energies

Review
Protection Schemes of Meshed Distribution
Networks for Smart Grids and Electric Vehicles
Stavros Lazarou , Vasiliki Vita and Lambros Ekonomou *
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Educators, School of Pedagogical & Technological
Education (ASPETE), Heraklion Attikis, 141 21 Athens, Greece; slazarou@ta.aspete.gr (S.L.);
vasvita@aspete.gr (V.V.)
* Correspondence: leekonomou@aspete.gr; Tel.: +30-210-2896-927




Received: 20 October 2018; Accepted: 6 November 2018; Published: 10 November 2018


Abstract: This paper reviews protection schemes for meshed distribution networks. It gives emphasis
to the increasing penetration of electric vehicles, their charging patterns, and to the increasing value
of distributed generators, especially from renewables. It includes a preliminary analysis on system
planning with electric vehicles that is studied probabilistically and a more detailed analysis of the
expected changes introduced by these new loads. Finally, a real time hardware-in-the-loop review
analysis for protection systems and the open source networks available for protection studies from
several sources are also provided. This work could be useful as a collective review of the recent
bibliography on protection for meshed networks, giving emphasis to electric vehicles and their real
time simulation.

Keywords: protection; distribution networks; smart grids; electric vehicles; meshed configuration

1. Introduction
Electric vehicles, storage devices, and distributed generation are changing the operational
characteristics of distribution grids across the world [1]. These new components could create
under specific operational conditions bidirectional energy flows. This affects grid planning, since
they are optimized for one direction flows and their protection. Based on these circumstances,
the established procedures of organizing distribution networks on radial configurations cannot be
holistically applied [2], even if they are comparatively simple and well tested. Therefore, it is expected
that meshed network systems will be increasingly adopted [3], offering the capability of bidirectional
flows, higher penetration of renewables, and lower expansion requirements for accommodating new
demanding loads such as electric vehicles.
Apart from the challenges created from the connection of these new components, the
advancements achieved through the improved technological capabilities of today, are able to further
provide protection and control enhancements. These include an extended online communication
system that is able to safely support distribution grid expansion and higher computational capabilities
applied to all system components. As such, distribution network planning has been naturally evolving
from radial to the more complex meshed configuration, taking advantage of these communication
and computational enhancements. The optimization methods for network planning are evolving
accordingly [4]. The optimization patterns are increasingly calculated, on generalized level, through
wider use of supercomputers. This knowledge is transferred to the system operation level, and new,
more complicated patterns are being implemented [5]. Application of the aforementioned patterns is
increasingly leading to a meshed network.
As expected, given that relevant challenges have been overcome, there are operational benefits.
Several studies demonstrate the improvements of meshing the network [6,7] in terms of performance

Energies 2018, 11, 3106 ; doi:10.3390/en11113106 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2018, 11, 3106 2 of 17

and efficiency [8]. Distributed generation, which is mostly applied to networks compared to electric
vehicles and storage [9], has already received much attention [10]. It is nowadays a main component in
the procedure of network planning [11] and being investigated on a variety of cases [12]. Nowadays,
the distribution network is increasingly simulated as a whole system of lines, loads, and production,
intermittent or not, that is connected to the transmission network to receive the services is not able to
domestically create. It has to be mentioned that several optimization methods still consider network
radiality as a major characteristic [13], however these approaches are decreasing in time.
The main new operational challenges are connected to the electric vehicles’ load and production
from renewable sources. These components demonstrate substantial intermittency [14] caused by the
inherited performance of primary renewable energy sources such as solar and wind, as well as by the
behavioral patterns of electric vehicles’ owners. Especially for the charging patterns of electric vehicles,
it is important to investigate how it will affect the operation of the distribution system. As a matter of
fact, networks are already under strain due to the existing loads, and electric vehicles will increasingly
require more energy. Behavioral technologies that aggregate the consumption, moving it to high
renewable production or low overall consumption times, could delay expansion needs, improving
quality of life using the possible limited resources. The research community is able to capture this
phenomenon using probabilistic simulation methods. The most random probabilistic method is Monte
Carlo [15]. For steady state probabilistic load flows it is the method of choice [16], but also for other
power system probabilistic phenomena during planning [17] and/or expansion [18,19]. Except from
distribution networks planning, of course, this method is used to a wide variety of applications [20],
relevant to power systems.
Continuing this analysis, one of the reasons meshed networks were not widely used in the past
is that they demonstrate technical challenges [21] as far as their protection is concerned. Protection
patterns need to take into consideration the special characteristics of the meshed network combined
with its new components as they operate in a given moment. System topology, and hence protection
procedure, change all the time based on how production is connected, which electric vehicles are
charging, and how the other loads are behaving. Given this, the operational characteristics of electric
vehicles, distributed generations, and storage need to be considered. Specifically, microgenerator
dynamic performance and topology altering are concerns due to renewables intermittency fault
current variations [22]. The above could lead to protection nonselectivity, resynchronization issues
and spurious separations or false trips [23]. The phenomenon of nonselectivity happens when larger
portions of the network than necessary are disconnected to clear a given fault. In this case, except
from the inconvenience of the unserved loads, it more difficult to locate the fault and consequently
repair it. Resynchronization issues could happen in the case of islanding operation of the system,
even in a short time. Distribution generators continue instantaneously to serve the load without
respecting synchronization principles of voltage and frequency at the disconnected system node.
Spurious separations and false trips could happen under several operational conditions of high load
or production or to system branches that under specific conditions are overloaded. Several studies
were conducted to counter these challenges and protection operational limitations for the distribution
grid have been specifically defined and quantified [24]. However, all these need to be tested and safe
proved under all operational conditions. This is an exercise that requires substantial computational
resources, even for a comparatively small network.
Due to the above, a concept of adaptive protection in the general framework of increasing
intelligence for the distribution grid [25] has emerged. Researchers differentiate protection systems
to active, passive, and hybrid [26], based on their capability to take decisions using measured
data at other nodes than the ones they are connected to or communicated with them. A central
decision-making center connected to each piece of protection equipment could act as the brain of the
system. This configuration requires robust decision-making procedures, availability of calculation
power, and the capability to communicate its decisions and receive measurements and commands.
Adaptive protection is a prerequisite for the dynamic update of protection settings using a network
Energies 2018, 11, 3106 3 of 17

