UNIT 1 SOIL PHASES, STRUCTURE,

CBNSISTENCU AND
CLASSIFICATION
Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Origin and Nature of Soil
1.2.1 The Cieological Cycle
1.2.2 Definition of Soil
1.2.3 Three-phase Con~position
1.3 Phasc Relationships
1.3.1 VolurneRelationships
1.3.2 Weight Relationships
1.3.3 Intcrrdationships
1.3.4 Relative Dcnsity
1.4 Gradation
1.4.1 Particle Size
1.4.2 Particle Sip=Classification
1.4.3 Particle Size Dist~ibution
1.4.4 Significance of Gradation
1.5 Soil Structure
1.5.1 Stluctures in Cohesianlcss Soils
1.5.2 Structures in Cohesive Soils
1.5.3 Composite Structures
1.6 Consistency
1.6.1 Consistency 1,imits
1.6.2 Ddernlination of Consistency Lirllits
1.6.3 Significance of Consistency Limits
1.6.4 Activity of Cli~yeySoils
1.6.5 Engineering IJse of Allcrberg Limits
1.7 Clay Mineralogy
1.7.1 Structure:of Clay Minerals
1.7.2 Sheet Structures
1.7.3 Conlnion Clay Minerals
1.7.4 Natu1.c:of Water in Clay
1.7.5 Itlentiiication of Clay Mincrids
1.8 Soil Classification
1.8.1 Geological Classification
1.8.2 Pedologicd Classification
1.8.3 Textunl Classification
1.8.4 Engineering Classification
1.8.5 Cornparisol~of AASHO and UNIFIED Systenls
1.9 Summary
1.10 Key Words
1.1 1 Answers to S AQs
1.12 Further Reading

1.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit seeks to introduce you to several basic concepts necessary lo u~iderslandthe
behaviour of soils. To begin wih, the idea of soil as a product ot'natural geological
processes is prese~iled.The representation of such a nlalerial using a three-phase rllotlel is
inlroduced. This is followed by its quantitative chiuacterization tluough weight-volume
relationships between the constituent phases. Next, concepts of structure of soil,
consistency and struclure oC clay are explained. Finally, the various attempts a1classifying
 Soil Water System soils are traced and engineering classification systems are explained. Some illustrative
examples and problems are given to reinforce the concepts presented.
Objectives
The main objective of this unit, is to present lo the reader the conceptual model and the
mathematical relationships used to represent soil and the scientific approach required to
characterize its behaviour.
After studying this unit, you should be able to :
o appreciate the need for a three-phase conceptual lnodel and to make
computations using weight-volumne relationships,
e know the importance of consistency limits and evaluate them,
describe the basic building blocks constituting a clay mineral and their
significance, and
0 classify a soil for engineering purposes.

1.2 ORIGIN AND NATURE OF SOIL

In a btoad sense, soil may be thought of as an incidental material in the vast geological
cycle which has been going on continuously for millions of years of geological time. It is
useful to have an idea of the cycle in order to appreciate what soil is.
1.2.1 The Geological Cycle
This cycle consists of three principal phases. These u e erosion; transportation and
deposition; earth movement. The cycle is schematically illustrated in Figure 1. I.

EARTH MOVEMENT
Figure 1.1: The Geological Cycle

The cycle starts with the erosional phase in which there is degradation of exposed rock b y
weathering processes. The weathering processes may be mecl~anicalor chemical. In
mechanical weathering alternate seasonal heating and cooling oS rock leads to cracking,
disintegration and breakdown of massive rock into smaller blocks. Freezing and expansion
of water in pores and joints accelerates disintegration in cold regions. Disintegration could
also be caused by wind or ice. In chemical weathering water aid carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere react with the salts and acids in the rock and form new nlinerals and salts.
Minerals formed at high temperatures are less resistait to weathering than those formed at
low temperatures. These two processes (mechanical a11d chemical) act often in
combination. The resulting disintegrated material is termed as soil.
In the second phase the fragmented material is &ansportedby agents such as wind, water
or ice to new locations, The fragmented materials x e further eroded. Then sorting md
mixing take place resulting in the deposition and forlnatioil of ncw soil.
The erosionand deposition processes eventually lead to new la~dlbrmsand, consequently
disturbance of equilibrium in the earth's crust. As a result, Ihe third phase, earth
movement, occurs and rock formations are again exposed and subjected to renewed
erosion. After several such cycles of varying intensity a helerogeneous soil mass is
8 , evolved.
I

I
1.2.2 Definition of Soil St~ilPhnscs, Structure,
Corisistc~icyrind
AS you know very well, the earliest interaclion of lnan wilh soil was for agriculture. In Cklssificntion '

applications soil is collsidered as that part of the earth's crust which supports
life. On Ihe othcr hand, the interesls of geologists include rocks :uld oher maleriiils
d ~ c pin the earth's interior. engineer's prirnary inlerest is in strength md delormiibility
soils and rocks. Neverhelcss, lhe basic pri~lciplcsofscicnce used in these allied fields
ilre useful to engineering as well.
n u s , thcre is a formal definilioli for soil. For engineering purposes, soil is defined ils
millera1 maltel at or near thc earth's surhce contai~li~igwater, orga~lic
matter, air and olher substances which may be present in gaseous or liquid fonns in Ihc
void spaces. This broad definition of soil includes a wide rmgc of materials from thc hart1
coarse grained gravels to soft fine-grained peat soils.
1.2.3 Three-phase composition
From the above definition you will llotice that soil ciui consist or materiiils in solid, li~luid
;md gascous states. These iue known as Phases. The solids consist of mineral matter. The
liquid phase is usuillly inilde up ol'water allliough dissolved salt solutions ;u.c also
possible. Thc gaseous phase is generally made up of air Lhough, occas~onally,pases l ~ k c
methane may idso be present.
The bellaviour of soil is ilfluencecl by tllc rcliltive proportions zu~dchenlical compositions
ot' the three phases. Hence, in Soil Mech:ulics, the concept of il Ihrce-ph;lse milteriill is used
for representing soil. Actually, Lhesc phases coexist in rcal soils in a mixed maluler as
depicted in Figurc 1.2 (a). Bul, li)r purposes ol'cngincering studies these phases are
co~lsideredto be independcat and separate. The conceptual lllrce-phiwc model used in Soil
Mechanics is shown in Figure 1.2 (b). Allliough conccptu;il, the model is extremely uscful
in explaining certain observed pheno~~lena in soils such iLS ('low, compressibility, stress
transfer-and shear strenglli.

A lR
WATER
SOLIDS

WATER
SOLIDS

Figure 1.2 (a) : Soil Three-ptiirsc systcln Figure 1.2 (b) : Coliceptuol Thrcc-pl~nscModcl

1.3 PHASE RELATIONSHIPS

It is useful lo express Ulc influence of thc phascs quantitatively. For Lhis purpose,
relationships betwccn weights and volumes are used. Let us designale the weights and the
volunles ofthe thrce phases as shown in Figurc 1.3.

Figurc 1.3 : Wcigllt-Volulnc Relolio~~ships

Snil Water Systcm The sy~nholsin the Figure 1.3 havc Ule followirlg meaning :
V = Total volulne of soil sample
V, = Volume of solids
V,, = Volume of voids
V,, = Volume of water in the voids
V, = Volunle of air in the voids
W = Total weight of given sol1 sample
W, = Weight of solids
W,, = Weight of water in the voids
W, = Weight of air in the voids
Obviously, the total volulne and weight must be equal to the sum of the volumes and
weighls, respectively, of the consliluents. Therefore, two relationships which must bold are

and, neglecting the weight of air,

1.3.1 Volume Relationships

The volume relationships co~nmo~lly used for the hree phases in a soil element are void
ralio, porosity arid degree of saturation.
Void ratio e is defined as the ralio of the volulne o l voids to the volume of solids, or

9 I
Generally volume of voids will be less thim volume of solids. Tllercfore e is usually
expressed as il decinlal fraction. But it can attain v;llues greater than unity in soil
suspensioils and in macro-porous soils like loess, where V,, could be mucl~greater than V,. ' 1I
Porosity n is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volulne, or 1

This is usually expressed as a percentage.

I
Degree of saturation S is define8 as thc ratio of the voluinc of water to thc volume of
voids, or I
This is also usually expressed as a percentage and varies from 0 for a dly soil to 100 for a
saturated soil.
The relationships between void ralio and porosity call be derived from Equalions (1.3),
(I.]), and (1.4) as follows :

Also, from Equation (1.6),

You should note that porosity is detii~eclwit11 respect to V while' void ratio is defined with
respect to V,. The total volume V is a variable quantity. Bul, sincE solids are
incompressible, V, remains invariant in the total volumc V of Ihe soil. Thus, in engineerii~g
studies, void ratio serves as a useful reference puanleter for rcprcsenling cllallpe ill
10 volume of soil undcr compression.
1.3.2 Weight Relatior~ships Soil Phuscs, Strocture,
The common weight relationships used are moisture conlent, unit weight and specific Col~sistcncyand
Clsssificatio~~
gravity. Moisture ~01ltcntfit is also referred to often as water content and denoted as W. ~t
is defined as the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solids in a given volume of
soil, or

Unit weighty is the weight of soil per unit volume ~mdthree differerll values are normally .
used depending on the state of Lhe soil. The bulk or moisl unit weight yl is defined as the
weight of the soil including b a t of waler per unit volume, or
W
Yr = 7 ...(1.9)

Dry unit weight Yd is the weight of solids alone per unit volume of soil, or
ws
Yd = 7 ...(1.10)

Using Equations (1.9), (1.21, (1.8) and (1.10) we can relate y, with yd as follows :

In addition we frequently use the submerged or buoyant unit weight ts,b for soils
submerged under water. This is obtained by subtracting the upward thrust of water on unit
volumc of soil, which is nothing but the unit weight of water.

where, y,,, = unit weight of water. :*,

Specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of its weight to the weight of an equal volume of
water. The specific gravity of the solids, G,r,(excluding air and water) is expressed by

Specific gtavily is a dimensionless quantity. An average value of Gsusually adopted for

soils is 2.65.
1.3.3 Interrelationships
There are several uscful interrelationships between the parameters defined above.
The water contei~tand void ratio of a soil are interrelated as shown below :
Rom Equations (1.5) and (1.3), we get,

Similarly, from Equations (1.8) ruld (1.l3),

where,
Therefore,
When soil is saturated, S= 1 and we get,
e = mGs ...(1 .16a)
*
It is much easier to measure weights accurately than volumes. For example, the water
Lolltent of a soil sample is easily determined by weighing a little soil in its nat~ralmoist
 Soil Water System state and after drying in the oven at llO°C and computing the difference. The difference is
the weight of water, except in organic soil or soils containing additives such as asphalt.
Hence, Equation (1.16) is very useful for solving problems involving three-phase
relationship.
It is now possible to express the unit weights in terms of Gs,e, m and S as follows

Similarly,
For a saturated soil S =I. Therefore, the saturated unit weight of soil, y,,,, will be

1.3.4 Relative Density

It will be shown in sub-section 1.5.1 that in soils such as sands Ule packing or arrangement
of grains can vary over a wide range. Correspondingly, the void ratio also varies,
Therefore, it is convenient tdiexpress density of packing at any stage in terms of void ratio
using Relative Density D, wliich is defined as

where, D, = relative density, usually a percentage,

- ,,
ei, = vdid ratio of soil in loosest condition,
enaL = in situ void ratip of soil, and
e = void ratio of soil in densest condition.
This is now known as Density Index and denoted as ID.
It may also be expressed in terms of dry unit wejghtsas a percentage as given below :

The relative density D,or Density Index ID may vary from a value close to zero for a very
loose soil to a maximum of one for a very dense soil. Some typical values of relative
densities are given in Table 1.1. Some typical values of minimum and maximum void
ratios of granular soils are given in Table 1.13. I

Table 1.1 : Relationship between Relative Density.and State of

Granular Soil

Relative Density (%) Description of Soil Deposit

0 t11 15 very loose
15 to 38 loose
35 to 65 medium
65 to 85 dense
85b100 very dense

The relationships given above are fundamental and important and the student should
understand them well and learn their application. 'Ihese are used in calculations of volume
change, compaction, settlement and stability. A few examples are given below to illustrate
the application.
I
Example 1.1
The weight of a soil in its dry state is 150.5 N. When some water is added lo it, its
3
weight increases to 180.3 N and it has a volume of 0.01 m . If Gs= 2.65, calculate
12 the moisture content, void ratio, dry unit weight and moist unit weight.
 Suil I'l~uses.Structure,
Solution Consistency and
From Equations (1.8) and (1.2), Clnssificntio~r
1)

2) From Equations (1.13), (1.1) and (1.3), taking y, = 9.81 x I O ~ N / I ~ ~

3) From Equation (1.lo),

4) From Equation (1.9),

yt =-=-- 180a3- 18030 N / I - =

~ ~18.03 kN/m3
v 0.01
Example 1.2
At a certain construction site the natural moisture content is 25% and tlie void ratio
is 0.7. If the specific gravity is 2.66, calculate Ule porosity, moist unit weight, dry
unit weight and degree of saturation.
Solution
1.) From ~ ~ u a t i o(1.7),
n

2) From Equation (1.16) and (1.17),

- 19.19 irN,md
(1 + 0.25) 2.66 x 9.81 -
'Yt = 1 + 0.7
3) From Equation (1.18),

4) From Equation (1.16),

Example 1 3
A soil is saturated at 52 per cent moisture content and has a unit weight of 16.5
k~lrr?.Calculate its void ratio, specific gravity, dry unit weight and submerged unit
weight.
Solution
3
1) Assume volume of soil to be V = ,1 m
2) From given data W=l6.5 kN;rn = 0.52;.S = 1
3) From Equations (1.2) and (1.Q we ctm write,
Soil Wnter System

4) Solving these equations,

5) SinceThe soil is saturated, using gati ions (1.5f and (1.15a),

6) From Equation (1. I),

3
V, = 1.00 - 0.57 = 0.43 m
7) From Equation (1.3),

8) From Equation (l.l3),

9) Froin Equation (1.18),

'yd=--
Gs YW - 2.57 x 9.81 = kN/mR
l t e 2.33
10) From Equation (1.12),

Example 1.4
The unit weight of a slightly moist soil is 1.75 g/cmband its moisture content as
determined in the laboratory is 8%. On adding some water to 10 rn3 of the soil its
water content rises to 17%. Let the specific gravity be 2.65. Determine the quantity
of water added.
(This example iIlustrates tlie use of CGS units.)

Since the soil is not remulded or disturbed in aily way its void ratio remains
unchanged.
1) Let the volume of soil be V = 1 cm3
2) Then we have from Equations (1.2) and (1.8),
W = W, + Ww = 1.75g.

3) Solving above equations we have,

(I + 0.08) W, = 1.75 .

W, = 1.620g ; W, = 0.129g.

4) After adding water, m = 0.17.

