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Geological record of flat slab–induced extension in the southern Peruvian

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DOI: 10.1130/G38990.1

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Geological record of flat slab–induced extension in the southern
Peruvian forearc
Mélanie Noury1,2*, Mélody Philippon2, Matthias Bernet1, Jean-Louis Paquette3, and Thierry Sempere1,4
1
Université Grenoble-Alpes, CNRS, ISTerre (Institut des Sciences de la Terre), F-38041 Grenoble, France
2
Geosciences Montpellier, UMR 5243, Université des Antilles, 97159 Pointe-à-Pitre, France
3
Laboratoire Magmas et Volcans, Université Clermont-Auvergne, CNRS, IRD, OPGC (Observatoire de Physique du Globe),
F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
4
IRD, ISTerre (Institut des Sciences de la Terre), F-73376 Le Bourget du Lac, France

ABSTRACT 2010). In such a setting, the volcanic arc may migrate through time, for
The long-lived Andean subduction zone underwent several flat example, when slab dip changes. In southern Peru, the arc remained
slab episodes and is therefore ideal to study the consequences of a stationary from 90 to 52 Ma in a trench-parallel strip that is now located
complete cycle of slab flattening and steepening on the upper plate 150–200 km from the trench. Volcanic activity waned between 62 and
deformation pattern. In the modern Peruvian forearc (15°–17°S), 52 Ma (Quang et al. 2005), migrated ~150 km farther northeast at 48 Ma
slab flattening caused a Paleogene (52–30 Ma) landward migration (Perelló et al., 2003), and broadened between 45 and 30 Ma (Mamani
of volcanic activity. Combining structural geology and a source-to- et al., 2010). Contemporaneously, the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes is
sink thermochronological study, we show that the flat slab period is affected by tectonic shortening (e.g., Steinmann, 1929; Horton, 2005).
contemporaneous with uplift accommodated by large-scale crustal Dewatering of the slab triggered heat advection recorded at 38 Ma by
extension in the forearc. In this light, we argue that the study area the arc basement (Farrar et al., 1988; James and Sacks, 1999). Together,
is an ancient analog to the modern Mexican and northern Peruvian these observations have been attributed to slab flattening (James and
forearcs located above modern flat slab segments and currently under- Sacks, 1999). Moreover, this time frame coincides with oroclinal bending
going widespread extension. thought to have been provoked by the subduction of a buoyant plateau
that may be the cause of slab flattening (Martinod et al., 2010). The arc
INTRODUCTION migrated back southwestward at ca. 30 Ma, and produced large volumes
In subduction zones, slab parameters and relative plate motions control of ignimbrites, indicating steepening of the slab (Mamani et al., 2010).
(1) the location of the volcanic arc (England et al., 2004), (2) interplate Whereas previous studies focused on arc and backarc regions, we inves-
coupling, and (3) upper plate deformation patterns, related rock uplift, tigate the forearc deformation pattern and kinematics over a complete
and subsequent relief building and/or dismantling through time (Dewey, cycle of slab flattening and steepening. We depict the geological record
1980; Uyeda, 1982; Heuret and Lallemand, 2005). Of the world’s con- of flat slab–induced extension, and our new thermochronological data set
vergent margins, 10% have shallow dipping slabs (<30°) (Gutscher et allows us to refine the timing of this Paleogene flat slab.
al., 2000), among which 3 are flat slabs (southern Mexico, northern Peru,
and central Chile; Manea et al., 2017) (inset, Fig. 1A). Various causes PALEOGENE PERPENDICULAR TO THE TRENCH
prevent slabs from sinking into the asthenosphere (Manea et al., 2017) EXTENSION
such as (1) the entrance in the subduction zone of buoyant material, (2)
trenchward motion of the overriding plate together with anchored slab; Large-Scale Structure of the Southern Peruvian Forearc
or (3) suction forces in the mantle wedge originating from the combined In this region, the Proterozoic metamorphic basement is overlain by
effects of wedge rheology and narrowness, high subduction rate, and a >5-km-thick succession of Carboniferous to Paleocene deposits (Bena-
presence of a cratonic root. Slab flattening initiates surface uplift in the vides, 1962). Jurassic to early Paleocene plutons intrude the basement
forearc, inland migration of compressive stresses, and provokes a period and/or its overlaying sedimentary cover (Boekhout et al., 2012; Demouy
of volcanic quiescence or inland expansion and migration of the volca- et al., 2012) (Fig. 1). The forearc is structured by the ~230-km-long
nic activity (e.g., James and Sacks, 1999; Espurt et al., 2008). Geologi- northwest-southeast–trending Lluclla and Huanca faults (Fig. 1A). These
cal observations such as extensional basins (McNulty and Farber, 2002), trench-parallel tectonic contacts have been interpreted as thrusts either (1)
active normal faults (Gérault et al., 2015; Gaidzik et al., 2016), or exten- both dipping to the southwest and bounding a tectonic nappe (Moores et
sional strain (Meschede et al., 1996) evidence forearc extension above the al., 2002), or (2) oppositely dipping, defining a pop-up structure (Armijo
present-day Mexican and north Peruvian flat slab segments. Deformation et al., 2015). However, primary field observations show that they are two
patterns above flat slabs are still not well described, although they provide oppositely dipping normal faults (Figs. 1B and 1C), the footwalls of which
crucial constraints on the mechanical behavior of subduction zones. In are Precambrian gneisses intruded by Mesozoic plutons covered by Meso-
this context, we investigate the Peruvian forearc over a complete cycle zoic sediments (basement of the studied basins). The Lluclla and Huanca
of slab flattening and steepening. faults control the Eocene to Pleistocene Moquegua basin (Roperch et al.,
2006) and the Late Cretaceous to middle Miocene Huanca basin (Vicente
PALEOGENE FLAT SLAB et al., 1979), respectively (Fig. 1E). These basins are filled with continental
Active subduction and an associated volcanic arc have characterized fluvial deposits devoid of volcanic intercalations, unconformably overlain
the Peruvian margin (15°–17°S) since at least 300 Ma (Mamani et al., by tuffaceous deposits, attesting to arc resumption in the area (Roperch
et al., 2006). The tuffs dip ~15° toward the northeast and exhibit growth
*E-mail: melanienoury@gmail.com strata pointing to a syndeformation deposition in the hanging wall of the