configuration [27] that takes into consideration problem specificities such as imbalances at the
distribution level and communication constraints [28], however it can possibly lead to suboptimal
Energies An
operation. 2018,alternative
11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
could be to apply, on a distribution level, the traditional protection 3 of 16
schemes
used at the transmission level. This solution could also demonstrate some challenges [29]: Differential
distribution level and communication constraints [28], however it can possibly lead to suboptimal
protection schemes
operation. need redundancy
An alternative could be tofor communication
apply, failures.
on a distribution level, Distance protection
the traditional relays
protection may have
schemes
inaccurate
used atreads for short distances.
the transmission level. ThisVoltage
solution protection systems may
could also demonstrate tripchallenges
some under normal voltage drops
[29]: Differential
and they
protection schemes need redundancy for communication failures. Distance protection relaysanmay
strongly depend on grid topology. Standardization of these procedures remains issue of
paramount importance
have inaccurate reads[30].
for short distances. Voltage protection systems may trip under normal voltage
drops and
Having they strongly
mentioned thedepend
above,on grid
this topology.
paper reviewsStandardization
recent workofon these
the procedures
protectionremains an
of distribution
issue of
networks, paramount
giving emphasisimportance [30].
to electromobility. It is organized as follows. Section 2 is dedicated to
Having
electric grid mentioned
expected changes thedue
above, thisconnection
to the paper reviews recent work
of electric on the
vehicles. protection
Section of distribution
3 provides information
networks, giving emphasis to electromobility. It is organized as follows. Section 2 is dedicated to
on new protection techniques as well as on the research related to relays coordination that takes
electric grid expected changes due to the connection of electric vehicles. Section 3 provides
into consideration distributed generators, transportation loads, and storage. Section 4 investigates
information on new protection techniques as well as on the research related to relays coordination
hardware-in-the-loop real time simulation
that takes into consideration distributedprotection
generators,research, giving emphasis
transportation loads, andtostorage.
the implementations
Section 4
that meet the emerging smart grids needs. Finally, Section 5 provides technical
investigates hardware-in-the-loop real time simulation protection research, giving emphasis literature networks
to the that
can be used by researchers
implementations that meetto attain knowledge
the emerging smartin grids
this specific field. Section 5 provides technical
needs. Finally,
literature networks that can be used by researchers to attain knowledge in this specific field.
2. Electric Vehicles Connected to Smart Grids
2. Electric Vehicles Connected to Smart Grids
Electric vehicles are expected to substantially affect power system planning and its operation
(Figure 1)Electric
due tovehicles are expected
their extended to substantially
requirements affect power
of energy, howeversystem planning
they are ableandtoitsoffer
operation
enhanced
demand response capabilities in combination to the connected distributed generatorsenhanced
(Figure 1) due to their extended requirements of energy, however they are able to offer [1] as well as
demand response capabilities in combination to the connected distributed generators [1] as well as
storage and other ancillary services. Ancillary services from electric vehicles could be offered through
storage and other ancillary services. Ancillary services from electric vehicles could be offered through
scheduled charging and storage. Being parked most of the time, they may charge when electricity
scheduled charging and storage. Being parked most of the time, they may charge when electricity
pricesprices
are lower. This
are lower. may
This may occur
occurwhen
whenrenewables intermittent
renewables intermittent production
production is momentarily
is momentarily higher.
higher.
Another option
Another is when
option is whenother loads
other loadssuddenly
suddenly decrease
decrease andandinflexible
inflexible power
power stations
stations suchsuch as lignite,
as lignite,
coal, coal,
and and
nuclear are are
nuclear notnotable to toimmediately
able immediately adjust their production.
adjust their production. Storage
Storage could
could also also
be anbe an
alternative. Electric
alternative. vehicles
Electric vehiclesare
areequipped
equipped withwithlarge
largebatteries
batteriesthatthat
can can retransfer
retransfer the energy
the energy stored tostored
the grid, under the procedure widely known as vehicle to grid (V2G). However,
to the grid, under the procedure widely known as vehicle to grid (V2G). However, this additional this additional flow
flow of
of energy
energy increases
increaseselectricity
electricity losses, there
losses, also
there exists
also thethe
exists possibility that that
possibility charging
chargingcannot be be
cannot
accommodated from the existing electricity network. Henceforth, potential
accommodated from the existing electricity network. Henceforth, potential reinforcements have reinforcements have to to be
be planned wisely. A generic approach is proposed in this review (Figure 2), facilitating the
planned wisely. A generic approach is proposed in this review (Figure 2), facilitating the researchers to
researchers to understand the important emerging factors for enhancing electric vehicles’ penetration
understand the important emerging factors for enhancing electric vehicles’ penetration to the grid.
to the grid.

