{Ts tok nas ein nes Romany Tek a pit bs by Hon Prin The cove was rid by Phowar Clee PREFACE vi 27 TheRoot Locus Method 0b 28 Base Feedback Contcl Types 64 28:1 Propeional Conral_ 67 ‘ouarreR 1 INTRODUCTION TO Tre bookis pel on acd fe pope | Mmcnarmontes 9 Li iramcton 9 12 Case Stdy: Modeling and Comet of Combustion Engines 13 121) Diesel Engine Components 14 122 Eangine Conol Sytem Components 29 123 ‘Finite Difeeace Approximations ca 2.10. Probleme 78 CHAPTER 3 MECIIANISMS FORMOTION TRAASMISSION 13. Problems 26 ae ‘quAPTER? CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL_29 21 Components ofa Digital Cnet Systems 30 2 Operation apd Sazal 34 Cyclic MotionTansmnissien Mestanisms 9 SAL Linkages 94 342 Came 92 alignment nd Fexble Couplings 37 Homogeneous Tassformatca Maices 118 Pr 2 CHAPTERS MICROCONTROLLERS 429 421 Binbedded Computer versasNowembedded ALL Design Steps ofan Emeed Micrecontoler Based Mechatronic System 125) Ped inte Ut Sate of Amst43.1 Microcontroller Hardware 138 4532. Miropecessor Softwze 137 433 LOPerpherals of PICISESS2 139 AMD Converter and Thee Comper 1 ‘200 50. Problems 234 HAPTER SENSORS 247 61 Inwodvedon wp Measurement Devices 207 64 Poston Sensors 225 GAL Potesometer 225 69 ou os CONTROL SYSTEMS 201 n andSyncro. 227 Tlf Sensors 237 {643 Capacitive Gap Sensws 230 (45 Mapntestiction Poston Sensort Velocity Sensors 248 651. Tahoma 652 DisialDe of Vloity from G63. Strain. Gauge Based Acceleomeres Stain Force, an Toque Sens 254 671 Stain Oauzes 208 672 Forceand Torque Sensors 206 Prosure Semon, 259 GAL Displacement-Baseé Pressure Sensirs 260 682. Swain Gauge Based Pressure Sensor 683 Plezolectric-ased Presse Sensor 684 Capocionce Based Presue Sensor “Temperate Sensors 209 6911 Temperanve Sensors Based on | 6103 Thermal Flow Rate Sensors: Hot 6104. Mase Flow Rite Sensor Coriolis Thoin 281 ‘TLL Pandamental Physical Principles ‘Nonlinear Dyna Model of Hydrol Modion Sytem 379 Speed De Mtoe snder HAPTER PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS 490 9 Inwodueion 40 9.2. Hardware Components of PLCs 488 921 PLC, CPU, and VO Cepailties 922 Opo-Lolted Dice lop and ‘Ontput Moles 02 5, Contactors, Starters 563 Counters Tiers 508 sning of PLCS oe 923Ccunrren 10 PROGRAMMABLE MOTION CONTROL SYSTEMS 15 Linearization 583 Bal 1052 Web'ension Consol Using lectonicGeavng 528 a 103. Swat Conveyors 930 107 Problems 54 hss APPENDIX TABLES. 5a MODELING AND SIMULATION BA Modeling of Dynamic Systems waa Ba ‘seo miausocRAPHy 607 solutions) toa problem. ‘tthe references section, we also prove information onthe major supp | | | | age to finda good solton (ane | catyolct A oie mec gr vs onsen eethe case that al ofthe system components are designed frm scratch fr a design project. ie often the designer selects components and subsystems, ndthen propel designs thelr custom hardware and software integral Sent ‘valves and oer action devices to equipment wher the equipment technology haste sane base components used in satomotve industry. Therefore, automctive technol. : ‘ogy feeds and benefits the agricultural technology. Using global positioning systems (GPS) ‘There may be a separate communication network at each layer of the hierarchical control12 cA sTuD nooeLN Ano CoWTRaLOFcoMBUSHENENGRES 13 1.2_ CASE STUDY: MODELING AND CONTROL OF COMBUSTION ENGINES: actuators. Wi this gidaace, we sty |. Engine components—basic mechanical componcnis ofthe engine 2. Operating principles and performince —how energy is produced (converted 0M x to mechanical energy) though the combustion process system components actuators, sensors, and electoni¢ conto) 3. Hletroaie ‘module ECM) 4. Dynamic made of engine fo 5, Control algcithms—besic com sry are Mu low rate, temperate, 9. 15s growing eld of applications 1 of mechatronie design in medical devices, sich as surgery assistive ces, robotic surgery, inteligent del, is perhaps one ofthe most promising flay in this century. ‘controller. The decisionblock between the sensory dataand fel injection defines apartic war14 caarveRs svrnooucmon To mecHaTRONes ie of the engine, Tis decision iency, and emission conto ponents of a diesel engine te ‘The engine block provides the eee Mechanical components of an ongins: engine Mack, ylinders. pistons, 1 croshaf, camahat take valves, exhaust vals, od Toe ijetors,16 ciarrens wernopucrion ro mecnarnonucs ‘an engine can generate more power fom a given cylinder size using a turbo changer. An engine without a turbo charger ise ‘8 maximum value. Some turbo char designs incorporate @ wastegate v ‘purpose. When the bo 12 case supe MoDEUNG AND conROL oF cmBUsTION ENCES 17 compone ing my the eoolant is removed tothe ae through a series of eonvecive tubes48 cuarrens imtmooucrion To mecHATROMS 1.2 ease sTUoy: MopELNG AND CONTROL OF coMBUSHIONENGNES 1920 ciunsrens werRonucnon To mEcHATRONCS 12 case Tur MooeLmG AN conrmoL oF comeusnioN enanes 21 _pencrated torque by al ylides isthe valve used for characterizing the performance of the pressure versus the combustion 1d p-¥ diagsam shape in geeral inertia is large, the LB CB wrenches soo 3. Fagine speed sensor 44. Aiemass low rate sensor 5 Intake manifold (boos absolte pressure sensor {6 Atmospheric pressure sensor 7. Manifold temperature sensor 8 Ambient sir temperature sensor 9, Exhaust gas oxygen (EGO) sensor n requires $5.5-microsecond 1g. Therefore, accurey of controling gine spees is clearly very important.22 caurrens mirnooucnow ro mecHaTRoNes 12.cAse sruor mooetna sn conmot oF comauenontneines 23 FIGURE 1.19: Sten atte engine prformares: torque hg), power an fucesoney a funetion of engin spre. 1, Maximum engine spocd (hth ile speed) determined by the fection inthe beatings and combustion time neoded sons ra 2 Lug portion of the curve comespondng to torque-spoed relation when the maximay fuel rates, the combustion process works in such a way thatthe shape of the lug curve {bel rat is injected tothe engine. Thisis determined bythe heat capacity ofthe engi™®24 cauorins mtnooverON To mEeHATHOMES a5 well as the injector size values. Hence, electronically the same speed asthe Toad conditions vary from zero 10 represents the lug curve. Tnondet tobe specified for different values presentation of such a model can be expressed a¢ oe (3) Saleh. wa) sy 12 CASE sTuo¥meoeLinG AND CONTROL OF comBUSTON ENGINES 25) rig) as Ca FD where ia fepresents the time constant ofthe combution to tora generation process, is the torque prediction based on lug curv, apd Tray isthe torque produced including the filtering delay er versions of his model can be ae26 ciarrens mnooucron TomccHaTnoMes. jt = Cong) Ky» Wand — We an Where gy() is the fuel rate look-up ta the speed error. asa function of engine speed and Kis again NO) becomes harmfol to Beal and igus present inthe exhaust gas (@) Draw ie block diagram of the system and expan how it works. onthe crsk sa an cecil setuated vale i mand a micocon ssmooums 27 Modify be stem repisce by mcr- TExglan how the oeis EHAPTER contains te fondamenal material on closed-loop conte SSM. Before ono uses feodbsck, lsed-loop conto, one should explore the option of ‘open-loop contol. We will address he fl + What are the advantages and disadvantages of closed-loop contcol vers open-t0oP contol? * Why should we use feedback conto insta snging the contol algorithm s a matter of changing the soft angesin digital conte ismichessier than changing anslo8 ‘ict design in analog contol 2, Increased level of decision-making capability: implementing nonlinear control fone ‘decision functions, conditional action tobe taken, leaning from ©: VOFF sensors and ONIOFF actors. Such controls are generally implemeated usir9® programmable logic coatrliers (PLC) i the automation industry, The servo coat 100P* 282) components OF ADIGHAL CONTROL syste 34 30 carrenz cLoseD.toor cowrnot 2.1_COMPONENTS OF A DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEM application, ‘Lot us consiger the operations performed by the components ofa digital control ‘computer their implications compted to analog contro: 1 Time delay associated with signal comversion (at A/D and D/A) and processing32. carmen? cLosto.cor comnOL ‘22 TH satiric orenation ano ScuAL neconsrmucToN 33 2.2_THE SAMPLING OPERATION AND SIGNAL RECONSTRUCTION wk 2 yo » [FIGURE 2.2: (8) Sample and hold circuit mode! and Ib response ofthe camped Voltage ouput age is 2 [woe 7 Ae) Sy) sant where scconding tothe so ones of samp andhold rut. ‘shows the typical response ofa realistic sam and hold circuit of an A/D converter,34 ciarren2 cLoseoLoor cowrnot 2.2.3 Mathematical Ideal Sampling Circuit ier the limiting case ef the sampling circuit 252 mathematical idealization for sider that the RC value goes 1 210. ion of the Let us further analysis. Lt periodic impulse functions Kacan also called so thatthe sampling operation act 3 the sequence of samples ofthe sigral FET) ? FOO) eine) Lf Lt FIGURE 2.5: Idelized mathematical modo of to sampling operation via @ “comb function. 2.2 WEEAMPLNG OPERATION AND SIONAL RCONSTIUCTION 35, t 7 tr (ut ofthe relationship dorved in question 3. Let us address each of these questions in order Question 1 Notice tt because the sampling “comb” fun expressed as.a sum of Fourer series, Sena 3 cet eo where - aah _ ane en Therefore Sae-un= roe es36 curren? ciosta.odr common, The Laplace transform of de sampled signal i (wo sided Laplace transform, se 6)) Lyeen= [90 So a0 Ee Mae rm of the sampled signal and the pee EM 0m ew where = 3 is the sampling frequency and is the sampling period. Question 2 The Fovriertransform of signal can be obtained from the Laplace tans- ‘where ¥* (jn) ~ Fourier transform of sampled signal and YJ) WB 2-Wa en Question 3 We now consider various implications of the sampling operon. () Aliasing._Alising isthe vesul of violating the sampling theorem, thai, 22 THE SAMPLING OPERATION AND SHGNALRECORSTRUCTON. 37 jon and misleading piture of 1 orginal signal, For simplicity, we considera the sampling theorem is violated dhe ofthe original signal, where wis the frequency content of spesfc Frequency content for the original signal sampling equency is es than vice he highest frequency nd sampling frequency w, = 1.0 He snd sampling frequency v, = LO Hz. requency signal 0.9 He looks Hike a 0.1 Ha signal when sampled at» 1.0 2 rate as result ofthe aliasing, 15 f, and sampled valves ofa»; = 4 He The simpli how a | Hz oscillation which does nat exist the original signalsignal when the sampling rte 90 Intager multiple of requancy conten inthe crinvons sigs ‘theorem is violate, high -Srequency content of sg jeney) on dove Beat phenomenon: Best phenemeson is obcrvd when to signa with vey lose frequency conte fequency content ofthe signal Fig. 29). Notice onsider the following signal, =A cont) cosine) es) = WiN2, Way = (09 + wy V2 The same effect occurs when we sample & signal with frequency whichis very closed yet sampling theorem isnot violated. x 219) Jn adding two very close frequency content The result isthe sampled signal shows a beat ‘phenomemen (ig. 29). 2.2.4 Signal Reconstruction: A DIA converters wsed 10 convert a ‘eferred to as the signal reconstruction signa through an A/D converte, ten send40 cuarren2 ctoseo.Loor contnot 22 TH sarunc orenanoN wp sical neconstnucTION 41 20 Notice thatthe impulsres ean Impulee responce of an Mel reconstruction OYA fier: Notice thotits3 be asingle puse with prod. Te transfer Font Ficune: function.42 cuapren? cioseD 00” conmoL fntegrtor response to an impulse the same response delayed by a sampling period, 2) 2.2.5 Real-Time Control Update Methods ‘and Time-Delay programmedusiga clock. After every: “The real-time control software can bed 1. Foreground program foreground program isthe one that is executed everytime sampling clock generates an imerrup. When a new interrupt is generated every sampling peviod, the CPU saves the 22 me sanncorenanion AND SIONALAEcoNsTAUCTION 43. =F] L tartare =o Merlyn Mears FIGURE 2.12: Etfectve time-delay due to signa conversion, processing, and update methods nthe background program, and jumps tothe foreground program he Foreground program, it bandles the closed-loop control wpdate ‘This implementation, and timing ofthe sequence of operations are shown inthe Fig. 2.13 trative process, and the conversion times may vary ftom one cycle to next. AS a result the effective update pe erent from one cycle t0 the next due 10 varia44 cuarten2 cLoseo.o0# connot conversion. The period for which control signal is held constant is 226 toes are the total time spentin interval k, and k+ Is respectively, Due 2.13. The sequence of operation in the Foreground program is I. Send the contr from the previous period to D/A, response (sample from A/D, if necessary) and keep i forthe next sampling peti Return to the background program time delay in the second implementation compared 19 m may have serious performance degra tering and Bandwidth Issues ‘The sampling theorem requires thatthe sampling frequency be frequency content ofthe signal being sample. However, lof nose in them, The frequency of the noise com should not pass much of the s would have frequency respon would pass identically 122 THESAMPUNG OPERATION AND SIONAL RECONSTRUCTION 45) | ra} m+ transfer function for a second-order ter is Go = Hoop system bandh, the closed-loop system jghest frequency content Wer © Wap 510 10% We From the sampling theorem, 2 20 Wat46 cusprena cLoseo.ooe conrnon an the sini reguie © 510208 Wein pagnitude relation between the four froqucncies of interests WW, 51020 + Wa) © 51020 Wer 25 10200 + Wa e2n 2.3 OPEN-LOOP CONTROL VERSUS CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL _ “The response forthe open-loop contrat YG) = DENG And forthe closed-oop contro case is outside temperature is not under our contol, yeti affects the temperature of the hoase o FIGURE 2.15: Oper oop versus closed-oop conte system comperson 2 o7e"L0OP CONTROL VERSUS cLoseD-LOOP CONTROL AT ye) = GW) ‘the effect of process dynamic variation is2 rerommance seecmiearons ronconrmot srstems 49 48 cHarrER2 cLoseDLoo® contRoL tontol Open-lop contol does noe sue rom poten ‘sensor fires, PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS gains varios uncertaintics 1d sensor noise [3 Robustness ofthe system stbility and response ah turbances, process dysamic variations, in process dynamics, and seasor noise, no feedback controller ean be designed “The main advantage of feedback contol over open-ioop conto robustess against ll ofthese real-world problems. clfect of disturbances and process dynamic variations onthe 4 toreduce the ty of sytem response-1025 TwEDOMAINAND +DoMANCOMELATION OF scNALS 51 DG a 14 Sw = Type" +1300" +06" stem whore two poles are given by the above eations ips 2.5 TIME DOMAIN AND s-DOMAIN CORRELATION OF SIGNALS. ssa result ofan input sign, The response of be cl “The ys) can be expanded tits paral frat ) which has the general form a8 a nit hiisa* aetent eeFIGURE 2.19: impute response for various root lneationsin the spline. “Thetime domain response, cach term ofthe PEE. cro ar system poles ad the wel of ples a fate othe etn plan g.220) 2.5.2 Step Response of a Second-Order System 25 TIME DOMAINAND sDOMANICOMELATEN oF sioNALS 53 sponte peformance specications using sdomain pol lation. consider the step response ofa second-order system ofthe Form cA Phos Further, we will consider the stepresponte when ther is an sitonal pole and ero" FFs FoR The ult of thisishatgivenstassient response specifications fora 1.) wecan determine where the dominant poles shouldbe in onr to Consider the stp response of a second-onder system (Fig. 2.21) miter thes sf saxo=mo seeebeeds aa 10 ital contin. at 7)” FFRowre54 cuarten? closeosoor conmot 25 ME pomAnAND sooMAnconRELITON Or siNALs SS two complex conjugate poles a ion can be expressed =a +t OPPS HT ab HES HT the zero on the ight hal plane sep response goes inthe opposite direction. Th 223 and 224). xQ=1-e% (orice GE Fat) for0 <5 < 1 range Effect of an Additional Pole Thesystem becomes thinl order when an aa pole exist i adition to the two complex conjugate poles. ros = =} 0056 cnarten2 cLoseoLooP conrnot second order ero: (3) Fettand pane, ond) zero on he Fohthand plane bea balanced choice between desired speed a responce and required actuator size and contol effort 2.5.4 Steady-State Response ‘Steady-state response is usally characterized by the stealy-state error between a desired ‘output and te actual ‘The enor between the desired and actual response = -30 IRE 2.25: Seconconer 25 TIME DOMAMLAND-DOMANCERRELATIONOF SNALS 57 say. state ero (For continuous ne systems) Steady-state value of the enor as theorem of Laplace transforms, pr thas one poe atthe origi, = 0, THDOGG “TER, 1m inresponse to various lhe lop trans neon.(0) im soe Compt) = ima (6) i soo ant) = Him avai it a (0) Hino TNFa # sTl@+p) ee ene ee err 2 soa ~ sTIG+p) (0 sept) ents — pple By wb ooo = 1) Persp a8 “9 Teen 3N=2 Te+p) Cece Tilers"? STP 0) Tim, 0 erat? sap f? B DEG) ~ 2K. (©) itty-+00 €porab(t) = Ii ea (= Tmeoos 7 Tera 2 Fler Notice ta te de gin (10,6) and he numb of poles favattbe origin re inp fering dy ts dt toe constants describ te dead att cor behavior tbe poston evorconta , elec ers cont Joop transfer fanetion 70. Its convenient lsed-oop syste error constant Kp = tin DOG) A, = lim s(6)G0) Ka = lim. DG) 2.6 STABILITY OF DYNAMIC SYSTEMS Stability of a conteol system i ‘equied hat the system be says fundamental requirement. Infact, aot only it but itmust be sable against uncersntes and reasonable Tn ather words, it must havea ood stability robustness. i system can be defined in two general terms (Fig. 2.28) 2, Inter of the stability around an equilibrium point zesramnirvor oynawiceverens 59 |A dynamic system is suid tobe boanded input-bounde outpot (BIB response ofthe system stays bounded for every bounded input, This de fos input-output stability oF BIBO he sabilty ofa dynam ‘Sefined only in terms of toinpat This definition called the sta 2.6.1 Bounded Input-Bounded Output Stability Definition A.dynanicsystem (linearornonlinea)issaid tobe boandedinpat-tounded ‘up (BIBO) stable if for every bounded input, the outpat is bound or linear tme invariant (CTD) sysiem, the output to any input ean be caleulsed 3 om fMont—oee “where fi) isthe impulse response ofthe LTT system. Ifthe input is bounded, there must ‘constant M such that Imp] o0. Therefor a polew [7 moe60 curren? cLostDL00P conTOL a7 TWeRocriocusueTiIon 61 zo}? 7 VERS : FIGURE 2.20 Basi tas problem 1 way of quickly checking the es ‘aluable nse [Lets consider an alg ‘a computer calculations, but aso develops very tem design, ‘ea polynomial of degree n ‘computer algorithm. Lotus consider the fedhack contol system shown in Fig. 230, The closed-loop system transfer function is xa (2.29) ee ‘where the poles ofthe closed-loop system are givea by the ots ofthe denominator, dale) = 14+ KGS) ‘The standard rot locus analysis problem involves the sketch of the lees ofthe roots of > 00) 2 (VRP) <0} which involves finding roots ofan algebraic equation as any one or more parameters vary62 charren2 ctoseptoor conrmot ms) FIGURE 2.22: Vauo of gain is parameterized along the rot leus curves. The pati ‘of gain cn be calcuated in order to be ta selected point on the oot aces to study the locations of closed-loop system poles as the parameter a varies fom zero to infinity +a PP ari “The characteristic equation i =F 4ast1=0 2) sich cin be expresie in stalin oot locus farmulaton form suite for raph sketching as sent lax; =0 aay ‘The gpl rotncs method esr deelopd for sketching thereto ply saison copa 2) Te a oan 1+ (parameten ‘Therefore, the locus of rots can bes Pe? bbst8=0 35 oben can be expressed in a form suitable for the aplication of the sot lous usa fellows: a : aE ion for ot locus. The roca) function sone . In pepe takes the loop tanserfneton Lb. =0 a) Maula provides the locus.) loaded and can accep different parame armenoortocuemenco 63 /* given LIT ayotem, plot closed Loop poles fas K varies from 0 to infinity wlocus(sys, K) j /*ecsvesesre- fOr the values of the Parameter given in the vector K*/ [)=rlocus(sys,K) ; /* Stores the closed loop roots in the R'for mmerical reference, #/ locus (sya) sys = t£(num,den) : /* ey can be formed by tf, #8, 2pke function calls */ sys = zpkCz,p.1) : /* eyom CK (9-21)(9-22).../)8-P1D« Gop.) #7 sys = 88(A,B,C,D) ; /* G(s) = ¢ (I~ Root Locus Sketching Rules. Inthissection we hhand sketching of root lous. The derivation ofthe rules incootrol systems. ints that are pat of the rot locus i 180" 2.3) (2.40)164 cnarten2 cLosco.00P conrrot “The quick hand sketches of root locus allow the designer to quickly check the computer analysis reslts for correctness and provides valuable insight in controller design, 2.8 BASIC FEEDBACK CONTROL TYPES Tnaway, itcovers rs are either a form ofthe PID controller Batic feedback conrl actions: proportional contr Intogal ental, an ae nacicreeoesceconmoL rics 6566 currin2 closeo.1.00% corTmaL WORT) = Ky - (RT) + Ky + uy T+ Ko (SAD=AT= DD) ean) where wom (ye 4deens)ao oy Dorm ky Ki 4 Kor aw =n(: oan Ke Consider a second-order mass-force system to study its behavior under various forms of PID control (Fig. 2.36). 