empty spaces by small particles and greater
surface area resulted from finely ground materials [6,10,48]. Thus, the
absorption of heat and moisture was facilitated due to the resulted great
surface area which in turn activates the binding properties of chemical
components. Pellet density of milled material was found to be higher
than that of large chopped particles [129].
The moisture content of the biomass material has a significant effect
on the density of the produced pellets [111]. Generally, density in-
creases with increasing the moisture content until reaches a maximum
value and then decreases with further increasing of moisture
[23,37,44,130]. Until reaching the optimum moisture content, the
water content fills the pore space between particles and contributes in
increasing the mass of the pellet which in turn increases its density
[46]. Beyond the optimum value of moisture content, the extra water
occupies the volume of the material and increases the volume expan-
sion and resistance to compression, which decreases the density
[106,130]. Higher moisture content may stick in the particles and
prevent releasing of natural binders due to the incompressibility of
water [10]. Fig. 7 shows the effect of raw moisture content on the
density of pellets for various types of biomass materials. In Fig. 7a, it is
clear that the optimum value of moisture content corresponding to the
maximum pellet density changes when different materials are used
under different conditions. Jiang et al. [6] and Li et al. [43] noted that
10–15% moisture content was the optimum value to produce high
quality RSSP, CFSP and CSP pellets with high density. The pellet density
of fescue, alfalfa, sorghum, triticale, miscanthus and willow pellets
decreased when the moisture content increased beyond an optimum
value of 10% due to the increase in the molecular mobility of lignin and
hemicelluloses and other extractives [12]. At higher moisture contents
of canola, wheat, barley and oat straw, the density of produced pellets
increased [111]. Some studies reported that with increasing the
moisture content of the biomass material the density increases con-
tinuously, while others reported a reverse effect showing that the
density decreases as shown in Fig. 7b and c. These results could be
ascribed to performing the pelletizing experiments using an amount of
moisture content lower or higher than the recommended optimum
value for these materials under specific operating conditions.
4.3.2. Effect on the moisture content of pellets
Jiang et al. [36] found that the absorption rate (k) of pure biomass
pellet was higher than that of the biomass-sludge mixed pellet due to
the hydroxyl groups of hemicelluloses in biomass materials. For mixed
pellets, sewage sludge replaced the lignocelluloses and its fat squeezed
out and coated the surface of mixed pellets which in turn slowed down
the moisture absorption rate. Compared to woody biomass materials,
the equilibrium moisture content of rice straw pellets was found to be
higher [36] due to the lower content of hydrophobic lignin and higher
content of hydrophilic hemicelluloses in rice straw [131,132]. On other
hands, the presence of waxes in straw diffused to the pellet surface the
lowered the absorption rate which in turn resisted the moisture ab-
sorption [104]. At high moisture levels, the die cooled down and pre-
vented further evaporation which led to a high moisture content of
poplar and pine mixed pellets [57].
4.3.3. Effect on durability
At high temperature and pressure, the ingredients of the raw ma-
terial are melted, molecular diffusion is enhanced and solid bridges are
formed after cooling due to the solidification of the melted ingredients
[44,135]. The durability of bamboo and barley straw increased when
rice straw and sawdust were added to the two materials, respectively
[49,70]. The durability of pellets was improved at lower values of lignin
content of the biomass material due to the adhesion forces between the
crystallites that resulted from noncrystalline wood polymers [10].
Comparing with woody materials, lower durability values were ob-
tained when herbaceous materials were used for producing pellets due
to their lower lignin and higher extracts content that formed a weak
M.E. Mostafa, et al.
Fig. 7. Effect of moisture content of different biomass materials on the density
of produced pellet (produced from data in [1,43,46,105,107,108,111,124,
125,133,134]).
boundary layer and decreased the friction with the die channel [47].
Cheng et al. [136] observed that the lignite pellets broke up into a
powder after abrasive resistance testing compared to wheat straw pel-
lets that maintained a flaky structure. They attributed this result to the
composition of wheat straw that mainly consists of cellulose, hemi-
cellulose and lignin, which collapsed together and formed a mechanical
lock that resisted the destructive forces. Different studies claimed that
the lower particle size of biomass material had a great effect on en-
hancing the durability of the produced pellets [10,47,48] for to the
same reasons discussed previously in (Section 4.3.1) for the density.
Several researchers found that the durability of pellets increases
significantly with increasing the moisture of biomass material due to
the film-type binder effect of water that promoted the bonds between
individual particles via Van der Walls’ forces [23,37,124]. However,
other researchers [10,70,106,130,137] confirmed this result, they
stated that the durability increases with increasing moisture content
340
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 105 (2019) 332–348
until reaching its maximum value and then decreases with further
moisture increase. They attributed this claim to the swelling and dis-
integration of the pellets that caused by biphasic mixture (liquid and
solid) which caused the inter-particle forces to disappear entirely. The
durability of garden waste pellets decreased when the moisture content
increased from 25% to 35% due to the formation of surface cracks that
resulted from the reduction in cohesive forces [106]. Ghasemi et al.
[137] also stated that the reduction of the durability after reaching the
optimum amount of moisture content of feedstock could be attributed
to the incompressibility of the mixture that resulted from filling the
voids in the saturated mixture with water that acted as a lubricant film
and prevented the compression. From literature, different studies pre-
sented several claims regarding the effect of moisture content on the
durability of pellets. Some researchers claimed that no effect of the
moisture [49,138] and others stated that the durability increase with
increasing the moisture [15,70]. This contradiction resulted from the
effect of the material used and other conditions applied in different
studies as heat and compaction pressure [15]. The presence of cracks on
the surface of pellets, increases the susceptibility of pellet breakage
which in turn affects negatively on the durability of the pellet [10].
Aragón-Garita et al. [139] explored fewer cracks on the surface of the
pellets that produced at high moisture content compared with that
produced at low moisture levels because the moisture strengthened the
bonds between particles and decreasing its amount reduced the capil-
lary force that maintains the structure of the pellet which in turn leaved
cracks.
4.3.4. Effect on hardness
It was noted that the hardness of the produced pellets improved
with increasing the sewage sludge ratio in the mixture due to the sy-
nergistic effect of protein in the sludge and lignin in the biomass ma-
terials that covered the particles of the pellets that improved the
bonding and solid bridge between particles [6,17,36]. From SEM
graphs, clear gaps and spaces were identified for pellets produced at
20% sludge compared to that produced at 80% sludge which enhanced
the relative movement of particles and reduced the resistance of the
pellet to deformation leading to lower hardness [72]. The presence of
more cross-links in softwood lignin that caused by the absence of
methoxy groups increased its glass transition temperature and hardness
compared to hardwood material [6,127]. The strength of least vigorous
trees pellets weas higher than that of most vigorous trees pellets due to
the high amount of lignin and proteins entrained in least vigorous trees
that softened at all temperature levels and formed strong solid bridges
(See Fig. 5a) [1]. The compression strength of wood and canary grass
pellets were found to be higher than that of wheat straw and birch
pellets due to the high amount of extractives (waxes) that concentred
on the straw and birch surface that worked against the hydrogen
bonding and prevented the binding between particles [46,104]. Com-
pared to canola hull, canola meal pellets showed higher strength due to
the binding effects that resulted from the denaturation of protein during
the pelletization process [109]. Decreasing the particle size of material
improves the compressive strength of the pellets due to the enhance-
ment of natural binders flow as lignin and protein and mechanical in-
terlocking between fibers and particles [77,140]. The hardness of the
pellets increases with increasing the moisture content until reaching the
optimum value of moisture then decreases as shown in Fig. 8. The
porosity of produced pellets decreases with increasing the moisture
content of the biomass material. Therefore, a larger bonding area cre-
ated, which led to pellet with high strength [46]. The strength of the
pellets decreases at higher moisture content due to the plasticization of
the polymer and the formation of a thick water layer on the surface
[141]. Lisowski et al. [142] found that the strength of biomass pellets
decreased at high moisture content (>20%) due to the inability of fi-
brous biomass to absorb the moisture. Therefore, the water accumu-
lated on the surface of the particles causing extra particle-to particle
lubrication.
M.E. Mostafa, et al.
Fig. 8. Effect of raw material moisture content on the compression strength of
pellets (produced from data in [1,6,46,74,120,125]).