Figure
Figure 1. Power
1. Power systemenhancements
system enhancements due
due to
tothe
theconnection
connectionof of
electric vehicles.
electric vehicles.
Energies 2018, 11, 3106 4 of 17
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16

Figure 2. The
Figure expected
2. The evolvement
expected evolvementtowards
towardssolving the technical
solving the technicalchallenges
challengesforfor increasing
increasing electric
electric
vehicle
vehicle penetration
penetration to the
to the electricity
electricity network.
network.

SeveralSeveral
studies,studies, of increasing
of increasing complexity,
complexity, strivestrive
to meetto meet this challenge.
this challenge. Morais Morais
et al. et
[31]al.evaluated
[31]
evaluated
the impact the impact
of electric of electric
vehicles on the vehicles
smarton the In
grid. smart
thisgrid.
case,Inthree
this case, three distinctive
distinctive operational operational
patterns are
patterns are considered where electric vehicles charge in an uncoordinated manner, they charge in a
considered where electric vehicles charge in an uncoordinated manner, they charge in a smart manner
smart manner and/or they charge and discharge in a smart manner. Being able to charge and
and/or they charge and discharge in a smart manner. Being able to charge and discharge, it is possible
discharge, it is possible to store energy and act in an aggregated manner as a provider of ancillary
to store energy and act in an aggregated manner as a provider of ancillary services, easing bottlenecks
services, easing bottlenecks in energy flows and improving grid’s performance and its efficiency.
in energy
Rahbariflows
et al.and
[32]improving grid’s performance
proposed a solution for controlledand its efficiency.
charging of plug-inRahbari et al. [32]
electric vehicles proposed
taking into a
solution for controlled charging of plug-in electric vehicles taking into
consideration the presence of renewables intermittent generation; it is being tested on the IEEE-26 consideration the presence
of renewables
buses case.intermittent
In this case,generation;
the capacityit factor
is beingfor tested on the IEEE-26
the electricity buses case.
grid is increasing, In this case,
providing the the
opportunity
capacity factor fortotheprovide energy
electricity gridwhen consumption
is increasing, providing is lower or energy production
the opportunity to providefrom energy thewhen
renewables
consumption is higher.
is lower Farid etproduction
or energy al. [33] point fromoutthe
therenewables
importance is of higher.
a holistic approach
Farid to control
et al. [33] point allout the
smart grid elements. Their approach describes the grid with a 3-d
importance of a holistic approach to control all smart grid elements. Their approach describes the structure that includes on the x- grid
axis production, transmission & distribution, and load; on the y-axis, the fact that system is physical
with a 3-d structure that includes on the x-axis production, transmission & distribution, and load; on
as well as cyber; and on the z-axis, the dispatchability and the system’s stochastic character. Such an
the y-axis, the fact that system is physical as well as cyber; and on the z-axis, the dispatchability and the
approach points out the importance of interoperability between stakeholders as well as equipment.
system’s stochasticetcharacter.
Zakariazadeh Such ana approach
al. [34] proposed method forpointselectricout the importance
vehicles to be aggregatedof interoperability
to a virtual power between
stakeholders
plant. In this way, the offering of ancillary services to the grid becomes better organized to the current to
as well as equipment. Zakariazadeh et al. [34] proposed a method for electric vehicles
be aggregated to a virtual
market operation andpower plant. In
the capacity this could
factor way, the be offering
increased. ofBhattarai
ancillary et services
al. [35]todeveloped
the grid becomes
an
betteroptimized
organizedaggregation
to the current methodmarket for operation
organizingand the the capacity factor
distribution network could be increased.
in areas that take Bhattarai
into
consideration
et al. [35] developed distribution
an optimized of loads and costs method
aggregation for optimal for participation
organizing the to the market. Knezović
distribution network et in
al.areas
[36] explained the barriers of electric vehicles’ wider integration to the
that take into consideration distribution of loads and costs for optimal participation to the market. system and how these can be
lifted.etThe
Knezović barriers
al. [36] are notthe
explained only infrastructure-
barriers of electricand technology-related
vehicles’ wider integration but also regulatory-
to the system and and how
market-oriented. As a matter of fact, as long as technology improves and research advances, technical
these can be lifted. The barriers are not only infrastructure- and technology-related but also regulatory-
challenges can be overcome and only cultural- and market-oriented barriers remain. The authors
and market-oriented. As a matter of fact, as long as technology improves and research advances,
propose a roadmap of four stages to overcome these barriers. Abdelsamad et al. [37] proposed an
technical challenges
innovative method canforbe overcome
designing and only cultural-
the secondary distribution and market-oriented
network in a manner to barriers
be betterremain.
able to The
authors propose a roadmap
accommodate of fourvehicles.
plug-in electric stages toThey overcometake intotheseconsideration
barriers. Abdelsamad
system overall et al. costs
[37] proposed
and
an innovative
transformers loss of life. The connection of electric vehicles, due to their ability to behave, are to
method for designing the secondary distribution network in a manner be better
storage
able to accommodate
devices for energy plug-in
provide electric vehicles.to They
the opportunity take into consideration
the distribution system operators system
to delayoverall
lines’costs
expansion costs
and transformers improving
loss of life. The system performance
connection in total.
of electric Sadeghidue
vehicles, andtoKalantar [38] to
their ability propose
behave, a are
storageplanning
devices method takingprovide
for energy into consideration
the opportunityuncertainties
to thedue to distributed
distribution generators
system operators and economic
to delay lines’
conditions.
expansion costs As mentioned
improving before,
system intermittencyinistotal.
performance inhered to renewables
Sadeghi and Kalantarand electric vehicles,abut
[38] propose it
planning
method taking into consideration uncertainties due to distributed generators and economic conditions.
As mentioned before, intermittency is inhered to renewables and electric vehicles, but it can be also
observed in the behavior of other stakeholders such as market participants. These uncertainties are
Energies 2018, 11, 3106 5 of 17