GEOLOGY, August 2017; v. 45; no. 8; p. 723–726  |  Data Repository item 2017239  | doi:10.1130/G38990.1 |  Published online 9 June 2017
GEOLOGY 
© |  Volume
2017 Geological 45  | ofNumber
Society America. | www.gsapubs.org
8  For permission to copy, contact editing@geosociety.org. 723
 southwest-dipping Quinistacas normal fault (located along the active arc;
-90° -80°
15°
Fig. 1A). The Yura fault is a secondary northeast-dipping feature (Fig.
Slab dip
Yu 1D) delimiting the Arequipa horst to the northeast from the Yura basin
1M30 1M29
30°
ra faul Mexico
t 1M31
10°
1M28 (Jenks, 1948), which exhibits Jurassic deposits overlain by a post–90
Yu Hu a′ 0°
Ma gigantic slump of highly deformed Mesozoic sediments (similar to
ra an
sl u ca
mp ba North Peru slumps described by Callot et al., 2008). The internal organization of
16°S Ar
equ sin
-10°

L lu ipa this slump suggests that its Mesozoic sediments were probably covering
cla Ho Huanca
faul rs
t t C fault the now-denuded part of the Arequipa horst before sliding toward the
-20°

Qu
B northeast at 90 Ma or later.

in
Chile

ist
-30°

ac
Yura

as
Mo
qu basin

fau
eg Timing of Extension

lt
ua Arequipa
ba To constrain the timing of exhumation of the Arequipa horst and record
sin
of its erosion in the adjacent Huanca basin, we performed a thermochro-
16.5°S
nological source-to-sink study that consisted in comparing zircon U-Pb
ages, as well as zircon and apatite fission-track (FT) ages, from basement
N (source) and detrital (sink) rocks (Fig. 2).
a
72°W 25 km 71.5°W A In the Arequipa horst, plutons show two zircon U-Pb ages clusters: one
normal slump source Jurassic and another Late Cretaceous to early Paleocene (Fig. 2A; Table
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
fault sole volcano
samples sink
SW NE DR1 in the GSA Data Repository1). Regardless of their crystallization age,
basement rocks show similar zircon and apatite FT grain age distributions
ranging from 90 to ca. 25 Ma, implying that the basement rocks shared
the same thermal history since 90 Ma (Fig. 2B; Table DR2). The low
Moquegua Arequipa concentration of uranium in apatite prevents track length measurement
basin Horst and thermal modeling. It is thus not straightforward to decipher sensu
72°05′03.26″W ; 16°08′48.60″S B stricto the postemplacement cooling (reflecting thermal relaxation after
SW NE
plutonic intrusions) from the cooling due to rock exhumation. However,
Yura considering that the arc waned at the initiation of the flat slab, the 5 m.y.
thermal relaxation of the last pluton (62 Ma, 10 km width; Demouy et
slump
Huanca al., 2012; Ehlers, 2005) gives a postemplacement cooling FT age of 57
Ma. Consequently, the FT age pattern ranging from 57 to 25 Ma reflects
basin cooling during forearc exhumation. As surface uplift of the upper plate
71°49′22.13″W ; 16°06′52.20″S C occurs as soon as the buoyant anomaly is subducted (Espurt et al., 2008),
SW NE we refine the timing of slab flattening initiation as 57 Ma.