1 1 = Ht) = et) 2a sxsierezonacxconnot tyres 67 [GURE 2.27: Mots foren system with poston feedback control and is sep response.68 curren? coseD.toor contmot, "The CLS transfer Function from the commanded position to the aetual ‘proportions contol is ve contol on the same mass force system. Assume that Tt em (i) Backward difference approximation: Another possible approximation fs 10 we the backward differance rle MGT) = WAT ~ 1) TI-aulkT) + 06(kT)) 2.29 2.126) _ eam (2.128) (Tusin's method, bilinear ansformation): Finally ‘spproximition among the finite difference approx MAT) = ur ~ 1) + El-alucer ~ 74 WT) + lle ~ 7) +4147) e129)7B ciurrin2 cLoseDioor conrnot. 210 meoauens 79 2.130) ens e132) ‘The equivalent substitution relationship between sand zis ira 7 Fela 239) 2180) Troperoidal-nile + — 355) eum 2.10 PROBLEMS _ eu ey 14) forthe diferem valves of T= 1/5 se, 50 se, 1500 0880 cuwrren2 ciosemtocr contol, Given ans Ponto, 6.6) = y+ K,-/s) 246) smplng period T sing ll of he digital pproni- 3.1_ INTRODUCTION ‘07, Pothe Bose diogramsof te asp ante digi approx | cde values of T= Sse, 30s, 150s Brey computer etl mes ‘mechanisms perform two different roles: 1. Transmit motion from actuator 10 tool when the actuator cannot be designed ino the sae location a the tool with the desired motion type, 2, Increase or reduce torque and speed between input and output shafts while main {he power losses). “Themost common motion transmission mechanisms fitimtoone of rotary motion transmission mechanisms (gears, belts and pl tional motion transmission mechanisms (ead-srew, rock-pinion, ep ‘The eflcieney can vary Irom 75 to 956 range for different types of motion tremnission ‘mechanisms. If we assume perfect efficiency, then82 cHaPrens ecHANSMs FoR MOTION HRANSHaSSION IGURE 3.4: Rotary o-o3ry motion Eonvorsion mechanism: gear mechanism. ef henge ot force transite other words, ets considera sine gear arrangement (Fig. 3.1) with a gear ratio of N = ABin/ Abn, an Fras = 0 Po Toga = 1 Tin“, and regardless ofthe efciney, be vai es) Hence, Tog = 9°N Ty 66 's reduced by the efcleney ofthe mechanism. determined using the energy equations. pressed in ferms of output speed. Then the the effective gear we refer to the load inertia (J) and load tongue Inher wors, J, = Jou i = Tg The wilted iectia J} and output speed ‘nergy te actor must provide a kinetic eueray pus the order to provide such an Hence, en 6s) 69 G20) the effective pearratio, The shen into account by arel & ‘orque fom input shail to output shaft direction. The relationships are the, fae 2 aay Jaa ea 7 Taag= Tu o20 ‘important fo note that in either direction of power transmission, the efficiency factor the denominator ofthe equations which indicates loss of power due to Wansmissien ele of rotation. As he lead linear ‘ofbacklash.Insuch systems, itis generally necessary touse two position sensors (ual84 quprins eoHatasus ron Monon TRANSHISsION be achieved, In systems where the backlash racy sequied, the hacklash can be ignored iffiess: The transmission components ae nt perfectly rigid, The jon box betveen input and out 3.2 ROTARY-TO-ROTARY MOTION TRANSMISSION MECHANISMS 3.2.1 Gears AOL rh = Ader y— “8 Bo ne® ofeach earmusthethe sane, thenurnberof teeth on each ear isproportional ‘otheirradius, ALM on NehaBa2 25) here %; and V2 represent the numberof ger teth on each ger. Itean be shown that for an ideal gearbox (100% power transmission efficiency), Pou = Pre 25 To as = Ton azn Hence, 28) ‘The election of inertia and ‘by using the energy and work shaft be J and the lod torque where the reflected inertia (inertia of the Ho seen Dy ihe input shal) is 4 Jug 2 G3) os dtermin the effesive Ina tongue seen by the input shaft. The wor: done toryue ver an output shalt displacement Ais W=T-a9, om) 5 G35) = Tg 0a 30) The effective reflective torque onthe input shaft as a result of the Toa torque on the output shattis a Tug = ean “Thesameconceptofkineticenergy and work othe toolis usedinall ofthe other mechanisms to determine the releted inertia (or mas) and torque (or fore) between output and np aE 3.2.2 Belt and Pulley “The earratioof abelt- pulley mechanismistherato between the input and output diameters. Assuming noslip between the bel and paleyson both safis, the linear displacement along,the belt and both pulleys should be equal Fig. 32), X= AQ = Abo 38) “The effective gear ratio is hy definition oan y= BY «Bay = 10-300 ep = 3000 pm) Ga The inertia and tongue experienced a the input shaft duc othe load alone (which we cll ‘he reflected inertia and te reflected torque) are 843) Gas) {22 ROMIRVTOTANSLATONAL MOTION TRARSMSSON MECHANISMS 87 (0.286 /386)- x -2.0-(3/2)" [bin sec") G49) a9 eto converte weight density G30) es) 3.3 ROTARY-TO-TRANSLATIONAL MOTION TRANSMISSION MECHANISMS8B cnAPTERS_mecnaMems FoR MOTION RaRsRASSION ‘The effective gear ratio may be stated 26 My =2a-p es and torque seen by the input end ofthe lead serew duc toa oud Le Be 5m? 5 KE=y asp 59) ‘Then, esp = fla 358) 59 eo) should be noted that is the mass moment esp 1 xp Wile) G0 ‘The lead screw has very lrgectfective gear ratio is N = 4x, 10r, 20x, sped ‘Let us detemine the reflected tergue work done by a load force during a incremental displacement is Work = Fre oa) ‘The corresponding rotational displacement is 1 aan ghee een Hence, Work = Fi-Ax G09) L = Fog ao G65) = Tg: 08 een true Seen atthe input shaft (7g) ofthe lea screw due to the lone! force 668) atthe inpat shaft of the bal sere, —— ise 3.70) Jer Tap ag (100/986) insec?} 7) = 6.56% 10° bin, see" em “The torque that is reflected on te input shaft due tothe Tosa force Fi is 1 = 7 7) Teh en = peer oooh 7) Brfradhes] TO revi)90 chaprens meCHanisMts Fon MOTION TRansmesION su evcucmonon ranstassionmecnausnes 91 3.4_CYCLIC MOTION TRANSMISSION MECHANISMS _ 3.4.1 Linkages ratios calevleted or measured from the assump acar-ag Ater-ad Very where A@ isin radian nits, Hence, the effective gear ratio is Hunts or wisinfrad/see| units 79) wah of sous L er ‘The same mass and force reflection relations we developed for Tead screws apply forthe rack-pinion mechanisms. The only diflernce isthe effective gear rato, viee]imits G80) Wf 88s in[res} unis or wi 3.3.3 Belt and Pulley(92 cyarrensmecHAnuoNs FOR MOTION TRANSHNSION eyeue Monon manemssionmecuansis 93 put shaft motion, and the resultant ig. 3.6) the following elatons osp as) ee Example Consideracrank 7 =0.30m,1 = 1.0m, Consider | —| Gig. 3.8) 3.4.2 Cams94 cnarrens saccunnisis rom womion TRaNsHnssion 24 evouc morion manstassion mecHanasis 95 tsicen the time derivatives and derivatives with respect to 6 of the eam follows oa) Sse GoD wena a ae Ds Cy -sint 0) es 89) dead 6-4 oa, 95) 1en = 0, and d8/dt = 0, When the input shaft of he casein most application, then the tel a96 cusrTens meoutsnsron NoTONTRAWSINESION eon ‘obtained by legmting the acceleration cure 0) G10) 6.105) 6.105) G10 rotation range following the rise Ge $0 5 Oise + Bint 6.108) 0.109) B10 24 erCLE MOTION TRANSMISSION WEcHANENE 97 oftheeam, + Bowe 6) — Orne + Bouin $8 $28. Sonat (28 + Port ~8))98 curren Mccuanioms ron wonoN TRansinssion period. The fi, fa are evo constant frequencies (Fig. 3.10). “Theaeceleration fanctonisconstrcted from the segments of #08 1 follows Boosin ea =A Fail ‘The acceleration Funct , Gp): tr 005 bu ony f er ee ee = » Gag): fr tus ste cm this dosribes the movement ofthe follower forthe rise I motion curves ae simply obiained ‘motion curves. During Aisplacement stays constant, speed and 2% «dwell portion if used in the cam design, the eam follower 6.1% Aessnnt2)-2 for Hard: Som 0129 {ecyouewonion Transiussion ecHansas 99 HAes for Hau $0 5 Le 6.12 = Ashanti 20> fr He s0xhar 0.29 ni eyele of the fol ‘same secoleration speed is constant, shat angle ae related to each other as A) aai(*e); 00am alan (2) —)) om x@= 3.130)100 Litwis theca fincton for he epi of mation ae dfed follows fom), caution 3 6.3 Bue) (ge 4 9 5 F =A (2) (oo(0 +8) own 36,ie \? sr x wom ra tte a (HY (um(EEe+2)) army nd sin, tepid tJ © 4 homogeneous transformation matrix T has the followin oem Fig. 3.17): fT |e alee 2a 199) fa ene ta a) ot ofthe coordinate fame A with respect tothe coorsi= information ae the caine angles that, eventhough we know that the ofenation of one coordinate frame with respect 10 ibed by three angles, the ge112, coartens mecianisus ron nomion mansinssion 27 HOMOGENEOUS TRANSFoRMATIONMATRIES 113 to coordinates 2 and 3a follows ras Te aq Tas “Poa = Toy Tara rasta Ta Tura ron = Toy rin = Ton Tia Tes Toran ‘Thea the inverse ofthis Rh RE Pa ae 6.208) ooo 4 Also notice that the order of transformations is important (mel ‘dependent onthe order it can be descnbed with respect to base e210) ris described by 3.16). The description ofthe coordinate frame 4 (position ofits origin and onene be expressed na. eau Tou = Tin “Tra Tan Ta, G20) on ofthe origin position. {ations ofthe axes. of coordinate frames I with respect 0,3 with and that of 3 with respect o 2. The postion cordinte vector of point A canbe expressed with espect relationship.114 querens mcwnacis Fon moTION TRanENRESION In generic terms, the relationship between the coordinates ofthe tool andthe joint, Aispacement variables ean be expressed as x= fO 213) ich defines the axis posi ‘ool positon and orientation, is called the imerse kinematics of the e219 here the J matrix sealed the jacobian ofthe mesbanism. Each clement ofthe Jacobian matrix is defined as afi0 0, dyn 218) square matrix Likewise, the inverse of the jacobian, e changes inthe tool poston othe changes in the axis arg (3219) be jacobian snot invertible a certain position ies ofthe mechanism. It means that st ons are called the geometric ere are some dirctions 27 Nomocenrous mansronwanowwaacss 115 atthe controlled axes and the foreetorgueexprinced a the too. Lette tol force be Force and the conesponding tool position diferetal displacement be dx, The differential work done is Work = 62" »Rorce 3.220 ‘Note that the jacobian relationship from eqn (3.217) bes J 30, G2 and the equivalent work done by the conesponding torques atthe controlled axes ean be ‘expressed as Work = 38" Tongue 2m) = 4x" - Force 223) a2 Hence, the Foree-tonque relationship between the tool and, Tonge = J” - Force (3225) and the inverse relationship isrie Thane oo 10 00 Gz oo Notice that the orientation portion of the matrix is the cceficients of the relationships between the unit vectors, -10 09 -0s 00 09 05 oa 0.230) Fm coste, By + costes ta + costes bs 6.233) Sef tend bend 6.23) = 10-4, + 00)-& +0.0)-% 6.239) i e080) 8 4 costng Bs + casts 2 0.236) 2 0.238) outa 4 wowtoceneous Tansrontasnowmsmnices 117 FIGURE 2.19: Iwo fine rotation Hence, 3.239) 210) the order of « 1.0 00 00 00 00 10 os T= lo 10 00 oe) o o 00 00 10 00 10 00 he ae 21) ° Clearly, TT 13-7 Example Consi geometric parameter 1. Derivethe tip postion coordinates as funetionof joint variables (Torward kinematic relations). 2. Derive he jacobian mattix ates the join velocities to ip position esorinats tho tip, determine the necessary torques at joints and 2 in oder to balance the load.118 cuprens saccunnioms ron Monon TaANsARSSION igURE 3, lena abot In this example, we ae asked to deternie the following relations x= 10 £100 Torque = J" (@XForce) i | 6.216) 1 4 oo - 09 Gam 6.248) ‘The vector components of rap can he expres ns for more clay, costth +85) 6.249) he) 6.250) mop = 0.0 251) ‘The Jacobian mats for of the forward ki case can simply be determined by taking the derivative ith respect to time and express the equation in the sapnoaums 119 ‘matrix frm o find te jacobian matrix, sar = fap eB) = Jud 2m a Sor = F008 6253) whet iis yt show tht the lens ofthe jacoian mati J easy FA) faa en cost) IP = [0 — WIP, atthe ip G25 i when 8s ~ 00, the mechanism sat a singular point, which isindicated by the min the denominator ofthe inverse jacobian equation above, sngulrpoioning acuacy that canbe provided at the tpt bal? 2. Repeat te te ail ate be tte ley ec, The Bet‘ouarrenMeciuMusns For movin TRaNswsion aa rmoaume 121 2 Prelond spring Force cn be tke nto acount inthe above (3259) the preloing ofthe sping. This frcecan be st of sping constant and inl compression. idrves through a gear reducer Fi. 3.13, 0.25, and Fbethe weight of payed ireton of Yq Deri th 10, Conse the problem in Fig. 5320. Let = 05 mls =122. cimrrens ecuatens Yon MoMON TRANEINESION nnn MICROC ONTROLLERS — ded from hp zierochp.com and should be sed asa reference as pat ofthis chapter: 1. PIC ISFXX2 Data Sheet Users’ Manusl) 2. MPLAB IDE V6.xx Quick Star Guide 4.1 EMBEDDED COMPUTERS VERSUS. NONEMBEDDED COMPUTERS«4s EvarpoeD COMPUTERS VERSUS noMEMEEDEED coMrTENS 125: of writing it by ourselves. Furthermore, RTOS provides task sched esi inteerpt ateney, and resource aa ic System Indes the following steps. These the clectromechanical system, We nardare ‘themicrocontoler to the mectatonie system, A. The physical size ofthe embedded computers typically requied tobe very stall, Step 5. Design—complete schematics foe the hardware interface ci ‘component identification and its connect 6, Embedded computers invaiably inconporate a watluog timer circuit reset the systemin ease ofa fi hhardwaze tons include: 4, A desktop PC 10 host most ofthe development 2. The target processor uation board or the fi ware) 3. Debugging tools such as ROM erator, logic analyzer 4. EEPROM/EPROMIFlish writer tols126. caurrens menocowmnoutens ‘The softvare tools include the target processor specific 1. compile, linker, and debugger 2 real-time operating system (not required) |4semezoro coMPUTERS VERSUS NOMEMBEDOED COMPUTERS 127 applications. The season is thatthe consequences of a failure are much move serious in 4.1.3 _ Microcontroller Development Tools for PIC 18F452 application specie hardware interface development 3. Commosication cable and in-cicuit debugger hardware (MPLAB ICD 2) Software development tools hat rn ona PC and interfaced othe board via the comimuri- ‘ation cable are: 1 MPLAB IDE V.6xx integrated development environment (IDE), which includes ea tor assembler (MPASM), linker (MPLINK), debugger, and software simulator (SIM) forthe PIC chp. 2. MPLAB C18 C-complir (works under MPLAB IDE V6x8, ‘The PIC microcontroller eax te programmed in a number of ways, sing both C- language and assembly language. Our Ib experiments re ‘ogee ith de MLAB C1 ANS oman Ceomp128 cnarrens smcrocovmnou.ens “The basi sequences for programming the PIC, using a PCs the development tool area follows: 4. On the PC, create anew projet i the MFLABB IDE environment. Set up the projet environment by selocting the target PIC microcentroll () Configure project options: MPLAB IDE>Project>Select Language Toolsuite: Microchip C18 Toolsuite (©) Configare project options: MPLAB IDE~Project>Set Lan Locations: MPLAB C18 ¢ Compiler and >See K Object Linker MPLAB IDR >Froject>Builé (MPLAB ICD 2): MPLAB IDE-Programer-Select programmer and SSettings and ..--Conneet program stops ata break pint, values of various variables can be examined 10 check for errors, Azanseconpurer most 129 0 fromthe IDE menus. Otherwise, while the program will reset the processor. 4.2_BASIC COMPUTER MODEL ‘The analogy between this human model ad computer is brain o-- CPU, wall clock === lock, @eck of instruction cards --~ xead only merory (ROM) chalk-eraser-black: zandom access menory (RAM) pocker cards --- accumulators (also called registers) input-output tray --- 1/0 devices eyes, hands and ams —-- bus to access resources (read/write) FIGURE 4.3: Bass computer and human analogy.130 ciartens menceournontens ‘There are seven basie components of a computer: ‘doesnot require a refesh-wrte cycle to hold the data as long mame RAM requices periodic refresh-writecyc to hol the data even when power is maintained. 5. Registers area few specific memory k other RAM memory, WO devices—every comput le world. An UO device interface face adaptor (PI) ‘between CPU and devices (memory, UO devices) The includes lines to provide power, address, data, and that the human is suppose to pick a new card f every minute ofthe clock, read pick card atthe tick of every minute fromthe deck (ROM), Assume thatthe frst four cards in the deck inchde the following instructions Card 1: Read a nomber from the input tay, wrteit onthe card on the let pocket (Acco ‘mulator A). Card2: Is the number odd? If yes, write itt the black boars. Card 3: Ase there five numbers on the black board? If yes - go to Cand 4, if no goto Cand Card 4: Add atl nomibers, write tne total number to the output ray and stop, Aa paste comeuTeR Moot, 131 process LoaD address STORE address = Mathes ‘ADD addres SUB address AND, OR, NOT, JUMP, CALL, RETURN In high-Fevel languages, data st ‘manage the information. Assembly (variables, structures, clases, etc.) are used to guage doss not provide data structures to manage132 ouptens sonocowmoULENs 1. power bus 2 contol bus 3. address bos 4, data bos “The power bus provides the power forthe components to operate. Fach Hine caries “ea mtenoconTROLIER HAROWARE AND SOFTWARE:PC tAs2 133 ‘+ CPU reads the data bus if it is an input operation. or write the data to te dat bus it itisa write operation 4.3_ MICROCONTROLLER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE: PIC 18F452 spose computers, which makes to understand the hardware of Inthe discussion, weare interested ‘opposed to how they are designed inches a4. Support chips such as real-time clock, wateb-dog srammable analog to digital converter (Al ‘lation (PWM) mode SURERUURUSSRBeRBaBEs FIGURE 4.8: Fin diagrams of PIC 19F452 microcontroller (DIP 4p model shown) 42 muenocorrPoLLER HAROWARE AND SOFTMARE- RC HF4s2 135 ‘The PIC 18F452 chip i compatible with clock speeds between 4 MEK end 40 MHz “The clock speed i determine by two Factors ‘rystal oscillator or ceramic resonators along with few PIC 18452 supports terrpts can be imerrapts by the C18 comer 2. MCLR reset during normal operation or during SLEEP: NICLR input pin can be ‘wed to RESET the processor on demand. foo voltage goes below a specified voltage level both parameters are programunabl), the BOR /DT can be wed 0 reset the processor ‘0 wake-up the processor from SLEEP mode. Ia WD'T reset during normal operation,136. cyarrens mcroconrnouens cone El RevanaTT [op neannoes @ FIGURE 4.8: Memory map of PIC Data Sheed, () data memery naEEDATA, and FEADR. EEDATA and EEADR 2, Mathematical operations: add, subtract, increment, decrement, shift et, shift sight, Example instructions include ADDWE, SUBWR, MULWF, INCE, DECE, RICE RCE. 49 menDcONTROLLER HARDWARE AND SOFWARE: TeFe 139 AND, OR, inclusive OR. Example PIC 18F52 i "F XORWE, ample instructions include CPFSEQ ( CPRSGT (=), ‘As an example, the code below set all pins of PORT C as output, anal pins of PORT B. as input. IRISC = 0; /* Binary 00000000 */ PORIC = value ; /* write value variable to port ¢140. ciurrens mcnocorrmociens TRISH = 255; /* Binary 11111111 +/ value = PORTH: /* read the data in port B to variable vale MPLAB C18 compiler provided C-Ubrary fonctions to setup and use WO port Port B interrpt-on-change an pollp resistor fonctions sre enablei/disabled using these functions. winclude OpenPORTS (PORTS_CHANGE_INT_ON & PORIB_PULLUES_ON) : 7* Configure interrupts and internal pull-up resistors on PORTR.*/ Closeporrs Q; —_/* Disable (CHANGE_ANT_ON & RISING_EDGILINT & openkBxINT G "PORTS PULL : /* Enable interrupts for PORTB pin x */ Closermxinr ©); /* Disable... 7 EnablePullups() ; /* Enable the internal pull-up resistors on PORTB */ DisablePullupsO; /* Disable « uo Capture/Compare/Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) The capturelcompate! 2, Timer source: In capture and compare mode, TIMER or TIMER3, and in PWM, rode TIMER? can be selected as 3. Ri (@) TICON register: Used 10 select the preseale value of TIMER2 for the PWM fnction. 445 nicnoconTROLERAROWARE AND SOFTWAE.ReTAFA? 