4.3.5. Effect of on energy consumption
The higher cellulose and hemicellulose content of the biomass ma-
terials contributes in increasing the plasticity of the samples which
lowers the energy consumed during the pelletizing process [43]. The
grass biomass materials as rice straw needs less energy compared to
woody materials due to the visco-elastic components (hemicelluloses)
of rice straw which provided viscous effect among lignin and cellulose,
reduced the elasticity and increased the plasticity of particles
[36,67,143]. Increasing the ratio of sawdust in the mixture of pine
sawdust and microalgae increased the total consumed compression
energy due to the fibrous structure of sawdust particles that enhanced
the friction between biomass particles and wall [79]. The lower com-
pression energy was observed in the case of blends containing micro-
algae due to the enhancement of the pellets' movement that resulted
from the lubricant effect of the oil squeezed out from the microalgae
cells during densification.
Jiang et al. [36] also found that more energy was needed for making
pellets from pure biomass materials compared with that of biomass-
sludge mixed pellets because the synergistic effect of protein in sludge
decreased the modulus of elasticity and increased the plasticity of the
mixture during pelletization. The power consumption for the pelleti-
zation process decreased when the content of potato pulp and rapeseed
cake increased in the mixture that combines these materials with
buckwheat hulls and sawdust, respectively [53,128]. Li et al. [43]
found that the consumed energy decreased when the moisture in-
creased in the range from 5% to 20%, as shown in Fig. 6c, due to the
lubrication and adhesive action effects between particles that resulted
from the added water. They found that the energy consumption raised
again when the moisture content increased to reach 25% because extra
amount of water caused the carbohydrate and protein to be squeezed
341
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 105 (2019) 332–348
out of the material that increased the viscosity between the pellet and
the inner surface of the die resulting in a reduction in the relative
motion between particles.
5. Interaction effect between operating parameters
It is clear that all operating parameters have different effects on
both the physical and mechanical characteristics of produced pellets.
Different values of pellet characteristics were obtained at nearly the
same range of operating parameters due to the variations on the values
of other fixed conditions. So, judging the effect of individual operating
parameters on the quality and characteristics of produced pellets by
fixing the other conditions can’t express the actual effect of this para-
meter. Therefore, some researchers investigated this interaction effect
by producing pellets at different controllable operating parameters
[1,37,44,46,48,70,102,105,119]. The operating conditions as pressure
(P), temperature (T), moisture (M), particle size (S), die diameter (D),
binder (B), storage time of raw material (tst ), steam treatment (sttr ), and
holding time (H) are considered the independent variables, while the
characteristics of pellets as length (Lp ), diameter (Dp ), pellet density
( p ), bulk density ( b ), moisture (Mp ), durability (DU), percent fines (F),
hardness (H), compression strength ( c ), tensile strength ( t ), modulus
of elasticity (E) and friction (F) are considered the dependent variable.
They proposed different models, as summarized in Table 2, to describe
the effect of these independent variables as shown in Eq. (7).
n n n n
Y = bo + bi x i + bii x i2 + bij x i xj
i=1 i=1 i=1 j=1 (7)
where, Y is the dependent variable, x i and x j are the independent
variables, bo is the intercept coefficient, bi , bii , and bij are the linear,
quadratic, and interaction terms, respectively and n is the number of
independent variables.
6. Effect of binders
Lower content of lignin, proteins and starches within the lig-
nocellulose matrix may require adding additional binders to improve
the quality of the produced pellets by making strong inter-particle
bonding [37,67]. Attention must be paid to binder selection especially
its cost and environmental impact [32,144,145]. The most common
types of additives for pellets production are organic and inorganic ad-
ditives [21]. Organic additives are the primary products of forestry and
agricultural biomass as for instance maize starch, shredded maize,
cocoa shells, corn flour, potato flour and vegetable oil. These binders
are considered to be a reasonable choice due to their availability and
low cost [32]. Different types of organic binders as starch, sodium si-
licates, latex, phenol formaldehyde, molasses lignin powder, rapeseed
flour, coffee meal, pine cones and bark were used by various re-
searchers [25,32,37,144,146–151]. According to standards for en-
ergetic pellets, 2% (w.t.%) or less are considered the best economically
amount for producing pellets with binder additives [10,37]. Inorganic
additives were handled in some studies [94,99,149,152]. Si et al. [99]
used carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) as a new additive solution due to
its cost-effective and friendly environmental impact when used in low
proportions (< 5%).
Most binder materials that used previously were found to reduce the
energy consumption and increase the density, strength and durability of
the produced pellets as shown in Figs. 9 and 10 [5,25,32,37,99,
146,148,150–155]. This result was attributed to the behaviour of the
used additives under different conditions. Some reasons are related to;
the low particle sized of bentonite and lignosulfonate binders that filled
in the voids and formed films around biomass particles which resulted
in particle bonding [25], the high tensile strength of low density
polyethylene (LLDPE) binder that created a strong mechanical inter-
locking of the biomass particles [92], the agglomeration and
M.E. Mostafa, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 105 (2019) 332–348

Table 2
Regression equation models for characteristics of biomass pellets produced from materials.
Ref. P T M D S B
(MPa) ( ) (%) (mm) (mm) (%)

[37] – <50 and >50 12–17 6 and 8 <4 0–2

Rice straw with starch binder pellets
DU = 88.17+13.52M+4.61M2 +11.07S +3.74B2 +3.81T -3.89D2 -6.66MB
H = 20.55+0.93M +0.54M2 +1.37B -0.98MB
b = 639.53+49.87M2 +62.79S +32.33B2 +76.37D -32.63D2
p = 1195.2+102.53BD
Mp = 12.5+3.5M -0.61M2 +1.08S -0.59T -1.02D +0.68MB -1.23MD +0.66 BD
Lp /Dp = 3.59-1.96D +0.76D2
[1] 0.48–0.81 75–125 8.1–17.2 6.25 0.25–1 –
Most vigorous trees pellets
p = 958+40T +93M +70P -36S +10T2 -53M2 -7P2 -16TM -5TP +5TS -10MP
F = 29.6-7.79T +-3.65M +3.47P -7.54S +2.03T2 -1.29M2 +0.73S2 +1.51TM +1.38TS -0.37MP +1.78MS -0.77PS
c = 25.8+12.7T +17.4M +10P -8.1S +2.2T -8.2M +3.3S -3.5TM -2.7TS -1.9MP -1.3PS
2 2 2

Least vigorous trees pellets

p = 992+24T +67M +67P -42S +11T2 -42M2 -8P2 +6S2 -12TM +6TS -10MP
F = 23.8-4.86T +3.58P -5.96S +1.2T2 -1.61M2 +0.72S2 +1.01TM +1.03TS -0.41MP +0.89MS -0.53PS
c = 28.3+15.6T +13.8M +10.4P -7.2S 2.2T -5.8M -0.9P +2.6S -4.9TM +0.9TP -3.6TS -1.8MP -1.3PS
2 2 2 2

[46] 200–400 25 and 80 2–8 12 0.25–0.5 –

Birch (Betula pendula) pellets
p = 869.507+1.433 T +0.418P +6.952M
c = -6.891+0.234T +0.006P +0.315M
Reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea) pellets
p = 954.992+1.215 T +0.377P +3.26M
c = -14.068+0.491T +0.036P +1.034M
Spruce (Picea abies) pellets
p = 979.268+1.607 T +0.333P +3.141M
c = -15.149+0.477T +0.019P +0.825M
[105] – – 8.4–13.1 – – –
Pine sawdust pellets
p = 660-99.4M +32.9tst -11.5Sttr +16MSttr -17.2M2 -23tst 2
DU = 94.7-5.5M +8.6tst +1.2Sttr +7.5MSttr -1.3tst Sttr -6.1M2 -5.1tst 2
F = 0.78+0.71M -2.25tst -0.25Sttr +1.13M2 +1.8tst 2
[44] 139.3 and 159.2 60 and 70 8 and 10 8 0.15–0.3 –
Hardwood pellets
Lp = 31.8-1.25M -0.16T -0.326P -0.011H +0.015MT
Softwood pellets
Lp = 21.8-0.479M -0.023T -0.123P -0.005H
139.3 and 159.2 60 and 70 8 and 10 8 0.3–0.425 –
Hardwood pellets
Lp = 40.2-2.19M +0.201T -1.15P -0.009H +0.019MT +0.101MP
Softwood pellets
Lp = 20.1-0.372M -0.016T -0.014H -0.002MH
[48] 71–176 60–150 5–20 6 1–4 –
Olive tree pruning residues pellets
p = 0.31+0.11P +0.62T -0.52M -0.19S -0.09PT -0.04P2 +0.14T2 -0.28M2 -0.14S2 -0.09PM-0.08TM +0.13TS -0.1MS +0.08PTM+0.05TMS +0.02PTMS
E = 0.06P +0.72T -0.58M -0.16S +0.16T2 -0.09M2 -0.08S2 -0.06PM-0.25TM +0.07MS +0.07TMS
[120] – 50–100 8–16 10 1–3 –
Pruning residues of pistachio trees pellets
DU = 1.54+1.126T -0.02S +7.291M -0.0041T2 -1.779S2 -0.1982M2 +0.0127TS -0.0304TM +0.3375M
F = 41.59-0.4277T -4.933S -1.8875M +0.00177T2 +0.7917S2 +0.03802M2 +0.01267TS +0.00717TM +0.0417SM
p = 427.1+4.21T -S +69.32M +0.0091T2 +8.35S2 -1.517M2 -0.514TS -0.283TM -3.171SM
c = -161.48+1.721T -33.33S +14.53M -0.0067T2 -7.075S2 -0.4964M2 -0.0647TS -0.0223TM -0.129SM

recrystallization by molasses and molasses/lime binders that formed
solid bridge [156], the electrostatic forces between the particles that
resulted from adding GMC which led to the formation of strong bonds
and polyelectrolytes [97], the higher viscosity of crude Glycerol and
persea kurzii kosterm powder that resulted in forming films around the
biomass particles during pellza/etization which caused a stronger par-
ticle bonding [151], the adhesive properties of lignin in lignin powder
and coffee meal and protein in rapeseed flour that plasticized during the
pelletization process and acted as a binder between biomass particles
[32,146,150,152] and the high viscosity of coal tar residue (CTR) that
adsorbed on the surface of biomass particles and formed strong che-
mical bonds between adjacent particles similar to solid bridges [136].