Since remains unchanged we have,
W, = 0.17 (1.62) = 0.275g.
1

5) Weight of water to be added to 1 c m h f soil is :

14 6) +Volulneof water to be added Lo 1 cm%f soil is :

i
 3
Vwadd = 0.146 cm3 = 0.000146 m Soil Pha.:cs,Structure,
(Since unit weight of water is 1 g/cm3) C msistency and
ClassifEcation
7) Volume of water required to be added to 10 m3 of soil is :
Vw,r,= 1.46 m-7.
Example 1.5
The porosity of a sand sample is 0.4. Assu~ninga specific gravity of 2.68, compute
void ratio, dry unit wcight and moist unit weight at 60% saturation. Unit weight of
water may be taken as 9.81 kN/n~.?.
Solution
1j Using Equation (l,6),
e = n41- n) = 0.4/(1 - 0.4) = 0.667
2) Frorn Equation (1 . I 8),

3) Using Equation (1.17) now,

At, S = 0.6, yt = (2.68+0.6X0.667)(9.81) = 18.13m/m3

(1 + 0.667)
SAQ 1
i) A moist soil weighs 10.1 N and has a volume of 600 cm3.11s dry weight is
9,18 N and Gs is 2.7. Determine void ratio, porosity, moisture content, degree
of saturation, bulk unit weigh1 and saturated unit weight. Take unit weight of
water as 10 k ~ / r n ~ .
ii) The initial moisture content of a soil is 10% at a porosity of 0.4. The specific
gravity of solids is 2.65. Determine the quantity of water to be added to 1 m3
of the soil in order to saturate it completely.
iii) A soil in a borrow pit has a moist unit weight of 1.8 g/cm3and water content
of 15%. The soil is broughl to a construction site, placed in the form of an
embankment and compacted. Tile dry unit weight of the compacted soil is -
1.6 g/cm3 and water content is 18%. Specific gravity of solids is 2.65.
(Note that unit weight of water is 1 g/cm3.)CaIculate :
a) void ratios of the soil in the borrow pit and in the embankment,
b) volume of the soil to be excavated to make 100 m3 of compacted soil, and
c) volume of water to be added during compaction.
(This problem uses CGS units. The student is advised to solve it using the
same units and get familiar with this system of units.)
iv) Values of certain parameters ai-egiven below for three soils. Compute tlle
parameters against tile (1) mark using the appropriate expressions derived
above. Take y, = 10 k ~ / r n ~ .
Table 1.2 : Data for SAQ 1 (iv)

Soil No. 71 'Yd 3 e S m Gd

1 18 7 - 0.84 7 - 2.70

2 ? - ? 7 100 45 2.70

3 19 - - - 7 20 2.70

Unit wcights are in k ~ l m 3;S and m nre in %.

Soil Water S y s t c ~ ~ ~
v) The moist unit weight of a soil at a moisture content of 11% is 1.82 glcm-'.
The soil is now dried and remoulded and its unit weight increases to 1.87
g/crn3 and the void ratio decreases 0.460. What is the water content of the
dried soil? Take G,= 2.67.
(Students may note that this exercise also uses CGS units.)

1.4 GRADATION
1.4.1 Particle Size
Soil is made up of particles of different sizes. This is referred to as gradation. Soil, as
defined in sub-section 1.2.2, includes particles varying in size from mm, to even a
metre or more.
Certain names such as gravel, sand and clay have been in use in practice for long to
describe, somewhat arbitrarily, certain size ranges. Although widely used, the words did
not have a fixed connotation. These names and their corresponding size ranges have now
been somewhat standardized. A number of systems have been evolved for this purpose.
The size ranges, as used in Soil Mechanics, are given in Table 1.3. There are minor
differences between the various systems used. The values outside the parentheses in the
table are as per Bureau of Indian Standards while those wilhin are according to the
internationally used UNIFIED system (see sub-section 1.8.4).
Table 1.3 : Particle Sizes

Type of Soil Size

Boulder > 30 cm
Pab ble 15 to 30 cm.
Gravel 2.0 mm (or 4.76 mm) to 15 cm.
Sand 0.06 (or 0.076 rnm) to 2.0 m
m (or 4.76 mm)
Silt 0.002 to 0.06 mm (or 0.076 mrn)
Qay < 0.002 mm

1.4.2 Particle Size Classification

There have been many altempts to define particle,size ranges corresponding to the
terminology gravel, stuld, silt and clay. Several Particle Size Classification Systems have
been developedto describe soils by their particle size. Figure 1.4 shows the particle-size
limits suggested by some of the more important systems, namely, those devcloped by
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), United S tates Department of Agriculture
(USDA) and Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS).
1.4.3 Particle Size Distribution
The distribution of particles of various sizes in a given soil is h o w n as particle-size
distribution. It is also known as grain-size dislribution. It is determined by a process
known as Mechanical Analysis. This involves the use of two methods :
i) Sieve Analysis, and
ii) ' Hydrometer Analysis.
 Soil Phases, Structure,
100-0 Consistencyand
Classification

Figure 1.4 : Particle Size Classification Systems

Sieve analysis is used for analysing particle sizes greater than 0.075 mm. Since it is
difficult to make sieves of openings lesser than 0.075 mm,the hydrometer method is used
for identifying smaller particles.
1) Sieve Analysis
Sieve analysis consists of passing Ule given soil successively lhrough a set of sieves
that have progressively smaller openings. In sieve analysis, the 'size' of a particle is
the side dimension of the square opening in the sieve through which it just passes.
Indian Standard Code No. 2720-Part IV (1975) suggests a set of sieve numbers with
lhe sizes of openings as given in Table 1.4. The equivalent American and British
Standards are also given alongside.

Table 1.4 : I.S. and Equivalent Sieve Sizes

I.S. Sieve No. Sieve Size Equivalent B.S.S.
(mnl) A.S.T.M

570 5.66 3 -
480 4.76 4 3/16"
400 4.00 5 -
340 3.353 6 5
320 .3.180 - 118 "
280 2.818 7 6
240 2.399 8 7
200 2.032 10 8
170 1.676 12 10
160 1.600 - 1/16"
140 1.405 14 12
120 1.201 16 14
100 1,000 18 16
85 0.842 20 18
80 0.790 - 1/32"
70 0.708 25 22
Soil Wutcr Systc111 I.S. Sieve No. Sievc Size Equivalent, B.S.S.
(mm) A.S.T.M

A typical sieve analysis is carried out as explained below. About hall' a kilogranl ol'
soil is dried in the oven. If it is a cohesive soil it may contain lumps and clods.
These may give an erroneous idea about Lhe true particle size. Thereforc, the clods
are broken with a wooden mallet. The soil is then passed through Ihc sieves
successively and weight of soil retained on each sieve is recorded. If the sieve
opeiling is small, the soil is washed through the sieve and weight of soil retained is
obtained after drying in the oven.
The weight of soil relained on each sieve is expressed as a percentage of Ule total
dry weight of the soil taken for the analysis. I1 represeilts the percentage finer than
the size oS the larger sieve just preceding the onc uildcr consideration. Ylese
percentages are plotted against the sieve sizes to obtain Ihe gradation or grain-size
distribution curve, shown in Figure 1.6.
li) Hydrometer Analysis
This analysis makcs use of an instrument known as tllc Hydrometer (Figurc 1.5).
This ii~strumenthas a glass stem which expands into a bulb at its lower end. The
lower part of Ule bulb is made heavy so tllat the instrument can tloat vertically when
introduced in a liyuid. Tile analysis is based on the principle of sedimentalion, It
~llakesuse of the phcnonlenon that when a small quantity of soil is put into water it
disperses and the particles settle. If wc assume Uiat Uie cluanlity of soil is small
enough so Ihat the particles do not collide with each other, they inay be taken to bc
settling with uniform velocities.
Tlle velocity actually gradually increases and reaches llle uniform value known as
lhe terminal vclocity. The settling velocities of tlle parliclcs depend on their shape,
size and weight. If we again assume that the particles arc spherical, Ihen thc
terminal velocity v of Ule soil particles can be expresscd by Stoke's law as :

wllc:e, y.= unit weight of soil particles, kN/m3,

yw = unit weight of water, kN/m3,
n = viscosity of water, k~-s/rn2,and
D = diameter of soil particles, m.
The equatioil above shows Ulat velocity is proportional to square of the diameter of
the particle. Therefore, larger particles in ll1e soil suspensioii will settle faster than
smaller piuticles. For exainple, it can be shown h a t the time lcakenby particles of
different sizes to drop through 10 cm (assuming G,T=2.65and n=0.01 poise) arc
given in following Table 1.5.
Table 1.5

Diarnetre (mm)
I Timc (nlin)

It1 this test, about 50 g of oven-dry soil is put illto 1000 cmhof distilled water in a
graduated measuring cylinder. A dispersing agent such as Hydrogen peroxide or
Sodium hexalnetaphosphale is added to disperse the soil better. The cylinder is
shaken thoroughly so that Ihe soil is nearly uiliformly distributed ovcr llle volume
and the density is also uniform. Howevcr, as parlicles of differen1sizes bcgi~lto
settle with different velocities, the density of thc suspeilsion starts varying with time
and depth.
When the hydrometer is genlly introduced into such a suspension il comes to
equilibrium at a depth where the density is such as to produce a buoyult force
which will balance the weight ol'the hydrometer. Thus, the hydrometer will come lo
equilibrium at different depths as time progresses. This depth h of the levcl of thc
centre of its bulb is measured by introducing the hydroineler at tliffercnl values of
time t. Now, a three-way relatiorlship exists:
i) The velocity of the particles
'
which would have seltled through a dcpth h in
time t is given by
v = h/t ...(1.23)
ii) Corresponding to this velocity, there is a dia~lielcrD, as per Equalion (1.27),
such that all particles of size equal to or greater thul Illis diameter would have
settled through the depth h, while particles filler thal1.I will be in suspellsioll
within the depth h. From Equations (1.22)and (1.23)Chis clinmclcr is given by
Soil Water System iii) The specific gravity of the suspeiision at ally doptll h is proportional to the
percentage of particles filler than D,which are still in suspension within that
depth.
Hydrometers are, therefore, calibrated such that they give the specific gravity of the
suspension within the depth of immersion h. From Ulis. the percentage of particles
finer than the corresponding diameter D can be calculated. By taking readings of h
at different values of time t we can find the percentages finer Ulan different values
of D.
This diameter is known as the equivalent diameter. This is the diameter of an
equivalent spherical particle which would settle with the same velocity as the real
soil particle.
1t must be mentioned here that the hydrometer reading has to be corrected for tllree
effects : the opacity of the soil suspension, expailsioil of the hydrometer bulb due to
temperature and the effect of the dispersion agent. Let us see thein one by one.
In clear water the lower meniscus is visible and i t is taken as the water level. But, in
the suspension, its opacity prevents reading of the lower melliscus and, therefore,
only the upper meniscus is read. 31e correction, C,,, known as the meniscus
correction is equal to the difference between the upper and Iower meniscus readings
in clear water. This is positive and is to be added to the hydrometer reading since
the hydrometer readings increase downwards.
If the test is conducted at a temperature higher than the calibration temperature,the
bulb expands. This raises the bulb and the reading is lower. The correction, C,,
known as the temperature correction, is positive and is to be added to the measured
reading. This is obtained by taking readings in distilled water at the same
temperature as the suspension.
The dispersing agent increases the density of the liquid and hence a negative
correction has to be applied to the measured readings. This correction, C , is
obtained by taking the readings in distilled water co~~taining the dispersing agent.
The use of the method is illustrated in the form of a solved example.
Particle-size Distribution Curve
Particle-size distributior?.of a soil as obtained from sieve ,and hydrometer 'analysis is
usually.represented in the form of a graph known as the particle-size distribution
curve. The particle diameters are plotted against the correspol~dingpercentage filler
on a semi-log paper. The particle diameters are plotted to log scale along the
abscissa and the percent finer to natural scale. The semi-log plot helps to
accommodate within a small space the wide range of particle sizes found in soils,
Also soils of same uniformity coefficient (see below for definition) have similar
curves displaced horizontally with respect to each other. Typical particle-size
distribution curves for four soils are shown in Figure 1.6.
l?k particle-size distribution curve shows the range of particle sizes present in a
. soil andalso their relative proportions. The diameter in the particle-size distribution
curve corresponding to 10%finer is defined as the Effective Size arid denoted as,
Dlo,Similar definitions are given to DROand D60also. The variations in
particle-size distribution curves can be expressed in terms of some constants such as
effective size, uniformity coefficient, and coefficient of gradation.
The slope of the straight line portion of the curve is expressed by the Uniformity
Coefficient C, given by

The Coefficient of Gradatiou C, is expressed as

In Figure 1.6, the vertical segment of the curve for Soil I shows that particles of
diameter approximately 0.4 m m . ~ s t i t u t eabout (80-20) or 60% of the soil. Owing
 Soil Phases, Structure, 1
Consistency and
Clad~?fiention
I I

10 I' 0.1 0.01 0.001 o-door

PARTICLE D I A M E T E R , rnm
C - Coarse M - Medium F - Fino

Figure 1.6: Typical Particle Size Distribution Curves

to the limited variation in grain size, this soil is known as a poorly-graded soil. On
the other hand, curve of Soil I1 shows tl~epresence of a wider range of particle sizes
and this soil is called a well-graded soil. Curve for Soil 111shows two horizontal
segments. The first one signifies the absence of particles in the range of 0.1 nun to
0.01 rnm. The second one implies the nor]-existence of 0.002 mm Lo 0.0006 nlm
sizes. This soil is termed as gap-gradcd soil. Of course, it is not essential for a soil
to liave two horizonlal segments to be called gap-graded, o ~ is~enough.
e Soil IV is
also a well-graded soil. Curve for Soil IV is similar to tllal of Soil 11, because its
uniformity coefficient is same. But it is displaced 11orizont;lllybecause the range of
particle sizes present in it are different (check it yourself).
1.4.4 Significance of Gradation
I1 is known from experience that the behaviour of a cohesioliless soil can often be related
to its density or degree of packing of its particles and hence to the distribution of particle
sizes in it. On the other hand, the hehaviour of a col~esivesoil usually depcnds much illore
on its stress history and structure tll'm on particlc size. Tllerefore, particle size curves,
particularly those of gravels, sands and silts, have practical significance from poiill of view
of thpir properties, which are dependent directly on gradation. Examples of such properties
are capillarity, permeability, compactioil and shear strength (these are described in the
Units, which follow). Experiments show that permeability and capillarity are related Lo the
effective size.
One of Ule important applications of this relationship is in Uw design of inverted tiltcrs for
earth damns. Based on the relationship of particle size to permeability, the particle size of
filter material is so chosen as to prevent h e migration or outflow of particles of the soil
from the body of the earth dam when water Plows through it. It is also used to choose a soil
for an embankment in such a way that good density is obtained on conlpaction. A soil wilh
a greater range of particle size will achieve greater density since finer particles will rill the
voids in the coarser material, *
Example 1.6
From the gradation curve for Soil I1 in Figure 1.6, compulc perceqt gravel, sand, silt
and clay according to MIT, USDA and BIS particle-size classification systcms.
Also compute the parameters Dlo (Effective size), aild lleilce
C,,(Uniformity Coefficient) and Cc (Coefficient of Gradation).
Solution
The computations involved are shown in Table 1.6. Two typical calculations are
explained. Others are similar and the student is advised lo work thein out himself.
 I

Soil Water System Let us compute the percentage of gravel and sand in the given soil according to the
MIT system. According to MIT system (Figure 1.4), gravel corresponds to a
particle size 2 mm.From the gradation curve we find that percent finer than 2 mm
is 91, which means that percent greater than 2 mm is (100 - 91) or 9%. Similarly,
sand corresponds to the size range 2 to 0.06 rnrn.The values for percent finer for
these sizes are 91 and 59, respectively. The percentage of sand in the soil is
(91 - 59) or 32%.
Table 1.6 : Percentage of Various Size Fractions

Type of Soil MIT USDA BIS

Gravel (%) (> 2 mm) (> 2 mm) (> 4.76mm)

100 -91= 9 100-91=9 100-91~9
Sand (%) (2- 0.06 mm) (2-0.05 mm) (4.76-0.075 mm)
91-59=32 91 - 5 7 ~ 3 4 91- 61=30
Silt (%) (0.06-0.002 mm) (0.05-0.002 mm) (0.075-0.002 mm)
59-20=39 57 - 20=37 6 1-20=41

Clay (%) (<0.002 mm) (e0.002 rnm) (<0.002mm)

20 20 20

Let us now compute the other parameters required.