141 ‘Hinelude bits, PWM period is given by PWM pgs = (PR2-+ 1) x 4 (Clack Period) x (Timer Prscae Value) stored in ADRESH and ADRESL registers, fared, indicating ADC conversion is done. = 0.083 ms CC ibrary functions used to set up and operate the PWM out show below: pinclude openTimer2¢TIMER_INT_OFE & T2_PS_1.4 & P2POST_LL8) + /* Setup TIMER?: disable interrupt, set pre and post sealers to 4-and 8'*/ openPinii(char period) + /* Enable and sevep Pom module output signat the conversion proces, and read theres of conversion. Examples of hei Speniod” (avbie value) =/ to ™ (od=(persod+1)*4* Tose! (TIMER Presealer)+/ sinelude Wnclude ; /* Disable PwM output module +/ 7+ Select: clock source, format, ref. voltage source, channel, enable/disable interrupt on ADC-conversion Anatog-to-Digital Com conplation®/ ADC) allows conversion of ConvertaDec) /* Start the ADC conversion process*/ PIC 18452 has a 10-bit range ‘channel pins can be configured while ( BusyADC() ) ; /* Wait until conversion is complete: return 1 —/* For RBO/INTO interrupt +/ /* Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) logic +/ void toggle burzer(void) ; pragma code HIGH_INTERRUPI_VECTOR = ox8 /* Specify where the program address to be stored */ void high TsRvosa) 1 goto toggle_burzer —endasm ) ‘pragma code /* Restore the default progran memory allocation. */ *pragma interrupt toggle_buczer void toggle buzzer(void) c CCPLCON = “CCPICON & OxOF /* Toggle stave of buzzer: OFF if ON, ON Gf OFF #/ TNTCONDita-INTOIF = 0 /* Clear flag to interrupt due to another ime event*/ ) /* Setup of the TSR +/ void Enableinterrupt(vota) c RCONDitS.IPEN = 1 ; /* Enable interrupt priority levels*/ INICONbits.GIEM = 1; /+ Enable high priority interrupte:/ , void TnitializeBuezer(voia) ‘ TROON = ox05 + /* postscale 1:1, Timer? ox, presealer 4 +) TRISCbIts.TRISC? = 0 : /+ configure CCPL module tor buzzer operation */ PRI = ox#o ; /* initialize Pint period +/ cPPRIL = ox8o ; rn ++ BW duty cycle */ , aesennurrs 151 void main (void) ‘ EnableInterrupts©) + InitializevurzerO) 5 (OpenRBOINTCPORTS_CHANGE_INT_ON & PORTE_PULLUPS_ON & "FALLING EDGE_INT) /* Enable RBO/INTO interrupt, configure REO pin for interrupt, trigger interrupt on falling edge */ CCPLCON = OXOF ; /* Turn ON buzzer */ while (1) ; /* ait indefinitely. +/ /* when the interrupt occurs, the Corresponding IS will be executed */ che /* Header #110 for PIC 186452 register declarations */ ‘include Oor iat the sum of voltages in a way Sa EOUNALNTeLECrRICALOReUN MENS 157 vale forthe circuit shown inthe te load resistance Ry, and the rest ofthe cite between the two points 2. Calculate the open-citeuit voltage between @ and by Vas (Fig. 53between points @and equivalent circuits esser The conversions can be WelOV, R=79, R=3O, K=SA Thon itis easy t show that [Fig. 5.3) weak, ‘The voltage potential Va is Vo = 3-(05 450) = 135 ¥ (522) ‘The equivalent resistance of the cist a ‘ustent sources are open-circuit [Fig 5. voltage sources are short-circuited, and 62 624) 625) presented by a voltage source: Ve = o ca be calculated 38 function of the 8 62 in = in(RL i Ve> Rog) (528) instructive to obtain the Norton equivalent ofthe same circuit and confirm that erring a Fig. 54 (0), the curren is sumof the current de to euent lage source, ivaith 629 [Natie that no eutent therefore, rough Ra since there is x0 resistance pth parallel nett 630) Hence, 10 7 Referring to Fig. 5.4(€), the equivalent resistance in the dotted block as sen bythe Toad is agin 45 ie a f WeSAt DAS SA 6a) Vip = Rege-tv 635) 5 =21-Sansv 6160. ciuarrens eLecmome components Fon meciaTRONN SYSTEMS 5.4_IMPEDANCE samwepaice 161 nerve part or tre conduc: tive part or ausceplanee voltage and current rela- 5.4.1. Concept of Impedance = sa von 2) 7 v9 eRe os [Let us take the Foatier transform 3H) 6.46) nota funetion offre vat. where Zw) is defined as YI = zaps = ReCHLI) +sm0 64) = gi socalled capacitive eactance ri162. curreRs cuccrnotc conor FoR MECHATRONC SYSTEMS hasmagnitude and phase, andis function of frequency. impedance, we generally refer to its magnitude, Example | Conide the RL snd RCs shown in Fig. 55 (4, respectively. Sich onneeed trom the supply and ‘each component and eureat = 00 sec wy = 1000 psec ‘wien its eomnectod to the supply, 659) nstsy 59) valve during the provious tate. Another ‘equation with a pulse input voliage, Oster (656) connected to 24 VBC (etch is om A os 1eunitstep Funston shifted ial equations can be shown to be a8 follows (ee 658) 639) Ga mAs Ststy (561) inductor in each time perio can be Found by 6.2) 6.63) sammeoance 163 and when itis discoanected from the supply and connected to the B sideInout sgnal source (@)model ofthe op-mp wth input ipodenenoutoutimpadace, ad ope cl vety large input impedance and very small output imped ve re ne ing ry small output impedance. The Zu is the generalized (576) where the Vis the voltage acros the input terminals of the volage aross the outpt termi and Vays i the Te gu lnp sd onpt impedances ae thee prmces hat effectively deine the peroace characters of en ample 5.4.3. Input and Output Loading Errors Lets inpr vot spe coneced ftween a volag source and alo affected by the input impedance of the amplifier, bos " 679) sewarcoance 165 and the output voltages effected by the output impedance, impedance is very large relative 10 the source impedan ‘Smal elaive tothe Toad impedance. The net pain ofthe. atic) ate) 8 ‘were the portion of the amplifier gain Rit Rowe Rin + Re Goa) sséuet te ngt and tpt lading eet Indra mininize he fet ofp Tons Ru Re 689) Simialy inorder to minimize the outpt loading eros, Kaw = 10. Determine tal voltmeter orosellscope) forthe 1. R= 1002, Ry = 1002, Ry = 1002, Ray = 1002 2B, = 100, Ry = 100%, Ry = 1,000,000, Rowe = 12 first case, the measured voltage is a = (ate) (ate) i. 100 ae ae 8 (ware) (rose) oe 025. m28v which shows an error of 759 ofthe corect value ofthe voltage. TForthe second eae the measured voltage is (acta) (wate) Ko a2166 cuarrens eLECTRONIC COMPONENTS FORMECHATRONIC SYSTEMS (530) Gon) (92) 699) Which shows an ero of 1% of the corect value ofthe voltage. Notice that there are vo ing, one due to the input 699, 695) 596) 69) (598) 5.5 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONIC DEVICES __ ‘cuas an occ inser Cup ee tach semiconductors ae called p-type semiconductors Thatril is from group V of the period table (i.e, phospor rent electron around the added impurity atom. This pr168 ciurrens eLecmowec components ron MECuATROME SYSTEMS. (egestas FIGURE 8.9: Somizonductor materials: iconductor material. Since the net ded electcal charg to the crystal sre charge due to ext electron, this semiconductor (Fig. 5.9} through the holes and electons introduced 5.5.2 Diodes A die isa twos device mae of pn an eetonie switch tat allows cuem foe ss semconouctonsiscrrowuceewces 169 ‘one-diectonal check valve. Ices the flow in one direction when the pressure is above a regultor under varying supply and toad voltage cond the Zener diode, hence cross om «09 cs109 ten ve)_ Ye rete tee [EHH sy which must not exceed the power design parameters of @ 18 contrllable diade. The gate is used to turn ON the SCR, but it OFF. SCR turns OFF when the i goes to zero, then the gate canbe used to rn it ON,QUPTERS ELECTRON conmoncirs Fon MEcHAERONC SysTEMS ‘5 semiconoucronetecmoncpevices 171 = 10009, ic = 12.0 mA, Ry = 2000 2, i, =60 mA, Since tie (5.110) the eurent across the die is172, cauprens etecmotc compowents Fon MECHATRON SYSTEMS for tower voltages. The maximum power dissipated across the Zener doin this example Poem Voie =12V-6mA = 720 oun ing and 12 V breakdown voltage rating would to damage the reduce the effet ofthe surge voltages, adie spo Ds and LSDs are used as optocoupler lctcally isolate two citelts and couple ther opsically 2) proportional ampli be opened or closed compete ss semconoucron sLecmmowcpeweces 173 Bipolar Junction Transiators (BJT) There weivo peso BT ‘There are three main modes of operation ofthe BYT in steady state, 4 Cur Rin: Yn < Vr in 0 cele = 0, Vor Va A ans at IFF state switch i the cut-off region. ‘There is no eure ow between the C174 awerens cxccmoruc components ron mccusrnon SYSTEMS — Cabs (cy cele ORE } i FIGURE 8.13: Some semiconductor devices: Bo van ipo tegion: Vee = Ven. in #03 Vor 0.2 V 1005 V. Te ad ar Var = Ven, in > icmu/fh, Vee < Vear <02V—05 ‘operates like a AaAs pressures 455 semconoucron siscimowevevcss 178 FIGURE 5.14: Dartington wansistor symbol In approximate calculations, i is customary to assume Veg = Vase = 0.0.04 te = ic in ‘Darlington transistor which pives again that is the multiplication ofthe two stages ofthe ‘tansistors (Fig. 5.14) B= BiB Ge “where the gain 8 of a Datington transistor can be in the order of $0010 20,000. [Not that the power dissipation across a BITcopen-switeh state 2 Aatve Realm Vos > Vr hens lp Vas ~ Vn? Vos» (es ‘were the value ofthe ue advantages of MOSFETs over BITS are higher efficiency, higher ching frequency, and better thermal stability. On the ether hand, MOSFETs are more sss cemconoucroreiecrnowcpevess 177 sensitive to static voltage. In general, MOSFETs have been replacing BITS in low-volige (~ 500 ¥) applications. Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) 1GHTs arc the new sltemative BITo in high-voltage 500 V) applications whece it combines the advantages of BETS MOSFETs IGBT isa fourlayer devi IGBTs are widely used in motor di celficeney ications and operated in PWM mode for high Fart sie 0S) rece et ou im se eng 25 V = 1000-5- 10+ Vee (5.121) In general, the out showa in Fig. 5.15 i 6.123) G04) as shown in Fig. 5.15 can be used as fe voltage across the transistor, Vow resistor preceeding the: 006 V 6.139) Ve = (5.14 ‘The curen throush the Re, Mee ent = os soe came ho te calla, fe=Pin ous lentetn= oe oie . sy = ew cbotp =

Ve + 0.2), the curent output (i) is pro- ‘ss semeonpucronetectromevevees 181 FIGURE 5.19: A tensor cet as a constontcurent Note that Var Vac + Ve Ve= Va Vor 2 00 Ve=Vee+ Ve “The voluge atthe eminer follows the base voltage, Currenthrough the collector and emer is proportional othe base voltage. breakdown voltage of Vo between the outpt supply ig = (Weer ~ V2/Bs 6.149) “The voltage between the emitter and ground is Vp =Vr~ Var = V2 -07 6.150) ence, current aross the resistor Re is ig = Ve/Re = (Ve = O/Re asd) lector current which so isthe loud current is 82) longasthe Voor > Vzatd rent despite the variations is very small compared to ant Therefore, the ic wil remain & 6 Voes Ri Ve = Veer Rute fe= Bein182 currens cLecmowc comrouents ron mecuAmnon eySTENS FIGURE 5.20: Bios vokags cuit for an amplifier ‘which means Ve will vary as Ry, vais in onder Vo Vee =0.2 V. Bias Voltage voltage and that whe Vout = Ky “Vn Many application qe fe voli he input follows, e te voltage relationship as Vou = Vort Ke Vn ash introduce the po en te oly yong, essa am voltage, 55) 5.156) ie elatonship assuming th rss i ope Vig = 0.0, = ss) thebias voltage, since Vj, = 0, Fromithe above elatons, needed to provide the desired bias voltage forthe glveu Vom Voo~ Rete = Vee Ry B ota = oo Rep HEE 5.6_OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS ‘50 OPCRATIONALAIArunens 183 (sisi) ‘The bias resistors then (5165) (Weis larger than ancpted a ol of variations in 9 then the di increase or ede Ro. Example Consider the bias voltage circuit for a tansisoe a8 show the parameters ofthis circuit be given a follows Vec=12V, B=100, Rr = 10K 6.1665) Determine the value ofthe bias resistor, Ry, S0 thatthe bias voltage is Vo = 6 V. From the above equation, the bis184 curren eLecrmotuc couronenTs Fon econ vsves Se OreRAnONAL AMPUFERS 185 FIGURE 5.22: Model of en op-amp: 2, Ousput impedance of an op-amp is 210. {sa small number compared 0 np. Notice that ina 8pia To impedance ion ofthe DIP package. A 3.04 circuits, The symbol of & ie, 10°10 108 “4, Bandwidh of dynamic response is assumed tobe infinite, bat in .¢, #15 VDC, £12 VBC, 29 DC, Iinge number Most opamps operate on signals up to 1 MHz, some special nes ¥P 150 MH frequency content very large mbes, is, each ste refeenced fo ground, ows area follows, which ar very useful in deriving the ip of any op-amp configuration. ey are not exsely 2220, but close, The output ony lange number and Ey isa very small umber. When the op-amp ouput is rated, the output voltage iat most equal to the supply voltage, a 6.170) Saaea ‘be equally induced on ference hetwoon. the,® FIGURE 8.22: (0 Single-ended signa and oo amp whore the signal tur ine) and ground ‘re conoecied together and (0) iferetil ended signs and op am. Notive that we only eed ate Kypand CER. Adeall 1 op-amp that ae of intrest for designers areas follows 10*-107 range) Hz range) 1 Zn = Rn = 108 Strange) Zeus = Rou = 10? range) 5. Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) for dif dB to 120 dB cange) amplifiers, (i.e, CMRR = Koc & = 10° Le, £ =001,01,1,10 100s a8 Kay = =H, -20,0,20,40, ‘56 orenamonat aupunens 187 ¢.15.0C 1 30-VDC age ipl ola) tedium th opamp which nrenes poses dee ear anion th power sp vlog) imum apt ots an die it og levels 3. Open tongratureenge(emmersi ig O°C 1 7 nds rating SEsrCto Se ay mae 39°C ative Fo sai edack wou 8 very ih eee ci yess galn chances tt Sop ol 0 te fedack come ms te Nepave eink edo ee the te188 GueteRs eLectnontc COMPONENTS Fon MECHATRONIC STEMS ‘common, and F(s) = 1.0. The closed-loop transfer function gain varies as esl ofthe Variation in G(s) as follows = 0.999900 ~ 0.99999990 ‘which shows that the variation inthe closed-loop transfer function isso 3 1.0) even though the open-loop op-amp transfer function gain varies by (20-107 range). The roximations) input impedance 2200 for practical approximations) output impedance. 5.6.2 Common Op-Amp Circuits (1) Comparator Op-Amp ‘The comparator functionality isto compare two signals tum ON (ie, Vo = OFF (¥ = Vie) the output ofthe op-amp based on values of the two input ls (Fig, $.25)-A reference signal Vn is connected to [sige ye 1 FIGURE 5.25: Open-oop opamp used asa comparator: iret polarity and reves polarity as comparator can be summarized as, S Vo = Kou (Vi — Vag . 182) Example Consider the op-amp comparator circuits shown resistances atthe minal re 6 fer = Sem 6 vem a6 hae is outside theFicunE 526: Open op spare FIGURE 5.27: Two open-top op-amps vied asa window comparator: Vas Va = Van ially lvays saturated 190) cusp192 6193) Draw the euspu voltage ofthe opamp fo the following values af the Feedback resistors, 1. R= 100K, R; = 1000. 2 Ry = 100KR, Ry = 100k For case I the width ofthe hysteresis voltage, Vi B a (5195) 100,000 1B 6196) 1s) the ourpur voltage switches ecween the Vy = -F13 V and —Vqy = ~13 V 1 ses above are shown in Fig, 5.29.6 (3) Op-Amps with Nogetive Feedback configu vpn yy = By wa have oposite " Weave fe ‘Hence, since the output vl Ve KarVi wre the gain ofthe inverting op-2mp Jt FIGURE 6.29: Schmit ss orenanonat anwurens 193 oa) op-ampei signal toa squere wave Outpt D0, Egavt Y= 0; iy =i wed, 6.199) (5200) (6201) (5202) ¥ 6203) (5208)o o FIGURE 5.20: Basic fscbock closed-loop configuration of parm {by noninverting configuration as 2 goin pliner. follows: verey in = VR, tpi Mor Rt Rly noninverting amplifier, va ER a whee in he osneriag pa % kane ll ans which always larger than one. Example | spine ofthe nonin opamp i otaned when eri nore tg0 0 Vox = 213) 6214) ted to 46.5 V range, Beyond that, the our se oretanonalawcunens 195 Differential Input Op-Amp ‘The desired function isto determine the cilference between two signals and possibly multiply the difference with gain, (5215) and solve for, = Ki Vin and (2) connect Vi (0 w= Key. Vp Thon add them gether io get Vp = vv The output dae fo input 6219 FIGURE 6.21: Some op-amp eros: diferent! input amplify, ferentaer,Intege aor196 curren eLecrRowe componcnrs ron MECHATRONE SYSTEMS Bt Ry ® ey (eat)"-(B) wevinw aly, when Rj = Ry = Rand Ry = Re = KR, [Note that when Ry = Ry = Ry = 22) Since we want v3 to have gain of 2, then & faa 6.225) Re=2- Ry 6.226) Since we want; to have again of I then BER peg tees 27) Ra? 6.228) Lets = A, then Ry = Ry = 2042. Sse orenanionatanrurens 197 Derivative Op-Amp These signal and provide that 5 tpt si funcionisotake the derivative of de input voltage tage sia, a wane 52 van = KF; (5229) Figure ‘he inpot-output ircuit for dfeentiation, Using the ideal op-amp assumptions, vedas allows: win =c (6230) 6231) Ve Reig (5232) waYy 6233) Hence, Wea CRO) 6234) Integrating Op-Amp_ \éwe change the locations ofthe resistor and eapacitorin the rare ce wc obain an inczesingop-ampcircult (Fig. 5.31). Thedesiedfetion i foxoen sv 238 where ¥5(0) is the intial voltage. The derivation ofthe 11 relationship is staigbeforwars, 6.230) 6.23 (5.238) 5.239) 5.240) Where the iil voltage values in the passes the Jow-frequeacy content of & i 5.32), The break frequen 7 (3.241)198. charrens rarcrnome components ron Ecuarnowe BvsveMs pam ® 32: Sore opamp fier cuit low-pass high-pass bandas, and bondejat fiter 11 = RC, where R; = Ry = Ris assumed. tt feedback op-am circuits to realize the sume ype nt. An op-amp imp ig. 5.32. The frequency domain i Noi) jew Van) “TH few 622) Se orenaronsL MPuneRs 199 = RC, R= R, = Ry is assumed. Notice high-pass filters the placement of the be shown that piven the desired Ry = 2Ry, Ry = effect in frequency domain. The erosive frequencies of low-pass and hig "mst be appropriately chosen to obtainthe desired notch froquency and it width FIGURE 6.23: istsumetaton op-ampmodifiod version of citron opamp with improved choretorisizs to amity senso signalsin nosy environment.‘57 ora euecrmontenewces 201 FiGUAE 8.24: ( ‘opamp circuit ene, the input eurent o-output (5283) which performs the opposite faction: convents voltage (6.244) 5248) = (Ry) and its variations. Vag = (Ri Ry) te © Vo 216) ‘When the output load requires curent levels above 0.5 mAmp, the output curent should ‘common logic gates in ip loge is 1 if beh202 ciuerens escrow COMPONENTS FOR MECHATRONC SYSTEMS. 57 prot euccrnoncoewees 203 Lu fi —wo © A> +b ut, NOT verte NANO, NOR, XOR. Not ig. 538). 5.7.3 Multiplexer FIGURE 5.28; An Gt sees doco ret inplemented with NOT and AND gates. channel is connected to the ADC for conversion. Such ADC converters are referred to as7 ora etecrnamenevices 205 4 FIGURE 5.39: Multiioxor cult andits function. fal » x axa ef 11B prgune 8.41: Flip-tops: Dtype, AS tvPe, pti andy. sored end Q maintain its previous tate. D-ateh is wsedto grap to fom D-Type Flip-Flop th to latched when E-input is ON S-Type Flip-Flop Reset setflip-Rophes woinputs Rand) andtwo outs (QQ) are opposite each other. jc betwcen the input and oust s: When § = 1 and R= 0, hed tothe I. When $= O and R ‘poh Sand R are , then the outputs ee clea bs os ve bs fs, pe ae Lea By - My zep He 2]206 THEIR COMPUTER INTERFACE. donotchange.‘ ved, Ifthat oer, both ouputs 0100, Basic pulses. HCType Flip-Flop JK ti-tops similar RS Ripon with oly onic: DIGITAL AND ANALOG 1/0 AND Fig 543 shows the ieac ewe a en compue bu and parla and 2 circuit between a digital compute and pa aralil dts input may be the eps of an lot otpat may bo the ogister of « DAC 8 DIGTALANO ANALOG VO AND THER ConUTER TENFICE 207 ‘read-only memory (ROM)]. The bas is made of three main groups of digital Lines: (1) ines wsed to peration is netted by the CPU atthe machine instruction level 1. CPU places the address ofthe WO device ide an active output in response toa unique address inthe address bus 2. CPU places the data on the data bus fr ‘3. CPU tumson the OUT signa ofthe con reat. ‘devin isn longer adresse.9 o7AsNo AOoONVERTERS AND WENCOMPUTERWTERFACE 209 + ‘se shown ini. 544 Fe ead (input) operation, the sequence af tops 2 and 3 are changed: ig SA), Te tage otal es the eto a hor a 10 VDC. T oes from ON to OFF state 5.9 D/A AND A/D CONVERTERS AND THEIR COMPUTER INTERFACE sum of cuenta piat A of the op-amp "rN sent othe DIA converter generally a voltage level net, The DIA210 cauprens etectnovec couonents FoR tcHATROMC systEMs 8 DIAN Alo CONVERTERS AND THemconPuTERTERTACE 214 FIGURE 8.49: Sampie-and-told rout usin® ‘butor op-amp, JFETIype transistor si about the fact thatthe A/D conversion fe DYA postion ofthe A/D through the er to complete than the DIA conversion process. There ae other that make the conversion faster wi Toy tine mst b& ‘alve within a de>212 CHAPTERS. ELECTRON COMPONENTS FOR MECHATHOME SYSTEMS. 