Using oil cake and maize starch as binders reduced the energy con-
sumption during pelletization due to the enhanced plasticity of the
biomass material that resulted from the starch and the reduction of the
friction between particles that resulted from the lubricating ability of
these additives [148,153].
Si et al. [99] and Hu et al. [144] noticed that the energy consumed
for producing biomass and biochar pellets decreased with increasing
the amount of binder materials, as shown in Fig. 9, due to the ce-
mentation of the material particles. Using starch as binder material
wasn’t suitable for producing biochar pellets as it didn’t alter the
strength of the produced pellets as shown in Fig. 9b [144]. Si et al. [99]
noted that the strength and durability of rape straw pellets decreased

342
M.E. Mostafa, et al.
Fig. 9. Effect of the type and amount of binder material on the energy consumption and compressive strength of various biomass pellets (produced from data in
[99,144]).
while the energy consumption increased with increasing the CMC
content as illustrated in Figs. 9a and 10 a. Also, Ahn et al. [32] observed
the same phenomenon of durability reduction when bark and pine
cones were used as binders as shown in Fig. 10b. They attributed these
results to the presence of wax in the rape straw material that reduced
the adhesive and van der Waals forces between adjacent particles re-
sulting in low bonding effect and the low chemical reactivity of the
tannin entrained in bark and pine cones binders, besides their large
particle size and high moisture content.
7. Special conditioning technologies of raw materials
7.1. Steam explosion pre-treatment of raw materials
Sometimes, the natural chemical compounds of biomass materials
are not enough to contribute in generating the binding force between
particles during the pelletization process. In this situation, there are two
ways to be followed. The first one is to use natural and synthetic
binding agents as discussed in Section 6. The second solution can be
conducted by making an alteration of the physical/chemical structure
of biomass materials to free up the required chemical constituents. This
alteration is called steam explosion pre-treatment. Some researchers
named steam explosion process as wet torrefaction process in which the
biomass material is treated either in a steam chamber or in hot water
[67,157]. The structure of cellulose-hemicellulose-lignin matrix could
be modified by steam pre-treatment processes that enhance the natural
343
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 105 (2019) 332–348
binding properties of lignocellulosic biomass materials [78]. Also, new
chemical bonds are formed after steam explosion treatment due to the
change in the cellulosic structure and lignin activation [158].
A considerable amount of literature has been published from the
production of pellets from steam-exploded materials [67,143,159,160].
Researchers claimed that biomass pellets made from steam-exploded
materials are more dimensionally stable and less hygroscopic compared
to untreated. Different methods and conditions for performing steam
explosion treatment could be identified form previous studies
[67,78,143,161,162]. The breaking strength of steam-exploded pellets
increases due to the restructure of lignin that resulted from the thermal
degradation of hemicellulose [78,159,163]. Lam et al. [67] attributed
the higher hardness of the steam-exploded Douglas Fir pellets to the
additional bonding strength that caused by the formation of highly
branched polysaccharides by reverse reactions of monosugars during
pelletization. Extra steam explosion treatment prevents the close con-
tact between bonding sites of the lignocellulose particles, thus reduces
the pellet strength [163,164]. On the other hand, experimental results
revealed that extra steam treatment acts as lubricant and plasticizer
thereby reducing the energy required for making pellets [164].
Steam exploded pellets have a higher single pellet density than
untreated pellets. This is likely because the binding role of lignin and
sugars between particles was enhanced in case of pre-treated materials
[67,78,165]. This result also was attributed to the poor adhesion for
untreated pellets due to boundaries and gaps between individual par-
ticles and stacking of particles on each other after compression
M.E. Mostafa, et al.
Fig. 10. Effect of the type and amount of binder on the durability of produced pellets (a) inorganic binder and (b) organic binder (produced from data in
[32,99,146]).
[17,104]. The volumetric contraction of relaxed steam-exploded pellets
increased with increasing treatment severity due to the increased
compressibility of particles and the reduced internal stresses and spring
back effect that built during compression [67,78]. Different researchers
reported that the durability of pellets is improved by steam explosion
[67,78,157,161,166].
Lam et al. [67] revealed that the energy consumption of the treated
sample was higher than that of the untreated sample due to the lower
elastic compression of treated sample that caused by the broken cell
structures. Also, treating the biomass material with steam destroyed the
interfacial bonding between cellulose and lignin which acted as a vis-
coelastic interface between them. Thus, the steam exploded material
was brittle because the modulus of elasticity in the elastic region in-
creased [165]. They also claimed that the increase in compression en-
ergy consumption was due to the higher energy required to overcome
the friction between the rough steam-treated particles during the
packing before the compression stage [167]. In another study per-
formed by Lam et al. [161], it was noted that the energy consumption of
producing pellets was low in case of steam exploded material compared
to untreated material due to the smaller particle size of the steam ex-
ploded material particles, which made it easy to compress the material
into the most packed structure under applied force. The moisture
sorption rate of steam-exploded wood pellets was found to be slower
than of the untreated wood pellets [67,165,168].
7.2. Torrefaction
One of the most efficient methods for improving the properties of
biomass material is torrefaction [169–171]. Torrefaction is a pyrolysis
process that occurs at 200–300 °C in an inert atmosphere as nitrogen
[172–174]. Different characteristics of biomass materials are improved
by torrefaction.
Recently, different studies focused on the production of pellets from
torrefied biomass [71,153,155,175–179]. Although the characteristics
of torrefied pellets are better than conventional pellets, their strength
and durability are low which cause them to break and generate fine
344
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 105 (2019) 332–348
dust during handling resulting in explosion risk [72,109,175,178].
These problems were resolved by adopting different torrefaction and
pelletization conditions [169,170]. Some researchers improved the
durability and density of and reduced the energy consumption of tor-
refied pellets by adding glycerol and bean cake (CAS) as binders and
treating the materials at different torrefaction temperature [153,178].
Although the energy consumption increased and strength of the pellets
decreased with increasing the degree of torrefaction, this effect was
inversed by adding CAS as a binder material. Azargohar et al. [109]
found that the mechanical strength torrefied canola meal pellets in-
creased significantly with adding alkali lignin as a binder material. As
the consumed energy for torrefaction depends on the moisture content
of the material, pre-drying samples before torrefaction is considered a
necessary step. As drying is an energy consuming processes, the torre-
faction of wet materials is considered impractical. Hydrothermal car-
bonization (HTC) in a newly developed technique that improves the
densification characterization of wet biomass materials without using
binder additives [180]. Ghiasi et al. [176] proposed a new efficient
scheme for producing torrefied pellets by making torrefaction sub-
sequent to pelletization.