needed also to be studied in order to achieve adequate understanding of the whole energetic systems.
Sun et al. [39] characterized plug-in electric vehicles demand based on battery state of charge and
temporal travel purposes. They use a stochastic approach and they are able to demonstrate benefits to
network planning. Arias et al. [40] predicted, in a stochastic optimal manner electric vehicle connected
to the distribution network, charging behavior. Wu and Sioshansi [41] provided an optimization
model, which is able to schedule electric vehicle charging in a manner that relieves network constraints.
Hu et al. [42] proposed an electric vehicle coordinated charging procedure for alleviating smart grid
operational congestions. On a similar pattern, Beaude et al. [43] sought to reduce charging effects of the
distribution network. Xiang et al. [44] develop optimal management procedures for aggregated plug-in
electric vehicles charging to active distribution networks. Sundström and Binding [45] analyzed electric
vehicle charging constraints to the distribution network on voltage and power level and how they can
be avoided.
Wang et al. [46] also provided decentralized solutions for electric vehicles and distributed
generators from renewable sources. Shuai et al. [47] approached electric vehicle charging from the
economic point of view. Peng et al. [48] reviewed issues of active power management of power grid
using electric vehicles. Pavic et al. [49] increased system flexibility using electric vehicles. This is an
important trait that is transferred to the transmission system. Lazarou et al. [50] studied the connection
of electric vehicles giving priority to the grid. Aggregated cohorts of electric vehicles are able to
offer expensive flexibility services to system that otherwise shall be covered by gas or hydro, where
available, power plants. This being said, electric vehicles as such is possible to contribute more actively
in the mitigation of climate change and the decarbonization of power supply in total. Mojdehi and
Ghosh [51] demonstrate a procedure for compensating electric vehicles as ancillary service providers.
Daina et al. [52] explains the potential implications of electric vehicle charging per se. Weiller et al. [53]
approached this subject from an industrial point of view. Schmidt et al. [54] researched electric
vehicles from the transportation demand angle. Sato et al. [55] analyzed issues of standardization in
electric vehicle charging, because all procedures have to be accepted by the complete group of market
participants, which is possible to be achieved efficiently through global standardization procedures.
All the above are complex exercises that require substantial computational power.
The probabilistic approaches for solving electric vehicles and distributed generation challenges
are computationally intensive. These is due to the complexity of the problem that needs to involve the
behavioral characteristics of vehicle users, the constraints of the operation, and capacity of the grid, as
well as, the intermittency of the connected production from renewable sources. Adding to the above,
the increasing use of storage needs to be considered. High performance computer use has proliferated
to the degree that they are able to be widely used, even for studies to smaller networks. Green et al. [56]
approached the problem of smart grids with electric vehicles’ computational requirements using
industrial solutions such as high-performance computers (HPC). They take into consideration the
complexities imposed by the combination of several layers of probabilistic phenomena happening
at the same time to a multilayered smart grid. Procopiou et al. [57] used HPC for simulating electric
vehicles charging behavior at the secondary distribution network level. Their findings, based on a
real system, demonstrate the future requirements of computational resources at smart grids, even
on secondary level. This is an observation of paramount importance, since millions of kilometers of
secondary network are currently operating, and the extensive computational resources required to
optimize it could potential become an important factor of its operational cost. A generic description is
provided to Table 1.
Energies 2018, 11, 3106 6 of 17

Table 1. Distribution networks protection studies.

Reference Description Research Method Contribution

Explanation of the
Qualifying and
barriers and the benefits
quantifying the
for increasing the Analysis, scenarios’
[1,14,31,36] importance of electric
penetration of electric development
vehicle barriers for their
vehicles, evaluation of
connection to the grid
the impact
Power flow analysis,
Proposals for advanced
probabilistic and
Network planning for network planning to
optimization methods
[15–20,33,37–50] increasing penetration of accommodate increasing
(Monte Carlo), novel
electric vehicles connection of electric
approaches for depicting
vehicles
the electricity network
Analysis, market Principles for
Electric vehicles charging principles, optimization development of
[32,34,35,51–55] through aggregators and methods, Virtual Power aggregators for EVs
standardization Plants, scenarios’ charging,
analysis standardization
High-performance
computing for
Simulation of extended
[56,57] distribution grid and Probabilistic methods
operational scenarios
electric vehicles
simulation

