Energy Conversion and Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

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Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Study and modeling of energy performance of a hybrid photovoltaic/

thermal solar collector: Configuration suitable for an indirect solar dryer
Mohamed El Amine Slimani a,⇑, Madjid Amirat a, Sofiane Bahria a,b, Ildikó Kurucz c, M’heni Aouli a,
Rabah Sellami d
a
Theoretical and Applied Fluid Mechanics Laboratory, Department of Energetic and Fluid Mechanics, University of Science and Technology Houari Boumediene (USTHB),
16111 Algiers, Algeria
b
Centre de Développement des Energies Renouvelables (CDER), 16340 Algiers, Algeria
c
Department of Finance and Accounting, Budapest Business School, 1149 Budapest, Hungary
d
Centre de Développement des Energies Renouvelables (CDER), Unité de Développement des Equipements Solaires (UDES), 42415 Tipaza, Algeria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this paper, a configuration of photovoltaic-thermal hybrid solar collector embeddable in an indirect
Received 17 November 2015 solar dryer system is studied. In the present structure of the solar photovoltaic/thermal air collector,
Received in revised form 21 March 2016 the air goes through a double pass below and above the photovoltaic module. A system of electrical
Accepted 22 March 2016
and thermal balance equations is developed and analyzed governing various electric and heat transfer
Available online xxxx
parameters in the solar hybrid air collector. The numerical model planned for this study gives a good pre-
cision of results, which are close to the experimental ones (of previous literature), and makes it possible
Keywords:
to have a good assessment of energy performance regarding the studied configuration (temperature, elec-
Photovoltaic module
Hybrid collector
tric and thermal powers, electrical and thermal efficiencies, etc.). The numerical results show the energy
Doubles pass effectiveness of this hybrid collector configuration and particularly its interesting use in an indirect solar
Glazing dryer system that provides a more suitable air temperature for drying agricultural products. The values of
Metal plate the electrical, thermal and overall energy efficiencies reaches 10.5%, 70% and 90% respectively, with a
Solar dryer mass flow rate of 0.0155 kg/s and weather data sample for the month of June in the Algiers site. The
results presented in this study also reveal how important the effect of certain parameters and operating
conditions on the performance of the hybrid collector.
Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction During the effective operation of the PV panel, the experimental

The sun is an inexhaustible source of energy. The solar energy in
its first form (sunlight) can be converted into heat by thermal solar
collectors or into electricity by photovoltaic solar cells. A new tech-
nology has been developed to combine both types of conversions;
this technology is called the solar photovoltaic/thermal collector
(PV/T). The hybrid photovoltaic/thermal collector generates elec-
tricity and thermal power simultaneously from solar photon
through photo-electrical and photo-thermal interactions. It is a real
thermal and electrical energy cogeneration system [1]. The gener-
ated heat is due to a part of the solar radiation absorbed by the solar
cells but not converted into electricity. Obviously, this energy
cogeneration can be widely used in energetic systems in various
areas; building facades or rooftops and also in the agriculture, as
in this study for the purpose of developing an efficient solar dryer.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mslimani@usthb.dz (M.E.A. Slimani).
characterization indicates a significant loss of electrical efficiency
while the temperature of the solar PV cell is increases due to expo-
sure of sunlight. In lack of PV module cooling, the electric power
loss reaches 20%. Solar PV cells temperature can be decreased by
extracting heat with the use of natural or forced circulation of a
fluid, like air. It prevents a sudden drop in the electrical efficiency
of the photovoltaic module while ensuring the recovery of thermal
energy.
Most research in this area have the objective of optimizing elec-
trical efficiency of the PV modules and at the same time recovering
a part of the dissipated heat in PV panel with the help of coolant.
Two configurations of Photovoltaic/Thermal air collector (PV/T
with single-glass and PV/T with double-glass) have been studied
and analyzed [2]. An experimental study of a hybrid PV/T air col-
lector is presented consisting of a perforated metal siding placed
on the back of the module [3].
A theoretical and experimental study of a PV/T solar air collec-
tor is presented, the PV/T collector consists of two photovoltaic

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.03.059
0196-8904/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Slimani MEA et al. Study and modeling of energy performance of a hybrid photovoltaic/thermal solar collector: Config-
uration suitable for an indirect solar dryer. Energy Convers Manage (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.03.059
2 M.E.A. Slimani et al. / Energy Conversion and Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