8. Evaluation and future work of biomass pellets
8.1. Environmental, policy and techno-economic analysis
Biomass pelletization technology showed various benefits regarding
the environmental protection due to the low levels of emissions com-
paring with coal and fossil fuels. As known, there are many countries
that are vigorously polluted as a result of depending on the coal-fired
plants, as China and India for example, although they possess a huge
amount of agricultural and forest residues. The situation is more ter-
rible for the countries that rely on importing coal or gas due to the high
cost. Thus, the development of densified solid biomass biofuel became a
must as they have the ability to minimize the total cost of energy
production, reduce the greenhouse effect, protect the environment ef-
fectively and has broad development prospects. Actually, the price of
M.E. Mostafa, et al.
producing solid biofuel is to some extent high. Therefore, the energy
policy must be adjusted by the government to control and reduce the
price of solid biofuels. Form the economic and social view, the large-
scale production of solid biofuel will create employment opportunities,
increase the income and modernize the agricultural economy.
Developing an efficient biomass handling technology, improving the
agro-forestry systems and establishing biomass-based power plants can
play a major role in sustainable energy development. Despite the im-
portance of the economic and environmental impact as well as the
policy analysis of the densified biomass pellets, they were summarized
in a short section in the current study as they are far a little from the
attitude of the main topic. Thus, valuable articles [16,181–185] that
published recently and mainly focused in these topics are recommended
to be overviewed to gain more information.
8.2. Future prospects
As mentioned above in the introduction, many researchers in-
vestigated the performance of pellets under different operating condi-
tions and introduced model equations that relates them together.
Although the predicted model equations are significant, they aren’t
dimensionally homogenous and can’t be generalized to further use for
new materials or producing new shapes of pellets. Therefore, proposing
new significant empirical formulae that describe any property of the
pellet as a function of other properties is an essential issue for pellets
production improvement. This could be achieved by predicting func-
tional relationships between different physical and mechanical char-
acteristics of the pellets based on the regression analysis of the ex-
perimental data. Based on these relationships, dimensionless groups
could be obtained. The experimental data for different characteristics
could be used again for calculating the values of produced dimension-
less numbers to predict a suitable significant model that correlates them
together in meaningful empirical correlations.
9. Conclusions
The depletion of fossil fuels coupled with their environmental im-
pact have grabbed researchers to explore the potential biomass pellets.
A deeper review of previous work on physical and mechanical prop-
erties of pellets is introduced. As we can see that the main characteristic
parameters such as compression pressure, temperature, moisture con-
tent effect on pellets physical and mechanical properties either in the
positive or negative direction or has no effect under certain operating
conditions for some biomass materials. Also, this review showed that
the effect of biomass type, its composition, densification process, die
geometry, particle size, pellet size, etc. on the pellets properties and the
way they behave under testing conditions is obvious. It is shown up to
now that for the investigated pellets, the properties were to some extent
scattered, even for those pellets that from the same group of materials
due to the difference in origins and nature. Densification operation
variables as temperature, residence time and applying pressure, etc.
(process variables), moisture content and particle size (material vari-
ables), and cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, protein and lipid (biomass
fiber composition) have the greatest influence on binding character-
istics which in turn effect on the pellet mechanical properties. As shown
the densification characteristics of low lignin content biomass material
can be improved by pre-treating using steam conditioning, steam ex-
plosion, torrefaction, etc. Addition of the natural organic or non-or-
ganic additive is also a good way to improve the binding characteristics
of low lignin content biomass materials with reducing the specific en-
ergy during densification.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Strategic International Scientific
and Technological Innovation Cooperation Funds of National Key R&D
345
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 105 (2019) 332–348
Program of China (No. 2016YFE0204000), the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (NSFC) (Nos. 51576086，51576081). The authors
also acknowledge the extended help from the Analytical and Testing
Center of Huazhong University of Science and Technology.
References
[1] Nguyen QN, Cloutier A, Achim A, Stevanovic T. Effect of process parameters and
raw material characteristics on physical and mechanical properties of wood pellets
made from sugar maple particles. Biomass Bioenergy 2015;80:338–49.
[2] El-Sayed SA, Mostafa ME. Pyrolysis characteristics and kinetic parameters de-
termination of biomass fuel powders by differential thermal gravimetric analysis
(TGA/DTG). Energy Convers Manag 2014;85:165–72.
[3] Hossain MA, Jewaratnam J, Ganesan P, Sahu JN, Ramesh S, Poh SC. Microwave
pyrolysis of oil palm fiber (OPF) for hydrogen production: parametric investiga-
tion. Energy Convers Manag 2016;115:232–43.
[4] Mohanty P, Pant KK, Naik SN, Parikh J, Hornung A, Sahu JN. Synthesis of green
fuels from biogenic waste through thermochemical route – The role of hetero-
geneous catalyst: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;38:131–53.
[5] Chou C-S, Lin S-H, Peng C-C, Lu W-C. The optimum conditions for preparing solid
fuel briquette of rice straw by a piston-mold process using the Taguchi method.
Fuel Process Technol 2009;90:1041–6.
[6] Jiang L, Liang J, Yuan X, Li H, Li C, Xiao Z, et al. Co-pelletization of sewage sludge
and biomass: the density and hardness of pellet. Bioresour Technol
2014;166:435–43.
[7] Stelte W, Clemons C, Holm JK, Sanadi AR, Ahrenfeldt J, Shang L, et al. Pelletizing
properties of torrefied spruce. Biomass Bioenergy 2011;35:4690–8.
[8] Röder M, Whittaker C, Thornley P. How certain are greenhouse gas reductions
from bioenergy? Life cycle assessment and uncertainty analysis of wood pellet-to-
electricity supply chains from forest residues. Biomass Bioenergy 2015;79:50–63.
[9] Verma VK, Bram S, Ruyck D. Small scale biomass heating systems: standards,
quality labelling and market driving factors – an EU outlook. Biomass Bioenergy
2009;33:1393–402.
[10] Kaliyan N, Morey RV. Factors affecting strength and durability of densified bio-
mass products. Biomass Bioenergy 2009;33:337–59.
[11] Nunes LJR, Matias JCO, Catalão JPS. Mixed biomass pellets for thermal energy
production: a review of combustion models. Appl Energy 2014;127:135–40.
[12] Puig-Arnavat M, Shang L, Sárossy Z, Ahrenfeldt J, Henriksen UB. From a single
pellet press to a bench scale pellet mill - pelletizing six different biomass feed-
stocks. Fuel Process Technol 2016;142:27–33.
[13] Rentizelas AA, Tolis AJ, Tatsiopoulos IP. Logistics issues of biomass: the storage
problem and the multi-biomass supply chain. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2009;13:887–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2008.01.003.
[14] Gilbert P, Ryu C, Sharifi V, Swithenbank J. Effect of process parameters on pel-
letisation of herbaceous crops. Fuel 2009;88:1491–7.
[15] Stasiak M, Molenda M, Bańda M, Wiącek J, Parafiniuk P, Gondek E. Mechanical
and combustion properties of sawdust—straw pellets blended in different pro-
portions. Fuel Process Technol 2017;156:366–75.
[16] Zhou Y, Zhang Z, Zhang Y, Wang Y, Yu Y, Ji F, et al. A comprehensive review on
densified solid biofuel industry in China. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2016;54:1412–28.
[17] Kaliyan N, Morey RV. Natural binders and solid bridge type binding mechanisms
in briquettes and pellets made from corn stover and switchgrass. Bioresour
Technol 2010;101:1082–90.
[18] van der Stelt MJC, Gerhauser H, Kiel JHA, Ptasinski KJ. Biomass upgrading by
torrefaction for the production of biofuels: a review. Biomass Bioenergy
2011;35:3748–62.
[19] Miranda T, Arranza JI, Monteroa I, Román S, Rojas CV, Nogales S.
Characterization and combustion of olive pomace and forest residue pellets. Fuel
Process Technol 2012;103:91–6.
[20] Campbell JE, Lobell DB, Field CB. Greater transportation energy and GHG offsets
from bioelectricity than ethanol. Science (80-) 2009;324:1055–7.
[21] Obernberger I, Thek G. The pellet handbook: the production and thermal utiliza-
tion of biomass pellets. London - Washington DC: Earthscan Publishing; 2010.