3. Protection of Smart Grids

The protection schemes currently used at the distribution level are distinguished in active, passive,
and hybrid systems [23]. Several approaches have been developed with the most widely used
to be current limiters, centralized protection, distance protection, protection based on variables,
differential protection, multi-agent protection schemes, and others, all based on relays (Figure 3).
Current limiters are usually semiconducting devices that decrease the maximum current during faults.
This is paramount importance, since the equipment, especially at distribution level, is scaled to sustain
maximum currents. Circuit breakers are also not able to interrupt too large current fault. On the
other hand, distributed generators, especially the rotating ones (with synchronous or asynchronous
generators connected), as well as rotating machines could increase fault currents during to their
inherited inertia. Distant protection is based on the fact that electrical characteristics change if a
fault occurs on a line. Its resistance, impedance, and capacitance change, and, instantaneously, the
distance protection measures the difference and activates the circuit breakers required to clear the
fault. Differential protection can be applied to twin lines with the same characteristic and loading
or/and at the start and the end of a given line. When a fault occurs to one of the twin lines and
measurements change, it is clear that protection shall be activated. Similarly, when a measurement
at the beginning is different to the end, after considering line’s electrical characteristics, then the
protection system shall be activated. Other types of protection are more sophisticated and increasingly
used to distribution networks.
 instantaneously, the distance protection measures the difference and activates the circuit breakers
required to clear the fault. Differential protection can be applied to twin lines with the same
characteristic and loading or/and at the start and the end of a given line. When a fault occurs to one
of the twin lines and measurements change, it is clear that protection shall be activated. Similarly,
when a measurement at the beginning is different to the end, after considering line’s electrical
Energies 2018, 11, 3106 then the protection system shall be activated. Other types of protection are more7 of 17
characteristics,
sophisticated and increasingly used to distribution networks.

Figure
Figure 3.3.Protection
Protection schemes
schemes (rewritten
(rewrittenfrom [23]).
from [23]).

At thisAt this
pointpoint it isofofparamount
it is paramount importance
importance to coordinate
to coordinate relays’ operation.
relays’ To achieve
operation. To this goal this
achieve
except from the location of the fault, the flow of power has to be known.
goal except from the location of the fault, the flow of power has to be known. As an example, As an example, at Figure 4 at
Figure 4 the
Energies same
2018, relay
11, x FOR PEERRBC is able to interrupt fault F1 in the first case and F2 in the second.
REVIEW 7 of 16 The
vice versa faults are to be interrupted only by different relays not depicted at this figure. For meshed
the samenetworks
distribution relay RBC is thisable to interrupt
procedure is fault F1 in the
becoming firstcomplex,
more case and F2 in the second.
however The vice
researchers wereversa
able to
faults are to be interrupted only by different relays not depicted at this figure. For meshed
develop methods with adequate results [58]. Singh et al. [59] propose an adaptive method for relay
distribution networks this procedure is becoming more complex, however researchers were able to
coordination based on fuzzy logic. Advanced control techniques could potentially widely used for
develop methods with adequate results [58]. Singh et al. [59] propose an adaptive method for relay
protection purposes. This is due to their capability to provide results without the complete description
coordination based on fuzzy logic. Advanced control techniques could potentially widely used for
of theprotection
system under investigation
purposes. This is due but only
to theirbased to previous
capability measurements.
to provide However,
results without the this approach
complete
bearsdescription
the risks ofofspurious operation or protection malfunctions.
the system under investigation but only based to previous measurements. However,
Ates et al. [60]
this approach modify
bears relays’
the risks parametrization
of spurious operation or to protection
achieve selectivity.
malfunctions.Protection selectivity could
be achieved Atesthrough
et al. [60]adjusting
modify relays’ parametrization toof
the parametrization achieve selectivity.
the existing Protection This
equipment. selectivity could
has the benefit
be achieved through adjusting the parametrization of the existing equipment.
of lower initial resources deployment, but its application may be limited. Similarly, Chen et al. [61] This has the benefit of
lower initial
coordinate relays’resources
operation deployment,
to a meshed but network
its application may be limited.
with distributed Similarly,Chabanloo
generation. Chen et al. et [61]
al. [62]
coordinate relays’ operation to a meshed network with distributed generation. Chabanloo et al. [62]
use fault current limiters to achieve protection coverage, having also connected distributed generators
use fault current limiters to achieve protection coverage, having also connected distributed
at an urban distribution grid. Jalilian et al. [63] propose a method based on post-fault current.
generators at an urban distribution grid. Jalilian et al. [63] propose a method based on post-fault
Costacurrent.
et al. [64] use a metaheuristic method for achieving coordination. Saleh et al. [65] and Hussain
Costa et al. [64] use a metaheuristic method for achieving coordination. Saleh et al. [65] and
et al. Hussain
[66] provide the provide
et al. [66] relevantthe optimization procedures.
relevant optimization CorrêaCorrêa
procedures. et al. [67]
et al.propose an online
[67] propose method
an online
for coordinating
method for the protectionthe
coordinating relays. Ojaghirelays.
protection and Ghahremani
Ojaghi and [68] developed
Ghahremani new
[68] characteristics
developed new for
overcurrent relaysfor
characteristics to cover selectivity
overcurrent relays issues.
to cover selectivity issues.

Figure
Figure 4. 4.Relay
Relaydirection
direction vs. power
powerflow
flowdirection
direction[63].
[63].