Dlo = 0.0003 mrn

D60 = 0.07 mm
C,, = D6fl10 = 0.07/0.0003 = 233.3
C, = = (0.006)~/(0.07*0.0003)= 1.71
Example 1.7
Results of sieve analysis for a soil are given in Table 1.7 in columns 1 to 3. Weight
of oven-dry sample used for the analysis is 482.0 g. It is necessary to compute
percent finer and plot the gradation curve.
Solution
The computations involved are also shown in the same Table 1.7. Incidentally.
these are typical of the calculations required in a sieve analysis.
Table 1.7 : Sieve Analysis Calculations

1.S Sieve Diameter Weight of Soil Retained Percent

No. (mm) Filler

(1) (2) B) (3) in % (4) (5)

200 2.032 40.97 8.50 9 1.50

100 1.OOO 13.01 2.70 88.80
60 0.592 32.05 6.65 82.15
40 0.420 13.26 2.75 79.40
20 0.21 1 29.89 6.20 73.20
I0 0.104 41.45 8.60 64.60
8 0.075 24.68 5.12 59.48 .

The gradation curve based on the percent finer calculated above is the upper part of
curve for Soil I1 in Figure 1.6. (The lower par1 pertains to particles less than 0.075
mm in size and is obtained by Hydrometer analysis.)
 --
Srbil I'l~ascs,Structutc.
Example 1.8 Consistency on11
Derive an expression for calculating percent finer than a given diiuncter from the Clurssiflcrtio~~
readings of hydrometer analysis.
Solution
Initially, at time t = 0,when the soil is thoroughly mixed in the suspension. the unit
weight will be uniform. It can be written as :

where, ywt is unit weight of water at the temperature of Lhe experiment.

Analogously at any time f and depth h we call write,

wl~hre,
N = Required percent tiller by weight than Ule diameter corresponding to the
time t and depth h.
Therefore,

Since the hydrometer reads tlle specific gravity, the unit weights of thc suspension
and water in the above equation can be written in term of thc hydrometer reading
corresponding to time t and deptl~as follows:

Hence, we can now write the following expression for N as a percent mtl for the
corrected value K (96):

where,
Pf= Percent finer than IS Sieve No.8, from wlliclr 50 g were taken for
hydrometer analysis.
Example 1.9
The data frotn a typical hydrometer a~lalysison a clay siumple is given below. It is
necessary:
i) to compute the particle sizes and the percent finer correspo~ldi~~g
to the ti~lle
intervals given, and
ii) to plot the gradation curve.
Solution
For convenience, the computations involved are presented in a secluential nlalrricr
with the help of Tables 1.7 and 1.8 :
The basic data is:
Weight of oven-dry soiI taken (N'J =50g
Specific Gravity of solids (G.$,) = 2.65 '
li\.
).
Soil Water System Area of cross-section of cylinder = 19.61 crn2
Volume of suspension (V) = 1000 cm3
Volume of Hydrometer bulb (Vh) = 65 cm3
Hydrometer reading in clear water (r,) = 0.9965
Room temperature = 27OC
Viscosity of water @ room temp. (n) = 0.008545 poise
Dispersing Agent correction (Cd) = - 0.0004
Meniscus correction (C,) = + 0.0004
Volume correction (Vh/2A) = - 1.657 cm

The hydrometer readings are taken at close intervals in the beginning and at larger
intervals later as shown in Table 1.7 (Can you guess why?). Meniscus correction is applied
first. Knowing the distance in cm from the centre of the bulb to the bottom reading on the
stem and also the distance bf the measured reading from the bottom-most reading, the
I
depth 2, is calculated. This is then corrected for volume of the hydrometer. From the
corrected value h the velocity is computed.
i
~
I

In the second stage D and N are calculated as shown in Table 1.9. Firstly dispersirlg agent
correction and then temperature correction are applied. Diameter is then calculated from
Equation (1.24) written as follows with a slight change of units :
I I
e l

where,
D is in m,n is in poises (1 poise = kN/m2), h is in cm and t is in min.

Percent finer is then calculated using Equation (1.31 a). The corrected percentage is
calculated using Equation (1.31 b). Here the value of Pfis assumed to be 0.50 for the
purpose of illustratjng the calculations.
Table 1.8 : Cornputation of Depth and Velocity

Rdg. after Men. Vh

Time Hydro. Rdg. cow. zr h =Zr-(-) v = h/t
24
( min.) (4 (r=rcCm) (cm) (cm) (cmlmin)

1I2 1.0155 . 1.0159 12.20 10.543 21.086

1 1.0135 1.0139 12.75 11.093 11,093

2 1.0120 1.0124 13.20 1 1.543 5.772

5 1.0095 1.0099 13.95 12.293 2.459

15 1.0070 1.0074 14.65 12.993 0.866

30 1.0060 1.0064 14.80 13.143 0.438

60 1.0050 1.0054 15.25 13.593 0.227

1 20 1.0030 1.0034 15.80 14.143 0.1 18

1440 1.0020 1.0024 16.20 14.543 0.010

 Table 1.9 : Computation of Diameter and Percent Finer Soil Pllases, Str~lcture.
Consistency slitl
Clessificnti011
Rdg. aftter Rdg. after Dia. D Corr.
Disp. Corr. Tenip. Corr. 70
(R=F- Cd ) (R-~w) (111111) (N)

1.0155
1.0135
1.0120
1.0095
1.0070
1.0060
1.0050
1.0030
1.0020

9AQ 2
i) Sieve ;inalysis 01.500 g of i111 oven-clry soil k ~ ~ o wilsu niurruni gilve Lhc
following results (Table 1.10). Draw tlie pnrticle size tlistrihulion curvc iuitl
cleter~ni~ie
the cfl'eclivc: size, unil'oni~itycocfficicnl iuld cocl'ficicnt of
gradation for the soil.
Table 1.10 : Di~titfor SAQ 2 (i)

1.S.Sieve Wciglit of
No. Soil Kctiriocd ( g )

ii) The particle-size cliauacterislics ol' two soils ilrc givcn hclow (Tablc 1 . 1 1).
Draw Uic pnrliclc size distribution curvcs. Firid Llic ~ ~ S C C I ~ ol'
~ gravel,
~ I ~ C S
said, sill and clay li,r eacli soil according to ( 1) MIT, (2) USDA illit1 (3) BIS
systems.
'I'able 1.11 : Data for SAQ 2 (ii)
 iii) The results of sieve analysis on a sandy soil showed Ulal percent finer by
weight than 4.76 mm was 78%, than 2.399 mm was 57%, than 1 mm was
37%, than 0.1 mm was 11% and 0.075 mm was 9%. Determine the
percentages of gravel, s'md, silt and clay according to MIT, USDA and BIS
systems, effective size, uniformity coefficient and coefficient of gradation.
iv) In a hydrometer analysis 50 g of oven-dry soil p ~ s i n g0.075 rnrn sieve is
dispersed in 1000 cm3 of water. For a reading of 0.0070 .(corrected value)
taken after 120 minutes, the depth of the centre of the hydrometer bulb after
applying all necessary corrections is found to be 145 mn. Specific gravity of'
soil grains is 2.65 and viscosity of water is 0.001 ~ - s / mWhat
~ . is the parlide
size whose percentage can be estimated from this reading and what is the
percentage ?
v) Construction debris from a site is dumped in a nearby lake. The depth of Ule
bottom of the lake is 4 m. Estimate the time required for the silt particles of
diameter 0.005 mrn in the debris to reach Ule bed. Take the s ecific gravity of
the particles as 2.65 a11d coefficient of viscosity 0.001 N-s/m .4
I
vi) Plot n semi-log graph showing grain-size distributions of the two soils whose I
sieve and sedimentation analysis data are given below (Table 1.12). 1

Table 1.12C: Data for SAQ 2 (vi)

No. (lnm)
Soil I Soil I1
480 4.76 94.50 100.00
200 2.032 60.55 100.00
85 0.842 42.00 72.75
40 0.420 31.95 70.35
25 0.25 1 21.75 59.00
I5 0.151 17.00 47.95
a
8 0.075 11.80 3 1 .OO
- 0.050* 10.78 23.82
- 0,020* 33.00' 13.25
-

1 1 1
0.005* 4.75 8.00

I* -
0.001~

From hydrometer analysis

2.15 4.25
I

1.5 SOIL STRUCTURE

As pointed out in sub-section 1.2.3, soil is a three-phase material and in real soils the
phases coexist as shown in Figure 1.2 (a). The arrangement of the particles and the voids
between them is known as structure. The structural arrangement evidently depends on the
shape and size of the particles. What is, however, not so evident is the fact that the
mineralogical composition of &he grains (see section 1.7) and the nature and composition
of the water in the soil (see Unit 2) also affect the interaction between the particles and
hence their arrangement. For understanding the structures, soils can be divided into two
groups :
1) cohesioi~less,and
.2) cohesive.
The structures developed in soils of each group are described in forthcoming sections.
 1.5.1 Structures in Cohesiorkless Soils
Cohcsionless soils gcncrally havc bulky grains h a t can be represenlcd by spheres For all
praclical purposes. Cohcsionless soils exhibil two types oT struclures :
1) single-grained structure, and
2) honeycombed structure.
1) Single-grained Structure
This structure is co~nrnonlyfound in sands and gravels. P,ulicles of scudor gravel rue
lleposited onc above Lhe other during their formation. Each ~~arlicleis in contact with three
lo I'our surrounding particles as shown in Figure 1.7.

If we assume the parlicles to be spherical two types of ;lrrangenlents are possible as shown
in Figure 1.8. The first arrangement is known as cubic packing. The second, wlierc
particles of one layer occupy lhc spaces bctween particlcs of Lhe lower laycr, is lulown as
hexagonal packing.

(a) Cubic l'acking (b) Ilrrxugo~mlPnckin~g

Figure 1.8 : Pnckings in Cohesionless Soils

However, in real soils, the particles are non-spherical ruid of unequal size. So, two
contradictory effects take place. Smaller particles occupy the voids belween larger
particles to give a close packing, while angular shape of particles prevenls close packing.
While the former decreases the void ratio, the latler increases it. Nevertheless, the
combined effect is such that the void ratios agree closely with those observed in idealized
spherical parlicle arrangeinents.
Depending on the relative positions of the grins, it is possible to have a wide range of
void ratios. For example, the void ratio of Ule cubic packing can be shown to be equal to
0.91, while that of hexagonal packing is 0.35. The inaximum arid ~ilini~ilurn void ratios in
real soils, however, will be different since the particles are neilher spherical nor uniform in
shape and size. The void ratios are called e,,,, and enin,The former is determined by
pouring dry soil of known weight loosely into a measuring jar and noting ils volunie. The
lalter is determined after compacting the soil to Lhe maximurn possible extent without
crushing the particles. Some typical values of minimum (md maxinlum void ratios and unit
weights are given in Table 1.13.
Table 1.13 : Typical Void Ratios and Unit Weights of Cohesionless Soils

Void Ratio ~ r unit

y ~ t . ( ~ m ~ )
Description of Soil Min Max
Min Max
Well graded mixture of gravel, 0.20 0.75 15 22
sand and silt
Well graded sand 0.30 0.80 14 20
Uniform sand 0.50 0.85 14 17
Micaceous sand-silt mixture
 S I ~ Water
I System The actual state of a cohesionless soil may be expressed in terms of its maximum and
mini~numvoid ratios using the para~neterRelative Density D, as already explained in
sub-section 1.3.4.
The loose structure is prone to instability especially under shock and vibration because
particles have freedom to move and occupy new positions and attain a stale of increased
density and stability.
2) Honeycombed Structure
Iloneycombed structures arise when fine-grained cohesionlcss soils, like fine sand or silt,
settle slowly in water and get deposited at the bed level. The inter-particle attraction
between such particles depends on the unbalanced electric charges on their surfaces,
which, in turn, depend on the specific surface. Specific surface of a particle is defincd as
surface area per unit volume. Therefore, the specific surface for a spherical particle of
diameter D is given by :
s = arealvolume = 6 / 0 ... (1.32)
Thus, for a typical fine sand or silt particle of size 0.05 rnm,s = 6/(0.05/1000)= 120000 m2
per unit volume. Hence, the inter-particle forces of attraction exceed the gravitational
forces in such particles. Therefore, the particles form arch-like shapes instead of moving 1
under their own weight into spaces between neighbouring particles. This is shown in I
Figure 1.9.

I
Agurc 1.9 : Honeycombed Slmcture
In such soils the void ratio exceeds the maximum possible value for single-grained
structures. The relative density, consequently, takes on negative values. The structure is
normally stable under loads due to the arch formation, but may collapse under vibration.
11.5.2 ~tructuiesin Cohesive Soils
It will be seen in sub-section 1.7.1 that clay particles are negatively charged on their
surfaces. When clay particles suspended in water come close to each other they expericnce
the well known Van der Waals forces of molecular atlraction and forces of electrical
repulsion due to tlle negative charges. Two types of structures may result from this force
i
system depending on the concentration of the suspension :
I ) Dispersed structure, and I
2) Flocculent structure.
1) Dispersed Structure
In a dilute suspension the particles will be widely spaced and the forces of repulsion will 1
far exceed the forces of attraction. The forces of gravity are negligible owing to the
fineness of the particles. The structure resulting from the sedimentation of such par'.icles is
known as dispersed structure. The particles will be nearly parallel to each other as shown
in Figure 1.10.