Yura Deposits of the Huanca basin were sampled from base to top (Figs.
1A and 2). Detrital apatite FT ages are always older than zircon FT ages,
Arequipa Basin suggesting that (1) apatites and zircons do not have the same source rocks,
Horst and (2) FT were not annealed during burial in the Huanca basin (Figs.

D GSA Data Repository item 2017239, Tables DR1 and DR2, and text describ-
1 
71°52′59.57″W ; 16°09′56.98″S
ing analytical procedures, is available online at http://www.geosociety.org​
a YB HB
C a′
D /datarepository​/2017/ or on request from editing@geosociety.org.
B AH
MB

SW NE
p=20° Top of E n=99
F
25 km
vertical scale x2 E
p=75° Huanca basin n=101
1M31
n=55
Sink

Figure 1. Large-scale structure of the southern Peruvian forearc. A:

Synthetic geological map from a compilation of our own field data and
Base of C n=67 D
INGEMMET (Instituto Geológico Minero y Metalúrgico, Peru) maps.
Huanca basin n=78
n=99
Apart from (1) the Proterozoic basement of the Arequipa terrane, geo- 1M28
logical units were mapped differentiating periods of time corresponding
to the stages of arc migration. 2—200–130 Ma plutons; 3—90–52 Ma Arequipa
A (n=21 & n=49) B
Source

(n=90 & n=61)

plutons; 4—ca. 200–130 Ma lavas; 5—200–130 Ma backarc deposits; horst n=40
6—90–52 Ma backarc deposits; 7—52–30 Ma forearc deposits; 8—
forearc deposits younger than 30 Ma; 9—Quaternary volcanic deposits. 1 10 100 1000 0 60 120 180 240 300
Inset shows modern flat slabs (map of slab dip contours from Hayes et Zircon U-Pb age (Ma) zircon and apatite FT (Ma)
al., 2012) and scaled lithospheric-scale cross sections (after Manea et
al., 2017); earthquake hypocenters are shown (Heuret and Lallemand, Figure 2. Arequipa horst–Huanca basin (Peru) source-to-sink study.
2005). Red triangles indicate active volcanoes. B: Google Earth™ pan- From bottom to top, results for Arequipa horst (source), and base and
orama of the trench-parallel large-scale Lluclla normal fault. C: Google top of the Huanca basin. From left to right, Huanca basin stratigraphy,
Earth panorama of the trench-parallel secondary Yura normal fault. two-kernel density plots of individual grain zircon U-Pb age distribu-
D: Google Earth panorama of the trench-parallel large-scale Huanca tion, and distribution of zircon (plain line) and apatite (dotted line)
normal fault. E: Cross section a-a′ showing the horst and half-graben fission-track (FT) ages on individual grains. For the source samples,
system of the Peruvian forearc; B, C, D are also shown. AH—Arequipa the brown, blue, and green lines represent basement, Jurassic, and
horst, YB—Yura basin, HB—Huanca basin; MB—Moquegua basin. Cretaceous samples, respectively. Peak crystallization ages are rep-
resented by colored boxes in the second column and reported in the
third column for comparison with cooling ages.

|  Volume 45  |  Number 8  |  GEOLOGY

724 www.gsapubs.org 
2D and 2F; Table DR2). The base of the basin exposes andesitic breccia

