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A Differential Equation Is A Mathematical Equation That Relates Some Function With Its Derivatives
A Differential Equation Is A Mathematical Equation That Relates Some Function With Its Derivatives
History
Differential equations first came into existence with the invention of
calculus by Newton and Leibniz. In Chapter 2 of his 1671 work
"Methodus fluxionum et Serierum Infinitarum",[1] Isaac Newton listed
three kinds of differential equations:
He solves these examples and others using infinite series and discusses
the non-uniqueness of solutions.
Jacob Bernoulli proposed the Bernoulli differential equation in 1695.[2]
This is an ordinary differential equation of the form
Lagrange solved this problem in 1755 and sent the solution to Euler. Both
further developed Lagrange's method and applied it to mechanics, which
led to the formulation of Lagrangian mechanics.
Types:
Differential equations can be divided into several types. Apart from
describing the properties of the equation itself, these classes of differential
equations can help inform the choice of approach to a solution. Commonly
used distinctions include whether the equation is: Ordinary/Partial,
Linear/Non-linear, and Homogeneous/Inhomogeneous. This list is far
from exhaustive; there are many other properties and subclasses of
differential equations which can be very useful in specific contexts.
Linear differential equations are the differential equations that are linear
in the unknown function and its derivatives. Their theory is well
developed, and, in many cases, one may express their solutions in terms
of integrals.
Most ODEs that are encountered in physics are linear, and, therefore, most
special functions may be defined as solutions of linear differential
equations
As, in general, the solutions of a differential equation cannot be expressed
by a closed-form expression, numerical methods are commonly used for
solving differential equations on a computer.
Equation order
Example
For first order initial value problems, the Peano existence theorem gives
one set of circumstances in which a solution exists. Given any point
in the xy-plane, define some rectangular region ,
such that and is in the interior of
However, this only helps us with first order initial value problems.
Suppose we had a linear initial value problem of the nth order:
Applications
The study of differential equations is a wide field in pure and applied
mathematics, physics, and engineering. All of these disciplines are
concerned with the properties of differential equations of various types.
Pure mathematics focuses on the existence and uniqueness of solutions,
while applied mathematics emphasizes the rigorous justification of the
methods for approximating solutions. Differential equations play an
important role in modelling virtually every physical, technical, or
biological process, from celestial motion, to bridge design, to interactions
between neurons. Differential equations such as those used to solve real-
life problems may not necessarily be directly solvable, i.e. do not have
closed form solutions. Instead, solutions can be approximated using
numerical methods.
Physics
Radioactive decay (also known as nuclear decay, radioactivity or
nuclear radiation) is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus
loses energy (in terms of mass in its rest frame) by emitting radiation, such
as an alpha particle, beta particle with neutrino or only a neutrino in the
case of electron capture, or a gamma ray or electron in the case of internal
conversion. A material containing such unstable nuclei is considered
radioactive. Certain highly excited short-lived nuclear states can decay
through neutron emission, or more rarely, proton emission.
LAPLACE EQUATION:-
In mathematics, Laplace's equation is a second-order partial differential
equation named after Pierre-Simon Laplace who first studied its
properties. This is often written as:
where ∆ = ∇2 is the Laplace operator[1] (see below) and is a scalar function.
Analytic functions
The real and imaginary parts of a complex analytic function both satisfy
the Laplace equation. That is, if z = x + iy, and if
then the necessary condition that f(z) be analytic is that the Cauchy–
Riemann equations be satisfied:
Newton's law of cooling states that the rate of heat loss of a body
is directly proportional to the difference in the temperatures between the
body and its surroundings provided the temperature difference is small
and the nature of radiating surface remains same. As such, it is
equivalent to a statement that the heat transfer coefficient, which
mediates between heat losses and temperature differences, is a
constant. This condition is generally true in thermal conduction (where
it is guaranteed by Fourier's law), but it is often only approximately true
in conditions of convective heat transfer, where a number of physical
processes make effective heat transfer coefficients somewhat
dependent on temperature differences. Finally, in the case of heat
transfer by thermal radiation, Newton's law of cooling is not true.
where
WAVE EQUATION:-
A pulse traveling through a string with fixed endpoints as modeled by the
wave equation.The wave equation is an important second-order linear
partial differential equation for the description of waves—as they occur
in classical physics—such as mechanical waves (e.g. water waves, sound
waves and seismic waves) or light waves. It arises in fields like acoustics,
electromagnetics, and fluid dynamics.