Dispersed structure is found in micaceous soils where particles are flaky. The void ratio is
usually low if the flakes are oriented. But, if the flaky particles are not oriented but
randomiy po;n:c2, the void ratio can he high. Oriented mica particles are dense and
anisotropic. Soils having dispersed structure are likely to be quite watertight. The void
28 ratio may vary from 0.5 to 2.. ,
 I
2) Floccuienl Structure Soil Phases, Structure, j I

Consistency and '

On the other hand, in a concentrated suspension the particles will be closely spaced and the Classificntion I
forces of attraction will exceed those of repulsion. Sometimes the edges of the particles
possess local positive charges. This leads to development of edge to surface contacts
between particles. The electrostatic attraction attains significant magnitudes and leads to
1
the formation of flocs or aggregates of particles bound to one another. The resulting
structure is known as flocculent structure (Figure 1.1 1).

figure 1.11 : Nonnnl FlocculentStructure

1 I
Sometimes flocculation is induced in a clay suspension by the presence of salt in the water
or by external addition of salt. The salt neutralizes the charges on the clay particles and the
forces of repulsion are reduced. The particles then aggregate together to form salt-induced
flocculent structure (Figure 1.12). However, the soil can be dispersed by the addition of
sodium silicate or sodium hexametaphosphate as already explained under Hydrometer
analysis in sub-section 1.4.3.

Figure 1.12 :Sdt-induced FlocculentStructure

Flocculent structure is found in sediments under sea due to salt induced aggregation.
Sediments under fresh water exhibit flocculation to a much less extent. Void ratios may go
as high as 4 in such soils.
Due to the strong edge to face electrostatic force of attraction between particles in a
flocculent structure, the structure is strong and cru~withstand vibrations, However, these
are hi@ly compressible. If the soil is remoulded it tends to mix wilh the adsorbed water
inside and become soft. The softening effect is termed as Sensitivity,
1.5.3 Composite Structures
Composite structures constitute an arrangement of coarse grairis cemented together by a
binding agent. Common binding agents are dried stiff compressed clay and calcium
carbonate. They are usually strong but may be weakened by water. Iron oxides and silica
also act as binders and are resistant to softening by water.
Coarse grains cemented in a matrix of fines is known as matrix structure (Figure 1.13 (a)).
When coarse grains constitute a large part, two types of structures develop. They are :
1) contact bound (Figure 1.1 3 (b)), and
2) void bound (Figure 1.I3 (c)).
In contact-bound structure, the coarse grains are held together at points of contact by the
binder. In the void-bound structure, the binder occupies the voids between the coarse
grains. Contact-bound composite structures are usually strong, but their strength may
reduce if the binder is prone to softening when it comes into contact with water. If the
structure is loose it may collapse or settle, if relatively dense. In void-bound structure, the
binding is stronger and the packing is dense. The binder fills almost the entire void space.
The void ratio may be as low as 0.2. Softening effect due to water is less.
Example 1.10
Compute the void ratio of cubic packing theoretically.
Soil Water Systern

Figure 1.13 : Conlposile Structures

Solution
Consider a unit volume of soil, i.e., a volume of soil bounded by a cube of unit
I
length. If the particles are assumed to be uniform spheres of diameter D, U~enwe
have :
I
Volume of each sphere = 3.1416 ~ ~ / 6 i
No. of sphereslunit volulne = ( 1 ~ ) ~ I
I

Volume of solids = Total volunlc of spheres

= 0.5236
Volume of voids = 1-0.5236
Void ratio = (1 - 0.5236)/0.5236 = 0.91
Example 1.11
Calculate the typical specific surfaces of sand, silt and clay size particles.
Solution
Let us assume typical values of particle sizes of sand, silt and clay as 1.2 lnm, 0.02
Inn1 aid 0.002 nun, respectively. Assurnirig h e particles to be spherical, the specific
surfaces will be,
forsand s= 6 / ( 1 . 2 x l ~ ~ ) = 5000 m2/ m3
I

forsilt s= 6 / ( 0 . 0 2 ~ 1 0 - ~ ) = 3 x 1 05 1nIm
2 3

for clay s= 6/(0.002 x 1 0 - 9 = 3 x 106 m2/m3 I

Example 1.12
Estimate the approximate dry unit weight of a cohesiollless soil made up of mif form
1
I
I
spllerical particles of diarncter D. ,
I
I

Solution
Assume the specitic gravity of solid particles as 2.65. It was shown above that I
volume of solids in unit volume of soil is 0.5236. Then, we have, from the
definition of specific gravity, ,

SAQ 3
i) What is the effect of particle size on void ratio and unit weight of
cohcsionless soils made up of uniform spherical particles in single-grained
loose packing'?
ii) Compute the specific surfaces of 5-nlicron clay 'and typical colloidal particles.
iii) What is the difference between iiormaI and salt-induced ilocculation?
 iv) Under what external effects cnn a honeycombed or floccule~itsoil struclure Soil Phuscs, Structure,
collapse ? Col~sistcncynncl
Ulsssific~tior
V) Calculate the typical unit weights of Uie lbllowing by assunli~~g
suitable
values of void ratio. Take G, = 2.67.
a) Well-graded dry simd.
b) Well-graded subangular saturated said.
c) Loose uniform rounded dry sand.
d) Honeycombed saturated silt.

1.6 CONSISTENCY
Try to do this siniple test. T'alce a little clry soil in your hand. You will ~ ~ o t i Uliit
c e yo11
cannot mould it into a paste, Now adtl a little water. You will find t1i;it the soil hccomes n
little sticky and plastic. You will be able to k~lcadit ant1 sliilpc it. Go 011 adding water. Tlic
soil will soon flow like a liquid.
This is hiown as consistency. In the case of coarse grained soils the intcr~llediatestage or
plasticity is not pronounced. But in Cine-grained soils Ule plastic state is secn tlistinctly uld
the soils can be ~ilouldedto any shape without crmnbling. Illis is presumably due to the
presence of clay minerals and adsort~edwater (you will learn Inore ;\boutclay miiieri~lsin
sub-section 1.7 ;u~dabout soil water including adsorbed water in U~iit2).
Swedish scientist A. Atterberg studied this phenon~eiionof consistency of ;I soil, iuld in
1911, suggested a method to describe its variatiorl lkom solid to semi-solid to plastic ;uicl
finally liquid state.
1.6.1 Consistency Limits
Atterberg defined the boundaries or linlits Cor llle states of consistency ill terms of tlle
moisture content at which the soil attains a given state. Thus tile lnoisturc conte~~t at which
the soil changes over from solid to senli-solid consistency is defined ;IS Ihe Sliri~~kagc
Limit: that at which the soil attains plastic state is known as Plastic Limit; Ulat at wllicli it
begins to flow is called Liquid Limit, Between iu~ytwo limnits Ule soil remains in the state
defined by the lower limit. Table 1.14 depicts the stages of consistency iuld b e
Consisleiicy Limits.
Table 1.14 : Atterberg Limits

1 Stage
I Description
I
I
1

Lirluid Flows like a viscous lirluirl

Liquid lhnit (LL)
I'lastic Can he re~nouldcdwithout cracking
I'lustic lhnit (PL)
Semisolid Cannot he remoulded without cl.ncking I

I Solid
I
Cannot he rernoulcled: Fnils on deforrnntion
I
It is difficult to determine the stages of consistency basctl on the above gclieral definitions,
Therefore, definitions based on methods of determination of I l ~ cconsislcncy limits are
Inore commonly used.
The tests are carried out on fine grained soils passing IS sieve no, 40, having 31opening
s i x of 0.42 mrn (See Table 1.4).
 1.6.2 Determination of Consistency Limits
i ) 1,iquid 1,imit (LL)
You must have often heard the statement that a liquid has no shear strength. Thus, the
liquid state of a soil is evidently one at which the soil has no shear strength. Therefore,
liquid limit is the moisture content at which the sheu strength of the soil just becomes
zero. However, since his is not measurable, the liquid limit is reckoned as the moisture
content at which the shear strength is close to zero, but, just measurable (about 2.5 kNlm2),
I))

Thc device used for determining Liquid Limit, commonly known as the Liquid Limit
Dcvice, is shown in Figure 1.14 (a). It consists of a hard rubber base on which is mounted

RASS DISH

D
RUBBER
BASE

(a) Liquid Limit Device

a brass cup, which can be raised by 10 mrn and dropped with the help of a crank-cam
arrangement. A soil pat is made inside the cup and a groove is cut in it with a standard
grooving tool. Two types of grooving tools and their approximate dimensions are shown in
Figure 1.14(b). Tile cup is raised and dropped until the groove (Figure 1.14 c) closes along

(b) Grooving Tool

/ RADIUS = 5 4 rnm

(c) Soil Pat Before Test (d) Soil Pat nfter Test (Closed Groove)
Figure 1.14: Liquid Limit Test

its bottom by about 12.7 mrn as shown in Figure 1.14 (6). The moisture content at which
the cIosure occurs in 25 blows is defined as the Liquid Limit.
In order to determine this moisture content, about four or more tests are conducted wilh
varying moisture contents and the corresponding number of blows required for closure of
Ule groove are noted. A curve known as the Flow curve (Figure 1.15) is plotted between
32 number of blows and moisture content on a semi-log paper with number of blows along
 ~ h clogarillrnlic axis. The graph is plotted as a straight line. The liquid limit, which Soil Phnscs, Structure,
corresponds lo 25 blows, is read off l'rom this straighl line. Consistcl~cya ~ i d
Classificetio~~

NUMBER O F BLOWS, N
( log scale)
figurc 1.15 : H o w Curve

Thus, Lhc cquillion of lhc [low curve c:ul be written as

t~ = -IF log N +C
where, IF = slopc of Lhc curve, : u ~ l

The slope ol' fhc flow line is defined as the flow index (Id and may be wrilleml as

,.
I ~ I 1/12 = nioislurc co~itcntsof soil, in pcrccnt, corresponding Lo N I and N2
blows, rcspcclivcly.
ii) Plastic Limit (PI,)
The plastic slalc is reckoned as one in which soil c:ui be rcmouldcd wilhoul breaking.
Thus. llic plastic limit is dcl'inctl ;IS the n~oisturccontent nl which a 3 mm Llircatl of soil crm
jusl be rollctl by hand wihoul cn~nihling.
This is determined by a simple lcsl in which il soil pat is rollcd into threads of 3 11l11l
diameter on a ground glass plate. Sli~rtingwith a high nloislurc conlcnt, tesls iUC done at
progressively lowcr ~lloisturecontents hy just acltling a little tlry soil each lime, The lowest
moisture content at which Lhc threads can jusl be rollcd wilhoul cnlnlbling is the Plaslic
Li~nil.
iii) Shrinkage Limit (SI,)
A1 shrinkage liniil Ulc soil is s;liil lo Ililv~rcachctl LIIC solid slate. This is tlefined as Ulc
moisture conLen1 at which Uic volume ol'soil reaches its minimum valuc ant1 remains
consl:unt oe li~rlhcrdrying. Furlher rc~novalof rnoislurc from the soil docs not result in
rciluclioti in volume as clcpiclcd in Figure 1.16. In olhcr words, il is llic moisture corltcnt
corrcsponiling to the slate whcn Iherc is just c~ioughwalcr LO fill all Lhc voids in h e dry
~011.
111lhd laboratory, a porcelain dish about 45 null in diameter and 12.5 m m in height is
coaled on the inside wiUi grgase and l'illed wilh we1 soil ruld Ulc lop is levelled off. The
Inass of the soil is nolcd. The soil is now oven-dried, weighed ruld U I ~ I Iits volunle is
determined by displacement of mercury. The Shrinkage Limit is now conlputed as I'tAlows :
Soil Watcr Systcrn

-
2
0
m
k
0
W
Z
3
0
SHRINKAGE
v

MOISTURE CONTENT ( ' l r )

Figure 1.16 : Vdume Change During Shrinkage

where,
wl = weight of the wet soil pat in the shrinkage limit dish
w2 = weight of the oven-dried soil pat
V1 = volume of the wet soil pat (inside volu~neof the dish)
V2 = volume of the oven-dried soil pat
y, = Unit weigh1 of water
A number of useful soil indices are derived from the above consistency limits. l l ~ e yare
Plasticity Index, Liquidity Index, Shrinkage Ratio and Degree of Shrinkage. These are
cxplaincd below.
Plasticity Index (PI)
The Plasticity Index is the difference between liquid limit and plastic limit i.c. the
range ol' moisture content over which the soil remains in a plastic state.
PI = LL- PL . j)

1,iquidity Index (1,I)

Thc consistency of a cohesive soil in its natural state can be expressed in relation to
its limiting consislencies by a ratio known as the Liquidity Index (Li),

I= in situ moisture content of soil.

Liquidity index varies from 0 at plastic limit to 1 at liquid limit. Some 1'
unconsolidated soils may have moisture contents greater than the liquid liinit and a
liquidity indcx grcatcr that1 one, Heavily precompressed soils may have natural
moisture contcnts less than Ule plastic limits and hence negative values of liquidity
index, LI is used to define the state of a soil as follows :
Scmi-solid to Solid LI <O
Plastic O<LI<l
Liquid LI > 1
And wihin Ule ~ l a s t i cstate the soil is termed as follows depending on the LT :
Stiff 0 c LI c 0.25
Medium soft 0.25 c LT <0.5
Soft 0.5 < LI < 0.75
, Very soft 0.75 < LI < 1
Shrinkage Ratio Soil Phnses, Structure,
Consistency and
This is defined as the ratio of volume change ~ I I9
i of dry soil volume V, to the Classification
corresponding change in moisture content from the initial value to the shrinkage
limit. Using the notations of equation (1.39,

Degree of Shrinkage
This is the change in volume p r unit original volume and is expressed as, again
using notations of Equation (1.35),

Fro111SL aid SR it is possible to calculate G, using the followir~grelationship,

which tl~estudent is lidviscd to derive I~inlself.