45 M
500 km 90 Ma
Moho
(proximal volcanic source) yielding zircon U-Pb ages ranging between

suture
SSuture
90-60 Ma Stee Arequipa terrane South

a
110 and 90 Ma, with few Proterozoic ages (Fig. 2C). However, Late Cre- p Sl
ab
America A 70 Ma
60 Ma 80 Ma

80 Ma

60 M
taceous volcanic source rocks do not crop out in the area, whereas deep forearc arc broadening back arc SF 70 Ma

parts of the Cretaceous arc (plutons) are observed in the Arequipa horst. trench rollback extension or cessation shortening JF
60 Ma

15 % 40%
Similar to the source, the sink yields FT ages ranging between 60 and 30
Ma, younger than crystallization ages, confirming the exhumation-related thick magmatic crust collapse

suture
52-30 Ma Flat
cooling (Figs. 2D and 2F). These observations suggest that large volumes
isost Slab increased interplate length B
of the Cretaceous arc deposits on the Arequipa horst have been eroded. atic adj
ustment/u volcanic arc
trench rollback plift
The top of the basin exposes subrounded andesitic clasts, mid-Cretaceous ~ 0% 25% EC IA 39% SA arc pluton
limestones, and Jurassic quartzarenite, indicating a distal volcanic source thrust
30-0 Ma Ste
and a change in the source lithology. Most zircons are Proterozoic (Fig.
200 km
ep S
lab C normal fault
eclogitization
2E) and their cooling ages range between 240 and 20 Ma (Fig. 2F), imply-
ing Mesozoic or pre-Mesozoic exhumation of the source. Either these
Figure 3. Three-step geodynamical evolution of the southern Peruvian
source rocks are the gneissic basement of the Arequipa horst or they are forearc during flat slab episode. Inset shows the San Felix (SF) and
sediments bearing zircon and erosional products of Amazonian craton Juan Fernandez (JF) hotspots trails and the trench location at 60 Ma
origin (Decou et al., 2013). In both cases, it suggests that increasingly (gray) and 45 Ma (black) (from Seton et al., 2012). Red spot shows
deeper parts of the Arequipa horst were exhumed and eroded through anomalously thickened oceanic crust resulting from the passage of
the JF hotspot track (ridge) over the SF hotspot. A: 90–60 Ma steep
the Eocene–Oligocene. slab; the volcanic arc is located in the Arequipa range; gray bar shows
The bases of Huanca (50 ± 9 Ma FT minimum age, a proxy for depo- the suture between the Arequipa terrane and South America. B: 52–30
sitional age; Galbraith and Laslett, 1993; Table DR1) and Moquegua Ma flat slab. At ca. 52 Ma, the JF ridge entered the subduction zone;
deposits (ca. 52 Ma; Roperch et al., 2006) allow us to constrain the onset at 45 Ma, the overthickened oceanic crust subducted, favoring slab
of large-scale forearc extension as ca. 52 Ma. Tuffs capping the Huanca flattening, and initiated inland migration of both the volcanic arc and
compressive stresses and large-scale extension in the forearc. C: 30–0
deposits and sealing the Huanca and Yura faults have a zircon U-Pb age Ma steep slab. At 30 Ma, the slab steepens and the South American
of 16.5 Ma (Table DR1) and postdate this large-scale extension. How- plate continues to underthrust the Arequipa terrane, leading to the
ever, these tuffs seem to have been deposited in depocenters along the present-day orogen (after Armijo et al., 2015); extension in the forearc
Quinistacas normal fault, suggesting that extension lasted until the middle continues until 16.5 Ma. EC—Eastern Cordillera, IA—Interandean zone,
SA—Subandes zone. Purple and black arrows indicate bulk extension
Miocene. Therefore, the 57–25 Ma forearc uplift was accommodated by and shortening percentages, respectively.
large-scale crustal extension, which began 52 Ma, contemporaneous with
initiation and propagation of flat slab beneath the upper plate.