9 D/A anparaconvenrens ano wen courutenmutenrace 213 hk ‘one part in 2" ~ “The D/A converter converts the digital numbers into analog signals. Th rcfetredto asthe signal reconstruction stage Diserete values of contol action ace presented 5 the Dt214 csuprens eLectuowe comronens FoR MECHATHONI SYSTENS DIA convrtr channel dal np Bchannal digital aut, masimam ample ate samen, shang the ofits slope of an input vltage ant provide ‘the dese elaonthip between th input and up waltage of te Var = Ks (Vin~ Vid 620) Forumer cae ue Va range 2.0 V 0 30 ¥. Desired ouput voltage range is 0.0 V tw IDV Anexample applicnos wher sich circuit may be wef shown in Hg 5.53. sro pmomiens 215 30-Vin) 620)et FP raune ss: Figure or protien 7. We opamp ctcuts shown in ig 5.58. Determine the cutpa vote when the inp 1°V, sd the creat that ws the ivering pat win the property 2. Thechan signal in the for of Sensor types vary inthe transduction stage in measuring a physical variable. Jn response to the physical variable, a sensor may be designed to change its resistances, capacitance, the true value ofthe variable or more aecurte measurement of the variable, Repeats- bility refers othe sverage error in between consecutive measurements ofthe same value 217218 cuserens sensons The Same definitions apply tothe accuracy of a control ‘er wirnooucrion ro measurement oewess 219 FIGURE 6.4: Typical nonin behavior ofa sensor Hates one of state input-output relationship from he Wealwhere x represents the measured variable, as function ofthe measured variable, 2 measunemenroevice oxomceRnons 227 | Assume that the measurement device has internal esta tdevice the ial valve ofthe voltage we want to meast in Withoutihe measurement v= v 2 Oo Ram te ‘ace the measurement device is connected tthe icuitat pnts Aad B,tchangss tn clot seit The equivalent resistance between pont A and B is BiB n= 63 BR RaRe und dhe measured voltage across points A and Bis (64) which is 65) 6 In most meas ment systems, the relationship between the Ry and isch that Ry = 10? Ry on Consider for simplicity that Ri = Ra. The sould have been measured if Ry was infin yeasured (VY) and the ideal voltage w= wae 6s) nd the ideal voltage 6% “The voltage measurement erorpereenage due tothe elecuical loading in this ese ts = -0.0909% 10)222 coarrene sensons For cases in which the meas sistance of the equiva m rodaced 6.3 _WHEATSTonI =ATSTONE BRIDGE CIRCUIT rea ad tain page er the eas in sch and ig = 0, 8 these equations, the ge nn ms te nin M elations must hold forthe bridge tobe Now, letus ex " ine 40 di tomeasure the vari 1c brig circuit in ode ional ou FIGURE 6.7: Woraistonn very often used in many i ‘ea wmenrsroncenocecneur 223 6.3.1 Null Method A, repesens the sensor whose resisance changes as function ofthe measured variable Assume tat the sensrresistance, Ry, changes afunetionof the measured variable. Thet, ‘we can adjust Ry inorder to maintain the balanced bridge coniion, Var = 0, Rk Le 0 ROR 616 “Then, when the Vc =O, te resistance ofthe sensor (R,) can be determined since reference contion, V; =D, and the ‘values of the resistance aris ate the S42, Ry = Rp= By = Re= Ry. Let R= Rot AR 62D ‘where the 4R isthe vaviaton from the ealitrated nominal resistance If we substitute these relations, ican be shown that __AR/Re WIM = Ty DARTR, om In gencral, AR/R, << 1, and the above relation can be approximated, wiv; = Rie (628) 4224 cauorene sensons ‘Another convenient way of expressing ship is vo= thar fom ea 62H Notice that if dhe sensor signal conditioner isan ADC converter and an emibedded rocesor, the above approximation is not necessary. The more complicated relationship «an be used inthe software fora more accurate estimation ofthe measured variable wing equation 6.20. [Now letus relax the assuraption on the measurement ‘oat uta large finite value, Therefore, amount of cument pasing through the measurement device, ig #0 voltage measurement can be found as follows. The reference voltage, V, voltage drop on each am ofthe ‘Since we no longer assume that dy is zero, then mint he 2 Bin (628) If we consider the voltage drop along the close atts Ry, Ray Rs Which must be equ to bby ~isRy = 0. 629) and forthe closed path ci 629) that V, = ip «Ry, and that for most Wheatstone bridge circuits, Ry = Ry = Rs = Ry = Re nominally itcan be shown that (AR/R) an) Ris very lage, the mensured ly same asthe case when we assumed Ry > 00, an RTD type temper The two terminals ofthe seasr are con rut. The sensor temperature resistance relationship er —7,)) (633) isknown that a =0.008°C"", 7, = 0°C reference ‘Re = 200 @ at wemperature T,. Assume that V; ='10 VDC, and Rs = ‘Rs= Ry = 200 8. What is the temperature when the Vp = 0:5 VDC? R= here from the sensor ealitration 4 ‘4 rosmonsensons 225 Let ws assume thatthe input resistance ofthe voltage measurement device is infinity, AR/Re ww 63H) Mh hor Find A, then R= Ry + AR, calculate T fom R=R(ltatT—7,) 1 MA, instead of infinite. The ARIE MeO WTS RR whic gives AR =40- 1.00022 630 and the more accurate temparetre measurements T= 40. 1.0002/08 38)@ ° FIGURE 6.8: Linear anda rotary potentiometer for postion messuremart. physical variable, voltage for an coment x oF rotary displacement 8, and the ouput Veg =4 V5 ox (a) et rosmon seusons 227 Ind sync ae showin igs. 6 10418 Notice tha the syuctejuttreplase ‘version ofthe resolver, FIGURE 6.11: Potures of LYDTe ands reelver.4 rosmon sensors 229 ten) agi FIGURE 6.13: Syreroandit operating pico. “The indaced voliage onthe stato windings ae Fig. 6.1 Vin =o W si) = a Va sn Vpa = hy: Ve -cox@) sinta) 65) wuL230 currene sensons. ea rosmon sensont 231 “Thea the output ofthe error ampli 655) 655) nese Vy isthe samples valu of they portion ofthe signa, Then we can compute the Arctam ofthe two sigalsto obtain the angle information, naa fr conversion to ita deta, snd the ADZS90 chip processes te resovorchange Position can be mossured by counting the photodetector ouput, Letus assume that there are 1000 lines over the ds. "Therefore tern is uniform black and opaque printed roiates and angle changes, te disk pattem (shih may be necessary in applications FIGURE 6.16: Pituros of rotary and nar oneode234 casorens sensons Sutomeymst HEDIS be detected is 360°/028) = 360/256". 3360/4096". For each posit LIL oe Ww FIGURE 6.20: Use of an compermentirychanvet signals A, eS that can be achieved. The236 chaprine sensons om FIGURE 6.21: Digit! processing of an increments ion was 25000 linesiev and te same decoder i used, what i the maximum speed tht ean Since the decoder can handle I-MH A and B channel signals, the maximum speed thae can be measured without data overan ie 1-10 putseisee 2500 pulse = 400 revsee = 24000 rpm eo eect sensors also inelude by ‘in ofthe sensing head a temperature varies ean be compensated. eerosmonssnsons 237 FIGURE 6.22: Principle of Hal affect and its ‘sage in sensor detgn238 in ON/OFF mode, is used to provide rotor pos 2 Seas he fone oF 100 ofthe ots are ON, e changes, the required curent to do $0 changes jonship between the measirable cucrent effort and rate oe irc) = 89675-1002 /icl e Coomb conin nd hp se rosmowsensons 239 FIGURE 0.24: operating principle of capacitive gap sensor: the presence of target object ‘changes the effective eapactance, ap sen The nonconductor materials (suchas epoxy, PVC, glass) which ‘Because the presence of such & ‘of nonconducting ob 6.4.6 Magnetostriction Position Sensors [Magnetostrcton linear position sensors are widely used in hydraic cylinders, Figure 625 reflected back, the xeVear (665) Uwheee V ravel speed ofthe torsional suai pulse is known, Ar is measured, and hence the position x, can be determined asthe measured distance,earosmonsensons 241 Bo= 6.4.7 Sonic Distance Sensors trough the propagation of pressure FIGURE 6.28: Compones FIGURE 6.26: Operating princi of sonic stance sanaoe Reflective andiusivewanalog (proportional) distance sensor using light FIGURE 6.29: Froquoney spectrum of modified version of the carosmonsencons 243 i. Typed potently pas through the ine presence of ‘oN of OFF. Such presence sensors ie a freguency-tne ht andte adjustable threshold n ver tead, the ouput of the senso how in Fig. 633.8 FF) version of 0 he hems to 10-em range. TYP type nd el sietyoe.| 204 cuarrene sensors ‘ss veloc semons 245 SHH 6.5 VELOCITY SENSORS a G51 Tachowotere rmaxiqnum switching frequency ofan inductive presence sensors about 1 msec (IKI), FIGURE 6.25: Operating rindpl otbe expressed as Vout) = Kon 8) where Kye = KnlP,9) pin is atow vlne whereas for very sensitive low-speed aplication the Ky ia high value, “The measurement eror due to ripple voltage is 025 . 025 B= FeV = 0025 yo 22 5000 qm = 12.5 rm ‘measurement eror duc tothe ADC resol 20V _ 20 Fue = BY = moorsv o 5 cate, the measurement errordueto ADCreso voltage ofthe sensox ‘Let us assume that due to small vations in within one 3 sampling peri os vaoenyemsons 247 000 ppm = 39.0625 mm (675) argerthan he erordeto ripple 1g period instead ofthe normal one pl2aB cunsrens sensors sampling period approach would give V = Deni/1.0 mec om 2 en/1.0 mse! 630) =1 os ste second pl apron atthe 900s mark, buteyondthe L.O1msee timated velocity Would have been. 6.6_ACCELERATION SENSORS _ ‘Tiree diferent types ofa Ailfesent trans age fr macasured by th change ‘se Accetenaniowsensons 249 2 Wheatstone bridge and op-amp circuit Rov Poe Rh You Inertial Accelerometers:250 lof response is determined by the ef and Lm ratios, Let jm = 2 (692) a ©. 1-1.Orange, andy, can be chosen up toa the spring constant ofthe sensor, the ‘The values of m, care chosen such hat § eration as func ‘The steady-state response of housing, x(¢), 8 the steady-state solution 696) 97) In steady sate, 69 the scoeeration mag: of acceleration frequency a5 well the sensor paramcters(, 1S ofthe sensor dspaceren, 6.100) jon ofthe base, then we are 1 magni of excitation: ul seaccemarionsensons 251 (6.103) hich we expect t0 sm fequeney content of the acceler ‘On the oer hand ifthe sens applicitions, in ovder to have a p i) between sensor output and measured necessary thar [Fig 6.38(b)] sed ty measure the displacement ofthe base, #8 3 relationship (constant magnitude (ase displacement in this case). itis ‘Since the 7, = EV, the mass of the I That exptaies thefw acestenanon sensors 253 A calibrated piezoelectric aceleration sensor has t-ougpat rele Wonstip: Vi = Ko 6.108) [otie that although the pievo element has «fst ng steps j st 1 high comperacture in ordseto east the idea relatively smooth nrg produced by the penvelectric materiel, Cs the effective capacitance, ad the Vig i the paced ou7 sain ronce anoTonaue stnsons 255 264 cusrreng exnsons in the strain gause 6.7_ STRAIN, FORCE, AND TORQUE SENSORS 6.7.1 Strain Gauges FIGURE 6.42; Pictures of ypicnl stat gauge fortran messarement256 1. Spring displacement based forcetorquesentory 2. Swuin-gauge bused foreahorgue sensors 43, Piezoelectric based force sensors equivalent torsional sing) ean be measured as displacement, Fe Kegong (12m) scan be cowverted to proportional ie we oblain the fore (or torque) measure set, Vou = Rts 62H Ker 12) 1) based strain gauges are moun I experiences the Force (oe torque), it deforms a srl amount which indaces strain on he sensing element Be eet g ao & B FIGURE 6.43: Vorous lox using aan grugae for fore and torque mesturemant. [FIGURE 6.44: Force sd torque mensurement o stats rust bo ly changing the mechanical design, Figuee 64 shows such rque sensing using four strain-gauge parson shat. Notice hit mast force ant entontt 129) EWE 2. The strain gauge is subjected tothe same strain, The staia-esistanoe change rel bonship is 128) bridge cicuit, Age 6.125) RY the eationship beeen the stain-g -(t si r=(StA) ve ‘ ge outpat voltage and force is ¥ tage to force calibration requires the info (on which the tain gauge is Bonded, cross-sectional area of the part (A), sensor gauge fcior(), end Wheststone bridge circuit eference voltage (¥,)100 GPa = 100 10° EN okt, (ou (6128), AR iG. (6129), Hence, ga Hee. fo = ee F (sn ‘The force corresponding othe Vay = 2.0mV DC is F = 80,000 [N). to determine the change in te the existance! staan gauge is aR 480 = S420 100 = 0.089%, 100 = S100 ons, onpnessunesensons 269 ‘Because the gauge factor G = 2, the strain (change in the Heng ofthe shaft a! o 6130) un, 138) A eo01m 6.139) 004 lS ou (140) a= 00 the prosure is 2eto, The ihre a (location perc frecececeed] is rpncipe a tae E CCCREEEE LEER FIGURE 6.45: Absolute p95260 FIGURE 6.45: Baromatertomasure the loi stsoephare absolute prosure, 129.9 ins wtch generates apes of 147 pls he surface level he container ‘Ths presure sensod by most presse sen 2. Temporacute and the resulting varctions in ae density not Anh TY 17+ Ath 7) 1 Displacement-Based Pressure Sensors 4 ito a proportional volinge capacitance change, scan change, and ce pressune sensons 261 sore sensor concepts pressure to deplaooment wanscuction and im order to obtain possure maureen gta Axa ky BP 6.149) ignal propontonal she pressure oP ap (647 measure the relative presure between py ond the pressure diference between them, A= Py — for pois the devo pressure), then the sensor mensures te absolute presse. ‘scum pr 6.8.2. Strain-Gauge-Based Pressure Sensor iaphmagen is measured by Intouship betvoon pressure and (6.187 Gu (6.149) (6.150)262 currene sexsons de es raurenarunecensore 263 Yn ‘Using the operational amp i rep 75 an 5A ox rset 100 (o1s7) to measure the posse difre ass) (6.189) 160) oe between two plates of the epacitive seusor which in tm changes — 6.9 TEMPERATURE SENSORS ‘Then264 6.9.1 Temperature Sensors Based ‘on Dimensional Change 6.9.2 Temperature Sensors Based on Resistance RTD Temporat Sensor operates ca A goa! approximation materials is os vewrenatune censors 265 ure 19 approximately 700°C In RID sensors. The main (6.162) conductor material variations in thermistos cen be large from one seasor to another. Therefore, they canaot be used as direct replacement to ove avother Each sensor must be propesly calibyated before rept 6.9.3 Thermocouples Thermosouples aro perp the most populss, etsy 10 Use, and inexpensive temperate sensoes. A tkenmocouple has (wo slecical conductors made of different metals. The (99Vane © K (Ty ~T3) faveton ofthe thermocouple mate ip. Such standard referent tof Standards and Technology (NIST) ‘TABLE 6.2: Thermocouple Types and Their Applications Tipe Materiel imine, 1% silicon) Patinurm Long-temn tity, <1702°C Constatan Vaan eavienment 400°C ex nownaresencons 267 6.10 FLOW RATE SENSORS SSS ur main groups of sensors measure the flow rate of Oi ugh a rose sectional ar: or gas) 1, Mechanica low 2. Differential presure measurement based flow rate sensor 13. Thermal ow tte sensors 44. Mass flow sate sensors 6.10.1 Mechanical Flow Rate Sensors268 cuarmne seusons 10 Rownsresensons 269 | Tow Roo ates, The sp eof the spec se | : en . flow rte senso:270 cuarrine strwsons my Pevtla ay terre speci yas tion (geomet shape ands ‘oso nownare cnsons 274 scales daa table, O= 109) rn = TP Ket Kyl!) 6.7) mngsten wire used by the probe witha tunsgien 1-15 jum) is placed in \4 Zs, fume sna mera tet ee prince272 cuenene sensors LBB 2s s EP cc mtanrennsar [FIGURE 6.62: Operating principle of corits mass low tte sansa. the flow fctd. The resistance of tungsten probe is proportional ots temperature. By = Ry) (orn) Ascucreatis pased dough the umgsten wire, heatis transferred fom the wie to the aid, 17) 6.10.4 Mass Flow Rate Sensors: Coriolis Flow Meters, U-shaped tube at sound 80 He (Fig, 6.6 8 uid in one arm ofthe U-shaped tabe and ined as the percentage ratio ofthe amount of water vapor in moist rus the amount of water vapor ane waowsverms 273. FIGURE 6.62: Homi hilad mero ygromete. ied ie wean consti eleted ot tempera. Th joeletric heat pump 19 mai jrror at dew ott tempe ouidity ofthe gas sample, The resolution of the image pocsing salts. Apical ee pees z sm can be vised to meastexe weoneverens 278 274 comrtens sensors ote oes ot, Made aes ° 1 1 [00.0 rhe bi eben : 2} e000 8 Jars has improved sigaficandy in that they are rather studied sanat sensing vost factory automaton systems for part inspection snd location detection, Lower cost makes them increasingly attractive for use in automated processes. in comyponents ofa vision system CF pail Sh and G65 Sense in x andy directions, fs Geteined by the nursber of pixels a the sensor array and evice aeray and the Tacused on 6.175) 6.176) I 1 tram seocorheadto the OSP usng a highspeed communion reece.276 Position snd orientation of an object elatve to anther reference. ‘ose rrosuenes 277 th, sree) of an image: Once the Boundaries of apart or pars in 38 ‘ea be easly calculated. mon the matrix data of N= 1024 « 1024 % 60 1m = 62914, S60 bytes/see 6.178) = 63 MB /seo 6.179) ais very lage ina igh resolution camera. system ean measure ae aay = 1282 = ogmrbem = 00976 Hm 6.80 tote el.278 cumorens sensons sxe mnontes 279 ‘ters he design ofa Tl angni lw ete sans on he 2b: tacoma of the Bui sar coms sjtem shown in Fig, 72 i nse to mente the rosuredileence between pup np andthe vate out of pressure ch vill ride the dese meseeren ange an 1% acura) ever a eqn ae ne racy over feg281282 couarten suecrnonyona ra mmooucron 283ramosucren 285 284 curren rurctonvonAuic HoTOH CoWTROL SYSTEMS. in any design is to specify the requirements thatthe sfermanos, operating modes, fail-safe operation, 2 Sytem concept design: Given te peifications an appropriate system desig son. hydraulic motion sys- valves to grote the286 CHAPTER? ELECTRONVORAULC MOTION CONTROL SYSTEMS, a ramasooucion, 287 Prin S Pa © Pas ators charged, and whenever ine te poppet valve closes israthed). WHEE Pac ™ Po 3. Maio flow rate can suppor.238 ‘exgcrnonvoRAULC Moon CONTROL GYSTENS ie power i ovided by the lever motion. In this pursing pome nd Ha fe detemined by 239 wing290 cwarren7 euccrnonvonauue Moniow CONTROL BYTES aawrooucnion 291 Bo ao OCH ee- FIGURE 7.10: An tecrohycr au cosnloop speed sontol system example ofa service wUck292. csarTENy ELECTMOMYORAULIC MOTION CONTHOL SYSTEMS ecetealy 3 z my FIGURE 7.14: Hytroulo valve cotrel method: (el mechanisly det actuated valve (single ste valve) ot hydra actuate va (two-stage va iret scuated valve single-stage valve} mechani! lus let hyrautes actus valve (worn sleet hs294. emeeten7 mLacmoroReuLc MOTION coNTHoL SYSTEMS eave he conte! lever (mechanically cond aammoouenon 295 FIGURE 7. te conservation cay ldo taken ‘equation canbe expressedHAPTER? ELECTRONYORAULIC MOTION orTROK SYSTEMS. aammroouenow 297 “The capacitar (C) and accumulator (Cy) analogy isa follows 1 vetfone red fooa aa wv out | aw fuck as || x 2 toute 7.97 090 Fora phen ole of iY, an nts, capt v ook 229 ‘often, the change in energy due & ae 7.1.2, Analogy Between Hydraulic Electrical Components fn the pipe is neglected, tne motion ofthe fui ase in the pipe canbe desribed as (i= padded 728) @ = a 9) way 729) absolute 2e10 pressure, he vacuum condi298 cuarren7 FLECTRONYORAULEC MOTION CONTROL SYSTENS where m= pV = pol Ayal Q= 4+ A. The pete a lotus pet n-ne (S)-0 7.20) nate ¢ wre ff ae input and peri pressure level 2500 038) Example! + the hydraulic circuit shown ae shown in the figure, d= 20 mm, = 10 m. Assuta Justeady sat, Qy = 120 ltersmin = 2 eres = 0.002 m ‘p= 1000 kg/m’. "Then he valve closes suddenly *counesy of Or Pas Vchins, ramamogucrion 299 a pike, This phenomenon is sso known as water hsremering. Assume re dots vot open ge in pressure due tothe inertial deceleration of the fluid due 10 closure ofthe valve is determined by uy en cs own = os “sam = 220% unt pircan be usedas RLC 7.1.3. Energy Lo: Circuits: loss. The pressure300. charren7 FLECTROHYORAULC MOTION CoOL SYSTEMS rznvouuueruurs 301 — Tense iene to aa F a0 Wt N/a? om urine aul m= 10x 10°N/m? 1.5) Ke PETES f Ble | i fa) ese mi? -mijsee + 10 x 108 1.0.x 10° N/m? PPVEVa yi = 20900.W + 19900 ie = KL000W nbick indicts that inthis ease te Bet los over the rele vale is twice as mush ach hearse over the man How valve. Since the total power out Pray = Ps Op =20% 19 20 x 107° Nf 44. Number of tums and bend in Ue pipe cicuit binghydraalic 5, Flow eae imonderto comfortably Manufacturers provide empirical data abies for pressure drop estimation sa faction of above parameters Example: the purmp input nas = OS ne = 001 re 1 low eate across cach valve. Since iF Faso Bo202 ciueren7 suectRoKYORAULIC MONON coMTROL SYSTENS -O— [ana rare compen EL =o “Therefore, the only way tocontrl te fa re pumps variable cisplacement ype, the low rac ean be controled By ‘pu speed alr by adjusing the displacement of the pump pe stoke, 7.2.1 Types of Positive Displacement Pumps Ditferear «pes of posit ferences among them are are briefly discussed botow (Fig. 7.22) and pecat ee re between the ceive and criving sat fave tobe taken up by the bearings. Gar pumps are alays of lament type. Despite tess drawbacks, gear