1.6.3 Significance of Consistency Limits

The Attcrbcrg lilllits arc no doubt arbitrarily and empirically dcfined. Interpreting them
fundamentally, therefore, is not advisable. However, they are useful illdices for
understiu~dingtl~estates in which a tile grained soil can exist. 'I'hcy are also useful for
identification and classification of fine-grained soils.
As shown later in Unit 2, water in a clayey soil is in the f o m ~of adsorbed films around the
particles. Tliis water, which is bound to Uie clay particles by the force of adsorption, is not
frcc to movc. When the ~noisturecontent increases and the adsorptior~capacity is fully
satisfied the water tends to lnove as free water under gravity, Thus, clays which have
greater tendency to adsorb writer will l~avehigher moisturc contents at liquid limits. So,
also for plastic limits. Thus, the consistency limits exprcss Ule clay-watcr behaviour at
different nloisture contents.
1.6.4 Activity of Clayey Soils
As mentioned abovc t l ~ cadsorbed water in a claycy soil is bound to Ule surface of me
I
particles, The quantity of adsorbed watcr, therefore, depends on the surhce area of UIC
particles. It was shown in sub-section. 1.5.1, that if Ule particles arc:issumned to be
spl~erical,the surface area per unit volume will bc 6/D, where D is tllc dia~netcrof h e
particle. Thus, as Ule size of the particle decreases Uie surfacc area increases. Also, as the
percentage of clay size particles increases, ll~eavailable surface arca increucs. Tlds fact has
been uscd by Skelnpton to express lhe water-holding capacity of clay minerals ill ternls of a
parameter called Activity. Activity is defined as :

A = -- Plasticity~@~ ...(1.41)
Percenlagc of clay - size fraction, by weight

Activity is used to distinguish between clay minerals. Activity valucs for Uirce of the most
commonly occurring clay nlinerals are :
Kaoliliite = <l
Illite = 1- 2

1.6.5 Engineering Use of Atterberg Limits i/a I

The Atterberg limits and related indices arc very usel'ul for soil idcilti'ficatio11aid
classificatiai.
35
Snil Wnlcr Syslc111 Plasticity Chart
A. Casagraidc studicd a large number of soils and established a relationship between the
Plaslicity Index arid thc Liquid Limit. Since both these parameters can be determined by
simple laboratory techniques, this relationship has found favour with all soil engineers.
Thc relationship is used as a criterion for classifying fine-grained soils in the Unified
C!assification Sysle~n(See Table 1.21 in sub-section 1.8.4). It is presented in the form of a
graph known as the Plasticity Chart. Tlie relationship is given by
PI = 0.73 (LL - 20) ...(1 .42)
TIic chart is uscful in criginrering practice for classifying fine-grained soils. Soils falling
above Lhc A line are inorganic clays and Uiose below are inorganic silts. The plasticity of
thc inorgallicclays and Lhc compressibility of the inorganic silts vary from low (LL < 30)
througll ~nediurn(30 < LL < 50) to high (LL > 50). Organic silts fall below A line in the
~nediumcompressibility range while organic clays fall in the high compressibility range.
Example 1.13
Given Ihe following data from a liquid limit test on a soil, compute lhe liquid limit and the
tlow index.
Table 1.15 : Data for Example 1.13
- -

No. of Blows Moisture Content(%)

32 51.2
27 55.0
22 58.9
18 61.4
16 66.6

Solution
First, plot lhe given data on a semi-log paper with No. of blows along Uie X axis
and Moisture content along the Y axis. The curve so obtained, as already stated, is
known as the tlow curve. This curve is represented in Figure 1.15 as Curve No. 1.
From the plot it can be seen hat moisture content corresporlding to 25 blows, is
56%. Therefore,

Now, from Equation (1.34), the flow index can be calculated using any two points
on the graph as

Example 1.14
The plastic limit test on a soil sample gave the following moisture contents.
Deternline the plastic limit.
Table 1.16 : Data for Example 1.14
1 Trial No. Moisture Content(%) 1

Solution
From the description of the plastic limit test in sub-section 1.6.2 we see that the
given readings represent the moisture contents at which a soil thread of 3 mm dia is
formed without crumbling. Therefore, the plastic limit is given by h e average of the
four
,.?
readings as
Exarn~le1.15 Soil Pl~ases,
Structure,
Consistency and
Tl~enatural moisture content of a soil is 32.5'70. Col~slslc~lcy li~nillests on Lhe soil gi~vc: CIiassitication
tl~eliquid linlit as 53.3% arid plnstic limit ns 23.7LX1.Whal 1s Ulc pl;aticily inclex oL' the
soil ? Would the soil be stiff or soft in its ~~nlural
stale '! How would thc soil behave if
Ihere is a light rainfall ?
Solution
From Equation (1 3 6 ) and Equalion (1 -37) wc gel
PI = 53.3 - 23.7 = 29.6; LI = (32.5 - 23.7)/29.(1= 0.297
Thus, Lhe soil is medium soft in its natural slalc. IL' there is ;i lighl rainfall the
moisture content or UIC soil will increase i111cl 111csoil would lend to become soft Lo
very soft. 111non-engineering lenns, Uie soil woulcl tend to he sluslly ;uld difficult to
walk on.
Example 1.16
The readings from liquid lilnil and plaslic linlillcsls on a soil ilrc given bclow. What
is tlie plasticity index ? Classify thc soil using Plaslicily Chi~rt.
Table 1.17 : Data for 1l:~iltnple1.16
i-.
Tcst No.
I

1 Wt. of Dish (g)

(21
I

1 Wt. of IJisll +
Wet Soil (g)
(3) 1
I

Wt. of ])is11 +
IJry Soil (g)
(4)
I
No. ot'I5lows

Liquid limit test

1 20.52 39.03 32.45

2 20.33 40.09 33.66

3 24.23 42.69 37.18

Plastic limit test

-
Solution
l ~ tl limit test is c;~lculnlcdas :
The moisture contcnt corresponding to e ; ~ c liqui

The con~puledmoisture contents and lhe N o . ol'blows arc Ii~l~ul;~tctl

hclow.
Table 1.18

The liquid limit test dala is plotted as Curve No.2 in Figure 1.15. Fro111Uie curve,
we get
LL = 4n.5%
Using the same formula the moisture contents lix the plilstic l i ~ n i test
t data are
28.23% and 27.64%. Therefore, taking Ule average,
PL = 27.9%
Thus, PI = 46.5 - 27.9 = 18.0. Fro111Ulc Plasticity Chiut of U~ill'icclClassil'icalion
Syslem CTable 1.20), the given soil lies almosl on Ulc A line, Thcrclhrc, h e given
soil is classified as C L - ML.
Soil Wntcr Systcm
Example 1 .I 7
A shrinkage linlit test on a clay gave a value of 19.5%.Tie initial iliolsture content
as determined in the field was 41 3 8 . Take thc sacific gravity rs 2.65. On
evaporatio~lthe moisture content comcs tlown to 17.Xf&.Calculate Ulc
corresponding decrease in voluriae per unit volurne and the shrinkace ratio.
>.

Solution
I t can he shown Uiat Lhc following relationships bohl.(TI\e studc~ltshouhl try to
prove these from fundamentals.)

where, nt,,, = natural moisture content and all other notations are sarne as in
Equation (1.38) to Equation (1.40).
Here, S L = 1 9 . 5 ; ~ ~ , , , = 4 1 . 3 ; G . ~ = 2 . 6 5 ; V ~ =3 1 c m
Substituting Lhese above and solving for V2,we get, V2= 0.48. Thus, the expected
change in volume = 1 - 0.48 = 0.52 crn3,
SAQ 4
i) The following data were obtained from the liquid and plastic limit tests for a
soil.
Liquid limit test : The number of blows N ant1 the moisture content 6.
respectively, are 37,42.5; 33,462; 21, 52.3 and 13,61.5.
Plastic limit test : Moisture content = 18.7%.
Draw the flow curve from the liquid limit test data and find the liquid limit
and flow index. What is the plasticity index of the soil ?
ii) A. soil whose liquid limit is 5 9 8 , Plastic limit is 26%,is excavated from a
borrow pit for placement in an embankment. The natural moisture content of
\
the excavated soil is 32%. Calculate
a) pfasticity index
b) is Ule sail stiff or soft when compacted at its existing moisture content in
the embankment?
iii) If the in situ moisture content of the soil in SAQ 4 (i) is 22% what is its
liquidity index ? What will be the state of the soil in Ule natural condition ?
iv) The flow curves for three soils are shown in Figure 1.15. Which soil
possesses least shear strength ?
v) A saturated soil with a volume of 18.00 cm%as a mass of 34 g. After drying,
the soil had a volume of 13.9 crn? Its rnms was 24 g. Deterrninc the
shrinkagc limit and shrinkage ratio of the soil.

1.7 CLAY MINERALOGY

It was pointed out in sub-section 1.2.1 that soil and rock are subjected to chemical
weathcring. In chemical weathcring, the minerals present in Ule rocks undergo alteration
by chemically reacting with the water and carbon dioxide, which are present in the
atmosphere. 73ere is r large number of minerals in nature but promineot among them are
about a dozen minerals which are present in most of the rocks. Of these, feldspars, micas
and ferromagnesium minerals are especially important since Uley give rise to complex
alumino silicates which are known as Clay Minerals.
 hcigl~lot'a lclmllc(~n~n is 5 ArlgsVonl units (i.e., 5 A equal to 5 x J.O-' mm). Tllerel'ora, L C
thickness of a silica sheet is 5 A.

Bigurc 1.19 : Silica Shcct

When alumina ocl;~t~ctlra c o ~ n b ~ in

n ea similar lnauuler by sharing the unbalimced hydroxyl
units, a shcet slruclure know11as Ule Gibbsite sheet resulls (Figure 1.20). This sheet is
relativcly morc conlplex. Adjacent ;ilun~inumsshare llydroxyls as well as oxygcn units
obtai~~ed by a~lleratioiiof one to the other. The thickness of this sheet is ills(.)5 A. In case of
1n;lgncsium octahednIn Ule corresponding shcct is ci11led Ule Brucite sheet.

0 HYDROXVL

@ ALUMINUM

Figl~rc1.20: Thc Gibhsilc Sl~cet

The silica tetrahedron is elcclrically active while the sil~cashcct is elcctric;llly ncutr:rl
bccausc h e unbal;u~cedoxygcn atoms arc sal~sfiedilfer combination. Likewise, a Gibbsite
shcct is also usually electrically neutral, However, in certain insuulces complcLo balancing
iliay no1 Lake place and the sheel rnay be non-unil'orrn. In the case ol'brucite
non-un~l'ornlityis be more because of substitution of trivalenl aluminum by bivalcnl
magnesium. Subst~tutionsare also done by olller atoms such as iron, sodium or potassium
In real clay nlinerals tllc silica and Ulc alun1in;l sheels combinc lo l'orm a morc complex
Lhree-dimensional struciure. The silica shecls are stacked over Ule gibbsilc sheets. The
unbalanced oxygcns of the siIica shect arc satisfied by unbalarlced a l u r n i r ~ ~of~ m the
gibbsitc sheet. This gives rise to a platy structure. In some cases atoms arc shaucd by two I
plales and thus a bond develops which hold the plalcs togclher unlil substiluted by mother
atom or dislurbcd by exlcmal lncans. Hydrogen atoms may swilch back ancl forth l~clwce11
plates. This shared attraction is known as Hydrogen Bond. It holds the plates togeher in
stacks. 11' ~ n a g ~ l e s i utakes
~ n the plilcc ol' alu~ninumthe shect is called a brucitc shcet. A
typical silica-gibbsite shcet struclurc is shown in Figure 1.21. !
 1.7.3 '~oinmon
Clay FMincrals Soil Phases, Structure,
Consistency and
~t follows from above that clay particles carry a net unbalanced negative charge on them. CIassitication
The negative charges are distributed over the surface. The surface area of a particle per
unit volume, or sometimes, unit mass is known as specific surface. Thus, as specific
surface increases negative charges also increase. The negative charges are balanced by
IsomorphousSubstitution. Substitution of one element, for example aluminum, by 'mother,
say magnesium, without changing the crystalline structure is known as isomo~hous
substitution.
~ h u sthere
, is a large number of clay minerals which vary in their degree of electrical
activity and the extent of isomorphous substitution by various cations. But the most
common among them are Kaolinite, Illite and Montrnorillonite.
Kaolinite
Kaolinite consists of repeating layers of elemental silica-gibbsite sheets (Figure 1.22 (a))
that are about 7.2 A thick. Kaolinite occurs as platelets. The sheets are tightly bonded in
the plates by hydrogen bonding. Lateral dimensions of the plates may be 1000 A to
20,000 A and thickness 100 8.to 1000 A. Tliey stack in the form of layen as thi;ck as
0.01 rnm.The surface area of the kaolinite particles per unit mass is about 15 m Ig. There
are several members of the kaolulite family, depending on variations in the alumina sheet.
In general they are relatively well balanced electrically 'and exhibit only limited
isomorphoussubstitulion.

&timzma LzzzzD
Sl LlCA SHEET A L U M I N A SHEET POTASSIUM ATOM

WATER VARl A B L E

T
(n) Knolu~ile (b) Montn~orillu~~ile (c) mile
E'igrre 1.22 : Stmelureof Clny Minernls

Montmorillonite
Montmofillonite has a structure in which a gibhsite slieet is sruidwiched between two silica
sheets (Figure 1.22 (b)). There is extensive isornorphous substitution of niagiiesium and
iron for aluminurn in Uie tetrahedral sheets. Each substitution produces a different nlineral,
for example, nontronite, sauconite and saponite. Rut, from the engineering point of view,
this differentiation is not important. 'lliese units do not stack together easily, and when
stacked, break apart easily. A large amount of water is attractcd into the space between the
layers. Particles of montmorillonitc have lateral dimensions of 1000 A to 5000 A aid
thickness of 10 8. to 50 8..The specific surface is about 800 m2/g.
Generally, montmorillonites form in regions rich in ferro-mi~griesiumrocks (the source of
magnesium) sucli as volcanics, and particuli~rlyin areas of high temperature arid iritetlse
rainfall. In India the black cottoii soils of Karnataka aid nearby regions contain this clay
mineral. Ingress of water into sucli soils in nionsoori ciluses extensive swelling leading to
cracking of buildings and heaving of the fou~~dation.
Illite
Illite also consists of a gibbsitc sheet bonding wilh two silica slicets likc montmorillonite.
The difference is Uiat there is isomorphous substitution by potassium. ?he layers share Uie
potassium aloms and form tightly bonded stacks (Figure 1.22 (c)). 111m'e is a limited
isomorphous substilution in the alumina slieet. The negativc cliargc to balance Uie
potassium atonk comes from Ule substilution of silicon by alunlinuni in tlie telrdiedral
sheets. Illite particles generally have lateral dinlcnsiolis ranging from 1000 to 5000 A aid
thickness froin 50 A to 500 A. The specific surface of the particles is about 80 m21g. Illites
are often present in shales and other deposits that llave bee11subject lo n changing
environment; Uiey appear to be the alteratioll products of otlicr clay minerals.
 Suil Watcr System Other Clay Minerals
Besides kaolinitc, montmurillonile ruld illite, some of the o h e r clay minerals gefierally
found are halloysile, vernuculite, and attapulgite.
Halloysite is a member ol' the kitolinile family. 11 $ontains a sheet of water between
adjacenl clay units. Tlle clay unit lhicla~essis 10 A rather thrul7.2. Halloysite exhibits
shrinkage and reduction in thickness when dried. Rewetting does not restore the original
stale. Its bchaviour is co~~lpletelychrulged by dehydration. Therefore, there have been
problems in embankment construction, wllere halloysite has been tested in the laboratory
under dry conditions but usell a1 site in Ule moist condition.
Vermiculite is collsidered to be a part of the montiriorillonite family. However, like
halloysite it coiltai~lssheets of watcr betweell the vert~uculiteunit sheets. Bolh minerals
exhibit isomorphous substitution bul not to Ule same degree as montn~orillonites.
The altapulgite mineral is different in that it has a double layer chain of silica Letrahedra
linked by magnesium and alunlinum atoms. The crystal is in the form of a long ribbon lhal
can contain water molecules.
I
1.7.4 Nature of Water in Clay
As mentioned above, clay particles carry anet negative charge on their surfaces which is
caused mainly by isomorphous substitution. Some positive charges also occur at the edges
of h e particles. In dry clay when no waler is present the negative charge is balanced by
exchangeable cations (such as cat+, Mg++,Nat, and Kt) which are held by eleclrostatic i
attraction. However, when water is added to clay, these cations are released. These and a
small nunlbcr of anions float around the clay particles and form what is known as iL
Diffuse Double Layer (Figure 1.23 (a)). The cation coricenlration is high close to the
surface of the particle and il decreases as Ule distance from thc particle increases
(Figure 1.23 (b)).