[22] Samuelsson R, Thyrel M, Sjöström M, Lestander TA. Effect of biomaterial char-
acteristics on pelletizing properties and biofuel pellet quality. Fuel Process Technol
2009;90:1129–34.
[23] Larsson SH, Thyrel M, Geladi P, Lestander TA. High quality biofuel pellet pro-
duction from pre-compacted low density raw materials. Bioresour Technol
2008;99:7176–82.
[24] Lestander A, Finell T, Samuelsson M, Arshadi R, MikaelThyrel M. Industrial scale
biofuel pellet production from blends of unbarked softwood and hardwood
stems—the effects of raw material composition and moisture content on pellet
quality. Fuel Process Technol 2012;95:73–7.
[25] Lu D, Tabil LG, Wang D, Wang G, Emami S. Experimental trials to make wheat
straw pellets with wood residue and binders. Biomass Bioenergy 2014;69:287–96.
[26] Liu Z, Mi B, Jiang Z, Fei B, Cai Z, Liu X. Improved bulk density of bamboo pellets as
biomass for energy production. Renew Energy 2016;86:1–7.
[27] Crawford NC, Ray AE, Yancey NA, Nagle N. Evaluating the pelletization of “pure”
and blended lignocellulosic biomass feedstocks. Fuel Process Technol
2015;140:46–56.
[28] Tripathi M, Sahu JN, Ganesan P. Effect of process parameters on production of
biochar from biomass waste through pyrolysis: a review. Renew Sustain Energy
Rev 2016;55:467–81.
M.E. Mostafa, et al.
[29] Thangalazhy-Gopakumar S, Al-Nadheri WMA, Jegarajan D, Sahu JN, Mubarak
NM, Nizamuddin S. Utilization of palm oil sludge through pyrolysis for bio-oil and
bio-char production. Bioresour Technol 2015;178:65–9.
[30] Nizamuddin S, Mubarak NM, Tiripathi M, Jayakumar NS, Sahu JN, Ganesan P.
Chemical, dielectric and structural characterization of optimized hydrochar pro-
duced from hydrothermal carbonization of palm shell. Fuel 2016;163:88–97.
[31] Toscano G, Riva G, Foppa Pedretti E, Corinaldesi F, Mengarelli C, Duca D.
Investigation on wood pellet quality and relationship between ash content and the
most important chemical elements. Biomass Bioenergy 2013;56:317–22.
[32] Ahn BJ, Chang H, Lee SM, Choi DH, Cho ST, Han G, et al. Effect of binders on the
durability of wood pellets fabricated from Larix kaemferi C. and Liriodendron
tulipifera L. sawdust. Renew Energy 2014;62:18–23.
[33] Križan P, Matú M, Šooš Ľ, Beniak J. Behavior of beech sawdust during densifica-
tion into a solid biofuel. Energies 2015;8:6382–98.
[34] Sarker S, Bimbela F, Sánchez JL, Nielsen HK. Characterization and pilot scale
fluidized bed gasification of herbaceous biomass: a case study on alfalfa pellets.
Energy Convers Manag 2015;91:451–8.
[35] Forbes EGA, Easson DL, Lyons GA, McRoberts WC. Physico-chemical character-
istics of eight different biomass fuels and comparison of combustion and emission
results in a small scale multi-fuel boiler. Energy Convers Manag 2014;87:1162–9.
[36] Jiang L, Yuan X, Xiao Z, Liang J, Li H, Cao L, et al. A comparative study of biomass
pellet and biomass-sludge mixed pellet: energy input and pellet properties. Energy
Convers Manag 2016;126:509–15.
[37] Said N, Abdel Daiem MM, García-Maraver A, Zamorano M. Influence of densifi-
cation parameters on quality properties of rice straw pellets. Fuel Process Technol
2015;138:56–64.
[38] Ishii K, Furuichi T. Influence of moisture content, particle size and forming tem-
perature on productivity and quality of rice straw pellets. Waste Manag
2014;34:2621–6.
[39] Zhang Q, Zhang P, Pei Z, Wang D. Investigation on characteristics of corn stover
and sorghum stalk processed by ultrasonic vibration-assisted pelleting. Renew
Energy 2017;101:1075–86.
[40] Garcia-Maraver A, Rodriguez ML, Serrano-Bernardo F, Diaz LF, Zamorano M.
Factors affecting the quality of pellets made from residual biomass of olive trees.
Fuel Process Technol 2015;129:1–7.
[41] Razuan R, Finney KN, Chen Q, Sharifi VN, Swithenbank J. Pelletised fuel pro-
duction from palm kernel cake. Fuel Process Technol 2011;92:609–15.
[42] Kijo-Kleczkowska A, Środa K, Kosowska-Golachowska M, Musiał T, Wolski K.
Experimental research of sewage sludge with coal and biomass co-combustion, in
pellet form. Waste Manag 2016;53:165–81.
[43] Li H, Jiang LB, Li CZ, Liang J, Yuan XZ, Xiao ZH, et al. Co-pelletization of sewage
sludge and biomass: the energy input and properties of pellets. Fuel Process
Technol 2015;132:55–61.
[44] Dhamodaran A, Afzal MT. Compression and springback properties of hardwood
and softwood pellets. BioResources 2012;7:4362–76.
[45] Wongsiriamnuay T, Tippayawong N. Effect of densification parameters on the
properties of maize residue pellets. Biosyst Eng 2015;139:111–20.
[46] Huang Y, Finell M, Larsson S, Wang X, Zhang J, Wei R, et al. Biofuel pellets made
at low moisture content – influence of water in the binding mechanism of densified
biomass. Biomass Bioenergy 2017;98:8–14.
[47] Castellano JM, Gómez M, Fernández M, Esteban LS, Carrasco JE. Study on the
effects of raw materials composition and pelletization conditions on the quality
and properties of pellets obtained from different woody and non woody biomasses.
Fuel 2015;139:629–36.
[48] Carone MT, Pantaleo A, Pellerano A. Influence of process parameters and biomass
characteristics on the durability of pellets from the pruning residues of Olea
europaea L. Biomass Bioenergy 2011;35:402–10.
[49] Liu Z, Liu X, Fei B, Jiang Z, Cai Z, Yu Y. The properties of pellets from mixing
bamboo and rice straw. Renew Energy 2013;55:1–5.
[50] Obidziński S. Analysis of usability of potato pulp as solid fuel. Fuel Process Technol
2012;94:67–74.
[51] Elmay Y, Trouvé Gwenäelle, Jeguirim Mejdi, Said Rachid. Energy recovery of date
palm residues in a domestic pellet boiler. Fuel Process Technol 2013;112:12–8.
[52] Brlek T, Pezo L, Voća N, Krička T, Vukmirović Đ, Čolović R, et al. Chemometric
approach for assessing the quality of olive cake pellets. Fuel Process Technol
2013;116:250–6.
[53] Ståhl M, Berghel J. Energy efficient pilot-scale production of wood fuel pellets
made from a raw material mix including sawdust and rapeseed cake. Biomass
Bioenergy 2011;35:4849–54.
[54] Tsuchiya Y, Yoshida T. Pelletization of brown coal and rice bran in Indonesia:
characteristics of the mixture pellets including safety during transportation. Fuel
Process Technol 2017;156:68–71.
[55] Zeng T, Weller N, Pollex A, Lenz V. Blended biomass pellets as fuel for small scale
combustion appliances: influence on gaseous and total particulate matter emis-
sions and applicability of fuel indices. Fuel 2016;184:689–700.
[56] Gillespie GD, Farrelly DJ, Everard CD, Mcdonnell KP. The use of near infrared
hyperspectral imaging for the prediction of processing parameters associated with
the pelleting of biomass feedstocks. Fuel Process Technol 2016;152:343–9.
[57] Monedero E, Portero H, Lapuerta M. Pellet blends of poplar and pine sawdust:
Effects of material composition, additive, moisture content and compression die on
pellet quality. Fuel Process Technol 2015;132:15–23.
[58] Barbanera M, Lascaro E, Stanzione V, Esposito A, Altieri R, Bufacchi M.
Characterization of pellets from mixing olive pomace and olive tree pruning.
Renew Energy 2016;88:185–91.
[59] Biswas AK, Rudolfsson M, Broström M, Umeki K. Effect of pelletizing conditions on
combustion behaviour of single wood pellet. Appl Energy 2014;119:79–84.