Scientists
Scientists conduct
conduct researchon
research onseveral
several additional
additional issues
issuesrelated
relatedto to
protection of smart
protection grids.grids.
of smart
Khorramdel et al. [69] and Khakimzyanov et al. [70] contribute in locating the fault. Locatingexact
Khorramdel et al. [69] and Khakimzyanov et al. [70] contribute in locating the fault. Locating the the exact
location of the fault could the basis for the design of new protection systems, or simply
location of the fault could the basis for the design of new protection systems, or simply activating activating the
nearest circuit breakers to clear it. Also, being aware of the exact location of the fault facilitates
the nearest circuit breakers to clear it. Also, being aware of the exact location of the fault facilitates
potential system repairs if needed. Esmaeili et al. [71] provide a procedure for limiting fault current.
Jamali and Borhani-Bahabadi [72] propose a new protection method for radial and meshed networks,
which have distributed generators connecting, without using communication capabilities. Bukhari et
al. [73] use fuzzy logic for protection purposes. He et al. [74] propose a new method for smart grid
protection purposes. Rahman et al. [75] use multi-agent systems for fault diagnosis at the network
distribution feeder and its reconfiguration. Pathirana et al. [76] developed a new methodology for
Energies 2018, 11, 3106 8 of 17

potential system repairs if needed. Esmaeili et al. [71] provide a procedure for limiting fault current.
Jamali and Borhani-Bahabadi [72] propose a new protection method for radial and meshed networks,
which have distributed generators connecting, without using communication capabilities. Bukhari et
al. [73] use fuzzy logic for protection purposes. He et al. [74] propose a new method for smart grid
protection purposes. Rahman et al. [75] use multi-agent systems for fault diagnosis at the network
distribution feeder and its reconfiguration. Pathirana et al. [76] developed a new methodology for
active protection systems. Todorović et al. [77] propose a method for converter operation that respects
short circuit levels. Zhang et al. [78] propose a method for protection of closed loop, meshed networks.
Finally, Li et al. [79] and Fazio et al. [80] investigate anti-islanding techniques and procedures.
Anti-islanding requires that the distribution grid is always connected to the main network. This
increases operational safety, since all distributed generators require to disconnect if main grid is not
available due to any reasoning. On the other, this request decreases the potential for continuously
serving the load, even if the main grid is not available but the connected distributed generators and
storage are able to cover it. Future efforts of this nature will keep production online as much as possible
and additionally take care of resynchronization and addressing issues of quality. A generic description
is provided to Table 2.

Table 2. Distribution networks protection studies.

Reference Description Research Method Contribution

Review of the
Meshed networks in the Analysis of the
[2–13] state-of-the-art on the
bibliography state-of-the-art situation
subject
Description of active,
passive and hybrid
Protection types and Analysis of the
[21–30] systems, differential,
their characteristics state-of-the-art situation
distance, overcurrent
and voltage protection
Protection methods for
covering meshed Fuzzy logic, multi-agent,
Applying alternative
[58–61,73–75] networks, intermittent traditional protection
methods for protection
renewables and electric procedures
vehicles
Protection procedures for
covering meshed
Fault current limiters, Applying alternative
[62,63,71,77] networks, intermittent
converter operation methods for protection
renewables and electric
vehicles
Protection procedures for
Metaheuristic methods
covering meshed
and relevant Applying alternative
[64–68,76,78,79] networks, intermittent
optimization, methods for protection
renewables and electric
overcurrent relays
vehicles
Protection procedures for
covering meshed Enhancing the
[69,70] networks, intermittent Fault location understanding of the
renewables and electric operation of the system
vehicles

4. Real-Time Simulation Capabilities for Smart Grids Protection

The validation approaches for understanding the exact behavior of smart grids systems, including
when it comes to protection operations, are software simulation, laboratory testing, hardware in
the loop, and measurements in the field [81]. Testing the exact behavior of the protection system,
taking into consideration the specificities of protection equipment operation, could be a demanding
Energies 2018, 11, 3106 9 of 17