LOW CATION

k,
CON C E N T R A T 1 0 N

HIGH CATION
CONCENTRATION

0
l. I
50
I

100
-
%

0c ~ ~0l WoA T E~R DIPOLE

D I S T A N C E FROM CLAY
SURFACE , A

(n) Adsorbed Waict- m ~ dCatior~Distrihutio~~ (b) Cation Concer~tration

Figure 1.23 : Diffuse Double Layer

In order to understand this one must look at the structure of a water nlolecule. Watcr
molecules are polar molecules. Hydrogen atonis are arranged in an unsyrnrnetric manner
around the oxygen atom, at a bond 'angle of 105' (Figure 1.24). Therefore, a water
lnolecule behaves like a small rod with a positive charge at one end and a negative charge
at the other end. Hence it is known as a Dipole.
There is a three-way atlraction which takes place in the presence of water & shown in
Figure 1,23 (a). Firstly, the cations in thc diffuse double layer are attracted to the clay
pacticle surfaces. The positive end of the water dipole is also attracted to the clay particle
surfaces, T l ~ negative
e end of the dipole is attracted by Ule cations. Thus, water is held to
clay and the force of attraction decreases with distance from the surface of the particles.
All the water held to clay particles by force of attraction is known as double layer water.
The inner layer of double layer water, which is held very strongly by clay, is known as
adsorbed water. The property of this water is very different from ordinary water. It is more
viscous than ordinary water, and in the first layer of adsorbed water the density c'm be as
42 n ~ Unit 2 : Soil Water for more details).
high as 1400 k ~ / i (See
 SVMBOL

HYDROGEN HYDROGEN

111view ol' llicsc properlies cl:ly riiincr;lls liavc very high v;~lucsof liquid and plastic limits.
Sorile ~ypicillvi~lucs;11'~gi VCII in 7';tbIc 1.19.
Table 1.19 : Atterberg Limits of Cl;ry Minel-ills
-

1Sxchangcablc
bliucral

ol'Clay Millerals
1.7.5 Identificatio~~
The cliarilctcr 01' die cIi~yniincr;~lsg c n ~ r i ~ linfluznces
ly Llic behi~viourof the soils which
conlain Llicm. Tllcy c:ln a11ect ti~.i~iliage, slrcngh ;~xidco~nprcssibili~y. I~iiprovcnicnlol' Uic
behav~ot~r of Li soil c o ~ i l i ~ i ~ c.l;~y
i i ~ i g~ninel-alsrequires ;i knowledge of Ll~ctype of clay
1nincr;ll a~itlits S L I ~ U C Sillce
L L I ~ L'~I;L)I
. ~ ~ i i ~ i ~arcr : s111:111
~ l s ill size illid arc si~nilarin size uld
wciglil Llicir iilenlifici~lionruid scpi~riltionin m y soil is tlil'ficull.
'
One niclliotl ol' iclcn~il'icnlioi1ol' lilixcti cloy I I U ~ C ~ is~ LDil'l'crcnliol
~S Tlicr~ualA ~ i i i l y ~The
i~.
cl;~pis lica~cilslowly. At difl'crcnl I C I ~ I ~ L ! ~ ~ L L Uclcpcnding
~CS, on Ihc clay n i i ~ ~ e r ;cithcr
~l,
slructu~i~l or 1,llasc changes or rcle;\se ol' waler takes place. The Iicat rcquirctl !o release tbc
water protluccs ii cliiu'i~ctcristiccli;~~ige ill l(1c L.;I~CoI'Ii~~;~tr~ig.Tlic clay is itlc~il~fied
eliipiricillly ilnd , s u ~ n i - q i ~ a ~ ~ ~ i t by
a t icoli~piuing
v~ly tlic clil'l'crc~ilielrate ol'licnling ol'llie
clay will1 ~cspccllo iI i ~ i c rhubslancc
l such i ~ calcincil
s illt~lllin;~.
Soil Water System . Another method is known as X-ray Diffraction. The soil is subjected to an X-ray beam at
varying ruigles. The shadows produced by the atoms in tlie structure can be deduced. This
is probably the most reliable method for identification and can give both the clay mineral
and the approximate amount present.
Yet another technique is the use of the Electro~iMicroscope, which makes a shadow
photograph of the mineral: The well-stacked kaolin particles can be easily identified, but
the montmorillonites,whose unit plates separate easily, sometimes produce no identifiable
pattern.

1.8 SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Measurement of fundamentaI soil properties like permeability, compressibility and
strength can be difficult, time consuming and expensive. For these reasons, sorting soils
into groups showing similar behaviour may be very helpful. In many soil engineering
problenls,empirical expressions are used for analysis and rigorous determination of soil
properties is usually not required in the preliminary stages of analysis. In such cases again
sorting of soils is quite useful. This is called Soil Classification.
Hence, soil classification consists of assigning a soil to a group of soils all of which exhibit
similar behaviour. The classification system is usually an empirical one developed through-.
considerable experience. Soil classification helps in making preliminary evaluation of
inany simple soil engineering problems. It also helps in planning detailed test programs for
difficult and important problems.
The earliest attempl to classify soils was by geologists, who were interested in it as a
product of the geological evolution process. Side by side, agriculturists also developed
their own system considering soil as that part of the earth's crust, which supports plant life.
The system is known as Pedological Classification System. Engineers required more
rigorous systems and evolved methods based on index properties of soils. All soil
classification systems make use of index-type tests to obtain the soil characteristics needed
for the classification. These index tests are necessarily simpler than the standard methods
used for determination of the fundamental soil properties. The most commonly used
characteristics are particle size and plasticity.
Here the geological, pedological and the engineering classification techniques are briefly
described in their clu-onologicalorder of development.
1.8.1 Geological Classification
The basis for this system of classification is Genesis. As stated in the very beginning, soils .
are products of weathering. These products may he stationary or transported to other
places by water, wind, ice or gravity.
Soils formed at the place of their origin are called Residual Soils. An important
characteristic of residual soil is the presence of fine-grained soil at the surface: grain sizes
increase with depth dowli to the bedrock. At larger depths, angular rock fragments may be
found.
Transported soils may be classified into several groups, depending on their mode of
transportation and deposition, such as :
1) glacial soils - formed by transportation and deposition of glaciers
2) alluvial soils - transported by running water and deposited along a stream
3) -
lacustrine soils formed by deposition in quiet lakes
4) marine soils - formed by deposition in the seas
5) aeolean soils - transported and deposited by wind
6) colluvial soils -formed by movement of soil by gravity such as larldslides,
from its original place
1.8.2 Pedological Classification
A soil derived or deposited by the geological processes described in sub-section 1.2.1,
undergoes physical and chemical changes due to climatic factors prevalent in the locale in .
the geological era subsequent to its deposition. Vegetation grows in the newly deposited
 1'

1,

material; rainfall contributes to leaching and eluviation of the surface and development of Soil Phases,Structure, , ,,
topography, which in turn exerts influence on the process of further changes. n e s e Consiste~~cy and I
Classiflcntion
changes continue to take place over geological time. This leads to a characteristicexternal
appearance of the soil.
Thus, the pedological classification system is based on Genesis and Morphology. From
the above discussion five Genetic Factors, which contribute to soil formation, can be
identified as :
1) Parent material
2) Climate
3) Vegetation
4) Relief or topography
5) Age or Geological time
Moqhology refers to the external appearance of the soil. The factors used to express this
are Texture uld Colour.
In this system soil is considered as the end product of the combined action of the five
genetic factors which is manifested externally in the Soil Profile. And morphology is used
to characterise the profile. This system is said lo have had its origin in the late 19th century
in the former USSR due to a soil scientist by name Dokuchaev. Now let us see what a soil
profile is.
The Soil Profile
The sciil profile is a natural succession of soil layers below theground surhce and
represents the effects of tile wealhering processes. These layers are known as Horizons.
The profile may extend to various depths, and Ule horizons may have various thicknesses.
Generally, Uree distinct horizons can be seen in a natural soil profile. These are called
from top downwards as A, B hid C horizons, respectively. However, this number may be
more in old and mature soils.
A typical profile is shown in Figure 1.25. The A horizon is rich in humus and organic plant
residues. The layer following i~lxnediatelybelow, called the B horizon, has a contrasti~lgly
different colom. The relatively unwealhered parent material lying below, from which the
upper horizons were derived is designated as the C horizon. From the figure it can be
seen that the A niid B horizons could have several sub-horizons designated as A], Az,...
and B1, Bz,...etc.

Horizon Description 7'

D u k colour, ~ r g n n i matter
c and minerals
Light-colour, leaclled zone
Leached, but trnrlsitional to B
Accumulatior~zone, transitional to A
Deep colour, Accumulatioll ~nile,clay formalion
Transitional to C, Deeper cblour than C, Carbonate accumulalion
Parent mnlerial, Salt accumulation, slight weathering
Unaltered rock

Rg111r1.25 : The Soil Profile

To classify Uie soils in an area the soil profiles are observed at regular inlervals. If
necessary, pits are excavated to expose the profiles. The number, sequence, thickness,
colour and texture of the soil in each horizon are recorded. Soils with similar profiles ace
considered to be formed by the sane processes 'md hence belonging to the same class,
On a continental level soils ace classified into :
i) Great Soil Group,
ii) Zonal Group,
iii) Intra-zonal Group, and
iv) Azonal Group.
Soil Water System Those with simillzs profiles are members of the same great soil group. Soils within the
zonal group are identified on the basis of variations in climate and vegetation irrespective
of the parent material, as similar profilcs can develop from a variety of different parent
materials. Those profiles in which local topography and drainage are the dominant factors
are included in the intra-zonal groups that cross climatic bo$daries. Some soils exhibit
little profile development becaus of insufficient time for development. These are azonal
soils.
On a regional level, for agricultural purposes, smaller classes are used. Soils with similar
profiles and derived from the same parent material are grouped into Series. They are
generally named after the area, where they are first identified. To have a finer level of
classification, the Series are subdivided into Types and Phases. Types are classified based
on the texture of the upper materials. Phases are identified within Types by considering
variations in erosion, stoniness or rockiness, depth to bed rock etc.
In the US, in particular, Pedologic mapping has been carried out exlensively for evaluating
the agricultural potential. In many cases series, and even types, have been mapped in
considerable detail. Empirical correlations have been developed even for engineering use
between pedologic map units (types) and drainage, plasticity, texture and potential use as
construction materials. Some general description of the major soil classes is given below.
In cool or temperate and humid climates, vegetation grows abundantly and leads to
formation or organic matter. The downward moisture movement adds to the creation of a
profile with the three distinct horizons. The A-horizon is characterised by an acidic
cl~emicalalteration environment. The upper part is dark coloured and rich in organic
matter followed by sandy and light coloured sub-horizon due to downward leaching of
clays. The B horizon contairls the leached materials and deep coloured. It is thicker and
rich in clay minerals, iron and carbonates, often partly cemented. This is underlairk by the
C horizon, which is the slightly weathered parent material. The unweathered D horizon is
the last.
In hot, humid regions the top layer undergoes alternate wetting, drying and downward
leaching. The climate causes decay of organic matter and the environment is basic. The
soluble silica and insoluble oxidised aluminum (md iron give rise to cemented quartz,
which is a stiff rock-like material called laterite. The ratio of silica to oxides of aluminum
and iron is low. The colour ranges from light t.0 bright red. Laterites are strong and
relatively incompressible although often light weight and porous. Some laterites may
soften on wetting. They are used as aggregate for road construction and as building
material.
In dry regions vegetative grow* is insignificant and hence there is very little organic
matter. Upward movement of moisture due to evaporation brings soluble carbonates up
and the top layer consists of partly cemented soil. Sometimes carbonate c~ncretionsoccur
as lenses in the mass. When dry, these exhibit good strength. But, when stlturated Uiey
become weak or collapse due to sudden loss of strength. During monsoon rainfall the surface
becomes alkaline and fonns a white crust. They may be good construction nlaterials depending
on the parent material.
I
In a wet climate, organic decay and organic matter accumulation are rapid. When
associated with fluctuating water levels, muck and peat formation takes place. In cool
climate the peat deposits are thick because the decay tends to be especially slow. Thick
peatdeposits can also be found in tropical regions in inundated areas such as lakes.
The pedological classification system has undergone significant and dramatic changes in
the twentieth century with the advent of aerial photography and, more recently, satellite
remote sensing. It is now possible to prepare a soil map in the office using air-photos and
satellite imagery. Field work is limited to selective confirmatory ground-truth verification.
A detailed description of this technique is beyond the scope of this block.
1.8.3 Textural Classification
Texture of a soil refers to its surface coarseness or fineness. Particle size is a measure of
texture. We have already seen in sub-section 1.4.2 particle-size classification of soils into
classes such as gravel, sand, silt and clay. However, natural soils are mixlures of several
size fractions. In the textural classification system, natural soils are classified and named
after their principal components. A textural classification chart, known as the triangular I

I
ch'art, developed by the U.S.Bureau of Public Roads, is shown in Figure 1.26. The
percentage of sand, silt and clay are calculated according to following size limits :
 sand 2.0 mrn to 0.05 mm Soil Phases, Structure,
Consistency and
silt 0.05 mm to 0.0005 mm Classification
clay < 0.005 mm
Based on this chart, a soil C with 20% sand, 40% silt, and 40% clay is classified as "clay",
as.shown in Figure 1.26. If gravel or larger size particles are present, the percentages of
sand, silt and clay are to be corrected by subtracting the gravel fraction and taking the sum
of the other three fractions as 100%.