346
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 105 (2019) 332–348
[60] Yilmaz E, Wzorek M, Akçay S. Co-pelletization of sewage sludge and agricultural
wastes. J Environ Manag 2018;216:169–75.
[61] Jiang LB, Yuan XZ, Li H, Chen XH, Xiao ZH, Liang J, et al. Co-pelletization of
sewage sludge and biomass: thermogravimetric analysis and ash deposits. Fuel
Process Technol 2016;145:109–15.
[62] Kosowska-golachowska M, Musiał T, Kijo-kleczkowska A, Katarzyna S, Wolski K.
Combustion of pelleted sewage sludge with reference to coal and biomass. Fuel
2016;170:141–60.
[63] Whittaker C, Shield I. Factors affecting wood, energy grass and straw pellet dur-
ability – A review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2017;71:1–11. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.rser.2016.12.119.
[64] Proskurina S, Alakangas E, Heinimö J, Mikkilä M, Vakkilainen E. A survey analysis
of the wood pellet industry in Finland: future perspectives. Energy
2017;118:692–704.
[65] Chen W, Peng J, Bi XT. A state-of-the-art review of biomass torrefaction, densifi-
cation and applications. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;44:847–66.
[66] Stelte W, Sanadi AR, Shang L, Holm JK, Ahrenfeldt J, Henriksen UB. Recent de-
velopments in biomass pelletization - a review. BioResources 2012;7:4451–90.
[67] Lam PS, Sokhansanj S, Bi X, Lim CJ, Melin S. Energy input and quality of pellets
made from steam-exploded douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii). Energy Fuels
2011;25:1521–8.
[68] Karkania V, Fanara E, Zabaniotou A. Review of sustainable biomass pellets pro-
duction - a study for agricultural residues pellets' market in Greece. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 2012;16:1426–36.
[69] Nielsen NPK, Gardner DJ, Poulsen T, Felby C. Importance of temperature, moisture
content, and species for the conversion process of wood residues into fuel pellets.
Wood Fiber Sci 2009;41:414–25.
[70] Serrano C, Monedero E, Lapuerta M, Portero H. Effect of moisture content, particle
size and pine addition on quality parameters of barley straw pellets. Fuel Process
Technol 2011;92:699–706.
[71] Shang L, Nielsen NPK, Stelte W, Dahl J, Ahrenfeldt J, Holm JK, et al. Lab and
bench-scale pelletization of torrefied wood chips—process optimization and pellet
quality. BioEnergy Res 2014;7:87–94.
[72] Li H, Liu X, Legros R, Bi XT, Jim Lim C, Sokhansanj S. Pelletization of torrefied
sawdust and properties of torrefied pellets. Appl Energy 2012;93:680–5.
[73] Wang C, Peng J, Li H, Bi XT, Legros R, Lim CJ, et al. Oxidative torrefaction of
biomass residues and densification of torrefied sawdust to pellets. Bioresour
Technol 2013;127:318–25.
[74] Rhén C, Gref R, Sjöström M, Wästerlund I. Effects of raw material moisture con-
tent, densification pressure and temperature on some properties of Norway spruce
pellets. Fuel Process Technol 2005;87:11–6.
[75] Kashaninejad M, Tabil LG. Effect of microwave–chemical pre-treatment on com-
pression characteristics of biomass grinds. Biosyst Eng 2011;108:36–45.
[76] Stelte W, Holm JK, Sanadi AR, Barsberg S, Ahrenfeldt J, Henriksen UB. Fuel pellets
from biomass: the importance of the pelletizing pressure and its dependency on the
processing conditions. Fuel 2011;90:3285–90.
[77] Wang Y, Wu K, Sun Y. Effects of raw material particle size on the briquetting
process of rice straw. J Energy Inst 2018;91:153–62.
[78] Shaw MD, Karunakaran C, Tabil LG. Physicochemical characteristics of densified
untreated and steam exploded poplar wood and wheat straw grinds. Biosyst Eng
2009;103:198–207.
[79] Hosseinizand H, Sokhansanj S, Lim CJ. Co-pelletization of microalgae Chlorella
vulgaris and pine sawdust to produce solid fuels. Fuel Process Technol
2018;177:129–39.
[80] Graham S, Eastwick C, Snape C, Quick W. Mechanical degradation of biomass
wood pellets during long term stockpile storage. Fuel Process Technol
2017;160:143–51.
[81] García-Maraver A, Popov V, Zamorano M. A review of European standards for
pellet quality. Renew Energy 2011;36:3537–40.
[82] Arshadi M, Gref R, Geladi P, Dahlqvist S-A, Lestander T. The influence of raw
material characteristics on the industrial pelletizing process and pellet quality.
Fuel Process Technol 2008;89:1442–7.
[83] EN 14961-1. Solid biofuels. Fuel specification and classes, Part 1: general re-
quirements; 2010.
[84] EN 14961-2. Solid biofuels. Fuel specification and classes, Part 2: wood pellets for
non-industrial use; 2011.
[85] EN 14961-6. Solid biofuels. Fuel specifications and classes, Part 6: non-woody
pellets for non-industrial use; 2012.
[86] Dafnomilis I, Lodewijks G, Junginger M, Schott DL. Evaluation of wood pellet
handling in import terminals. Biomass Bioenergy 2018;117:10–23.
[87] EN ISO 17225-1. Solid biofuels. Fuel specifications and classes. Part 1: general
requirements; 2014.
[88] EN ISO 17225-2. Solid biofuels. Fuel specification and classes. Part 2: graded wood
pellets; 2014.
[89] EN ISO. 17225-6, Solid biofuels. Fuel specifications and classes, Part 6: graded
non-woody pellets; 2014.
[90] EN ISO 17828. Solid biofuels, determination of bulk density; 2016.
[91] EN 15103. Solid biofuels, determination of bulk density; 2009.
[92] EN ISO 18847. Solid biofuels, determination of particle density of pellets and
briquettes; 2016.
[93] CEN/TS 15150. Solid biofuels, methods for the determination of particle density;
2005.
[94] Emadi B, Iroba KL, Tabil LG. Effect of polymer plastic binder on mechanical,
storage and combustion characteristics of torrefied and pelletized herbaceous
biomass. Appl Energy 2017;198:312–9.
[95] ISO 18134-1. Solid biofuels - determination of moisture content - oven dry method
M.E. Mostafa, et al.
- Part 1: total moisture - reference method; 2015.
[96] EN ISO 17831-1. Solid biofuels. Determination of mechanical durability of pellets
and briquettes; 2015.
[97] EN 15210-1. Solid biofuels. Solid biofuels. Determination of mechanical durability
of pellets and briquettes; 2009.
[98] Larsson SH, Samuelsson R. Prediction of ISO 17831-1:2015 mechanical biofuel
pellet durability from single pellet characterization. Fuel Process Technol
2017;163:8–15.
[99] Si Y, Hu J, Wang X, Yang H, Chen Y, Shao J, et al. Effect of carboxymethyl cellulose
binder on the quality of biomass pellets. Energy Fuels 2016;30:5799–808.
[100] Fell JT, Newton JM. Determination of tablet strength by the diametral-compres-
sion test. J Pharm Sci 1970;59:688–91.
[101] Liu Z, Quek A, Balasubramanian R. Preparation and characterization of fuel pellets
from woody biomass, agro-residues and their corresponding hydrochars. Appl
Energy 2014;113:1315–22.
[102] Gao W, Tabil LG, Dumonceaux T, Espinel Ríos S, Zhao R. Optimization of biolo-
gical pretreatment to enhance the quality of wheat straw pellets. Biomass
Bioenergy 2017;97:77–89.
[103] Carroll JP, Finnan J. Physical and chemical properties of pellets from energy crops
and cereal straws. Biosyst Eng 2012;112:151–9.
[104] Stelte W, Holm JK, Sanadi AR, Barsberg S, Ahrenfeldt J, Henriksen UB. A study of
bonding and failure mechanisms in fuel pellets from different biomass resources.
Biomass Bioenergy 2011;35:910–8.
[105] Samuelsson R, Larsson SH, Thyrel M, Lestander TA. Moisture content and storage
time influence the binding mechanisms in biofuel wood pellets. Appl Energy
2012;99:109–15.
[106] Pradhan P, Arora A, Mahajani SM. Pilot scale evaluation of fuel pellets production
from garden waste biomass. Energy Sustain Dev 2018;43:1–14.