procedure. Traditional digital simulation software could offer good insight into the real operation of
the system; however, it does not have the capability to calculate hardware limitations that need to
be considered for the safe operation of the system. On the other hand, connecting the real protection
equipment to test it directly to the real system could be very demanding in terms of resources and
it could be impossible under certain circumstances. Real time, hardware on the loop simulators are
able to combine the benefits of software simulation and hardware testing. The simulator performs
the necessary calculations
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEERand then feeds them to its analog inputs and outputs. When the 9protection
REVIEW of 16
relays are connected hardware can be tested without the need of the real electricity network.
have their own limitations due to the models and their capabilities [84]. On the smart grid level, the
From the above it appears that hardware in the loop is the prominent and most effective solution
work of several researchers has shown very good performance of the system [85].
for developing modern procedures. Real time simulation combines effectively the capabilities of
As far as hardware is concerned, target computers are categorized in two major types [83]. Type
simulation
A [86] software
real time and is ablehave
simulators to approach the complexity
custom built and specificity
processors, whereas of new
type B [87] workequipment
with general having
hardware interfaces at signal and network level. Hardware in the loop finds
purpose CPUs. As far as software is concerned, it is developed by the vendor, or it is based on applications on different
aspects, except software
proprietary from protection of power systems
such as MATLAB/Simulink but
[88]. Thefor the computers’
target specific needs of smart
operating system grids
couldit can
effectively performorelectromagnetic
be Windows transientsoperating
Linux or an alternative and phasor and voltage
system control
for special simulations
purposes. [82]. Apart
The solution
from methodology
the above, real is based to the principle
time simulators that the simulation
are especially useful for is simulating
done into steps, of whichthey
microgrids, the results are
are composed
provided to the Input/Output Interface in such a way that represents
of a computing part which has been uploaded with the simulation model of the equipment not the behavior of a real system.
Thereinare
available thelimitations
laboratoryareand based
the on the complexity
proper interfacesof tothe
themodel,
physicalthesystem
processing
[83],power, and thetotime
as depicted Figure 5.
step. A time step combined with inadequate computational power and a complex model could lead
The physical problem is simulated at the processing unit in real time. As digital technology necessitates,
to simulation instability and inaccurate results, which is the main challenge of the system as a whole.
the system splits the time in short intervals and calculates problem’s solutions for the next time step
Having mentioned the above the main vendors are RTDS [86], OPAL-rt [87], MATLAB xPC target
using[89],
the dspace
information imported
[90], Applied from the
Dynamics previous. [91],
International Based onTyphoon
and this, processing
RTDS [92].power should be enough
to be ableReal
to perform all necessary
time simulators calculations
of all types in time less
able to perform than it needs thehave
hardware-in-the-loop simulated real system.
similar general
Aftersetting.
this, theThevalues are converted
simulation to analogon
model is developed signals
a hostand if necessary,
personal computer,they areserves
which amplified.
as the The output is
interface
connected directly the
for extracting to the equipment
simulation to beThe
results. tested. The behavior
compiled of the equipment
model is uploaded is measured,
on the real-time and data
simulator
target computer. The results are channeled to analog and digital inputs and
are reconverted to digital signals and fed to the computational module for the next simulation step. outputs, being there to In
serve as the interface of the simulator to the equipment under study. Complex
this manner, the equipment can be tested without having it connected to the real system, facilitating simulation systems
could also
the testing includeinfast
procedure communication
a safe manner. There networks to operate
are several typesinofparallel with
real time more thanable
simulators one totarget
cover all
computers being remotely located.
the needs of smart grids simulations. However, they have their own limitations due to the models and
The main open source solution to real time simulation is the virtual test bed [93,94]. However,
their capabilities [84]. On the smart grid level, the work of several researchers has shown very good
real time simulation may cover only a part of the requirements for a cyber-physical energy system,
performance
which in of factthe system
shall include[85].
additional intelligence.

Figure Basic
5. 5.
Figure BasicHardware
Hardwarein
in the loopsimulation
the loop simulation concept
concept [83].
[83].

As farAsaspreviously
hardwarementioned
is concerned,
above, target
real computers are categorized
time, hardware-in-loop in two
capable major have
simulators typesbeen[83].a Type
A [86] real tool
useful timeused
simulators havestudies.
for protection customUsing
builtthese
processors,
systems,whereas type
researchers andBproduct
[87] work with general
development
purpose CPUs.areAs
engineers farto as
able software
predict is concerned,
the operational it isofdeveloped
behavior relays and by the vendor,
protection systems or init general.
is based on
Several laboratories have developed advanced systems and they open them to
proprietary software such as MATLAB/Simulink [88]. The target computers’ operating system couldresearchers across the be
world for academic purposes [95]. Smaller portable devices are available for restricted
Windows or Linux or an alternative operating system for special purposes. The solution methodology simulations
[96]. to
is based Allthethese hardware-in-the-loop
principle simulatorsisare
that the simulation optimized
done for protection
into steps, of which purposes [97], for
the results arephasor
provided
measurement system [98] testing, to replicate microgrids’ dynamic performance [99] and for other
to the Input/Output Interface in such a way that represents the behavior of a real system. There
purposes. Specific examples for protection systems configuration are provided in past works
[100,101].
Another important issue is the islanding behavior of distributed generators and storage devices
at the distribution level [102–104]. To avoid incorrect operation of the grid and maintain safety
precautions, it is not allowed under current standardization for distribution generations to operate if
Energies 2018, 11, 3106 10 of 17

are limitations are based on the complexity of the model, the processing power, and the time step.
A time step combined with inadequate computational power and a complex model could lead to
simulation instability and inaccurate results, which is the main challenge of the system as a whole.
Having mentioned the above the main vendors are RTDS [86], OPAL-rt [87], MATLAB xPC target [89],
dspace [90], Applied Dynamics International [91], and Typhoon RTDS [92].
Real time simulators of all types able to perform hardware-in-the-loop have similar general setting.
The simulation model is developed on a host personal computer, which serves as the interface for
extracting the simulation results. The compiled model is uploaded on the real-time simulator target
computer. The results are channeled to analog and digital inputs and outputs, being there to serve
as the interface of the simulator to the equipment under study. Complex simulation systems could
also include fast communication networks to operate in parallel with more than one target computers
being remotely located.
The main open source solution to real time simulation is the virtual test bed [93,94]. However,
real time simulation may cover only a part of the requirements for a cyber-physical energy system,
which in fact shall include additional intelligence.
As previously mentioned above, real time, hardware-in-loop capable simulators have been a
useful tool used for protection studies. Using these systems, researchers and product development
engineers are able to predict the operational behavior of relays and protection systems in general.
Several laboratories have developed advanced systems and they open them to researchers across the
world for academic purposes [95]. Smaller portable devices are available for restricted simulations [96].
All these hardware-in-the-loop simulators are optimized for protection purposes [97], for phasor
measurement system [98] testing, to replicate microgrids’ dynamic performance [99] and for other
purposes. Specific examples for protection systems configuration are provided in past works [100,101].
Another important issue is the islanding behavior of distributed generators and storage devices
at the distribution level [102–104]. To avoid incorrect operation of the grid and maintain safety
precautions, it is not allowed under current standardization for distribution generations to operate if
central connection is not available. According to current procedures, this part of the system requires to
be de-energized for safety purposes. The devices and procedures for anti-islanding protection are also
tested in real time simulators [105,106] and in the future could be tested on microgrids, it is expected
that the islanding operation of the distribution network could be a part of de facto reality. Of course, in
islanding operation the distributed generators and the available storage devices have to able to cover
the load and operate safely. A generic description is provided to Table 3.