Figure 1.26 : Texturnl Classification Chart

1.8.4 Engineering Classification

Since textural classification system is based entirely on particle-size distril..!tion and does
not take plasticity illto account, it is inadequate for most engineering purposes, Therefore,
classification schemes for engineering purposes were developed to consider both gradation
and plasticity characteristics. The Bureau of Public Roads, USA, developed a system for
soils for highway construction. A. Casagrande developed a general purpose sclierne. The
Corps of Engineers and CAA developed systems for airfield construction. In 1952, the
Bureau of Reclamation arid the Corps of Engineers evalilated all available systems and
adopted two systems. They are
1) the AASHO classification system, and
2) the Unified Classificatioii System.
1) AASHO Classification System
This system of soil classification began in 1929 and was called the Public Road
Administration classification system. Since then it has gone through several revisions, and
the present version was proposed in 1945. The AASHO classification in its pre8ent form is
given in Table 1.20. According to this system, soil is classified into seven major groups,
A-1 through A-7. Soils classified under groups A-1, A-2 and A-3 are graiulaf materials
with 35% or less passing through a IS Sieve No, 8 (0.075 mm).Soils with more than 35%
passing No. 8 sieve are classified under groups A-4, A-5, A-6 and A-7. These soils are
mostly silt and clay-type materials. To classify a soil by Table 1.20, one must proceed
from left to right with the required lest data available, By the ptocess of elimination, the
first group from the left into which the test datil will flt gives the correct classification.
 Sail Wn ter Sysle~n

PERCENT P A S S I N G N 0 . 2 0 0 S I E V E
OR LESS OR MORE

75 70 65 60 56 50 L5 LO 35

OR MORE OR LESS
PERCENT PASSING N0.200 SIEVE

Figure 1.27 : Group Index Chart

Table 11.20 : AASHO Classification System

(;enera1 Granular Materials Silt-Clay Materials
Classification (535% Total Sample Passing No. 200) (z 35% Total Sample
Passing No. 200)
Group A-1 A-3 A-2 A-4 A-5 A-6 A-7
Clussification A-7-5'
A-I-a A-I-b A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7
A-7-sb
l'e~.centI'assi~ig
Nil. 10 50 max
No. 40 30 max 50 max 51 min
No. 200 15 max 35 maw lOmax 35 rnax 35 max 35 max 35 max 36 min 36 min 36 min 36 min
Chxaete~~istics of
fractii~npassing
I
No. 40 :
Liquid Limit 40max 41 mi11 40max 41 mi11 40max 41 min '40max 41 min
Plasiticity Index 6 max NP' IOrnax 10max Ilrnin Ilmin 10max IOrnax llmin Ilmin
1 Group Index 0 0 0 4m u 8max 12max 16mu 20max (
Usual sigliificallt stone, silty soils clayey soils
Collstitue~lt fragments, fine silty or clayey gravel and .sand
Materials gravel and sand sand '

General Subgrade rating excellent to good fair to poor

I I
I , Source : Sowers, G. B,and Sowers, G . K, lntroductorySoil Mechm~icsandFoundnlion Etzgineeritzg.
I

To evaluate the performance quality of a soil as a highway subgrade material under the
system, a number called the Group Index is included with the groups and subgroups of
the soil; it is written in parentheses after the group or subgroup designation. The group
index of a soil may range from 0 to 20 and is expressed as a whole number. The
approximate subgrade performance quality of a given soil is inversely proportional to its
group index, and it can be expressed by the followin&empirical relation,
 GI = 0.2 a + 0.005 ac +0.01 bd Soil Phases,Structure,
Consistency and
where, Classi6cation
GI = group index,
a = 0 for % passing #8 I35; incremented by 1 for every additional percent
upto 40 for % passing 2 75%,
b = 0 for % passing #8 5 15; incremented by 1 for every additional percent
upto 40 for % passing 2 55%
c = 0 for,LL I40; incremented by 1 for every 1% increase in LL upto 20
for LL 2 60, and
d = 0 for PI < 10; incremented by 1 for every 1% increase in PI upto 20 for
PI 2 30.
The group index may also be evaluated from Figure 1.27 by adding the vertical readings
obtained from the two charts.
2) Unified Classification System
This system is a revised version of the Casagrande system proposed in 1948. The unified
classification system is presented in Table 1.21. This system is also used by Bureau of
Indian Standards. Under this system, the soils are first broadly classified into two
categories based on percent passing IS Sieve No. 8 : Coarse-grained and Fine-grained. If
percent passing is less than 50% the soil is coarse-grained, otherwise fine-grained. Let us
consider the classification of the coarse-grained and the fine-grained soils separately.
Table 1.21 : Unified Soil Classification System

I Major Division I Group I Typical Names ( Laboratory Classification Criteria 1

Symbol

- GW
Well-graded gravels,
gravcl-sand mixture, little Cu= -
D60 greater than 4 : C -
Dlo
(~30)'
'-D I O X D G O
or no fines 'C
between 1 and 3
-
4)
wl
Poorly graded gravels, 23
4) X
gravel-su~d~nixlures,littlc g2 % Not meeting all gradation requirements for
GP or no fines GW

2'z B
d Silty gravcls. 3 Atterburg limits
- gravel-smd-silt mixtures below "A.'line or Above "A" line
PI less than 4 with P I belwecn 4
U f i ,
bi ta ~r and 7 arc
bordcrline cases
Atterburg limits requiring use of
Clayey gravels, above "A" line dual sylllbols
gravel-sand-dry m i x t e with PI greater
Q M than 7
.B
m 8@

kh -3
8 a. n
3 SW
Well-grad&dsands,
gravelly sands, little or no -
Cu = D60 greater than 6 : C c = b3012
63
.z
8" fines Dl0
between 1 and 3
DIDx D30
'u ', S
Ja Poorly graded sands,
SP gravelly sands, little or no Not meeting all gradation requirements for
fines SW
-
z B%z '"
SM* -
d
Silty sands, sad-silt
Atterburg limits
below "A" line or Limits plotting in
mixtures PI less Ulan 4 hatched zone will1
U
PI betwcen 4 and 7
are borderlit~e
Z * Atterburg limits cases requiring use
Clayey sands, sand-clay a5 above "A" line of dual symbols
' SC lnixtureb wit11PI greater
I .
than 7
Soil Water Syste~n Coruse-grained soils are sub-divided illlo gravels a11d sands on the basis of percent passing
IS Sieve No. 480 (4.76 innl). If it is less than 50 % h e soil is gravel, otherwise sluld. The
soils of U~esegroups are represented by sy~nbolsstating with G and S, respectively. Thesc
arc furll~erclassified on the basis of unitbrnlity coefficient and coefficient of gradation inlo
well-graded (GW or SW) or poorly graded (GP or SP). If ii~lesare present, the soil is
classified according to the procedure for fine-grained soils. If the soil is silly then GM or
SM is used as the symbol. If clayey tllen GC or SC is used. When the percent passing
No. 8 sieve is between 5 and 12, dual symbols such as GW-GM, GP-GM, GW-GC,
SW-SM, SW-SC, SP-SM, and SP-SC are adopted.
Fine-grained soil is classified inlo inorg'mic oi sill or clay by plotling the liquid limit and
plasticity index of soil in the Plasticity Chart give11 at Lhe bollom right-hand pc~rlionol'
Table 1.21. The liquid limit and plasticity index of that portion of soil which passes IS
Sieve No. 40 is used. The d i a g o ~ ~line
a l drawn in the plasticity chart is called the A line
and is given by the equation,
PI = 0.73(LL - 20) ... (1.47)
A soil w i h LL less th'm 30 is Low plastic. between 30 and 50 is Mediuinp1;islic and
greater tha.1150 is High plastic. A soil lying below A line is silt and thilt lying above A linc
is clay. Differentiation betwcer~inorganic and org'mic silts and clays is made on the basis
of the orgarlic content. To designate these groups the symbols used are M for illorganic
silt, C for inorglmic clay, O for organic sills ,uld clays, L for low plasticity, M for mediunl
plasticily and I1 S Ghigh
~ plaslicily. For pent, visual-mlulunl idenlificalion is ncccssary.
Other details for classificatioil are provided in Table 1.21.
The purpose of classificatioil is to identify the group lo which a soil belongs imd to gain a
general idea of its behaviour. Table 1.22 gives a general indication of Uie permeabilily,
strength and compressibility of the various soil groups along with their relative desirability
for use in earth dims, canal seclions, foulldations and runways.
Table 1.22 : Relative Desirability of Soil Groups for Engineering Uses

Group
Symbol
Relative
I1 Probable Range
~ e n n c a ~ l i t y of L IC' cdsuc)
Relative Piping
Kwistance
Relative
Shear
Strength
Ease of
Moisture
Dmsity Control ,
GW Pervious 1000 to High Very l ~ i g l ~ Very goocl
100,000
GP Pervious to very 5000 to High to High Very good

CiM 1 pervious
Semi Pervious
10,000,000
0.1 to 100
1I
medium
High to
medium
1 High

1 Very good

1I
GC I Impervious 1 0.01 ti) I0 Vesy l ~ i g l ~ I High 1 Very gmd

'sW
I
I Pervious

Pervious to
500 to
50.000
5 0 to
1 High to
medium
1 Very high

High
1 Very good

C~oodto fair
semi-pervious 5(%.000

sM I Semi-pervious to
impervious
0.1 to 500
1 Medium io
low
High Chad to firir

Impervious High to
medium
Impervious Low to very Mcdium to Fair to very
low low poor
Impervious High Medium Good to fair
hnpervious Medium Low Fair to Poor
Very Impervious Medium to Low Poor to very
high poor
Very Impervious Very high Low to Very poor
Medium
 1

1.8.5 Comparison of AASWO and UNIFIED Systems Soil lDllases,Structure.

Consislc~~q ;III~
130th the systems divide the soils into coarse and fine grained categories based on percent Classifica ti011
pzssing IS Sieve No. 8 and consider both gradation and plasticity cllcuacteristics. Practice
shows that with about 35% fines, a coarse-grained soil will behave as a finc-grained
material, indicating that the AASHO system is Inore appropriate. So is the case in
separating gravel from sand. In the unified system the gravelly and simdy soils ;Ire
separated better. Symbols used in the unified system describe soil properties better. The
classification of organic soils such as OL, OH and Pt is not possible with the AASHO
system. A correspondence between the groups of the two systems is presented in
Table 1.23.
Table 1.23 : Comparison of AASWB and UNIFIED Systems
I
AASHO UNIFIEQ
Systetu Systelll
A-l-a GW, GP
A-l-b SW, SP,
GM, SM
SP
GM, SM
GM. SM
GC, SC
GM, GC
ML, OL
OH, MH
ML, OL
CL
OH, MH

I
I
A-7-6
I
I
CH, CL
I I
(All examples and SAQs givcn below use US Sieve Nos.)
Example 1.18
The results of the particlc-size analysis of a soil are as follows :
percent passing No. 10 sieve = 100
percent passing No. 40 sieve = 80
pcrcent passing No. 200 sieve = 58
The liquid linlil imd plasticity index of ininus No. 40 fraction of the soil are 30 ;md
10, respectivcly. Classify the soil by AASHO system.
Solution
Using Table 1.20 (since 58% of Ule soil is passing through No. 200 sieve), it falls
under the silt-clay type of material, Lo., A-4, A-5, A-6, A-7. Proceeding from lefl lo
right, it falls under group A-4. From Equation (1.41),
GI= 0 . 2 + + ~O.0lbd
~0.005~

b=40
c=(30-40)=-10<0;takec=O,d=(10-20)=O
GI= 0.2(23) + 0.005(25)(0) + 0.01(40)(0) = 4.6 = 5
Therefore, the soil will be classified as A-4(5).
Example 1.19
The portion of a soil passing through No. 200 sieve is 95% and it has a liquid limit
of 60 and plasticity index of 40, Classify the soil by the AASHO system.
 lo T:rhlc 1.20 i ~ l dproceeding as in Example 1.18, this soil fillls under
ReJi\~.ri~~g
group A-7. Siticc PI > (LL - 30), ( i.e. 40 > (68 - 30)) his soil is A-7-6.

ISxample I .20
Cli~ssil'yllic soil described in Example 1 .I8 by the Unified Classification System.
Solutioo
Siricc 58% ol'llic soil is passing through No. 200 sieve, it is a fine-grained soil.
Rcferritlg lo lllc pli~sticilychart in Table 1.21 for LL = 30 and PI = 10. it can be ,
classil'icd as CL.
ISxirnlple 1.21 I
I
Considcr Soil I I of SAQ 2 (vi) and Soil I of SAQ 2 (ii). The particle-size I
dislrihulions of LRe lwo soils are given in Figure 1.28. The liquid and plaslic limits
of nlitlus No. 30 fraclion of dlr soils are as follows : I

Soil IIofSAQZ(vi): LL=31,PL=16

Soil 1 of SAQ 2 (ii) : LL = 27, PL = 21 I

Classify Ihc soils by the unified classificaticm system.

DIAMETER 0 ( mm ) --to

Figure 1.W : I;ridutic~i~

Curves
Solution
Soil I1 of SAQ 2 (vi) : From the particle-sizc distribution curve, about 31% or the
soil is finer than 0.0'74 rnm in diameter (No. 200 sieve), Hence, this soil is coarse-
grained; since 31 is greater than 12, dual symbols need not be used. Also, 100% of
the soil is finer than 4.76 mm (No. 4) sieve. Therefore, it is a sandy soil. From
Figure 1.28, Dlo= 0.005 rnm,D30 = 0.08 rnm, and D60= 0.25 mrn, Thus,
C, = DGdDlo= 0.2510.005 = 50 > 6
Cc = ( ~ ' 3 0 ) ~ 1 ( ~X1D60)
0
= (0.08)~/(0.005x 0.25) = 5.123 Hence P.
 With LL = 3 1 :uld PI = 3 1 - 16 = 15 (7). this soil plots i~bovcr l ~ "A"
c linc. So thc
cliissil'ication is SP-SC.
Soil I of SAQ 2 (ii) : More than 50741,i.e., 57% is piissi~lgNo. 200 sieve (0.074 rnln
diameter).Therefore, it is a fine-grained soil.
The LL = 27 arid PI = 27 - 21 = 6. It falls inside the hatched area in Ule plasticity
chart, so the classificalion is CL-ML.
SAQ 5
i) Classify the followil~gsoils, using 1ri;ulgular charl.
Table 1.24 : Data for'SAQ 5 (i)

1 Particle-size Distribution (%) 1

ii) Sieve analysis data for two soils are givcn in Table 1.25. The liquid and
plastic limits of Ule fraction passing a No. 40 sieve are also given. Clilssify thc
soils according to the AASHO classil'icalion system.
Table 1.25 : Data for SAQ 5 (ii)

Sieve Analysis, Percent Finer

Soil'No. No. 10 No. 40 No. 200 LL PI,

1 81 57 28 35 27

2 94 80 62 47 38

iii) I of SAQ 2 (vi), Soil I1 o f SAQ 2 (ii) (see Figure 1.28) arid Soi
IClassify Soil
A in Table 1.26 according to the U N I F I system,
~
Table 1.26 : Data for SAQ 5 (iii)

Percent Passing
Sieve
Size
Soil ~ S A Q
2(vl) Soil IISAQ 2 (ii) A

No. 4 97.2 100 100

No. 10 62.5 100 100
No. 20 41.5 100 98
No. 40 33.8 86 93
No. 60 22.0 43 88
No. 200 12.0 32 77
LL NP 37 20
PI NP 23 8

iv) Classify the above soils of SAQ 5 (iii) according to the AASHO system,

1.9 SUMMARY
In this Unit fundamentals of soil formation, index properties, weight volume relationships,
effect of water on consistency of soil, clay minerals, soil grabtion and soil classification
have been dealt with.
 Soa Water System After going through this unit the student must satisfy himself that he can answer the
following questions :
1) What is soil and how is it formed?
2) What is conceptual three phase soil model?
3) What are weight vol~lmerelationships and how do they help in engineering
computations?
4) What is soil consistency, what are Atterberg Limits and how are they determined?
5) What is the significance of Atterberg Limits?
6) What are clay minerals, how are they formed and how do they influence soil
behaviour?
7) How is soil gradation determined?
8) How is soil classified for engineering purposes?