pumps are popula because of thie Tow eost and robastnes, The unmeshing of yeas around the ilet por eats| | 904 ciuereny cLecTRoHVORALLC MOON conTnOL s¥srENAS (ei eee ig. 727) away pure306 curren LzcTRONYORAUUC MOTION conTHOL SHSTEHS © HGURE 7.25: Pedal ston parm ~~ ee ¢ airoceon. {ough the FIGURE 7.26: Piston pump (viable spleen) cross-sections view 307‘308 cHAPTER ELECTONYORAUUE MMOH CONTROL SYSTEMS ranvorauuceumes 309 ete sees Cae rr 3, Roted pressure, essome rsB12. ciurren? ELECMoNvORAUUEHOTION CONTROL SYSTEM p= 00 ep ‘p= 2000 ps a,-7 Tym Tom? PumpPoweg =? inp power soerce, The wot flow rate from the 0, = Dy Wp as) 1200 in'tov -evrexin crs0) in ein ran “The input toxque required to drive the pump is 7.8) 08) 790 12000 fi? - 10800 iin st * 09-085 Warn os0 = 3744.85 in 192) be suppl tothe pump is PuripPower = Ty We 093) = 3146.8-20-9n rade oo Pn = Py ~ 200 ps Qn ~ Oy = 10800 in sn, rawromuucrums 313. Qn = 09 10800 = 9720 in an! we can determine the outpat spect of the motor, Qa = Qn = Do Wee in = 9740 bin ump Aliscted to ne or the other port by the sash plate angle control, Sih a pimp control is314 ENAPTERY ELECTRONYORAUAIC MarION CONTROL SYSTENS, referred to asthe over-cenzr pump como (Fig, 7.28). Ifthe swashplate Asptacement is on ono side ofthe center, output ow i in ore direction. Ite swash plate displacement js flow isin the opposite dcecion. Hence the esystoms such In mos! pops the mazimam and minim swash pate sngles cat be mechanically aajsted by 2 Set serew. In hycromechanically eonerolied pumps, the pressure feedback signals ar provided by bydeaic lines with erfices. Ta command signal i. desired out- pt pressure) is implemented by an adjustable spring and serew combiaation. The actuator Which moves te sash plate is called the contralcyizder or coniel piston. Insome paraps, the actor provides power 1o move the swash plte in both directions under the contrat ‘of the proportional valve, whereas in eters, the aetator provides power for ene direct tnd the paver forthe other cirection is provide by prelesded sping. In wast cases, at ‘s1at-up the preloaded spring will mave dhe swaskolats to maximum displacement. As the ‘vtput pressor ofthe pump builds ur, the compensator eehanism {proportional valve and ‘outro piston) proves control poster tp reduce the swash plate angle ‘Pup contol, thats the contra ofthe pump displacentent(D(9}) whichis a function ‘ofthe swash plate angle, may be based on diferent objectives such as 1, Pressure compenssting and iting 2 Flow compensated 3. Low sensing ive low eontol (matched fow supply and demand) p contol: Controls the pump displacement such that a desired pump ougout pressure aud = Fae + K (Pant =P 9.108) gn the otfst value of the forthe pressure regulator Fer simplicity, ic here. Cleat, more advanced contol Togic ean esiced vasiables, measured variables, and the ouput ofthe controller ‘This type af purnp contol is called a pressure-compensaced and provides constant pressure ouput. The flow rate will be determined by ‘whatever is needed zo maintain the desired pressure, up cothe aaximam low capacity (Fig. 732(a)) The commanded pressure does ot have to be constant ara typically can be set betseen a minimum anda maximum value fora given pump, Aste flow rate inveases the regulated pressure tends o reduce a ite in hysromechsncelly controlled puraps. Bur tis effect can boelininatadby software conto algoritnsin digitally controlled pumps. When is large that scanrot he moved, th purnp under prose compensated 2 desired regulated output pressure et almost zero flow sate, Ths is ranvoravucruurs 315 epson) hove 08) Pose o @ FIGURE 7.32: Performance charactoriatics desired purip out Cow rte (Oe Cont © Baie + K (Qans = Op) 109) “The flow pressure curves for & law-compenseted pump control look «s shown in (FB 7326) tn oxder to raisin a stable ouput Me ‘0 prose feedbacks 0! the sides. Maes sa fxed orifice nip and bY regulsting eons! pressure drop across it, we egulat iow rate, Hence, tho to pressure feedbacks come fom fhe two ports of the id orifice, Te thee-por flow’ compensator valve has one por com feted tothe pump outlet, om2 por ak, a the elindce which actuat® the swash plate ofthe pump. Depanding on the pressure balance, te flow compensa valve trots the he desired pressure diftereat lve. The performance eu Fig. 7.32¢0) ior pum. Th fixed orifice the Toe preste is vor Tos, den the rgulaton quality of the ow compensator is very316 cuarten7 sLecraoHYonAuUc Marion courHOL SYSTEMS ce Py ~ Py. gots anger valve to contol piston increases, The moveneat of the pip ont ow £2 ) Load-compensated (load-snsing): Contr! the pump displacement Uitfereocetecicenthe actual ial across the valve, the 5p Jong as maximum purap output restore hriomechra wronauuceuwes 319 rate ee FIGURE 7.35: 741s)820 CHAPTER? ELECTHONYORALKIC MONON CONTROL SYSTEMS angle (r equivalent oto element variable) 2 np sate speed 7.3 HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS: HYDRAULIC CYLINDER AND ROTARY MOTOR 73 nvmnauule AcruarORS: HyoRAUC CYLINDER AnD ROTARY MOTOR 324 pumping or motoring mode. Sinulaly, a hydraulic moor can oper is ping mode, However, tere are exceptions. Some pusnp designs ince ie design which makes we motor designs ae sch that Given the displacement (Dy, fixed o variable) of ‘mpat pod Go) is determined by the flow rate (Q) inp aro porta load pressure Ps, is T=ar Paar Ifthe rotary pursp ard motor are variable i desired frm he commanded displace fonder itr dynamics ean be used berwcen Dal =32: 2 CHAPTER? ELECMONVORAULIS Mor CONTROL SYSTEMS Loejeaue FIGURE 7:37: Frescureitaiioe Ideal power transmission beswcen B and A presse chambers mesns Powere = Powers 7123) Fa Not = Fa You a Pe Au Vat = Pa“ Aa Vo 705) 726) sequal othe area gam ‘extension cycle. Assuming 80% evarall pump eficiency, determine the power noc sive the 7.128) 7.128) 0) F_ 10000 AP = > i569 1% = 5.09 108 Nin = 5.09 MPa 732) st 7a HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS: HYORAULICCRUNDER AND ROTARY MOTOR 323. 133) 134) 7135) “The power delivered to tk Jond bythe cylinder is Power = FV = Mp2 7.136) = 10000 Nt- 0.509 mis = S090 Watt = S0VkW (1.837) and the nocessry pup power rating ix Power, = 1 - Power 7.138) 5.09 kW = 6.36 KW 039) hydraulic ines connecting to is in the transmission Ane“ Vine= An Viog_ in forward mevion = Arg Veo Uneverse mt = 15 see. Then, 42) toca je the rod diameter (Table cay 45) 0.148)324 cHarten7 eLECTROHYORAUUC MONON CONTROL SYSTEMS rawvoravucvaives 325 Rated pressure dhop sross the valve and the muxinun supply por portional valve geomet ae response: Bs surrent signal spool displaces “The main differences betwcen ON/OFF valves and proportional valves are as ‘valves, the gain ofthe current-Fore relations i, whereas in ONIOEE valves, the 6. Main contol purpose of valve: pessie, low (dizecton oly, direction and flow rate which istered to as propo326 CHAPTER FLECTRONYORAULC MOTION CONTROL SYSTEMS. va rvontuuevanes 327 ate orifice and spring bewen the ce nthe indiectpressare L seine? syst Prep FIGURE 7.42; Poppet vale consrus328 UMPTER7 ELECTRONVORUUC MONON CONTROL SYSTEMS A diffrent version of pilot valve be line does no! open 74500). For instance, a pressure berweon wo points based onthe ps vavvorsuucvaves 329 lot pressure soppy ane tank posts 'be between the tank 7.454) Al1930 CHAPTER? ELECTRONVoRKULC MTOR CONTROL SYSTEMS, sure inthe thir ovation reaches a preset val, the locked. Such a valve may be sed between and two cylinders: clamp and drill eylinders. The object ‘not move until the lamp eylinder pressure reaches 4 by a pressure slit type (745s) 7.4.2. Example: Multifunction Hydraulic Circuit ith Poppet Valve a Jon ofthe Volvo whee! onder mada 208 nly the Pdr rei or bucket matin is shown, The pup ithe valle spacamant axial ison type, Main fw control valves are connected othe hydraulic supply in para contgurtion ara ar closed cena nanpesture compenssel tye, Poppe valves ere ued to sealthe load on each en fevers or lass helsing vl union,332 surface and desired wo tack the macral contour ofthe ground. At the float poston, both sides ofthe cylinder are connected to the tank. This way, the esiader follows the nara Is function ofboth the area of opening and the = KA) VOR Q isthe Mow rate, Ap is the pressue drop across the valve, gut set ae re ranvorauucvanes 383 {s approximately proportional oth ncedie postion. I te input or ouput pressure changes,934° ciarren7 ELecTRONVORAUUC MOTION coKTHOL SYETEMS vawromwucvanes 335 bye: edie pressure py throsgh the moverneat of compen: spoal displacement (xe), tr valve L Ba = Av maa Ad 7.435) Fog Per A= pan A) 499) can be aocomplisted provided thatthe ss the condition in which pump pressure supply as reached its maximum (sturation) level and Yoad pressure is very high. "The past-compansstor configuration (Fig. 7.50) ases two pressure feedback 10 ‘input part pressure feedback too put (\.., maximum fad) pressure ld by the following reletionship 7.162) inp Spon = P01 ~ Pra ase336 C@urTeR 7 eLECTRONYORAULIC MOTION CONTTOL SYSTEMS memmannanes | the maximum of all load pressures, The same maximum fond presare signa is used 10 coatrot the pump dispoemeat shown ia Figs. 750-75. the input and outpatpo ple: A Multifunction Hydraulic Post-Pressure Compensated338 cHAMTER? ELECTROWORAULE MOTION CONTROL S¥sTENAS sanvoravuc vanes 239 se the highest loa peed is prop gs aro satute te pp Th ed pee ed side hy a series of sv 7.4.5. Directional Flow Control Valves: Proportional Pumps variable displacement ype and controlled by a ad-sensing hydraulic mech 2, Valve-cylinder pars for each function are closed-center types and ste connected to the hydraulic soppy lines (P and 7) in parallel configuration.340 ‘ueTen7 eLEcTROKYORAULE WoTON CONTHOL SYSTEMS 7 ie 1 Ee ‘sed with variable displacement poms, whereas open-conter valves are used with fixed displacement pups (Figs, 754 and 7.2). 4 Nurser of sensation stage single stage to stage, nd throo stage valve spol acter ‘The “servo” valve and “proportional” valve names bot Alisplacerent of the valve * Servo valves use fecdack from the position of main spool to decide on the contre Sena (othe feedack maybe implemened by completly hydiomechanis means ‘or by elecrcal mia feedback. However, have started tous ation between servo andl propo to disappear. o higher bandwidth valves. contro around nul position ofthe spool. As ares higher accuce their comstroction sa nce specif pee flow eating of the v0 6 Pilor pressure range (Py wed 7. Open-centeror closed center type spool design 8. Linewity of current-tlow relationship at «constant pressure dcop Fi, 7.68) 9. Symmetry of cureot-flw relationship between plus aad minus sie of crcent 10, Nominal deadband 11, Nomital byseriss 12, Maximumeuren ftom the amplifier sage if solenoid operated fend PWM frequency and ther frequency if used) 13, Bandwidthot the valve at command change ie flow 14, Opecaing emperatare range “The specifications for the eleeonie driver (power supply and amplifier cine i2))orrise time forastep 1-259) of maxienar flow rate fied supely press certain poveeniage clude: 1. Inpot power supply volta to he drive power supply signal type and rings (ie, +/ ~ 10. VDC, £10 mA, or 10 20 m ial) 4. Feeback ensoe signal typo if ay for a driver which uses local valve spool postin, feauback conte the spe! posi ep ine stage dit actuated wae is valves ("oF three-stage) pressure to amp to shit the main spoo! use pilot pressure typically s¢ S0% or more of the main supply FIGURE 7.55: 5spool displacement a propart rawvomuucvaves 343 FIGURE 7.56: Two-stage valve fleteage sol efor plot stage, sacanéage spool for the ‘rain sao “This feedback mechanism can ‘using poo! poston sensor and how tis feedack is phys Jemented either by hyéromechinical means oF by por ‘opin the chamber on the right sie ofthe cap (A of the pilot spool. When the fo fiom the solenoid in B, the spool shifts back ard closes the opening to pile suppl solnoil- feedback combinatce will now bold s pressure in por A that is proportional ©(344. cumeren FLecrnowvonauue WonoN conoL svsrEMs rawvoruuevanes 345 Smt peer ‘where Pr is the pilot pressure output form the pressure-redacing pilot valves tothe main $l ste ead ue a tempol ase, Kip ing ofthe main spool Tho inpdt-oupt first stage ia pair of pressare-reducing pilot valve slong wi ‘Riations in two stage proportional valves where(846 cHAPTER? FLECTHOWYORAULE KoTION CONTROL SYSTEMS St ; i ES [crite -? putts pressure proportions tthe sono ronal tothe plot contr) presse ae ars of ‘mein #500 a lt spas fons on each side Hence, the main spool moves othe left atl the forces an oth sides, When te eurent 3. Conteing springs tho main spoot body sie. As areslt, whoa the main spoo! shift the lef, it works against oly the centoring sping onthe ts otha ight side, i works against sawvorauuevaves 347 vale where the Rapper is id ong, with the Foetback i an Hspporinterfce, inondec ovoid eontneination-e pipe valve de thatthe plo stage ampli motor plu the jt pipe nozzle pressure fe tu the jt pipe348 cusren7 ELECTRonvoRKUUC More! CONTROL S¥STENS, ee eeaae Fi Figuce shows scortge vibe 56! trough negaleflapper oF 66S ind D792 series) Cartridge valves ate designad to be assembled on a m idge valve (single funct is installed by serewing valve threads into manifold cavity ted cover to manitoil Serew-in ype canridge andstipn types support fw rates above 150 n tpes have the advantage Over the serevein types a ht they do not repeatability inthe assembly, Mee are seven standard stip (specified by 180 7368 and DIN 24342) where the nominal is 16mm, 25 mun, 32mm, 40 rn, SOmnm, 63 ram, and 100m rates in the range of 200 Ipm to 7000p, se cua support larger350 for more type (b) Poppet ype wv metering element can be a spool similar standin ypool valve ‘ool ype cardio valves can bo flow ynee-w, four-way vanvonaucvawes 351 renin final ctation stage being propartunal tage eect ‘spool fype cartridge valve (Fig. 7.62). The prersure inthe po the solenoid, Thor position, hence tthe solenoid eurent For very large eerie valves, valve at flapper oc jet pipe valve asthe pilot ste, Such a ny take the form of a double nozzle ‘ey high fio res stage servo) relic, flow, pressure, end deston cot iy she them sets larger and cost gets lower, the spp increase in the coming yeas.352 cHAPTEHY ELECTHOMYORALLIC MOTION CONTROL SYSTEMS ra woraucvaves 353 w edt © aay ty betycen $0 and 200% ofthe nominal gain within the 42.9% of maxima current ‘mounting plates also ‘of change of output presse 8 2 ‘ee blocked Fg. 7.65) 7.4.7. Pertormance Characteristics of Proportional a and Servo Valves ren any Teas ‘The pootant oce geometry ound te nulls r “he low presere gatn is defined ws Ky = BAe Ee ary 1” BP pen” Ky ‘oe sap = Qeipnt, AP)354 ly pressure very quickly. For a ure within 3-45 of maxima ‘aa wrorauuc waves 355 ‘where the pressure drop across the valve pressure (aet supply pressure) minus the load pressute (Fig. 7.66), liference totween the pump and tink Pane = P= B= BP, = Pade Pa) When the foal pressures co 1 pressure to generate actuator frcetorque, PLP. = DP + AP (ris) ‘ofthe yale (Q) fora di iy shifted can be obtained a 0= 0, VBPanJ oF 78s)pressur drop is mors near cempered to ‘se of proporisal ves TRIP) ~ Ky (PIP where the last term accounts forthe leakage wien the 9poo i around the null tre ceationship sound the bo extreme condone: 1, No-load condition, A Pe = 0 2, Blocked-loed condition, AP =F oe oe FIGURE 7.68: Nonies! chr Eurantou relationship ‘rop condition areas the ve: yatrel ‘deadband, ard oft ra svorsuue vives 957 2 ane p Oey for zero values of Toad pressure, & Pt = © ong the y-axis intersect resi drop actessthe forpmacere gin Te on press pn (eae cote) Kye = Kyl Ky = lag a ‘Some of the acnideal characteristics of a proportional valve is illustrated in Fig. 7.68 They ue twoer the spool, sleeve, and leakage spring cannot be exsetly separate int (eadband ant Aine a FIGUNE 7.20: Dynami ciaractorates fe types ANNO v frequency esporse358 cuusren? ELECTMOHVORAULIE MOTI CONTROL s¥BTENS 7s samaornotaucmonan sysrEM Coronet 359 | a force motor) current ad the 1. The bandwidth of te elect actuator 2. Bandwidth of the pilot amplification stage. (In direct drive valves, there is no pilot 7.5 SIZING OF HYDRAULIC MOTION SYSTEM COMPONENTS Pia = Ky ot ———— BPs Ap= AP An360. ciArreR? cuecmmonvDRAWUE MoTiON con SyETEMS 178 sn oF WoHnULCMOTION sysreMcoMPOHENTS 301 ne 82, « P9 8h in force, many presse aod W=O/Dy or Ve Ore THAP,-Dy of FRAP Ae where Py ithe pressure difference betwen the two sides of tbe actuator (wo sles of Fak =SF (mkt SP isthe safety actor (ie. SF = 1.2) Forrotary Te Te =SF d+ {proportional of servovalve whieh i positioned bot line,} 2 £ r i =a G2 cnArTER? ELECTMOMTORALUC MoTIN CONTROL SYSTEMS 5s dropped across the valve Ino pressure diop (Ps — AP) when, determin the flow rate (Q,) ofa valve at aparicular (Ope, e Set! = gin equation 7 Or/ Qu = YT FLIPS 7198) = VRID (7.199) [A proportional valve is rated in terms ofits ow rato capacity in eatalogs fora pressure drop of AP, = 180 psi across the valve A serv valve is ated for A, = 1000 pi ‘The Component Sizing Algor ‘Step 1: Deterasine the pexfoomance specifica a Sep 2: forthe atustor (Dy, ofA.) o¢ the supply (Dy oF Ae). This selection Sep 3: 192 forthe specifications. 7.200 % 7200 APL=T/Dy APL ride 7202) Step 4 Assume | = iy Eaeulate the P, fom equation 7.198. Add a 10-20% safety factor the Py as a safer fat Qe /Qui = VI BPLT PS 7.203) Sep 5: : and sven the operating iput shaft speed ofthe Step 6: Qe = Qu BP) 7.205) for linear actuator (Va ( design choices, pick Dy. hydeaulic motor digplacemert (For linear actuator Ac tional area) and pick AP, valve pressure eating ne rest of the sizing parameters: Quy Qr, APt; Pr, Dp, O equiremeats for pump, valve, nd motoreylindor using equatiens 7. 7.192, 7.98, ane 7.208 1 stn CF HYORALIC WOTION SYSTENcoMPONENTS. 