Geotechnical Engineering 37

10) Foundation Settlements

Immediate (Elastic) settlement
Both clays and sands

Time dependent settlement (clays)
(Primary) consolidation settlement

Secondary compression settlements
(significant in highly plastic and
organic soils)

- An example of time-displacement curve from consolidation tests of clays.

displacement

Primary
consolidation Secondary compression
t100
time (log scale)

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Geotechnical Engineering 38

i) Immediate Settlements

Settlements due to elastic deformations of soil mass.

Based on the theory of elasticity, the elastic settlement of a shallow
foundation Se can be defined as,

H 1 H
∫
S e = ε z dz =
0 ∫
Es 0
(∆σ z − µ s ∆σ x − µ s ∆σ y )dz

where, E s : modulus of elasticity of soil

µ s : Poisson’s ratio of soil

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Geotechnical Engineering 39

Theoretically, for D f = 0 , H = ∞ and perfectly flexible foundations,

Bq0
Se = (1 − µ s2 )α ' (Harr, 1966)
Es
where, α ' is a is a function of shape and flexibility of foundation
and location of concerning points.

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Geotechnical Engineering 40

flexible foundation : at center, α ' = α

at corner, α ' = α / 2
average, α ' = α ave
rigid foundation : α ' = α r

Comments
Harr’s equation generally results in too conservative value
(i.e. overestimating settlement).

a) H (depth to the relatively incompressible layer) < 2B ~ 3B Se

b) The deeper the embedment D f , the lesser is S e .

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Geotechnical Engineering 41

Es may vary with depth.

Bowles (1987) recommended to use a weighted average of Es,

Es
∆Z1 Es(1)

∆Z2 Es(2)
H

∆Z3 Es(3)

∆Z4 Es(4)

Σ E s ( i ) ∆z i
Es =
z

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Geotechnical Engineering 42

Estimation of elastic settlements by Mayne and Poulous (1999),

- It takes into account

1) the rigidity of the foundation
2) the depth of embedment of the foundation
3) the increase in the modulus of elasticity of the soil with depth
4) the location of rigid layers at a limited depth

q 0 Be I G I F I E
Se = (1 − µ s2 )
E0
where, B e : the equivalent diameter

4 BL
= for rectangular foundation
π
= B for circular foundation

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Geotechnical Engineering 43

I G : influence factor for the variation of E s (= E 0 + kz ) with depth

 E H 
= f  β ( = 0 ), 
Fig. 5.17
 kBe Be 

I F : foundation rigidity correction factor

π 1
= +
Fig. 5.18
4  
 Ef  
3

4.6 + 10  2t 
 Be  Be 
 E0 + k
 2 
I E : foundation embedment correction factor

1
= 1−
Fig. 5.19
Be
3.5 exp(1.22µ s − 0.4)( + 1.6)
Df

<Figure 5.17 Variation of I G with β >

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Geotechnical Engineering 44

<Figure 5.18 Variation of rigidity correction factor I F with flexibility factor K F >
IE

<Figure 5.19 embedment correction factor I E with DF / Be >

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Geotechnical Engineering 45

Immediate settlement of sandy soil : use of strain influence factor

(Schmertmann and Hartman (1978))

z
Iz
S e = C1C 2 (q − q)∑ ∆z
0 Es
where :
C1 = A correction factor for the depth of foundation embedment
( = 1 − 0.5[q /( q − q )] )
C 2 = A correction factor for creep
t
= 1 + 0.2 log  t in years
0 .1
I z = Strain influence factor (chiefly related to shear stress increase
in soil mass due to foundation load)

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Geotechnical Engineering 46

For square, circular ft. For strip footing (L/B >10)

z=0 I z = 0 .1 z=0 I z = 0 .2
z1 = 0.5B I z = 0 .5 z1 = B I z = 0 .5
z 2 = 2B Iz = 0 z2 = 4 B Iz = 0

For rectangular ft, interpolate two cases.

- This method is effective for layered soils (E is varying with depth.)

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Geotechnical Engineering 47

Determination of Young’s modulus

- E s and µ s can be determined from the laboratory tests.

- Correlation between E s and SPT and CPT results.