1.110 KEY WORDS

Soil : Soil is defined as unconsolidated mineral matter, derived by
disintegration of rocks at or near the earth's surface and
containing water, organic matter, air and other substances which
inay be present in gaseous or liquid forms in the void spaces.
Three-phase : For engineering studies soil is considered to be a three-phase
Material material consisting of solids, liquid (usually water) and gaseous
matter (usually air). Although in real soils the three phases are
mixed, a conceptual model, in which these are considered to be ,
independent and separate, is used in soil mechanics.
Void Ratio : This is the ratio of volume of voids in the soil to the volume of
the solids.
Unit Weight : This is defined as the weight of soil per unit volume. Since the
weight of soil varies according to the state of the soil, we have three '

values qf unit weight. The dry unit weight corresponds to the dry
state of the soil, the bulk unit weight to the moist state (a special
case of which is the saturated un!t weight corresponding to the
saturated condition) and the buoyant or submerged or effective unit
weight to the submerged state (equal to the difference between the
bulk unit weight and the unit weight of water).
Grain-size : The distribution of the various particle sizes in a soil is known as
Distribution particle-size distribution or grain-size distribution.It is
determined by a process known as mechanical analysis, which
involves the use of (i) sieve analysis for particles larger than
0.074 rnm and (ii) hydrometer analysis for smaller particles. The
distribution is represented in the form of a plot between percent
finer than a given diameter and the logarithm of diameter (in
rnm) on a semi-log graph.
Cohesionless Soil : A soil which does not possess cohesive strength. Usually, coarse-
grained soils such as gravel, sand and coarse silt are cohesionless
soils.
Cohesive Soil : A soil which possesses cohesive strength. Usually medium to
fine silts and clayey soils are cohesive.
Structure of Soil : This term is used in soil mechanics to describe the geometry of
the particle-void formation or the geometric arrangementof
mineral particles with respect to each other. This is affected by
shape, size and mineralogical composition of the soil particles
and the nature and composition of soil water. The structures
encountered in cohesionless soils ate single-grained or
54 honey-combed, while those encountered in cohesive soils are '

-- -
:t
 dispersed or flocculent. Bulky grains held together by a matrix of Soil Phases, Stnacture,
Consistency and
binding agent such as clay give rise to composite structures. Classification
Consistency : On addition of water a soil passes through the semi-solid, plastic
and finally liquid state. When it is dry or at a low moisture
content it behaves like a solid. On tile other hand, when the
moisture content is high soil flows like a liquid. This is known as
consistency.
Clay minerals : Minerals in soil such as feldspar, mica and ferno-magnesium
conlpounds, which are complex alumino-silicates, when
subjected to chenucal weathering, give rise to new minerals
lulc.rwn as clay minerals.
Soil classification : Soil clnssilicalion is the process of sorting soilds illto groups
showing sinular 1whavic.rurbi~scd011 si~npleindex properties. The
1110~1coounonly used characteristics arc gradation a i d plasticity.

1.11 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
i) From Equatio~l( l.C)),

Using Equalion ( l . l 8 ) ,

Froni Equation ( 1.7):

n = 0 / ( I +e) = 0.765/( 1 -: 0.765) = 0.433
Wc gcl liom Equatinn (1.1 I),

Fillally using Equalio~l(I.19) we gel,

ii) From Equatio~l(1.6),

e = n/(l - n) = 0.4/(1 - 0.4) = 0.67.
At saturation Ule unit weight woulti be, EquaLion ( I . 17)

Tile unit weight at 10% ~noisturccontent is, Equalions (I. 16) uld (1.17) :

Mass 01' water to bc added to 1 rn3 of soil is :

(ysnt- Y[)/~ = (19.5 - 17,12)/9.81 = 0.24 kg
iii) (Only calculalio~~s
are show11,Thestudent sllould idenlify the equations
involved from section?1.3).
Tlr subscripts 11 m d a are used to indicate borrow pit anb enlhankment.
respectively.
Snil Water S y s t c t ~ i

G, = 2.65,yw = 1 glcm3
The sLeps in the calculations are :
a) i) y~~~~=1.801(1+0.15)=1.57g/cm3.
ii) y,, = 1.67(1+0.18)= 1.97 g/cm3.
iii) yd,, = 2.65/(l+eb) or eh = (2.6511.57)- 1 = 0.688
iv) yd,,= 2.651(1+ee) or e, = (2.6511.67) - 1 = 0.587
b) i) W,in 100 rr? of compacted soil = (1.67)(100)=167 t
(Here the equivalence lglcm3 = lt/m3is used.)
ii) Since W, cannot change, we have
Wl,of soil to be excavated = (167).(1+0.15) = 192.05 t
3
iii) V/)of sail to be excavated=192.05/1.8=106.69 m
C) i) Vw to be added during compaction = (We- Wb)lyw
Bul, W, in 100 m3 = ((y,)(100) =I97 L
ii) Vw to be added = (197 - 192.05)ll.O= 4.95 rn3
iv) Soil No. 1

(G, + S e )
ii) yf =
I + e Yw

Soil No. 2

ii) y, = (2'7+ lo = 17-67rnIm3

1 + 1.215
iii) y,, = y - y,,,= 7.67 k~lrn"
Soil No. 3

... (a)

iii) We also know that

Solving above equations (a), (b) and (c),

e = 0.704; S = 76.7%
(Only calculations are given. The student should identify tlie equations usf
3
1) Assume the volume of soil to be V=.l cm
 2) Therefore yd= 1.82/(1+0.11)= 1.639 glcm' Soil Phases, Structure,
Consislel~cyand
3) Weight of dry soil in 1 cm" Wd= 1.639 g Cli~ssific~tion
4) The initial void ratio is given by,
e = (2.6711.639) - 1 = 0.629
5) Volume of solids is obtained as
V ,= 1/(1+0.629) = 0.614 cm"
6) Since volume of solids cannot change, the new volume of the soil is
given by :

7) The new value of yci will be equal to :

yci= 1.63910.896 = 1.829 glcrn"
8) Using tlle new values of y, and yd wc get
m = (1.8711.829) - 1 = 0.022 = 2.2%
SAQ 2
i) From Table 1.4 we get Ule sieve sizes corresponding to the Sieve numbers
given. We then calculate the cumulative weight retained. Knowing that the
weight of soil takcn is 500 g we obtain thc weight passing nnd the percent
finct as shown in Table 1.27.
Table 1.27 : Cotnpr~tatiorlof Percent I'iner

1.S Sieve 1)iamcter Weight of Soil (g)

No. (nim) Percelit Finer
(5)
(2) Retained (3) Passing (4)

4.76 133.48 366.52 73.30

2.399 29.06 337.46 67.49
1.201 49.48 287.98 57.59
0.502 36.94 25 1.04 50.21
0.420 21.22 229.82 45.96
0.296 61.55 ' 168.27 33.65
0.151 74.77 03.50 18.70
0.075 46.93 46.57 , 9.31

The sieve sizes ilnd Ulc percent I'incr arc plottetl in Figurc 1.28. Frorn thc
figure we gct
D10= 0.08 mol; D30 = 0.27 mm; D60= 1.5 Illm
c,, = 1.510.08 = 18.75; Ci.=(0.27)21(l.S~0.08)=0.41
ii) Thc particle sizes ;u~dpcrccnl fincr arc given directly. The particle-size
dislributio~icurvcs ilre plotted in Figurc 1.28. The percentages of Ihc va~.ious
fractions ire calculrrlcti in Tables 1.28 and 1.29.
Table 1.28 : Table for Soil I

Soil Ty pc MIT
Grwcl (%I) (> 2 rnm) (> 4.76 mm)
I(X)- 100 = 0 loo- l 0 0 = 0

Sand (941) (2-0.06 nun)

100-51=46
Sill ((a) (0.06 - 0.002 mrn)
54-22=32

Clay (%I) ( < 0.002 mm)

22
Suil Water gystem Table 1.29 : Table for Soil I1

Soil Type MIT USDA BIS

Gravel (%) 02 mm) 02 (> 4.76 mm)
100- 100=0 100- 100=0 100-100=O

II Sand (%)
I (2 - 0.06 nim)
100-31 =69
(2 - 0.05 mm)
lob-30=70
(4.76 - 0.075 nun)
100-32=68
Silt(%)

Clay (%)
I (0.06 - 0.002 mm)
31 - 13 = 18
( < 0.002 mm)
-
(0.05 0.002 rnm)
30- 13 = 17
(< 0.002 mm)
(0.075-0.002 mm)
32 - 13 = 19
(< 0.002 mm)
13 13 13

iii) The grain-size distribution curve for the given sand is also plotted in
Figure 1.28. The percentages of gravel, sand, silt and clay are computed in
Table 1.30#
Table 1.30 : Table for Percentages of Fractions

Soil Type MIT USDA BIS

I
I I I
Gravel (%) 0 2 mm) (> 4.76 mm)
100-SO= 50 100-50=50 100-78=0
Sand (%) (2-0.06 mm)* (2-0.05 mm)* (4.76-0.075mm)
50-8~42 50-8=42 78-9=69
Silt (%) 1 (0.06 - 0.002 m) I (0.05-0.002 mm) 1 (0.075-0.002 nun) (
I
(Data not available for sizes 0.075 mm)

Clay (%) ( < 0.002 mm) (< 0.002 mm) (c 0.002 mm)
- -- -

I (Data not available for sizes 0.075 mm) I

* Extrapolated value.
The values of the gradation curve parameters are :
Dlo = 0.08 mm; D30= 0.6 mm;D60= 2.7 mrn
c, = 2.7/0.08 = 33.75; C, = (0.612/(2.7x0.08) = 1.67.
iv) To calculate diameter of the particles corresponding to given time and depth
we shall use Equation (1.24 a). Keeping in mind the units to be used in the
equation we note : I

t =120min;h=145mm=14.5cm;
n = 0.001 ~ - s / r =n 0.001
~ x / lo4 poise
= 0.01 poise
Now substituting these values in Equation (1.24 a) we have, I

The percent finer than this diameter is now computed from Equation (1.29) a s
follows :

v) Again using Equation (1.24 a) and taking care to adopt appropriate units,

t = 2916 min. = 48 hrs. 36 min.

vi) The gradation curves are plotted on semi-log paper in Figiirc 1.7-8.
 Soil Phwes, Sti-ucturc,
SAQ 3 Consistency and
i) As long as particles are uniform spheres the void ratio for a cohessionless soil Classificntion
in single grain loose packing remains constant at 0.91 as demonstrated in
Example 1.10. Similarly the unit weight also remains unchanged.
ii) As per Equation (1.32),
For 5-micron clay: s = 6i0.005 x 1o - ~= 1.2 x 106 rn2/m3
For colloids, assuming a diameter of 0.0002 rnrn,
s = 6/0.0002 x 10-" 3 x lo7 m2/m"
iii) See sub-section 1.5.2.
iv) External effects must be such as to break the bonds between the particles.
Such effects are
1) ingress of water which will electrically neutralise the bonds,
2) heat, which will cause release of adsorbed water, 'and
3) vibrations, which will physically dislodge the particles.
V) i e t us assume the following typical void ratios :
1) e = 0 . 5 2)r=0.4 3)e=0.8 4)e=1.2
Using Equation (1.18):
a) yd = (2.67 x 9.81)/(1+0.5) = 17.46 k ~ / n ? .
Similarly, we have for the remaining cases,
b) ysa,= 21 .51 k ~ / i n ~ .
C) y,i = 14.55 k ~ / m ~ .

SAQ 4
i) From the given data.U~eflow curve is obtained as shown by Curve No. 3 in
Figure 1.15. From there we get,
LL = 50.5% ; PL = 18.7% (given); PI = 31.8%
lf= (52.3 - 46.2)/10g(33/21) = 31.08
~ i ) a) PI = 59 - 26 = 33
b) LI = (32 - 26)/(59 - 26) = 0.18
From sub-section 1.6.2 li)r LI = 0.18 the co~lsisterlcyof Ule soil is STIFF.
iii) LI = (22 - 18.7)/(50.5- 18.7) = 0.104. Under natural inoislure content the soil
is STIFF.
iv) For a given reduction in moisture content, a soil wilh smaller shear strength
will require a lesser number of blows. Thus, a flow curve wilt1 a steeper slope
will represent a soil with lesser shear strength. Curve No. 1 has the steepest
slopc in this case. Therefore, the soil represented by Ulis curve has thc least
shear slrenglh.
v) From Equation (1 3 5 ) wc have,
SL = (18 - 13.9)/(34- 24) = 0.41 or 41%
SAQ 5
i) Using Figure 1.26 we have,
Soil A : CLAY
Soil B : SILTY LOAM
Soil C : CLAY
Soil D : SANDY CLAY LOAM
(All Sieve Nos. in Ule following SAQs are as per US system - see Table 1.4)
ii) Soil 1
Co~isideringpercentages passing Sievc Nos. 10.40 & 200 we find that the
soil hclongs LO group A-2 in Table 1.20. Considering that LL = 35 and
PI = 35 - 27 = 8, thc soil is assigned to group A-2-4. GI works out to 0, which
i ~ l ~salisfies
t) the classification.
Soil 11
Considering pcrcerilages passing Sieve Nos. 10,40 & 200 we find that the
soil hcloligs 10 one of the groups A-4 to A-7. Considering that LL = 47 and
PI = 47 - 38 = 9, the soil is assigned to group A-5. GI = 6.35, which also
salisl'ies Lhe classificalion.
iii) Soil I of SAQ 2 (vi)
Considering percentage passing Sieve Nos. 200 & 4, the soil can be classified
as SAND. Froin Figure 1.28,
Dlo= 0.03 mrn: D3o = 0.3 mrn;D60= 2.00 111111.
Therefore, c,, = 66.7 > 6 : C, = 1.5. Thus the soil is classified as SW.
Soil 11of S 4 Q 2 (ii)
\
Corisicleri~igpercentage passing Sieve Nos. 200 & 4, the soil can be classified
as smd. From Figure 1.28,

Therclhre, c,, = 310 > 6 ; C, = 1 1.6 > 3. Thus the soil does not satisfy
gradation requirements fully. Since the soil has inore than 12% fines
(96 passing Sieve No. 200 = 32), the Plasticity chart of Table 1.21 is used for
further classification. Since LL = 37 and PI = 23 the soil is clay.
Illerefore, the soil is classified as SC.
Soil A
Corisidering percentage passing Sieve No. 200, the soil can hc classified as a
fine-grained material. Therefore the Plasticity chart is uscd. Since LL =20
and PI = 8 the soil is classified as CL-ML.
iv) Soil I of SAQ 2 (vi)
Considering percentages passing Sieve Nos. 10.40 & 200 we find that lhe
soil belongs to group A-1-b in Table 1.20. The soil is non-plastic and GI = 0.
This agrees with the classificalion.
Soil I1 of SAQ 2 (ii)
Considering percentages passing Sieve Nos. 10.40 & 200 we find that the
soil belongs to group A-2 in Table 1.20. Considering that LL = 37 and PI =
37 - 23 = 14, the soil is assigned to group A-2-6. GI works out to 2, which
also satisfies Ule classification.
SoiI A
Considering percentages passing Sieve Nos. 10,40 & 200 we find that the
soil belongs to one of the groups A-4 to A-7. Considering that
LL = 20 and PI = 8, the soil is assigned to group A-4. GI works out to 8,
which also satisfies Ule classification.