363 ‘The Component Sizing Algorithan 2 Step I: Detemsine the performance specifications bass’ on load requirements: Step 2: Step 3: motor displacement (Dy) oe Dy = TSP, Are B/APL (7.206) Step 4¢ Calculate Qu feom equation 191 and Q, and = fu fromequation 1198: ut = Dum Qu = Ae Vax 20 Or=Daive — Q,= Ae 7.208) Step 5: Step 62 pressure 4, Select the prope vale size based onthe calla ardaxsumed an Q. = Oa BPTP, (720) ‘+ Asdesien choices pick P: hydeaulic pump rated pressure output and pick orcaeulae "load pressure diferent. ‘Then calculate the rest ofthe sizing parameters: Dy. Dp. Q, size requirement for pump, valve, and motoreylinder. Qe. Qe, which ave the [Notice dat the punsp and motor displacement and pressure ratings are available ia anda sizes, such 25 Dyy Dy = 19,25, 50,73 chev aay = 3000 py... 5000 pst 21 Simialy, te valves are available st standard ratcé low capacity (measured t AP, = 1000 pi ane at meximans cumenE = ig ves} 3 g9%,2.5 apm. 5.0 gpm, 10 gpm 21) vargins,one ofthe closet ize foreach component ety margin36 le-axis EH motion control system sown in ig. 7.75, which ic press. The system will be controlled in on of wo possible + Mode 2: losea-loop Force contol where the Fore comin is obsined from apo rammed command generator of from the displacomoa ofthe joystick. The eyliter 3 pressure sensors on both ends of the eybnder. the BCU which mode to operate (sped or fore 3. The desiced regutation accuracy ofthe speed conto loop is 0.01% of maximam speed 4. The desied regulation accuracy ofthe foree conte loop is 0.1% of maxim force 15 SEINE OF HORAWLIEMORON SYETEM COMPONENTS 385 FIGURE 7.76: Components sod Bleck dogo fe single-ais elecrehydraulc mation core! [yeten. Contralara a programms embedded computor Goystck formotioncommand) with proper position and force sensor on the cylinder “The range and resolution requremer sensor and ECU interface requirments (DAC and ADC eompodents). Lets assame thi oo depending one ds typeuedntcotl r i ze, the commanded signal ane Tong terra onthe 2 whole ndon ange temaased huran opetator cannot actually change the coats ih an analog speed scnsor that sods ad sensory dat forcntel puspses aswell [ROM or battery backed RAM for program Stor3e, ng program execution)366 cHusrer7 cecrRonYORALLE MomIoN CONTROL SYSTEMS 3. UO interface circuit: antlog t-Aigtal converter (ADC ce, Notice that ECU doesnot ave to haveall ofthese types of VO interface, 15 amps to the aaplitie using a regular 83-132 VAC. = 1142 MPa = 1658 psi (ar, Or = Oa amy = 240 1006/2000 tun relict vale, 2. Cylinder: Parker industrial cylinder (Series 2H) with 2.0-in. bore, in, stroke, with ‘ation a both ens. 3S gpm at 1000, Select P, = 2000 psi, = 169 wimin Dy = 0240 itertey ans 4. Valve drive (power supply and empjer): MOOG power supply ad amp following component ses ae required Cylinder with bore diameter d= nap tack seevo valve dives. osm (orc scion A = OED, ‘5. Sensors: Poston sensor linea incremental encodet. DYNAPAR secs LR linear oc higher drop. and pump with displacement D, = 0.240 iekev and scale, range 1.0 m, 50 micron (0,0002 in.) tinea solution, maximum speed 20 up pesiure capacity of y= 2000p Mahe al. sex, frequency respoase 1 MHz, quadature outpt chanels A,B,C, A, ByC-368 cHMrTER7 eLECTROHYORAULC NOTION CoMIMOL SYSTEMS P2884 samp A, jae f+ pees 7.5 SuNG OF HYORAUUE MoM SrstEMcoMPoNENTS 369 [mo the motion, and return to te original positon under a programmed speed ‘tion control systems are used in mechanical testing of products, inject roll positioning, and press ppl370 cueren7 fxscmoHvoRAUUc Monon coMTROL SYSTEMS "Te INMOTION AXIEMATURAL FREQUEREY AND BAAOWOTM UT 371 7.6_EH MOTION AXIS NATURAL FREQUENCY AND BANDWIDTH LIMIT Helow isa pecudocote forthe conte! algorithm, Howe Motion Sequence() whileCtrue) 1. wait unts1 cycle start command is received, or (Slgecr simul is ON or predefined tine period expires, 2. Enable position servo mode and nove forward with 5. Monitor pressure differential and switch mode if 1 ertain value when cylinder position 4, Operate in fozce sarvo mode until the predefined tine period expired, 5. Then switeh €0 position sexvo mode and command reverse motion to Aone position void function PID_vosition(xd, va) ‘ static float Kp = 3-0, Kd = 0.0, Kis0.01 ; static float wa = 0.05 static Seale = 1.0; wie wis Ka * (xd Scale * ENC) + Dac = Kp * Ged - Scale * ENC) + uk; ) void fmiction PID_Force(#A) ‘ static float Kpf = 1.0, KAE = 0.0, Kifs0.01 5 static float wif = 0.0 ; static float Al= 0.025, 20.0125 -P2*02) > + suse: wife uif+ Rae ha - Cr DAC = KpE > Cha ~ CBIPAL-P2#A2: ‘As a geneal “rule closed 9 where A and V represent eros the head-end and rod-end of al area and volume, and ne andy subseripts refer to spectively. The fd bulk modulus Bis defined 729) 7230) fr =2.2x 10% psi; formost hydraulic aids 2a) ax = EB, forconniner 7232) Bem Ndx p forges 7233)372 CeMFTER? ELEeMoHERAULC MOTION CouTHOL SYSTEMS 17 Unveanonnuane MOOS. OF NONE-ANS HYORAULI MOTION SYSTEM 373. ‘Thee, we = VM 7244) = VIS WORST DATS eT) 7245) = 170radizoe 7246) =0Kr 7247) ping into the closed-loop system inorder to achieve ‘Therefore, a closed Loop controller should not tient o reach a bandwidth higher than oop bendividth, This etm be achieved i vo ways Win < (1/394) =9.0 Hz 7248) This particular EH motion axis cannot accurately follow cyclic small motion commands with frequency higher than 9. He, 1, Bypass leakage orice atthe valve botweca tw ha 7.7. LINEAR DYNAMIC MODEL OF A ONE-AXIS HYDRAULIC MOTION SYSTEM Ay = 20i0" An = Lint b= 20in W = 10001 oz ‘Lets consider the natural frequency athe midstroke point 7.240) aay 242) FIGURE 7.80: Seok cioram of closed loop conteied, oneanieslcchydraule motion 75.104 thin 24%) rate,874 cAAPTER? eLECTROWWORAUUC WonON CONTROL SYSTEMS FiguRE 7.81 contalie, on FIGURE 7.82: (9) Components end servo contoled entrain slacrchd lok dlagram model of fore load ores {7 UNeAR OMUBRE MODEL OF AONEAXISHYORAULE MONON syaTEN 378 the cylinder cross sectional are sumed to be equal areas on both ses). (cis he compliance ow. 7.7.1 Position Controlled Electrohydraulic Motion Axes ‘he contol uta, poston ag th anc block diagram lia tetramer and Fy tocan be eaelsted sng the inet mods for each component 1 Ky roe gy Gt (FE)-n (728) 1 ae XG) = gh Ke Baa Sols) — Ka XO) (7.280) (72st) 7.28) 7283) (7.254) + Steady-state position Aturhance force cone lowing errrin response toa step position command and m0 Kena = Kops ad Fats) =O 7255) (Kr Ky/Ad) he Rd ys 7.286) Fe Rey Ryle oan(376 cavoren? ELECTRONORKUUC HOTION CONTROL SYSTEUS velocity command) followingenrr 7.259 0.260) 2.261) 0.263) 0.264) 1.269 2m) any oz 273) 1.7 UNEAROWHAMME MODEL OF AONEAXISHYORALAICMOTIONSYSTEM 377 In general the leakage coeicient for servo valves is Ky = 002. & a) Example Consider Fig, 7.81 and is block diagram reps sin is Ky 200 mA /10 V = 20 WAV, 2 Valve gain around the all poston operation, Ky = 20 fin'sce/200 mA] = 0.1 li sevim Cross-sectional area of the both sides), 44. The sensor gain is Ky = 5. Deadband of the valve 041-200 mA = 20 mA.279) (728) 72%) the positioning error due to os 7289) setby a function ofthe deedband the open-loop bandwith ofthe 7.7.2 Load Pressure Controlled Electrohydraulic Motion Axes “Ta NOMINEAR MAME MODEL OF AtORAUUC MoTIN eveTEM 378 (Kg HG) ~ Kg AP jurtent to flow canbe approximated by afi the accuracy of approximation needed. The transit response mods sett ero fora fr-order model 7.8 _NONLINEAR DYNAMIC MODEL OF A HYDRAULIC MOTION SYSTEM m= pecan par Aa~ Fess O59 5 7295), of te cylinder (rom and te pressure ransionts inthe contol volumes on bo egn.72, Om —¥-Aa) 7296) (-Qar +9: Aad 297 (Or ~ Ota ~ Qo 7298)‘380 cuAPTER? FuECTROYORALUC Morion coHTOL SYSTEM vere p= Wpang-Dyllnd 299 Orr = Co Arita) VOI) (e = PO) (7.300) 20 7302) @) Retraction sion me F= pa Aa~ Pa An Foi OY Eloy 7303) ‘and the pressure ansiens i che contol volumes on both sides ofthe eyindcr, 6 Pam SE Oar- 9 Aad 7.308) ee Pam a Ont Ad ees Pr = GE On One~ Orn) where Or = Wpang Doh Orr = Ca Aras, en = Cp Anak Qa = Cp Aaa, were the design parameters und variables for the hydraulic system are ‘Aa, An—sylinder head-end and rode cross-sectional area bulk modulas of hydraulic uid due to VirrpeVolume ofthe hose hetween pump and valve loythe travel range ofthe cylinder Dy--flow rating of te pun (Cy—valve Bow gain constant Or. Orr, Ore. Gre. Gar. Qar—fow rate from pump, purp-to-tank, punp- to-cylinder, and eylinderso-anis, s-~talve spool displacement .a-~swash plate angle Gay-—Sonsant value of swash plate angle yeylinder displucere Pe, Pas Bo. Pr—Prest WpeytPe=d of the pump pump, Nead-end,ro-end, and tank ro cunscures metecmonvoRauics 381 Open-Center EH Systems Ax “opor-contee” EH system has fixed displacement umpandopes-center valve, where there is an orifice betcon pump and tank and the pomp Aisphcenent i cons Aorta) #0 Or = Wp iy once dicty hatween pump and tank ports. and the pump displacement i variable Apel) = 0% 7313) Qp = Wp Dol Gon) 0314) 7.9 CURRENT TRENDS IN ELECTROHYDRAULICS reasons for ert382 scnlaunch iT Ot Aba "Somseeemines 319 Fig, 784). The IMV valve as up t2 spodls and solenoids, one Tor each port conaestion aie ares AnsG20) Arata). Asal) 316 where each spol oifice area Tune 2a cunenn racuos meuccroworsuuss 383 An [Br 7 Indepordecy eon “There aesevera pate relationships are Independently metered, Oro = Ca: Aral Oar = Cu An 7325) 7326)COuPTER? RAECTRORYORALUC MOTION CONTROL SYSTEMS The IMIV concept offers the following advantages and disadvantages. The advantages are asfallows: * Valve geometry is defined in software. Ther ‘would be needed to cover the low, me pplication specific spool geometry wuld be 3, regenerative energy can be used to indard valve has a single contolled + Because of the inereased number of eleetrical components, dhe aumber of possible failures i higher ratnresnicsbaey BAC peas E ‘alles insted ofthe BH pilot valves, Propoctional lw control valves for mobile equipment pilot valves, the lever displacement is measured by a sensor, andthe elecwosic contolose FIGURE 7.86: Stackatle vale biock for mobile aplctions 0 picture, and bi top view FIGURE 7.87: Voure supply andank ports. Tae curt carries he pilot coatol pressure tothe wan flow contol valve. The oatpor pilot como! prossure is proporionally conealed by the solenoid eurrent bots por pilot pressure) andthe pilot pressure supply proses of 50 ps and S000 ps, emt (See Fig. 778),390 FIGURE 7.88: Hydrolcschomatics for hand metering unit MMU stoering eyter of whl oud el WARBD BL. by Kemet. y8.1_INTRODUCTION ‘The fem actor in motion contol systems refers to the component thit delivers the is wsed with, for the type of drive determines is generically used in industry to deseibe the components toget "The discussion inthis capri limitea to motor dye technologies that can be used ing closed oop position and 3. Step motors and drives (a). Permanent magnet step motors (b) Hybrid step motors able elutance step motors ep, half step, and mero-stepping dives. principle of any electric moter involves one oF more ofthe folowing thrce physical phenowsean 4. Opposite magnetic poles atract, and same magnetic poles repel each eer 2. Magnets attract ion and sock 10 move to a position to minimize the reluctance (0 magnetic Bux. 3, Curret-carying conductors create an electromagnet and sc lke acurent-contrlled magne, Every motor hes he folowing components: 1, Rotor ona shaft (moving component) 2, Stator (stationary componeat) {3 Housing (with ond plates foe rotary motors) 393394 caarrene euectc ACTUATORS: WoTOR AND OMIVE TECHNOLOGY er wenoouevon 395) ‘conductors by the ‘one production in an electric motor is propetional i by propor selection of mate Fals and geometry ofthe motor 2, Distbution of col wirs, eo] wire diameter, and its material (Le. copper oF alt: ‘minus and PM material) Moder engineering ana uations and so for motoedssign (exannples and 8.1.1 Steady-State Torque-Speed Range, Regenerati ‘and Power Dumping Electric met power, to deiBOG cHPTERY ELECTRIC ACTUATORS MOTOR AND DAE ECHNOLOGY eee” | ont ‘ed one F hh ‘cat ui “at speed of inert To load-driven ap 4 65, by the motor because it Pal In notoring move, the m Arve tekes away energy from: oF dissipated in resisios.998 HAPTER eLECTHEC ACTUATORS: MOTOR AD DRIVE TECHNOLOGY asmarooucron 399 ft fe ‘This ene=ey Fg) must be dissipated at the regen resistors (2) and pataly stored inthe eS ‘ DC bus capacitors ay). a c Eng = Ee Eo ern ‘The amoust of energy that can be stored inthe capacitor i | ~% oy | ee Fg = 56° (Vas = Ve) 19) ‘where Cis the capacitance, Vn is the meximimum DC bus volige allowed before faut = [Om state = [rm sothoes on = [nso 1 fem: (3 2 a ws) G10)(826 Electicfeld Z at «point in space (5) dus tom many charges (Gy iso ge) at various locations can be determined from IFig- 8.50) ‘constant a follows x permittivity offre space. Far (Fig. 850] where y= 88542 2 1 ‘on charge ig) which isi an ele Peed and ifthe charg> i free to move, the resulting mation is governed by over a closed face The ge side he a oun f Baka « Vane [Bat 6x) ‘vector tha is tangent othe path traveled from A to B to generate and susiain a magte 4. Carrent (moving charge} over a conductor er mermaouerion 401much difference because they tend {0 be randomly ovented, smaller in magnitude, aad the Biot nedensicy 39) fidinns 37 ar evmooucnon 403 Sieilaly, the magnetic Fld inside a coll of solemn i (Fig. 8.6(0)) ex) Magnetic flux (5p) i defined as she itepal «ros-sectional area perpendicular othe fas lines =f to the surface (Ay). The aa i important tot to confuse this: agneticfield over close surface thateneloses surface Ay, shown in Fig 8.60 linkage Between the ASN Oy: for Neuen cll 6a) is elatedto the magnetic fox density B with te perme Ban A cro) se (HME is defined 2s MME = Hot as) ‘where is the Length ofthe magnetic ux path‘and it variations aze the most commonly used mates in shaping a in design of electric actuators, The material and geometry of the it determine the resistance paths tthe flow of magnetic fx. nce, the magnetic ax in a eol can be determined as follows (he magnetic (648) 849) 50) “The magnetic fx is defined a5 the perpendicular tothe fax density vet resistance) in series with the source (Fig. 7), on a te) anny » wmaoucnon 405 “Then the magnetic Mux (analogous teint) hough the ois oy = ME 655) cu, nalogy beeen eletica cesits and magnetic circus is wed. 3y analogy to electical circus, Uhre are three main principles used! in emalyzing, iss follows: to Kicchos aw for {MME drop across a close path is 2200. whieh says the sum of voltage Yo <0: ow ex flux though a jon), This similar to Kirchhofts law for currents which says that anode, algebraic som of curens is 260 (Sunn of ‘in-coming and out-going cures Yo on= 0; atv cross section 6.50) TAGLE 8.1; Analogy Betwoon Electrical ed electromagnetic Cheulte Beasties Woon Gree v wo fn n iad on408 crerTERs ELEcTHCACTUATORS: MOTOR AKO ORVE TECHNOLOGY ‘stator mage ative tothe xed stator windings. The the permanent sting induced ‘oliage induced ona fe of change of fox exmmoouenos 409 J oun .s1: to asters tn 6s A es) hich shows t ‘medi I the {ecam be shown tha! the mutual inductances, Lz and Ly ze equ: = Mit, geomet based on the Paaday’s toa change inthe magnetar memeoucnon 414 Figure @. ‘sith primary and secon coe laminated oot irom core @ » agro for 8 ansorms : in electromagnetic actuators. Co-energy in a magnetic circuit is defined as former can be viewed as having pure inductance, although in reality there is some cee ae tance and capacitance of each winding. Woo [doa eon araay’ a tater hat he voltage sro the primary winding is ropotonal tothe I rat of change ofthe magnetic Hx and epposes that change, the fee, F, or longue, 7) delivered tothe mechanical system = Mi sinet 98) 699) 6.102) 103) (EEF) generated due to [Notice shat if 3 Ho, then RR, The magnet the coil and current is For linear magnetic systems, k= Li a 1 MME = Noi (8.104) Wa [i c-teaim 3h (8.96) I 2 teas Flux citculating in the close path along the core and through the ar-zap is ‘The concept of co-energy in magnetic circuits is defined asthe ares onthe opposite on = ME 05 the A ~ fcurve, The co-energy concept i very utefilin determining the fee and torque fee442 caaprens etecrec acruarons, MOTOR AXO DRIVE TEDHHOLOGY esimmroouenon 13. ‘The flu linkage othe coil -H curves ae called sof fort-‘uprene stscrmic ACTUATORS: NoroR AND DRIVE TECHNOLOGY isthe length ofthe magne MME = Hd On = B.A, ex ntmooucnon 415 magne, ican be shown that ens) celfecsive airgap length Foe rare-earth permanent magnet, the B-H eure in the second quadrant ean be approximated by ene magnetic cree i plications, the circuit also inclodes a current carrying coi Coll be N and current be fin a circuit where the muagoetic field of permanent magnet and field £ i the one due to PM plus the N-idue point of te magnet can be detenined a a calculate the effective Hay =~ Blt “The net effect of cureut is to move the magnet operating point shifting the HY around Hy iran electromagnetic cenit, a permanent magnet can be modelled ss lx source 8, = Be An eis) tote Ae where ly isthe Teagth long the magnetization direction, Am is the cross-sectional area lar tothe magnetization direction, and isthe recoil penmeability ofthe maginet bby t WedCHAPTER. ELECTRIC ACTUATORS: MOTOR AND ORWE TECHNOLOGY aximmoovenion 4.17 strong magnetic Nu goes. But ‘operat in full cycle of external whichis an aluminuon-sickel-cobae mixture 2, Ceram (hard ferite) magnetic material, which consi 3. Samarium cobalt samarium and cobalt mixttes, SmiCos, Se 4, Neodymium (oeodymium, iron and bocon are the rain mi small amounts of other eompouads). The ida wre components with sicko} UK I is much ‘The magretic field Permanent Magnet Max Magnetic Morera! Energy 4600) ‘iieo 3 ~ 7000 Ceramic 2 80 ares % 380 ropertysheace, the final product woul penty agit ly the recoverable magnetic448 charrens cuecrme acrusrons: moron AND ORIVE TECHNOLOGY exmmoouenon 419, the surface area is roughened in oedet to provide a good bi of adhesive, the PM is clamped on the rotor and cared at hig the inductance ofthe cet, apd (the Pe, magnitude ofthe slope of eed ine, assuming are typieally used by engrossing pe Permanent magnet for an application: ae ponent Br, Hes (BE aa.420. cwAPTER ® ELECTRIC ACTUATORS: MOTOR ANO DRIVE TECHNOLOGY provided by the permanent magnet and he coil curent is Pa Oe 4% the permanent magnet yan the Ret Ry) = (r= a) Rn “The fk due 1 the co) fe oo RRR & Nei Oc RAR, ea et Rik RRR "The Bux linkage x REN ORL ATEN Oy Leia “Then, Ma can be found From Bay = Be Hy Ho Hay B versus iH curve ofthe permanent mage By = —Pe-Apally) “The magside ofthe sop ofthe fond Bs | iat fined asthe ine connecting the operating poiat (oH. B axmanopucnon 421 For further insight int the lod line slope, lec us assume that = 1.0 forthe magnet. ‘Then noting that 6.140) "The lux leaving the permanent magne is «( ean wo (ate) : 14 (149 e149 nay) 146) en a8) Example Consider the same example shown in Fig. 8.17 and determine the operating point afte yemanent mags ners hen the circuit tough the se-gap is duet the PM an the col, = 0,48, 19) came sown tt he xu he met axing Hemant Rech th &, te 8.150) mn cazz where, reluctanes are iam for t= 19, Ay= Ae rrr “Total x duet permanent ugnet at eo is O20, +9, 1 A = deo Mee nag ark + assuming ty ® 10 bs an ee ) eat «e.15) 6.152) 153) azsounoos 423 and the load Tie slope in this ease is — (8.168) ay, (B+ Hott) | aw (erne)| aro ext in ni pin os te te ot lama a B=-| (x2) (17) where the effect of coil curren sto sift ie 8.140) ‘Weare mostconcemed withthe case when cureat isnegativ, which takes the magnet zation zone. When current is zero, magnet operates at « nomnst load line along the H axis by *! amount ea] @ © FIGURE 8.18: Soienid competent ad ts design pul ad push ypes424 cnarrens eLecra ACTUATORS: MOTOR ANODRWE TECIMOLOCY. i \ om fom a2sounons 425 “The solenoids used in hydraulic flow conl valves incorporate a tube design around the plunger. The the performs two functions slate the plunger fom hydraute presse hy about 10%, Different insu (05°C for forvar, 200°C for thenmale ins 4 industy), ‘eompouings commonly tucchunial size are knove, the heat dissipation is Known In oder to ng. the (C. The force capaci pore. Ata rated current the the oare wen the corte electromagnetism. Us fect.426 cuerwens ELECTIC ACTUATORS: MOTOR ANO ORVE TECHNOLOGY 1m basic mode of operation, a solenoid is diven by DC voltage, Vie, 12 V,24 V, inals, an curreat is developed bythe resistance ratio (oeglecting th st i Ree ie ofthe solenoid determines the maximum amount of power ican convert i 6 ‘nd motion of dbs) de tae dt ‘The elecromagnctic eneray conversion mechanism generates the force as te ofthe interaction betweea the coil generated eleciomagnetic field and variable react 2 sonore 427 ig. 8.13 except tat in case of solencids, lowing relations bold for magnstic fl strength, fax densi, and ux itself Myxen, (6.180) to Meng et (was 1 = Bg Ae = Soap (6182) “The fu Tnkage and the inductance are defined 8s Naf = 04 (6.183) = to: 6.34) ‘Then, the inductance as fonction of plunger displacement Leyes 8s) “The ones is enloulated from the co-energy ep se e187) (iss)sSra0pe Ys ar ined tisalso common to provide surge suppressor component i parallel witha solenoid in order to reduce the voltage spikes in an elecucal circuit duc to large inductance ofthe scien. Example Consider a solenoid type shown in Fig. 8.20. There are three alt gap paths, seetion, we obsain Me ig ey y NF From symmetry, 0, =2-0, 6.1) By Ap=2-By-Ay (6193) ote thet By = he Hy B= me H, Hence, 4, =2-, (6.196) bg Hg Ay = 2th Hy Ay im) the follow magnetic ld strength relation, Ae My = te 6198) a2 sounoes 429 Tea, ms 19 Gra) -*#4¢ (8.200) ay G+ A Hd) Anther way tolook ot MMs ed relutances, The ux dueto MMF and effective reluctance in 201) (8202) 203) where te effective reuctances (6208) (6205) and ya from parallel corsetion of two reluctance, =Rp (6206) Fx Hokage sa fusion of vaisle quantities and x (scons) 20) (8208) Leg) = Be +A (6208) (sox) 6210) (.2U) e210) ayo sp,430 ‘The complete eletromechanial dynamic model ofthis sctuator ean be written as aa oceenvo Morons mwoonves 43 FIGURE 8.21: vrining:yps onthe stator Trushles DC enatora fb) conesetated win orrotos The isthe question of how to distribute the cil around the perimeser ofthe st design paranicters ae (48) diameter numberof slots and how each eal polarity (N or be generated by contol feat diagram by considering: the Principles of DC Motors wes of brush ype permanent magnet DC (PMDC) motes:ss pesenvomorons sno ones 433fs ingulated from each other. The laminatod rotor has slots which house the windings Core surface and windings ae electri ost identical mechanical components exist inde brushless DC motors with thre exceptions: 1 There ate no commutator or brushes since commutation is done electronically bythe sive. 2, The rotor has the permanent magnets glued wo the surface of the rotor, andthe stator has the winding ome form of posiion sensor (Le, al effect sensors or encoder most establishes 9 magnetic field around i. The electromagnetic Reld stengt is proportional to the eurent magnitude, and the destin depends onthe current drction based on the than rule. The magnetic fed shape can be changed by changing the physical shape ofthe entre cat of rears nent ais ected by ther pis e219) 6220)436. cuprens recrc AcTuAToRs: MoroR AND One TECMHOLOGY ss oceenvomoroas anoonves 437 JRE 8.28: 0C ator operating sincples:Obtnlning w continuous torque by winding eat nd torque asa function of Tanger the numberas peservo morons anoomves 439 438 qUPTERS eLECTUC ACTUATORS: MoTOR AND ORIVE TECHNOLOGY rerveontDe nue (9 tnidec DC mee -—T— 8.3.2. Drives for DC Brush-Type and Brushless Motors ive is considered asthe power amplification sage ofan electric motor. Iti the dive th efines the performance ofan ele AGURE 8.32; Fn cat fneions Manno tilt io uncut PNY cao ein ams440. curteRs exEcTHE ACTUATORS: MOTOR AO DAVE TECHNOLOGY ar pcsevomorors ano ones 481 FIGURE 8.24: Buses motor curent vector and phase cutont components (phase ¥ wound objectives to keep the stators magnetic ed perpendicular to tha ofthe oto. By contro ling th phase curents i the sator phase winding, we contol the stators magne flek 220 i, For phase jon algorithm fora three Tack emt) produces thearocservomorors Awooms 443 442 cuanrene ewer AcTuAToRS: MOTOR AND DRIVE TEHEHOLOGY 9222) sin(o-+ 120°) (e223) Posin+2 (8224) ‘Lets contol sh current (with commutation gad creat thateac pl conditions Ta =Kr-i e080.) 