[107] Miranda MT, Sepúlveda FJ, Arranz JI, Montero I, Rojas CV. Analysis of pelletizing
from corn cob waste. J Environ Manag 2018;228:303–11.
[108] Djatkov D, Martinov M, Kaltschmitt M. Influencing parameters on mechan-
ical–physical properties of pellet fuel made from corn harvest residues. Biomass
Bioenergy 2018;119:418–28.
[109] Azargohar R, Soleimani M, Nosran S, Bond T, Karunakaran C, Dalai AK, et al.
Thermo-physical characterization of torrefied fuel pellet from co-pelletization of
canola hulls and meal. Ind Crops Prod 2019;128:424–35.
[110] Poddar S, Kamruzzaman M, Sujan SMA, Hossain M, Jamal MS, Gafur MA, et al.
Effect of compression pressure on lignocellulosic biomass pellet to improve fuel
properties: higher heating value. Fuel 2014;131:43–8.
[111] Guo L, Wang D, Tabil LG, Wang G. Compression and relaxation properties of se-
lected biomass for briquetting. Biosyst Eng 2016;148:101–10.
[112] Song X, Zhang M, Pei ZJ, Wang D. Ultrasonic vibration-assisted (UV-A) pelleting of
wheat straw: a constitutive model for pellet density. Ultrasonics 2015;60:117–25.
[113] Adapa P, Tabil L, Schoenau G. Compaction characteristics of barley, canola, oat
and wheat straw. Biosyst Eng 2009;104:335–44.
[114] Unpinit T, Poblarp T, Sailoon N, Wongwicha P, Thabuot M. Fuel properties of bio-
pellets produced from selected materials under various compacting pressure.
Energy Procedia 2015;79:657–62.
[115] Mani S, Tabil LG, Sokhansanj S. Effects of compressive force, particle size and
moisture content on mechanical properties of biomass pellets from grasses.
Biomass Bioenergy 2006;30:648–54.
[116] Wu MR, Schott DL, Lodewijks G. Physical properties of solid biomass. Biomass
Bioenergy 2011;35:2093–105.
[117] McKeown MS, Trabelsi S, Tollner EW. Effects of temperature and material on
sensing moisture content of pelleted biomass through dielectric properties. Biosyst
Eng 2016;149:1–10.
[118] Kaliyan N, Morey RV. Densification characteristics of corn cobs. Fuel Process
Technol 2010;91:559–65.
[119] Larsson SH, Rudolfsson M. Temperature control in energy grass pellet production –
effects on process stability and pellet quality. Appl Energy 2012;97:24–9.
[120] Ramezanzade M, Ghazanfari Moghaddam A. Optimizing the production para-
meters for pellets made from pistachio tree pruning using multi-response opti-
mization. Waste Biomass Valoriz 2017;9:1213–21.
[121] Fang Z. Pretreatment techniques for biofuels and biorefineries. Springer; 2013.
[122] Kaliyan N, Morey RV. Constitutive model for densification of corn stover and
switchgrass. Biosyst Eng 2009;104:47–63.
[123] Stelte W, Clemons C, Holm JK, Ahrenfeldt J, Henriksen UB, Sanadi AR. Fuel pellets
from wheat straw: the effect of lignin glass transition and surface waxes on pel-
letizing properties. BioEnergy Res 2012;5:450–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s12155-011-9169-8.
[124] Agar DA, Rudolfsson M, Kalén G, Campargue M, Da Silva Perez D, Larsson SH. A
systematic study of ring-die pellet production from forest and agricultural bio-
mass. Fuel Process Technol 2018;180:47–55.
[125] Zhang X, Cai Z, Chen L, Zhang D, Zhang Z. Effects of moisture content and tem-
perature on the quality of water hyacinth pellets. BioResources 2016;11:1407–16.
[126] Filbakk T, Skjevrak G, Høibø O, Dibdiakova J, Jirjis R. The influence of storage
and drying methods for Scots pine raw material on mechanical pellet properties
and production parameters. Fuel Process Technol 2011;92:871–8.
[127] Stelte W, Clemons C, Holm JK, Ahrenfeldt J, Henriksen UB, Sanadi AR. Thermal
transitions of the amorphous polymers in wheat straw. Ind Crops Prod
2011;34:1053–6.
[128] Obidziński S, Piekut J, Dec D. The influence of potato pulp content on the prop-
erties of pellets from buckwheat hulls. Renew Energy 2016;87:289–97.
[129] Bergström D, Israelsson S, Öhman M, Dahlqvist S-A, Gref R, Boman C, et al. Effects
of raw material particle size distribution on the characteristics of Scots pine
sawdust fuel pellets. Fuel Process Technol 2008;89:1324–9.
347
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 105 (2019) 332–348
[130] Fasina OO. Physical properties of peanut hull pellets. Bioresour Technol
2008;99:1259–66.
[131] Heiss-Blanquet S, Zheng D, Ferreira NL, Lapierre C, Baumberger S. Effect of pre-
treatment and enzymatic hydrolysis of wheat straw on cell wall composition,
hydrophobicity and cellulase adsorption. Bioresour Technol 2011;102:5938–46.
[132] Zhang L-M, Yuan T-Q, Xu F, Sun R-C. Enhanced hydrophobicity and thermal
stability of hemicelluloses by butyrylation in [BMIM]Cl ionic liquid. Ind Crops
Prod 2013;45:52–7.
[133] Theerarattananoon K, Xu F, Wilson J, Ballard R, Mckinney L, Staggenborg S, et al.
Physical properties of pellets made from sorghum stalk, corn stover, wheat straw,
and big bluestem. Ind Crops Prod 2011;33:325–32.
[134] Colley Z, Fasina OOO, Bransby D, Lee YYY. Moisture effect on the physical
characteristics of switch grass pellets. Trans ASABE 2006;49:1845–52.
[135] Manickam IN, Ravindran D, Subramanian P. Biomass densification methods and
mechanism. Cogener Distrib Gener J 2006;21:33–45.
[136] Cheng J, Zhou F, Si T, Zhou J, Cen K. Mechanical strength and combustion
properties of biomass pellets prepared with coal tar residue as a binder. Fuel
Process Technol 2018;179:229–37.
[137] Ghasemi A, Chayjan RA, Najafabadi HJ. Optimization of granular waste produc-
tion based on mechanical properties. Waste Manag 2018;75:82–93.
[138] Lee S min, Ahn BJ, Choi DH, Han G-S, Jeong H-S, Ahn SH, et al. Effects of den-
sification variables on the durability of wood pellets fabricated with Larix
kaempferi C. and Liriodendron tulipifera L. sawdust. Biomass Bioenergy
2013;48:1–9.
[139] Aragón-Garita S, Moya R, Bond B, Valaert J, Tomazello Filho M. Production and
quality analysis of pellets manufactured from five potential energy crops in the
Northern Region of Costa Rica. Biomass Bioenergy 2016;87:84–95.
[140] Kirsten C, Lenz V, Schröder H, Repke J. Hay pellets-the influence of particle size
reduction on their physical-mechanical quality and energy demand during pro-
duction. Fuel Process Technol 2016;148:163–74.
[141] Sun CC. Decoding powder tabletability: roles of particle adhesion and plasticity. J
Adhes Sci Technol 2011;25:483–99.
[142] Lisowski A, Dąbrowska-Salwin M, Ostrowska-Ligęza E, Nawrocka A, Stasiak M,
Świętochowski A, et al. Effects of the biomass moisture content and pelleting
temperature on the pressure-induced agglomeration process. Biomass Bioenergy
2017;107:376–83.
[143] Lam PS, Lam PY, Sokhansanj S, Bi XT, Lim CJ. Mechanical and compositional
characteristics of steam-treated Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii L.) during
pelletization. Biomass Bioenergy 2013;56:116–26.
[144] Hu Q, Shao J, Yang H, Yao D, Wang X, Chen H. Effects of binders on the properties
of bio-char pellets. Appl Energy 2015;157:508–16.
[145] Tokimatsu K, Yasuoka R, Nishio M. Global zero emissions scenarios: the role of
biomass energy with carbon capture and storage by forested land use. Appl Energy
2017;185:1899–906.
[146] Berghel J, Frodeson S, Granström K, Renström R, Ståhl M, Nordgren D, et al. The
effects of kraft lignin additives on wood fuel pellet quality, energy use and shelf
life. Fuel Process Technol 2013;112:64–9.