The wave equation alone does not specify a physical solution; a unique
solution is usually obtained by setting a problem with further conditions,
such as initial conditions, which prescribe the amplitude and phase of the
wave. Another important class of problems occurs in enclosed spaces
specified by boundary conditions, for which the solutions represent
standing waves, or harmonics, analogous to the harmonics of musical
instruments.
The wave equation, and modifications of it, are also found in elasticity,
quantum mechanics, plasma physics and general relativity.
Classical mechanics
The second law states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is
directly proportional to the force applied, and this change in momentum
takes place in the direction of the applied force.
Consistent with the first law, the time derivative of the momentum is non-
zero when the momentum changes direction, even if there is no change in
its magnitude; such is the case with uniform circular motion. The
relationship also implies the conservation of momentum: when the net
force on the body is zero, the momentum of the body is constant. Any net
force is equal to the rate of change of the momentum.
Any mass that is gained or lost by the system will cause a change in
momentum that is not the result of an external force. A different equation
is necessary for variable-mass systems (see below).
Quantum mechanics
Biology:-
Standard logistic sigmoid function i.e.
where
For values of x in the domain of real numbers from −∞ to +∞, the S-curve
shown on the right is obtained, with the graph of f approaching L as x
approaches +∞ and approaching zero as x approaches −∞.
Equational forms:-
Alan Lloyd Hodgkin and Andrew Fielding Huxley described the model in
1952 to explain the ionic mechanisms underlying the initiation and
propagation of action potentials in the squid giant axon.[1] They received
the 1963 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for this work.
Basic components:-
where is the reversal potential of the i-th ion channel. Thus, for a cell
with sodium and potassium channels, the total current through the
membrane is given by:
same
where I is the total membrane current per unit area, Cm is the membrane
capacitance per unit area, gK and gNa are the potassium and sodium
conductances per unit area, respectively, VK and VNa are the potassium and
sodium reversal potentials, respectively, and gl and Vl are the leak
conductance per unit area and leak reversal potential, respectively. The
time dependent elements of this equation are Vm, gNa, and gK, where the
last two conductances depend explicitly on voltage as well.
Prey
When multiplied out, the prey equation becomes
The prey are assumed to have an unlimited food supply and to reproduce
exponentially, unless subject to predation; this exponential growth is
represented in the equation above by the term αx. The rate of predation
upon the prey is assumed to be proportional to the rate at which the
predators and the prey meet, this is represented above by βxy. If either x
or y is zero, then there can be no predation.
With these two terms the equation above can be interpreted as follows:
the rate of change of the prey's population is given by its own growth rate
minus the rate at which it is preyed upon.
Predators
Hence the equation expresses that the rate of change of the predator's
population depends upon the rate at which it consumes prey, minus its
intrinsic death rate.
Chemistry
The rate law or rate equation for a chemical reaction is a differential
equation that links the reaction rate with concentrations or pressures of
reactants and constant parameters (normally rate coefficients and partial
reaction orders).[18] To determine the rate equation for a particular system
one combines the reaction rate with a mass balance for the system.[19] In
addition, a range of differential equations are present in the study of
thermodynamics and quantum mechanics.
A thermite reaction using iron(III) oxide. The sparks flying outwards are
globules of molten iron trailing smoke in their wake.