6.2) Notice that when: 1. 60, we have the ideal condition, 2. ¢,=90", then there sno torque generated by the Curent (6225) 2. -90 0, = 90, efectiv torus constants less ha ikea eam, 80 <6, 270, cect orgue cons ‘The total torque develope asa resul the contsetion fom each phasis Taher en SKE iO Si O+ 12) 4s 4240) Note the trigoaometie rel as 523 fe wee gt pas ag 8 -Sinocore 42% aor ‘ 020079 Seat Lento + Sain cod 920 nee, the torque is ainear function ofthe cient. ndepende ih Hearty constant torque gain (Kp) 6235) Kraay 3236) ly commutated bros lgebraie sum of thece phase eurtens Is zero. Therefore, only tnd current feecack measurement ae implemented command anc feedback signal is abiained from the ‘and 834,sa ocsenvoworons awoonves 445 ‘When the motor sped is nowero, the terminal volage minus the back EMPis avaiable to develop curent. Then, au ‘and coment Cas ms p+ te + Kew 3.250) current requirements are caleulated fom D+ Kew ee es 15/1000 1200 (8.252) 6.253) ‘Themasimurn Cbs vot (8.254) ogo snd runing a a [Notice that ender no-load conditions (/= 0), the maximum speed i limited by the back EMF and ics pet a Kew A R-0415/100- ae __ 2 1000 = 1600;pm 6.258) In St units, kr =Aig, whereas in CGS waits, Kr (NawA] =9-5493 x 10 Ke {W/kep “Then we can fed the maximum torque developed at stall snd at 1200-rpm speed, Toot = Keri 8.288) = 9.5493 x 10° x 15 x 96} 8.260) (6.25) 6.25) ef voltage. Hescs, the maximum fe"heud-room valle. TPICO107B The integrated circuit (IC) package T implements an Fide and switching cont ope ‘Thedeive supply voluge V5) bridge output curteat Thetwor ‘ollage and ground are connected to the ‘capable of seasing ovec volt ure ond446 cxervens evectnicacruarons: oTOR aN0 ORE: ACTUATORS: MO reormtooy su acnmuenon morons ano orwes 447 Soa ane prt Sng 10 a ew Mot OL ax i ae Ky = 9.5493 109 - K [Nava] = 0.7958 [Nm/A} 8.269) tit se oer pn a te a mae] ae gam claw oo can fale rh aseny aa 6275) generated mast be used by tral ] Because the motor sped is constant, the motor FSI = load toque of equal magnitude but in opposite di 8.4 AC INDUCTION MOTORS AND DRIVES —__ ‘AC indkvetion motors have Been used ia constant speed applications ith power. The most common types of multiphase 1. The squiret-cage type AC indetion 2. The wound:= 2, Bence Wy = wy. The stator AC waite, vale) Ve nw!) (6282) “The reoling tux is 6283) “where Ns the number of turasin the primary coil. The rotor sees magnetic Rox equency von The indaced output voltage sa result ofthe Faradny’slaw ofinduction is 28H (5285) 6280) 1s speed, tongue i cons eal speed cloee to syachronous rasinmar valu. For stip freqiencies ant and currentishimited ‘certain mage oF lip452 _cnerTeRe ELECTIG ACTUATORS: MOTOR ANC DRIVE TECHNOLOGY 3. The shape of the steady-state torque-speed curve can be modified for diferent appli cations by medkfing the zolor conductor shape snd stator Winding distin, eax distribution of the stator andthe roto. Lat flax density distribution be (astm tha tis constat in ine fo srpliciy) b= By £0508) nd let te rotor fx density fold be ofthe ion principle) Bi = Bry €O5{Oq On) value ofthe fax density distebution for stator and rotor, and Dy the angle between the B, and By, whichis called the range of 5-20% of the synchronous speed. isreached, Clearly, the s4nctoueionworons ano paves 453 smatlerthe maxinmam slip, the sme the speed variations ofthe motor under varyingoad Tiksotse if lange speed variation s deste as the load varies, a motor wit larze maxim slip sould be wed ld be quickly po igoriths whichis 5 be evalested (0 in he drive. The ‘wed. Depend mbiation con be qt dieser , P22, The m onus speed, $= 2006. Determine ts curve connecting the ro-loal speed fy stats, the actual motor speed is ‘Shoes the nooo spo and he seed at mtu Fencnuot Ioed torque the sey speed of the Pa tee speed ne “sno a speed ofthe an Tt SOME = revsce = 3600 rovenin 6.299 Ma Fa 32 ‘tthe minor Jad, the motor specification has 2056 si, 6.29) Won = Wy 02 Hy = O-8 Wyn = 28EO Ev 8.95)ee AcmmucTioNMoToRS ND DAVES 455 ‘| Ficure 8. nt commutation ad regulation i AC motor phases by sik oientd vector contol FOWE! eve, When the load is 50% of maximum load, che slip will be 50% of dhe maxiniam sip, ‘Thetofore, the steady-state ror speed is so Mate so (8206) We = ge O11 aq = 019 Wy = 3240 revi (629) ‘The sped varies from syachronous speed at no-load to 20% slip at maximum fond Renee, AY _ won ~ (U5) 99) Bf ate 8298) =o (8299) = 72 [epevi-in} (8.300) 8.4.2. Drives for AC Induction Motors 3 oT ayecon nebo equeney of the applied wotage wi cod fe wage canst Te steady-state torguesped perferma we a the sack486 lower freqonsies than the rated frequency iis beter o mainiain a constant rato of voltage magnitude end frequency. roles ofthe uve ar the comma (a, 8.43). The only rence ist {d-Orionted Vector Control Algorithm Th ble of adjusting the AC voltage Frequene each phase, Vp. Far a toe-phase AC nd the amplifcation of curreatin the stator wind [DC bmushess motor as peresanent magnet rot v ee rcroucronmorons wooves 457 ‘whereas an AC induction motor has a squiel-cage rotor with ao magnets, Therefore the Iaguetc ficld of the rotor of AC anotor isnot physically locked to he rotor, ‘commute the eaten in windings 80 thst he angle bet wes fv andthe induced magnetic fleld of the oto isesinated based wa magnetic flels is Known, an AC motor ‘ime torque-spood characterises of 2 DC rene may be inthe Wansent response, THe iret commutation algorn fr AC incuc= ip of DC motor bexween torque and current can be te fixed tothe eld vector of he tem. Heace, itrapoaent of dhe current in “8g coordinate Feame, and the torque ia hae 6.208) osque) nthe terminal voltage Fi 18.47) duo to back emf volage. This is called the eld strengthening and field weskening, respostively ‘Lotus briefly showhowr wecan achieve the linear curren he dynamic equations (49) fp 20 Rig t BE onde 830) @ the Vr 0= Rein Bt — ody 6310 Ty = K = (haly— hy lad am Vs-are te ror voltages in dq-soerinate frame and Tis the gencrated tora. are defined ss Aer = bag + Lele e310) deem Lalas + Lele 6313) ‘ea rcinovetion motors ans onves 459 and be slip frequency is We on = Hie 6314) nother wands, iis simplifies ‘Let us assume the dg frame ‘jquations as ye dg-frame is Fixed tothe ‘with the maetie eld of ve, The torque equation Tek 31s) Notive that if we ean sot the Ky, t Beacons similarto the ease in a DC nator. Heace, we wor torque generated and the perpendicular componet Wig =O itcan be shown that (3316) requency, noting tht Ay =O and ean 318) ais) 3m)460 ‘HAPTER ®. ELECTRIC ACTUATORS: MOTOR AND AWE TECHNOLOGY ‘where 0 isthe measured angular position of rotor relative to stator, Algor can ater to maintain the des vector fand rotor eld, Vector control algorithm basically controls: 1, The direct (parallel) component ofthe corent fo contol the magnetization, hence the waque fain 2 "The perpendicular component of the current (iy), which Is the forque-producing ‘component in te cursent torque relationship “The Ks ie th slip gain and is function of the direc (parallel) component ef the current, Beeause yt mainained constant through te direct component ofthe curent,t , doscleration, and constant speed run pi rec mscsnceeans morons 525 Lotus assume thet the index sie period is equally divided between acceleration, hi 07 sen3.0 wes Tim moe ats tase 10a Ht pnt 1.9 8 eto manie t tea hy 108 ee 03) 3 rt 0 X Assume we have two functions "Moveact...)” and "NoveFor Cony Sp "generate the desired motion % AF these motion cormand (trajectory) generator functions dre defined in c/cet, they can be x overloaded to accept different argument 1ist % % % Calculate om set parameters Home_speed_i = 2.5 % [zev/see} Hone_speed_2 = 0.25 % [rev/sec] Hone Sensor = 2% I/O channel number for the home Home_tndex = 0.2 TopSpeed = 1.0% [rev/sec] ‘Jog_Stop = 2 % 1/0 channel to indicate co stor Stop_Rate = 10.0 [rev3/[see"2] TndexValue = §.0° % Crevl ace = 1.0 % [sec] tomn = 1.0 % [see] tiie = 1.0 % (see) % Home motion Movent (Gone Speed_1) wait until Home Sensor ~ O¥526 cuarrens© mocranAste MonION CONTROL SYSTENS. 10s coonanaren Moron como menwoos S27 Moveat (Zero Speed, Stop-Rate) wait for 1.0 sae MoveFor(itone_adex) Wait for 1.0 sec Moveat (Hone_Speed_2) Wait until Hone_Sensor = ON Noveat (Zero Speed, Stop_Rate) % Tox Motion Moveat Gog_speed, tace ) Wait until Jog_stop=oN NoveAt (0, Stop_Rate) % Stop motion Noveat (0, Stop.Rate % Index motion MoveFor (Index Value, tac, trun, tec ) 10.5 COORDINATED MOTION CONTROL METHODS © ‘gating 0a (oh eareming 10.5.1. Point-to-Point Synchronized Motion ihronization refers to the positioaing of one a ata selected numberof points dusing acy ach cycle whet tions (pape, plastic, wite handling machines) the eye ‘ede to coordinate the motion ae bas ion coordination and (Gegissation seasor or teasion electronic gearing nt postion within the distance, zero reference at each cyeh in order to penerate the tigger signal f108 coomomareo MOTION Cournot MerHons 529 3, ake a predefined move, La tur, at the ‘a certain postion of axis 2 daring is motion), it tr being dnd as function of ime In al electonle paras epplation, he Slave at ‘motion profile canbe defined a a function of one of to independent variables A. Time 2. Masteranis positon lave axis, whatever method of con access, the servo loops should be‘quer recone ner: 108 cootenareo Morin covrnot werioes 631 530 ~ i.e Morton ‘svsrews £0, @* io, 10.5.3 CAM Profile and Contouring Coordinated Motion ion applications are to capture certain ‘than 25 psec) and respond very quickly machines, the fying knife canbe geared tothe master ‘The paper must be cua a cern offset joweve, the esistation mark may not be petfectly pinted on noes from each otber. The paper may slip in dhe master axis ler reading of paper movement cannot always be pectect. To overcome such unavoidable problems, a registration mark is slays seased on the paper at ‘ined distance from the cutting pint. Regardless of the printing or postion scearacy loss has tobe a fixed pase relationship betweea the eating life and the ithe master axis (Le, using the master feeding the pape, pure knife axis position, compare the and correct the phse enor, i any, ofthe curent gearing motion, jonas the master posit captured postion withthe desired pos ‘beatin onder to cutthe paper atthe right location, Then the kntos cootonureD worn arrucknoNs 633. 532 ciurren to enocaaMwante Motion CONTROL SYSTEMS ‘There are three key iss in general web handling applications with arepstaion mack: 4, Match incr speeds betwen the web and tool during coutact phase we 10 it. Another alternative i osclect one n derive the desired motion of othe axes 33 ine tools ae an example ofthe coordinated, ton where coatour coord nsideratwo-axis motion contol 3 Path length or speed parameter—eacs ats motion is defined in terms of path parameter, ENC Programming Computer numeric contol (CNC) progeamatng isa program: ring language use to define the desited motion of software Interpretation of. motion planning stratopes in rea $ of programmable motion catrol in rabies devices 10.6 COORDINATED MOTION APPLICATIONS SCOORDINA ee ae seceecrenee ae 10.6.1. Web Handling with Registration Mark lc motion coor ion requirements Figs. 101, web (Le, popes, pl fixed length and with woh534 cweren vo rmocnatMsls orion CONTROL SYSTEMS. ‘ory over the cycle nominal length because the weh ea ‘may not be accurate. The registration mark provides @ actual web length passed. Initialize the rotating knife with registration mas application algorithm ace none ee . Vertty Home motion sequence 1s done check Task 1 heck Tas 2 while CRUE) ‘ Check Print Phase and Registration Mark Wnen Entered Contact Phase, execute Contact Phase When Entered Noncontact Phase, execute Kon-contact-Phase Function once When Registration mark is received, execute Registration Mark Phase Adjustment Algoritha Initialize: webeycle length = ‘tool_eircunferenc contact_percentage = |... % 0 to 100 sear_ratiocontact_num = i Bear_ratio_contact den = gear_ratie_noncontact_nin = web_eycle_length + (200- Eontact percent) /100 gear_ratio.noncontact den = tool_eiveumference « (100- Contact pescent)/100 % web lengeh per cyeLe s. 8 ph» dlaneter define desized position phase for tool on registration mark i ® setup fast posi wre (actual or commanded) of ark Return 408 coonoinareo wonton AeruaToNs 535 contact Phase: change gear ratio of tool (slave) to web (master) to satios defined by 2 = gear_ratiocontact_nun / gear_ratio_contact_den Return Non Contact. change gear ratio of tool (slave) to web (master) to ratios defined by 2 = gear_ratio_noncontact_num / gear_ratio_noncontact den Return Rogietration Hark Phase Adjustment : Get the position of the tool captured on registration mark with high speed capture Compare the actual position to the position desized for proper phase Connard additional move (Position desired - Position captured) to complete fast Return 10.6.2 Web Tension Control Using Electronic Gearing ‘Web handing ta generic name used desribe manafictuing processes where a cominu= ‘ous web ved and processed. The web material is generally one of he following,536 cHarrens0 mocnaMiusste MOTION CONTHOL SYSTEMS fend = ® Sac t= 20 BATH To Jn winding and wite drawing peocesses versus a daneer-arm-based tension sensor ae as fellows. sascoorommenmonionarrucenons 537 1, Stain gauge-based tension sensor (also called Tom cel n-feed and out feed re ynand—web tension contol by controling the roll rive with tamer vel Toop and outer Pension 7 oop. + Approach 2 ith Fectronic Gearing--web tension contol by €on- wong he ‘wth inner position loop commanded by elec fics the electron gear ratio. track the commanded veloc igs the commanded velocity based onthe tension loop exer. Tis approachmance moroNarrucarions 63S 1538 CHAPTER ¢ rROGRANEAAILE MOTION CONTROL SYSTEMS sw coor scar t feel FIGURE 10.18: Smart conveyor operation. proportional portion of control dz = sign * kp ¢ eT Pei portion d= dz + @zt wate Calculate the new gear ratio & oe cronicatly geared vigte the gear ratio *2" in the ele Wetate Ebtnten master and slave axes Endupdete Sonteol Algoritha for Tension Control. Using Flectronsc 10.6.3. Smart Conveyors Conveyors ar one ofthe ont eon "They ean be xasidered the (Deftne/input/Read) desixed tension: Ta = ‘constant spend and continuously rev ees ee 7 inthe typical convey Wefine/Input/Read} aster encoder roll dianeter a (efine/Input /Read) current unwind/rewind roll diameter Calculate snttial gear ratio: 2 <1 / Initialize the paraneters of the tension contr Slgorithn (PI in this exemple). petwenn the =X = 0.0 Ei ied dixance before they each fe outst kp = 0.01 ving betwocn the pats dese dance before they Ki - 0.001 bouthe application which affects te smart conveyer endinittalize Update Periodically: (4.¢. every 10 msec) a the parts touch each oer? Head tension sensor: ta et adjacent conveyor ducing: the speed of a conveyer aged to match the other aij Tension error: et-Td-T crc te? Integral portion of control zi = dai + sign + KS sateraionsranca doa pea consi A? ver540 curren 0 pmosanuaste MONON cowrnot sysrEMS ‘we coonoustea manowarrucarons 544 seem penn on Ho he ‘The number of spacing ouput conveyors needed is detrmined by rounding the following phase seal ret tothe next highest integer valve ded Ngwine = In(A/ Ar) (1023) the meximumllowed ton or deceleration i alimiting factor, the corveyordesign, eyors dk speed spacing conveyors willbe siicien hdl arnatn ak Constant Gear Ratio Spacing Conveyors with Con ing Convoyors wth » Quous (Sma vevyor This design is sppropriate when the parts can touch each ae alco amend wt feve dea corny) igus (4024) In sommmary the queue conveyor design i affected by the following parameters: {is gear ratioed tthe queue conveyor as its master. A possible homing sequence before the Ly AN Up llly + Li 4 Vi (10.1 automatic cycle begins is shown in Fig 10.15, Algorsthm: Constant Gear Ratio Spacing Conveyors with a Queue Conveyor 1/0 Required: sor (Photo electric eye or proximity contrel logic to count the part rave input ‘Three presence sensors to detect quave conveyor part level: high, low, empty Actuators (Ostpute): ‘Queue conveyor speed control, wntrol by electronically Lets assume that f jed) to the speed of the queue conveyor hing wtih te pat to Te aceeration sete control Algorithe Lopic rnitialize ye qio21 Given the process paraneters: Ip - part length, La detized part epacingS42 caren vo mMOGRAMMARLE MOTION CONTROL SYSTEMS. Given algorithmic parameter: Vipercent (i.e. 0.9 = 90 x speed reduction if queue 25 fal) onically geared to the = Cn Sp) eve Where the gear ratio betmes the output conveyor (slave) (master) ant pH) /L Repeut Every Cycle Measure, Nt, the part rate, level and modify quove epecd algorithm: te is Low CPRX-1 and PRK-2 are OFF) and PRX-3 ¥.20 / v_procent (Queue 4s High CPRK-1 and PRX-2 are ON) and V.20 * Viprecent f (Queue is Empty: PRX-3 ds OFF) = 0.0 searing of ourput conveyor "Ry queue conveyor is full and all parte are bach other. Return Sea Ae IN tneBaa spacing conveyor to mech linear speeds with during two phases out of thre 16, Photoelectic 07 mowises S45 sue he rotating ol axe int ea oh Nea is be vc he regen Stet smovingo 2000 su, nds eycl is repeat Jskaningand operon done bythe rotating oles reltvetotioweb able position coping em XY table, Our chetive to design a programmable cont! ste seh het the ro comurtres Assume the table aed Y acs have aes etl’ ‘eign a posat-ode oo ta the XY ble awn with 9 Dosen aponato sede soe XY ble caer cick with given ce ‘eve method.‘Conversions oe = tin aoe ‘ogram Go) ound ias thm) slug Gravity met vet = Desived Units Torque saz54S AsrenooeA TaBtes Unie Conversion Tato (Gone) Derived Unite ‘St Unie US Unies Conversions = ea Flow ate we 7 ‘allows = 3785493 Wo iin ‘lon’min 1 gallontmin = 2.785412 nin Poner Wire beate 1W= 1 Neve 1 bear = 02930 ‘HP = S50 ie = 6600 Bins = 7158070 W Vitis = 13556W Energy Joule Cetei ct bea = 770109 brie S2rm02aten Vow = 1088056 1 108 Gause 6) Maxis ates 14 = 104101 1 WiebeArrewo0.8 MODELIG AND SMMULANON OF DYNAMIC SYSTEMS of linear dynamic systems. Theo we discuss ordinary diferential equations whichare used to represent the behavior of most dynamic systems we consier Finally, we discuss analytical and well as numerical solutions of difieremial equations. Using Laplace transforms. 6 alo establish the concept of transfer functions. Readers who are not Familiar ‘an Smulnk software should reat the sheet review inthe appendix. 