[147] Ewida KT, El-Salmawy H, Atta NN, Mahmoud MM. A sustainable approach to the
recycling of rice straw through pelletization and controlled burning. Clean
Technol Environ Policy 2006;8:188–97.
[148] Mediavilla I, Esteban LS, Fernández MJ. Optimisation of pelletisation conditions
for poplar energy crop. Fuel Process Technol 2012;104:7–15.
[149] Finney KN, Sharifi VN, Swithenbank J. Fuel pelletization with a binder: part I —
Identification of a suitable binder for spent mushroom compost-coal tailing pellets.
Energy Fuels 2009;23:3195–202.
[150] Larsson S, Lockneus O, Xiong S, Samuelsson R. Cassava stem powder as an additive
in biomass fuel pellet production. Energy Fuels 2015;29:5902–8.
[151] Jamradloedluk J, Lertsatitthanakorn C. Influences of mixing ratios and binder
types on properties of biomass pellets. Energy Procedia 2017;138:1147–52.
[152] Tabil LG, Sokhansanj S, Tyler RT. Performance of different binders during alfalfa
pelleting. Can Agric Eng 1997;39:17–23.
[153] Cao L, Yuan X, Li H, Li C, Xiao Z, Jiang L, et al. Complementary effects of torre-
faction and co-pelletization: energy consumption and characteristics of pellets.
Bioresour Technol 2015;185:254–62.
[154] Kong L, Tian S, He C, Du C, Tu Y, Xiong Y. Effect of waste wrapping paper fiber as
a “solid bridge” on physical characteristics of biomass pellets made from wood
sawdust. Appl Energy 2012;98:33–9.
[155] Peng J, Bi XT, Lim CJ, Peng H, Kim CS, Jia D, et al. Sawdust as an effective binder
for making torrefied pellets. Appl Energy 2015;157:491–8.
[156] Zhai Y, Wang T, Zhu Y, Peng C, Wang B, Li X, et al. Production of fuel pellets via
hydrothermal carbonization of food waste using molasses as a binder. Waste
Manag 2018;77:185–94.
[157] Biswas AK, Yang W, Blasiak W. Steam pretreatment of Salix to upgrade biomass
fuel for wood pellet production. Fuel Process Technol 2011;92:1711–7.
[158] Zandersons J, Gravitis J, Zhurinsh A, Kokorevics A, Kallavus U, Suzuki CK. Carbon
materials obtained from self-binding sugar cane bagasse and deciduous wood re-
sidues plastics. Biomass Bioenergy 2004;26:345–60.
[159] Anglès MN, Ferrando F, Farriol X, Salvadó J. Suitability of steam exploded residual
softwood for the production of binderless panels. Effect of the pre-treatment se-
verity and lignin addition. Biomass Bioenergy 2001;21:211–24.
[160] Shahrukh H, Oyedun AO, Kumar A, Ghiasi B, Kumar L, Sokhansanj S. Net energy
ratio for the production of steam pretreated biomass-based pellets. Biomass
Bioenergy 2015;80:286–97.
[161] Lam PS, Lam PY, Sokhansanj S, Lim CJ, Bi XT, Stephen JD, et al. Steam explosion
of oil palm residues for the production of durable pellets. Appl Energy
2015;141:160–6.
M.E. Mostafa, et al.
[162] Shahrukh H, Oyedun AO, Kumar A, Ghiasi B, Kumar L, Sokhansanj S. Techno-
economic assessment of pellets produced from steam pretreated biomass feed-
stock. Biomass Bioenergy 2016;87:131–43.
[163] González-Peña MM, Özgür E, Hale MDCC, Curling SF, Hale MDCC. On the effect of
heat on the chemical composition and dimensions of thermally-modified wood.
Polym Degrad Stab 2009;94:2184–93.
[164] Nielsen NPK, Gardner DJ, Felby C. Effect of extractives and storage on the pelle-
tizing process of sawdust. Fuel 2010;89:94–8.
[165] Tang Y, Chandra RP, Sokhansanj S, Saddler JN. Influence of steam explosion
processes on the durability and enzymatic digestibility of wood pellets. Fuel
2018;211:87–94.
[166] Tooyserkani Z, Kumar L, Sokhansanj S, Saddler J, Bi XT, Lim CJ, et al. SO2-cat-
alyzed steam pretreatment enhances the strength and stability of softwood pellets.
Bioresour Technol 2013;130:59–68.
[167] Adapa P, Tabil L, Schoenau G. Physical and frictional properties of non-treated and
steam exploded barley, canola, oat and wheat straw grinds. Powder Technol
2010;201:230–41.
[168] Lam PS, Sokhansanj S, Bi XT, Lim CJ, Larsson SH. Drying characteristics and
equilibrium moisture content of steam-treated Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii
L.). Bioresour Technol 2012;116:396–402.
[169] Chen Y, Yang H, Yang Q, Hao H, Zhu B, Chen H. Torrefaction of agriculture straws
and its application on biomass pyrolysis poly-generation. Bioresour Technol
2014;156:70–7.
[170] Du S-W, Chen W-H, Lucas JA. Pretreatment of biomass by torrefaction and car-
bonization for coal blend used in pulverized coal injection. Bioresour Technol
2014;161:333–9.
[171] Basu P, Sadhukhan AK, Gupta P, Rao S, Dhungana A, Acharya B. An experimental
and theoretical investigation on torrefaction of a large wet wood particle.
Bioresour Technol 2014;159:215–22.
[172] Wen J-L, Sun S-L, Yuan T-Q, Xu F, Sun R-C. Understanding the chemical and
structural transformations of lignin macromolecule during torrefaction. Appl
Energy 2014;121:1–9.
[173] Tran K-Q, Luo X, Seisenbaeva G, Jirjis R. Stump torrefaction for bioenergy ap-
plication. Appl Energy 2013;112:539–46.
348
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 105 (2019) 332–348
[174] Song X, Yang Y, Zhang M, Zhang K, Wang D. Ultrasonic pelleting of torrefied
lignocellulosic biomass for bioenergy production. Renew Energy 2018;129:56–62.
[175] Kambo HS, Dutta A. Strength, storage, and combustion characteristics of densified
lignocellulosic biomass produced via torrefaction and hydrothermal carboniza-
tion. Appl Energy 2014;135:182–91.
[176] Ghiasi B, Kumar L, Furubayashi T, Lim CJ, Bi X, Kim CS, et al. Densified biocoal
from woodchips: is it better to do torrefaction before or after densification? Appl
Energy 2014;134:133–42.
[177] Rudolfsson M, Stelte W, Lestander TA. Process optimization of combined biomass
torrefaction and pelletization for fuel pellet production – a parametric study. Appl
Energy 2015;140:378–84.
[178] García R, Pevida C, Rubiera F. Pelletization properties of raw and torrefied pine
sawdust: Effect of co-pelletization, temperature, moisture content and glycerol
addition. 2018. p. 290–7.
[179] Rudolfsson M, Borén E, Pommer L, Nordin A, Lestander TA. Combined effects of
torrefaction and pelletization parameters on the quality of pellets produced from
torrefied biomass. Appl Energy 2017;191:414–24.
[180] Reza MT, Uddin MH, Lynam JG, Coronella CJ. Engineered pellets from dry tor-
refied and HTC biochar blends. Biomass Bioenergy 2014;63:229–38.
[181] Sahoo K, Bilek EM (Ted), Mani S. Techno-economic and environmental assess-
ments of storing woodchips and pellets for bioenergy applications. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 2018;98:27–39.
[182] Unrean P, Lai Fui BC, Rianawati E, Acda M. Comparative techno-economic as-
sessment and environmental impacts of rice husk-to-fuel conversion technologies.
Energy 2018;151:581–93.
[183] Sahoo K, Bilek E, Bergman R, Mani S. Techno-economic analysis of producing solid
biofuels and biochar from forest residues using portable systems. Appl Energy
2019;235:578–90.
[184] McKechnie J, Saville B, MacLean HL. Steam-treated wood pellets: environmental
and financial implications relative to fossil fuels and conventional pellets for
electricity generation. Appl Energy 2016;180:637–49.
[185] Wang K, Zhang Y, Sekelj G, Hopke PK. Economic analysis of a field monitored
residential wood pellet boiler heating system in New York State. Renew Energy
2019;133:500–11.