EXTENSION ABOVE FLAT SLABS
Tracking the position through time of the San Felix and Juan Fernandez
hotspots and the location of the trench (based on Seton et al., 2012), we
distinguish four major events and interpret them together with geologi-
cal evidences as follows (Fig. 3). At 80 Ma, the Juan Fernandez hotspot
track (ridge) passed over the San Felix hotspot, locally overthickening
the oceanic crust while the subduction-related volcanic arc was located in
the Arequipa range (inset in Fig. 3, and Fig. 3A). At 60 Ma, the San Felix
ridge entered the subduction zone; arc waning closely followed this period.
At 52 Ma, ~720 km of the San Felix ridge had been subducted, assuming
a mean 9 cm/yr convergence rate between 60 and 52 Ma (Sdrolias and
Müller, 2006) . In addition, the South Atlantic ridge push imposed an
absolute westward drift to the South American plate and its cratonic keel
toward the trench. These conditions led to slab flattening (Espurt et al.,
2008; Manea et al., 2017). While the backarc area accommodated ~40%
of shortening in the Interandes and Eastern Cordillera, reactivating the
Arequipa terrane–South America suture zone (Fig. 3B; Eichelberger et al.,
2013), we present evidence of a 57 Ma forearc uplift accommodated by
15% trench-perpendicular bulk extension (over the Arequipa-Altiplano
area; restoration of Fig. 1E in Fig. DR2; Elger et al., 2005) that began at 52
Ma (Fig. 3B). The slab steepened ca. 30 Ma, either due to its eclogitization
(Haschke et al., 2002) or the complete subduction of the buoyant anomaly
(Fig. 3B), triggering ignimbritic eruptions in the present-day Altiplano and
initiating the southwestward arc migration toward its present-day posi-
tion (James and Sacks, 1999). Shortening in the backarc continued and
propagated eastward as the Arequipa terrane was thrust over the South
American plate. The forearc remained under extension until ca. 16.5 Ma,
likely as a result of the trench rollback accompanying the steepening of
the slab (Fig. 3C; Funiciello et al., 2003).
Our study area may be an ancient analog of the modern Mexican and
north Peruvian forearcs, where slab flattening occurred ca. 15 Ma (Manea
et al., 2017); since then, widespread trench-perpendicular extension
affected these forearcs (McNulty and Farber, 2002; Margirier et al., 2015;
Meschede et al., 1996). Our chronological data set shows a 5 m.y. delay
between the onset of slab flattening and widespread crustal extension. The
central Chilean flat slab, which initiated at ca. 8 Ma (Mahlburg Kay and
Mpodozis, 2002), might be too young to exhibit such widespread forearc
extensional deformation pattern.
CONCLUSIONS
Although causes of slab flattening remain debated, a number of geo-
logical observations shed light on the consequences of such subduction
settings on the tectono-volcanic evolution of the upper plate (Fig. 3):
the volcanic activity broadens landward or ceases (Mamani et al. 2010;
Haschke et al., 2002); the increasing plate interface length transmits
compressive stresses inland, provoking shortening in the backarc area
(Martinod et al., 2010; Espurt et al., 2008; Eichelberger et al., 2013); and
isostatic adjustment follows the horizontal juxtaposition of the overriding
and downgoing lithospheres (Fig. 3B; Espurt et al., 2008). Studying the
forearc area over a complete steep-flat-steep subduction cycle, we show
here that the forearc uplifted as soon as the slab started to flatten (prior
to the transmission of compressive stresses in the backarc). After a 5 m.y.
delay, uplift in the forearc was accommodated by large-scale crustal exten-
sion. Shortening in the backarc has to be balanced with forearc extension,
increasing the trench-backarc length. The gravitational collapse of the
thick forearc magmatic crust (Fig. 3B) might also have contributed to
increase this length, triggering trench rollback.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank F. Cœur and F. Sénebier for mineral separations and E. Hardwick and
M. Balvay for their valuable help within the ISTerre (Institut des Sciences de la
Terre) fission-track laboratory. This work was supported by the French National
Institute for Earth Sciences and Astronomy (INSU) Syster program, the French
Research Institute for Development (IRD) and the Evaluation-orientation de
la Coopération Scientifique program (ECOS-Nord). ISTerre is part of LabEx

GEOLOGY  |  Volume 45  |  Number 8  | www.gsapubs.org 725

OSUG@2020 (Observatoire des Sciences de l’Univers de Grenoble, Stratégies
Innovantes pour l’Observation et la Modélisation des Systèmes Naturels; ANR10
LABX56). We thank V.C. Manea and two anonymous reviewers, as well as editor
D. Brown, for their very constructive comments and suggestions that greatly
improved the manuscript.
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Manuscript received 24 January 2017
Revised manuscript received 15 April 2017
Manuscript accepted 19 April 2017
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