A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the chemical
transformation of one set of chemical substances to another.[1] Classically,
chemical reactions encompass changes that only involve the positions of
electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds between atoms,
with change to the nuclei (no change to the elements present), and can
often be described by a chemical equation. Nuclear chemistry is a sub-
discipline of chemistry that involves the chemical reactions of unstable
and radioactive elements where both electronic and nuclear changes can
occur. The substance (or substances) initially involved in a chemical
reaction are called reactants or reagents. Chemical reactions are usually
characterized by a chemical change, and they yield one or more products,
which usually have properties different from the reactants. Reactions
often consist of a sequence of individual sub-steps, the so-called
elementary reactions, and the information on the precise course of action
is part of the reaction mechanism. Chemical reactions are described with
chemical equations, which symbolically present the starting materials,
end products, and sometimes intermediate products and reaction
conditions. Chemical reactions happen at a characteristic reaction rate at
a given temperature and chemical concentration. Typically, reaction rates
increase with increasing temperature because there is more thermal
energy available to reach the activation energy necessary for breaking
bonds between atoms. Reactions may proceed in the forward or reverse
direction until they go to completion or reach equilibrium. Reactions that
proceed in the forward direction to approach equilibrium are often
described as spontaneous, requiring no input of free energy to go forward.
Non-spontaneous reactions require input of free energy to go forward
(examples include charging a battery by applying an external electrical
power source, or photosynthesis driven by absorption of electromagnetic
radiation in the form of sunlight). Different chemical reactions are used in
combinations during chemical synthesis in orderto obtain a desired
product. In biochemistry, a consecutive series of chemical reactions
(where the product of one reaction is the reactant of the next reaction)
form metabolic pathways. These reactions are often catalyzed by protein
enzymes. Enzymes increase the rates of biochemical reactions, so that
metabolic syntheses and decompositions impossible under ordinary
conditions can occur at the temperatures and concentrations present
within a cell. The general concept of a chemical reaction has been
extended to reactions between entities smaller than atoms, including
nuclear reactions, radioactive decays, and reactions between elementary
particles, as described by quantum field theory.
CO
CONCLUSION:-
Differential equations plays major role in applications of sciences and
engineering. It arises in wide variety of engineering applications for e.g.
electromagnetic theory, signal processing, computational fluid
dynamics, etc. These equations can be typically solved using either
analytical or numerical methods. Since many of the differential
equations arising in real life application cannot be solved analytically or
we can say that their analytical solution does not exist. For such type of
problems certain numerical methods exists in the literature. In this book,
our main focus is to present an emerging meshless method based on the
concept of neural networks for solving differential equations or
boundary value problems of type ODE’s as well as PDE’s. Here in this
book, we have started with the fundamental concept of differential
equation, some real life applications where the problem is arising and
explanation of some existing numerical methods for their solution. We
have also presented some basic concept of neural network that is
required for the study and history of neural networks. Different neural
network methods based on multilayer perceptron, radial basis functions,
multiquadric functions and finite element etc. are then presented for
solving differential equations. It has been pointed out that the
employment of neural network architecture adds many attractive
features towards the problem compared to the other existing methods
in the literature. Preparation of input data, robustness of methods and
the high accuracy of the solutions made these methods highly
acceptable. The main advantage of the proposed approach is that once
the network is trained, it allows evaluation of the solution at any desired
number of points instantaneously with spending negligible computing
time. Moreover, different hybrid approaches are also available and the
work is in progress to use better optimization algorithms. People are also
working in the combination of neural networks to other existing methods
to propose a new method for construction of a better trail solution for
all kind of boundary value problems. Such a collection could not be
exhaustive; indeed, we can hope to give only an indication of what is
possible.
REFRENCE:-
https://www.math.psu.edu/tseng/class/Math251/Notes-
PDE%20pt1.pdf
http://www.math.harvard.edu/archive/118r_spring_05/handouts/conc
lusion.pdf
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/differential-equations
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/ap-calculus-ab/ab-differential-
equations-new/ab-7-1/v/differential
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/LaguerreDifferentialEquation.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_equation
http://www.analyzemath.com/calculus/Differential_Equations/applicat
ions.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fKHFbOeJrD0