5.2_COMPLEX VARIABLES _ ‘The analysis and design of computer controlled eletromsechanical systems rely toa great extent om the application ofthe theory of complex variables. A complex variable can be pexty on FIGURE 8.2: Compinx ep ‘aria on tha comptes ye complex 2 commurxvanases S51 ofits magnitude and direction, soch ta ‘wih is complex conjugate defined a pean 64 “The following exponential relations and series expansions ae wseful inthe study of contol theory? eee 6) tng = 5 tem oa (BD ws 9) 060 + jsin = 1-460) 8.10) aie p+ ean ae 1D where 8 = cond + jsind B33) is known as Euler's theorem. seat im nentin =, / on complex vata{852 _APPENOKKE. MODELING AND SIMULATION OF OMAN S¥STESAS my ion of to complex variables canbe achieved ws or magnitude and phase representation, Not ‘mamber by its complex conjugate always results in areal namber anton ay) B21 = (2 n= @25) as 326) the nth power of a complex 27) B.3_LAPLACE TRANSFORMS EAN — B.3.1. Definition of Laplace Tr which allows us to repese ponent function with complex fc Let mn. f(0) be FCS), andthe inveese Laplace transform of Fs 83 Larcece mansromns S53. £0). The definitions ofthe Laplce uansform and the inverse Laplace transform are given de (B28) 1 =fO=— (sleds (B29) a Kms fee sewhich the function valu goes isiven by wat B32) + Piecewise continuous «Exponent! onder, isin < ate" For instance, eis an Jr < orthere exist aint w orequivalently order er function, bute" is not at expe1554 APreWONCE MODELING AKO SIAULATION OF DYNAMIC SYSTEMS If function is exponential onder the derivative of 8 nt necessarily exponent order, Consider the following example: ibaa FO = sinte) liscomimities Fig. 4). B.3.2. Properties of the Laplace Transform ea Lanacetauaroms 55S 1s rather saighforward to show that this propery is true by direct application of the Laplace transform definition, senmetecanorteta[” Koee ax ttanaform of the function by in the «domi. There are also initial conditions gin as 10) involved inthe relationship, which are given below as proper 2 and 3 is continuous and exponential oer, and its sous and exponential order. Then 39) 40) us and expo: Ly@= oa Notice that sepmene Lene Sesinen = Sse a2) Then, rearanging pa f = Fu + aftoe* 3.43) in the above definition ofthe Laplace transform fer (0. fo 4s) Property 3. Let both pat be piecewise contiquous and exponeatial order then it ean be shown that [fmt Property 4 Inital Vatas thoorem: Itcan be show th ast —+ Gand its bebavior g¢ ¢ —> 00 ae related to each ol 4s) () we $00") = fim SFIS)[APPENO MODELING AND SIMULATION OF DYNAN SYSTEMS. FIGURE 8.5: nial Yoo Property § Final Vale theorem: The final value ofa signal as | —+ co inthe ime domein (in steady stat) is related tothe value ofthe Laplace transform ofthe function as > 0g BS) fing FO) = ling) man Fr the Final Valve theorem steady-state value a ine goes jable and mcaningful, the function must have LPO < Me a9 <0 aay value, This means tat the function f() is stable and conver value. The equivalent condition inthe s-domain converges to a constant value a time goes to init it must have poles with negative real one pole ats = 0, “The basic analogies between the time domain and s-domsin operations can be stated B49) @50) lento the shifting of th power. An analogous relaonship exists hetween a tarcace mansroms 557 a FIGURE 8.7; Shtwed unions in tine domain corresponding effect in s- domain u ‘The following examples Le~%cosbe Lei Le Property? Mutipying fi thas the effet of shitting the origin LIfe =a) =ere Ee“ FEN = flr auto = a) 59 = Lens ape = FO +0) ws!) 639 sy sis postive intger 0.59 donins-Jominbyan exponential faction, €, 2" ime domain by «units (Fig. B.)- @s9 [Note that in some eases we may need take the Laplace transform of a funtion in the following for: ‘Thereloe, ais the wnt step function shit ratsform using the above relation fand the shifted uni step function are the same. from ¢= Oto = a, Tn order to take must make sue te arguments of the sr 5% 39 Mae Ulfe tay), a 20 8.60elfen] = [Lf renacue]ene aan = [renee netic se = [PH0 [He ome ne (3.56) : £ so[ fl rarajenee as “aoa [" soremman 69) Fo Bw es nd loos ae wd inthe shove deco leet -(o ferea am =a car sexe nog. B.S to (0,0) sce for rage nah tr de te Sefton oa) 8.3.3 Laplace Transforms of Some Common Functions na Urvce reansromis 559 | ride) Ebert it Latter B72) “etige unimst et el [lances fl ctwer am 2, Unie Sta: Consider the following unit step function such that Le 120 = fhe 74 wo- {i 10 oe where the Laplace transform is given by _ 1 Foy = Lesa = [ated He = | 675)560 sreenonce MODEUNG AND SHRULATION OF DYMAHAC SYSTEMS |. tiai-eo() sbemasinen(S) sfeeatoees [FIGURE 8.9: Laplace vansform a ome ‘common sig 3. Exponential function; Consider the following function: - 376) rom tinn= [eter am B78) 679) exis in the region eso) a tance mancronms 561 pee Ee FIGURE 8.10: Exarapie signal Wi Laplace easton, 69) = Lteosan) = J” costae at ws1) ele tat B82) sys bute hs oxy Ly toh say yaya FF je re Heoret} = kis not necessary to derive the Lay tables can conveniently used show Laplace wansforms of Example Find the Laplace wansform of the following function (ig. B.10): re “This signal is comprised of awit step funtion sifted in tine by b subtracted from aut 86) 87) (B88) FIGURE 8.11: Docompacton of he ign62 8.3.4. Inverse Fraction Expan: \ce Transform: Using Partial coefficient dierent equation wom Farm [01 vino s0- 3 [roe om CConsidera general rational function F(s) of complex variable s, such that Fe) at 4 I) boo FAG) B92) «an be expressed 28a sum of simpler fonctions rational function FC), We need to find the roots ofits denominator and the mul ‘each foot, Then we can Write out the PFE in the form of equation B.99 where ‘constants of the nomrators ate urknown. Examining both sides ofthe expansion, ‘sy 10 see that a, can be calculated as follows: [Noting that rots ofthe expanded PFI can be found ty taking the deriva be determined as (8.103) 10H 8.105) 8.106) «B.107) (6.108) (8.109) @.110) Yo= wun CGF 2)1964 arrcooce woocuNG Ano SaRJLzTIN OF DYNAMIC SYSTEMS ea .araceTnansrons GOS Tn genera, the transfer fneton between force Gi system has the folowing form: and displacement (outpat) of such 2 oo) = B.129, iene matte tk and when thet is no darsper or spring (¢ = k = 0}, the transfer Function reduces to azn weet B12) werse Laplace transform ise ‘The response inthe s-domain and its Tee action expansion (PFE) can be expressed as ron tected : pit rath w= ackest (B.129) ee aT path sy eas eis Yo) = 60-46) quasi ws) By application of Newion’s second law, the foee-saceleeation relationship ofthe 2 ‘mass aa displacement y(?) and speed 5() is Nove thats = of, becausesy = sf. Tisis always tue. Theresidues of complex canjugate other Here we erie ot the elcultins in detail 11+ 3) = Mae) es) snple eNO — ky (120) “The time domsin response can be obtained by taking the inverse Laplace transform ofthe PFE fom of ¥(8) e4i=ay teed t2y + O08;)e-Fe% — 0.1 +004) }e~%e -e*) Ive take the Laplace ditions, that is 90) = B.139)566 arrewn8 MooKLNG AND SIMULATION OF OMAN SYsTEME Note that the B.4. FOURIER SERIES, FOURIER TRANSFORMS, AND FREQUENCY RESPONSE FO= fe4T) 3.136) (6.137) 6.18) (139) 6.140) Gu 6.143) 154 Foun Sens, FoUNER TRANSFORMS, AND FREQUENCY Resrense SGT where 7 > 0 isthe period ofthe function. IF 7 is finite, we ean expres 1. Funston must be piecewise continoss 2, Pusction can have finite discontinuities, but the maximum and mieimum valuss of the above two requirements can beexperessed CE) om) 4) (6.145)568 Arrenon woveLNG 420 sanULATION OF DANN SYSTEMS (8.150) wast, Subst thee, defiton nu the above seis and et Wy = Fm Aon fom Engen [je i Ba aw (8.152) ow iss, T 4-00, then Aw + die + vr and the summation can be replaced by pon fi be ([nweiar)ie assy 14 FOURER Snes, FOURIER TRANSFORMS, AND FRCQUENCYREBPONGE | BBO where Foie) = edt Fourier transform (B55) ‘ede Inverse Fourier tansform —(B.156) 1. Let T = 40sec, and we ace to determine the Fourier sates description ofit Fig. B14). z go > Hie. : : { ee :1570 APPEND WODEUNG AND SHRILETION OF DANE STEN ‘The fundumenal frequency ofthe periodic function is = Fob) =0.25109 ‘Tae frequency components of cosine and sine functions the Fourier series description of the function ee simply interme frequency W, wyenem ens neh23, 2.16) a2 on tt St En, a6 ‘The combo of eich sins futon i deemed by the cota a, nb. mr I.2, whic aa be dotmined by wed [soa ah fiw = Ef so-cos(Zn) oats n= 1.2.3, 163) 8.162) a.tss) 165) 166) acy .188) 09) @17, @. win series asa summation of sinusoidal functions, itis clear thatthe rete frequency conte fO= 5+ LY teon(Em)s n= 23, 6.173) 2 ‘even function, by coefficients are all zero, For even function were an edd periodic funtion instead, then ‘would be zero, Tis is 2 propety of Fourier series. fe rounen snes. FOUNER TRANSFORMS, AND FnEQUENEY eseoNse | S74 Let us now consider the noaperiodic function, which is only & pulse. The Fouier ‘ransform of te function ean be obtained by evaluating the integral, wy wus) 176) en ors) 9) funtion, which sa nonpecodic 8.4.1 Basics of Frequency Response: Meaning of Frequency Response1872 Areeox® MODELING ANO SMMULATION OF DYNAM SYSTEMS 405 ‘magni ‘characterize «specific LI system steady-state response, 8.4.2 Relationship Between the Frequency Response and Transfer Function this relationship does not hold. For LTT sys- nd the phase as functions of frequency completely the LTT system B.184) snd note that because the dynamic system is assumed w be stable all he rots of ds) have negative real pats, Hence, con fer furetion = nis $Pd+ po) ing partial fraction expansions and inverse Laplace wansfor, 7 (Us + DS + Py). 6+ pA) AW)? Wy) If we take the partial -spansion ofthe tems inside the bracket, yan whem sheaf +h terms associated with transient response go to zero because the L and, therefore, has poles with negative real parts. It can be shown that there ‘he complex conjugate of tk, are jerome ee Fs = tin 1s — smroeuto = Rew) tt ‘Let us aot the following relations: = 16Uwlel* le/# = 1G mye? @.185) n.Letuscaleulatetheespoascof he system toa sinusoidal 8.186) (B18) @.188) 8.189) @.190) 6.191) B92) B13) Bs, 1 roumen snes, rouner ana, ao GUM RsPONSE S73 here #1 (BOE) re steady tt epee =o focimen + Aouime 195) z 2 = L came it 4g | om, a =u (-Semeit a Lone) (8.202) (8.203) (8.204)1874 sprenoxe MoDeLNG so sMULATION OF OMUIARE SYSTEMS B.4.4 Experimental Determination ‘of Frequency Response ‘Consider the dynamic system shown in Fig. B.1G. 1s excited by an inpot signal in the ‘ange such thal the dynamic system behaves aso LT system. Let ws assume that we ean set tha wecan mesure th response magnitude mine the frequency response is 1, Seloct A, and w = w) Ge, wo = 0.001). 2. Apply input signal: u(t) = Asin (vt ‘3, Wait long enough so that the output reaches the steady-state response and so that nsients ie out. 4. Measure # and y ofthe sponse in y(t) = B sie(we-+ W) AW. 16 Repeat wnt w = Wnae WHERE Was the maximum frequency of interes, by incre: renting ww 4 Av. Aw is the increment of frequency atte expecntent sweeps the freqeuney range fom W 10 Wa 7. Plot B/A, y versus w B.4.5 Graphical Representation of Frequency Response plane whete w=frequency is params 3. Log magnitude versus phase plo: pot the 200,(G{w)) (-as) vs. phase(jw)) (¢eanis) and w-frequeney is parameterized along the curve ‘Onecan choose to graphically plot the complex frequency respon ways. The above dee represensations are the most common ones. Wit the ny oer id of CAD- stl emains « powerful tol in desige. 8.5 TRANSFER FUNCTION AND IMPULSE RESPONSE RELATION fe TransreRruncron AMO MPULSERESPorse REsATON 67.5 1 inlunce the output, Generally, the tem taster funtion way th initial cond ay ifr ssbeween «w207) +1 10 yee? ae)~ we) 6216 eared! 5) and y(s) described by aratio plynomial 219 B28)576 "The eunsfr function and unt impulse response ae related to each other as floss e219) 2 response is equal to the frequency respenss> ‘Simialy, tbe Forte transform ofthe img ofthe system, Gin) = FUE) 2 = 66 22 MO = ENGI om ‘The wansfer function of a LTT dynamic system consists of poles, eros, and gaia constant), {A mane faction } = { {pots} {zeros ) (constant (gaia) }} en ens Ke = Go)= xe : = KT, 326) or instance, consider the following tansfer fenton oy = 2 tt B27 a) ~ PHD ‘The eo ae these sles for which Gs) ze which meas B20, nO: ode ratinesee! rad Bz “he potes ar tess ale for which G() goes oo, which means) sz, (£16@)-$00 #9 (4) 0) > 243642 0-rse=1,-2 (oles) (82) ‘Avcter convenient way of expesing G(s poles, zs, and DC gain. The DC guns denedas the luc of GG) as = 0. Conse sue tener uncon, (8.230) wasp (B22) (233) fs TRANSFER FUNCTION Ato miPuLEEnesroNEEAELATICN S77 In general transfer funtion can be expressed as Ths (£44) “The unt magnitude impulse response the system described by tne above transfer function can be fea: GG) = 6230 att | 2641 z = 235) werlsalaeaees | O79 eo ( 8.236) @2% ya net 430 413.238) contribution of eas pole tthe impulse response i determined by the1578 Arrenowe 8 MODELING AND SARULATION OF OMKANHE SYSTEMS ee conounon 579 Example Consider the response of an LTT dynamic system due t a noazer ita ~ condition, po f 43 sok 19 = HO 258) if yO =1 020) Hs a : ‘We can obtain the time domai response by taking the inverse Laplace transform using the fe cw-00 PFE method. The roots of the denominator aze —1 and —2; hence, the PFE of y(s) is a way : ~ =. ” ze) | eas Ls bs ' 3) 28) po sbi ed fa cei in ; . roe ashy 2m) ‘ingest, woateret Note that fa zeros too close to a m9 ‘The response of an LTT system toa ena mh) TheL apace enstormf He my = Sasi Lan, 6210) “The response is caleulated by using the above superposition srgument, FIGURE 8.16 stration of cst in the neta Mom Sangean, wu {plo were amma * [FIGURE B20: Poles and x08 o the renter function His) Tnlimitas At converges to zero, we can replace the summation with integration 2s follows: vine farm cs isi the same convotution property discussed in the sudy of Laplace tans: If we take the Laplace transform of the above equation in both sides, we obtain the propery numbec 9, Convolution thenren, of Laplace transforms) = Gis) 2) Example Coasier the following wanser function (Fig. 8.20) 241 Peas os are ~f. The poles are ~1 £2, Therefore, the partial toa expansion form of G(s) cam be express as ow = + 251) where kt = Hines rggjle= (14299) ne cltt. «B2s2) Note: cetyl tye (B253) Ae VIF Om (254) ‘The ani impulse response ofthe linear ime invariant (LTH) system is given by (5.255) NOI ete8t 4 AENEID eM (8286) = VIF Deon a +8) (8257) = VUE ORF ecos(tt + 14.09%}; 0 = tax-"(025) = 1405 (8.258) 1 REvieW OF OUFERENTALcQUATINS GBT B.7_REVIEW OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 6.259 ‘nly one independent x equation OD E).AE there are more than one independent vari (PDE). thedependent This eiereatial equation (4) “Thisisalinear differential equation because y, "The highest derivative in the equat (6263) (8.264) (6265) B.260)saz 8207) (6.268) Hence the nth-order O.D.E. can be expressed as an m set of fort as 27) 0 B= 2m) Vay) 8.7.3. Existence and Uniqueness of the Solution of 0.D.E.s Nonlinear 0.0.6.8 Consider «general nonlinear ODE, a : @2 a B.8_LINEARIZATION et uneancaron S83 1 f¢4,1) continuous and has continuous partial derivative with respect to at exch point ‘of tion J ~ tol fede b Ae w= uy + Au ‘The ODE. cam be linearized sbout ofthe above relations and expanding the noo first-order eras, (310) af af we Ey are El aut systems ae alle the ac time varying (LTV) type, % Linearo.m % Numerical Linearizarion example using MatLab. % x0 = [ pi/2 0.01" wo [0.0 [A,B] © Lineari(*pendulun’, x0, uo) ; % function x 4 Civen: nontinear function £¢x.8) nominal condition x0, ud = Lincart(Fname, x0, u0) x % Calculate Linearized equation matrices A, B n= stze(x0) n= size(uo) 5 aeita = 9.0001 ; wend; w.319 3H @a19 8316BBS sPENOKE MODELING Ae SRULLATION OF OMEANEC SYSTENS, ws wo; for jen x(j) = x(S) + delta; ) = (evel Phate,x,)-feval Pnawe, x0,u0)) /delea: = us) + detta: 9 = Leva CFnane,x,0)-fe = uc) - delta: (Enane,x0,u0)) delta; * function edotapendulum(s,u) % Pendulum dynamic model: nonlinear model. ee 982 1-10 xdot = E x(2) = Ga/Lyresm(xdd) + UD B.9 NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF 0.D.E.s AND SIMULATION OF DYNAMIC SYSTEMS Rurga Kurta for a gereral non e319 7 169 numeral SoLUNON OF OE AND SIMULATION OF DYNAMIC GYETEME 589 “Then we will study the time domusia sinalation ofa dynamic system that ivolvesa digital controller i the determination of u(). 8.9.1 Numerical Methods for Solving 0.D.E.3, nder ODES, with a specified wai condition B20) (B22) FIGURE 8.23: Euars method for solution of ODE=.APPENDOE. MODELING AND SHAULATON OF OYRAMIE SYSTEMS [22 NUMENCAL BOLUTION OF ADEs ARO SIMULATION OF DMUAMICSYeTEMS GOT Le | I FIGURE 8.25: A coninaoda tin fndbnck contol eytam-—contaar and process ae oth retien(r®)) aaa fa, AD) asp beaes(ut of Dynamic Systems al computer simlation of dyasmnic systems () digital conteller with a given control simulate an analog conto, the controller function should be called from the process ‘éynamies. Hence, every time integration routine calls the process dynamic mode, the Powe fe FIGURE 0.24: Fourth finite dtarnce eppron FIGURE 8.26: A digital contol ystrs Process ang, controler lita1592 sereHIO 8 MOCELNG AND SOALLATION OF DYNAMIC S¥ETENS samplin time per ~ next (if simutating digital controler) + Conor ~ desired response (command signal) = seasor dynamics: ¥ = g(x) step sie * Initalize controller ~ controller parameters i.e, gi + loop end * output results Simulation of a Dynamic System Using Matta (* Inplenentation of dynamic system simllation program using MATLAR #/' % mass_s.m 1s NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF OD.s AND SAALATON OF OVKARECSYSTEMS 593 % % A th order Runga 5 tine dynamic eysten using ‘a integration algorithm. aynamic system: nass-force system eontrozler : TD control algorithm Initialize simlation... Dynamic system. RRR RRR eo = 0.05 te 4.05 ‘sample © 0.01 + x= (0.0.0.9 1" 5 Mes sinitalize controller paraneters: kp = 16.0; ky = 4.0; % Start the simdation loop... for (t= 0: tsample : tf) for (tl = ti tint : tétsample ) x = rhiCimass dyn’ ,¢1,tiet dnt, x. uw) i ond xouta(xout 5 x" wouretuout judi ena % Plot results... tout-tortasemple:tf : flout = [tout ; tft sample ) ele i subplot (222) plot Ce_ovt, «our (#2) title( position vs subplot(222) plorCt_out,xout:.2)) + title 'velocity vs time"); ssubploe(223) plot(t_out.wout) : title(control vs time");BOA svrenorcs MODELING ARO SIMULATION OF DYMARHE SYSTEMS pause end... mass_ctlm eae et sensor measurements... x in similation this is readily available, * in hardware implenantation that will require @ call to sensor * device drivers i.e. A/D converters... x XC1) - measured position, * x(2) - measured velocity: % Gecizea motion. xa= 1.0 075 % PD control algorithe. We Kp # CRdCLd-KEID) + Ly * GxdCD) = C29) 5 % Output to DA converter in hardware Anplenentation. = % In simulation, the u is returned to the calling function: % vend function xdotenass_ayn¢e,x.u) X describes the dynamic model: o.d.e"s N returns xdor vector % xdot = [ x¢2) ua) function states % implenents Runga-kutta 4th order ingetration algorithn Name £0, £2) odes heer: bee h/2 he hve + eheeosh2 5 xdot = feval(FumeNane,t0,x,u) + ts x th * xdot : Amplements a PD controller for a second onder syste... Bo MNAENCAL SOLUTION OFO.DES ANDSIRILANION oF DYNAMIC SYSTEMS 595 axe = feval (runcNane, th, xt,u) 5 gee kth axt 5 xm = feval(FancName,th,xt)8) ext © feval(Funowane, e#,¢,4) + XL = x + RE * Gudot + axt + 2.0%dxm) : 2 Bnd. (8.32) = K pig Cat 333) Ql) = Keon (8.330 = Kew (6.339) = Kate HO) (3.3%)598 where Koaie = Kw * Ki /Kipig which the valve rate through the valve ‘The gui level inthe tank 8 function of ths n between current input and flow flow rate) — (outflow rate) 6337) (8.338) (6339) as) hete R represents the fice restriction asthe resistance to flow Then the tank dynazake model can be expressed at ‘er maximus flow, 0.02 miieo, A= Siu heghs ye) = 1.0. which commande as sep fenton and the ial beige iguid i 2x0 (empty tank), Figure B.27 shows th stl model and simulation 189 WUMERCAL GOLUTON OF COs AND SMULATONOF DYNAN EvETEIAS SOT B.D (B38) eu is beyond 2% of the commanded imulinkimplemectation ofthe model and simulation eects. Fig. 16, The wind-ott on control system showin ‘machinery where the speed is diven by an elessic motor. Thifs nuMencAL SoUUTON Or ODEs AMO SIMULATIONOF OMAN STEMS 59D et =} 598 Arrenoos mooeUNG AND SMRILATION OF OMNAMIC STEMS Te i (8351) tat when y =p, the tention F = Fy 0 by Function of ehange in yt). (8352) 3) 354) (6355) (8.356) was andmetor The corresponding (365) (Base) (B36) stop function stats at 1.0 ee600. meee Hoos no sano De ONE Ceca mei eaereeee Gon ee ————— expen wit deren dea = = jareter values B.10_ DETAILS OF THE SOLUTION FOR EXAMPLE ON PAGE 162: RL AND RC CIRCUITS +f ree eam(602 sorenooce mone. Ano SiKULATON OF BYR SYSTEMS, input volage i «step change, eR ME) = HO (8373) % -4 (374) = VR Me Tst0s hace By taking inverse Laplace ansform to obtain and shift the solution by replacing ¢ with 1 fy a8 we planed, % =2 8.376) 2 37) R 2a a7) For time period ts 10, the voltage- current relationship is governed by o- war) ‘where the init condition oncurren att period, (8.383) ese)

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