Table 3. Distribution networks protection studies.

Reference Description Research Method Contribution

Real-time simulators
Technology and its
[81–85] types, applications and Bibliographical review
advancements review
evolvement
Real-time simulator Equipment testing and
Hardware-in-the-loop
[79,80,95–101] applications for network development for
simulations
protection networks’ protection
Real-time simulator Equipment testing and
Hardware-in-the-loop
[102–104] applications for development for
simulations
islanding protection islanding protection
Availability of
Real Time Digital
specialized solutions for
Simulators
[86–94] N/A each application,
manufacturers and other
including smart grids’
developers
protection
Energies 2018, 11, 3106 11 of 17

5. Open Access Distribution Networks Available for Protection Studies

Open access distribution networks are of paramount importance as case studies for applying
electricity system research. They are used to test case new procedures and methodologies. For a
newcomer on the field, without access to new networks, bibliography offers openly solutions on a
variety of voltage levels, complexities, and for several applications. Distribution networks, which are
the main focus of this review, are mostly provided by the major engineering such as IEEE [107,108] or
other organizations [109]. Renowned institutions in Europe such as the Joint Research Centre [110]
and in the United States the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory [111] have also published their
own models for research purposes. Individual laboratories also propose their own configurations. For
example, a distribution line is provided at [112] and a model for real time is available at [113].
Studies for smart grids protection systems are usually at the distribution voltage level, which is at
the level of kV up to 35 kV. However, the bibliography has smart grids examples on higher voltage
level [114]. In this case, the authors use a selection of IEEE high voltage test cases, for example IEEE
14 Bus [115] and IEEE 30 Bus [114] that are part of the American Electric Power System, IEEE 17
Generator dynamic test case [116], and IEEE 30 Bus dynamic test case [117], which is believed that
is part of the New England power system. Except from the above, individual researchers use lines
of their adjacent network to conduct their research. An example of protection studies distribution
network in this category is available at [118].
There are journals able to publish only datasets such as Data in Brief from Elsevier [119] and
Data from MDPI [120], where the researchers are able to find new datasets on every subject including
simulation networks. Using the same simulation networks in different cases by different researchers
enhances the capability of the research community to compare new methodologies. On the other
hand, applications of some methodologies to specific local networks are important to enhance the
applicability of the research and its engineering importance. A generic description is provided to
Table 4.

Table 4. A generic description of distribution networks availability for protection studies.

Reference Description Contribution

Distribution grids for research
[113–116] IEEE networks
purposes
Distribution grids for research
[108–111] Laboratories’ networks
purposes
Availability of datasets, including
[118,119] Journals for publishing datasets
networks for research purposes

6. Conclusions and Future Developments

This paper reviewed protection systems as they evolve due to the expected connection of electric
vehicles. The first part of this paper includes a description of network planning in the presence of
electric vehicles and distributed generators, as well as it incorporates recent relevant research. The
second part of this review analyses the availability of real time hardware in the loop capabilities to
test protection systems and the open access distribution networks available for studies in the technical
literature. With the knowledge collected in this manuscript, a researcher is able to understand the
recent efforts of the connection of electric vehicles, state-of-art tools, and networks to be used for
protection studies.
Based on the above, the future electricity grid is expected to become the main carrier for
transferring energy to the final users. It will cover, except from the traditional loads, new requirements
of transportation in a wider scale with higher penetration of electric vehicles. However, this emerging
situation will create technical challenges to the existing infrastructure that needs to effectively
accommodate these new loads. According to the authors’ perspective, except from reinforcing the
Energies 2018, 11, 3106 12 of 17

existing grid, it is of paramount importance to enhance grid’s performance, applying in a wider scale
the meshed distribution network. Protection issues will eventually arise that could be solved using
real time simulators. Research community could contribute in this direction using the available open
source real networks.

Author Contributions: L.E. provided the supervision and reviewed the paper. V.V. and S.L. conducted the
research and wrote the paper.
Funding: The authors acknowledge financial support for this work from the Special Account for Research of
ASPETE, under the project “DECA”, through the funding program “Strengthening research of ASPETE faculty
members”.
Acknowledgments: The authors appreciate the productive comments they received from the reviewers of the
Energies journal and those who read this manuscript as a preprint on researchgate.com and provided their
feedback. Without the support from Evangelos Kotsakis and Heinz Wilkening, this work would have been
impossible to be produced.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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