Schmertmann(1970) ; for sands

Es
= 8 N 60
pa
where N 60 : standard penetration resistance
p a : atmosphere pressure ≈ 100kPa

E s = 2q c
where q c : static cone resistance

Schmertmann and Hartman(1978) ; for strain influence factors,

E s = 2.5q c for square and circular foundation

E s = 3.5q c for strip foundation

E s for clays
E s = 250cu to 500cu for normally consolidation clays
E s = 750cu to 1000cu for overconsolidated clays

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Geotechnical Engineering 48

ii) Time-dependent settlements

Primary consolidation 

Secondary compression 

Consolidation settlement

S c = ∫ ε v dz ( ε v : vertical strain)
∆e
=∫ dz
1 + e0

σ p' (log scale)

σ0'
σ p'
e0
Cs

Cc
∆e

σ 0 '+ ∆σ ave '

σ 'p : Maximum past pressure

C c : Compression index
C s : Swelling index
σ 0' : Average present effective stress
∆σ ave
'
: Average increase of pressure on the clay layer by loading

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Geotechnical Engineering 49

- When thickness of clay layer is H c and initial void ratio is e0,

H cCs σ 'p H c C c σ' + ∆σ' ave

Sc = log + log( 0 )
1 + e0 σ' 0 1 + e p σ' p

For normally consolidated clay ( σ ' 0 = σ ' p ),

H c Cc σ ' + ∆σ ' ave

Sc = log( 0 )
1 + e0 σ '0

For overconsolidated clay ( σ ' 0 < σ ' p ),

H cCs σ ' + ∆σ ' ave

a) σ ' 0 + ∆σ ' ave ≤ σ ' p S c = log( 0 )
1 + e0 σ '0
H C σ p H c Cc
'
σ ' + ∆σ '
b) σ ' 0 + ∆σ ' ave > σ ' p S c = c s log( )+ log( 0 ' ave )
1 + e0 σ ' 0 1 + e0 σp

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Geotechnical Engineering 50

- How to determine ∆σ av and σ 0

i) ∆σ av =1 / 6 (∆σ t + 4∆σ m + ∆σ b )
σ 0 = effective stress at the middle of clay layer.
⇒ Calculate S c

ii) Divide the clay layer into several thin layers

⇒ ∆σ and σ 0 ' are obtained from the middle of each thin layers.
⇒ Calculate settlements of each thin layers, S ci .
⇒ Total consolidation settlement, S c = ∑ S ci

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Geotechnical Engineering 51

Estimation of stress increase on the clay layer due to external loads

(Uniform load and flexible foundation)

- ∆σ determined from Bousinesq approach

(Assuming soil as a semi-infinite, elasitc, isotopic, and
homogeneous medium.)

m = B/z, n=L/z

a) The stress increase ∆σ below the corner of rectangular loaded area.

∆σ = q 0 I
where values of I are given in Table 5.2.
(or ∆σ can be directly calculated with Eq (5.5) and (5.6) in
textbook.)

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Geotechnical Engineering 52

b) Stress increase below any point below rectangular loaded area.

∆σ = q o ( I 1 + I 2 + I 3 + I 4 )

- Approximate method for ∆p (2:1 method)

∆σ = q0 BL /{B + z ) ( L + z )

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Geotechnical Engineering 53

Case study (p.235)

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Geotechnical Engineering 54

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Geotechnical Engineering 55

Secondary compression settlement

∆e ∆e
Cα = =
log t 2 − log t1 log(t 2 / t1 )

Cα t
Sc(s) = H c log
1+ ep tp
where t p = time at the end of primary consolidation
Cα = (1 + e p )Cα '

Cα changes with consolidation stress, so it should be selected based on

present stress level. ( Cα for OC soil is quite lower than that for NC soil.)
-

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Geotechnical Engineering 56

C α (%)

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Geotechnical Engineering 57

Skempton-Bjerrum modification for consolidation settlement

(Two or three dimensional effect on primary consolidation settlement.)

∆σ 1

Hc ∆σ 3

Conventionally,
∆u = ∆σ 1

But practically,
∆u = ∆σ 3 + A(∆σ 1 − ∆σ 3 )

where A=Pore pressure parameter

= f(stress history, soil type, ****)

∆e ∆e
S conventional = ∫ dz , (mv = ( ) / ∆u )
1 + e0 1 + eo
= ∫ mv ∆udz

∫
= mv ∆σ 1 dz

where mv= volume coefficient of compressibity

S S − B = ∫ mv ∆udz
S S − B = ∫ mv [∆σ 3 + A(∆σ1 − ∆σ 3 )]dz

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Geotechnical Engineering 58

Settlement Ratio,

K=
S S −B ∫
=
[∆σ 3 + A(∆σ 1 − ∆σ 3 )] dz
S conv
∫∆σ 1 dz

= A + (1 − A)
∫ ∆σ dz (= settlement ratio)
3

∫ ∆σ dz1

For H c =thickness of clay layer,

Hc

K = A + (1 − A)
∫0
∆σ 3 dz
Hc

∫ ∆σ dz
0
1

Generally, A < 0.5 for overconsolidated clays.

= 0.5 ~ 1.0 for normally consolidated clays.
> 1.0 for sensitive clays.

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Geotechnical Engineering 59

K is a function of A, shape of foundation and thickness of clay layer,

- Procedure for S c ( Skempton− Bjerrum ) .

1. Determine S c ( conventional ) .
2. Determine A, H c / B .
3. Obtain K from the figure.
4. Calculate S c ( Skempton− Bjerrum ) .

- Note

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