Nomenclature

C specific heat capacity (J/(kg K)) af above fluid

DH hydraulic diameter (m) b back
hc conductive heat transfer coefficient (W/(m2 K)) c cell
hr radiative heat transfer coefficient (W/(m2 K)) eff effective
hv convective heat transfer coefficient (W/(m2 K)) ele, el electrical
G incident solar radiation (W/m2) exp experimental
k thermal conductivity (W/m K) f fluid (air)
M mass (kg) g glazing, glass
m_ mass flow rate (kg/s) gc glass cover
n number of data gr ground
Nu Nusselt number i insulation
Pm power at maximum power point (W) in inlet
S collector area (m2) lf lower fluid
t time (s) MPP maximum power point
oc open-circuit
Greek symbols of outlet fluid
q density (kg/m3) ov overall
l viscosity (kg/(m s)) p plate
b fill factor PV/T photovoltaic/thermal
bI current temperature coefficient (mA/K) RE relative error
bV voltage temperature coefficient (V/K) ref reference conditions
e emissivity s series
s transmitivity sc short-circuit
a absorptivity sim simulation
r Stefan–Boltzmann constant (W/(m2 K4)) t Tedlar, time, top
th thermal
Subscripts and abbreviations u useful
a, amb ambient w, W wind, width
AM air mass

modules connected in series. An air gap insulated with a layer of been made [12]. In another study, the performance of double pass
wood makes the convection of air possible below the PV modules PV/T air collector is analyzed and compared to single pass PV/T air
[4]. The authors of another study compared the thermal perfor- collectors. It is showed that the double-pass configuration has bet-
mance between a glass-to-Tedlar solar PV/T collector and a glass- ter thermal performance than the single-pass (basic) configuration
to-glass solar PV/T collector for a composite climate of New Delhi [13].
[5]. An improvement in electrical efficiency of photovoltaic module In this paper, the aim of the study is the assessment of thermal
is shown by Touafek et al. due to the presence of a cooling system and electrical performance of a double pass hybrid solar collector.
[6]. Also, they showed that the thermal performance of the hybrid The proposed configuration of the hybrid solar collector is provided
collector could be improved by an addition of glass cover however, with an aluminum metal plate to promote heat transfer
electrical performance decreases in this case. The glazed and
unglazed PV/T collectors are the subject of a comparative study
carried out by Agrawal and Tiwari [7], it is found that the glazed
PV/T collector shows the best overall energy efficiency [8].
A comparative study is carried out of compound parabolic con-
centrated (CPC) and conventional flat hybrid double-pass PV/T sys-
tems [9]. The thermal and electrical performances of the systems
(CPC and conventional flat hybrid PV/T) with and without fin are Drying enclosure
evaluated; it is found that the finned compound parabolic concen-
trated system gives the best performance. The thermal and electri-
cal performances of four solar hybrid collectors are differentiated
by the mechanical PV modules cooling mode: above, below, on
both sides of the absorber and with double air circulation which
have also been evaluated [10]. Another work has shown a compar-
Solar PV/T air collector
ative study between several configurations of hybrid solar collec-
tor: PV module without pipe, hybrid collector with pipe below
the PV module, hybrid collector with pipe over PV module and
hybrid collector with pipe below and above the PV module (two
cases: two airflow and a single airflow). It is showed that the
changes in the PV/T configurations have influenced the electrical
and thermal performances of the PV/T collector [11].
A theoretical and experimental study on the double pass photo- Fig. 1. Indirect solar dryer system provided with a solar photovoltaic/thermal air
voltaic thermal collector suitable for solar drying applications has collector.

Please cite this article in press as: Slimani MEA et al. Study and modeling of energy performance of a hybrid photovoltaic/thermal solar collector: Config-
uration suitable for an indirect solar dryer. Energy Convers Manage (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.03.059
 M.E.A. Slimani et al. / Energy Conversion and Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx 3

phenomena and consequently to increase the overall energy effi- Table 1

ciency of the PV/T solar collector. This hybrid solar collector config- The design and the thermo-physical parameters of the studied hybrid PV/T air
collector.
uration is designed and developed in order to be integrated in an
indirect solar dryer (Fig. 1) where the electricity generated by the Parameters Value
PV/T system is used to operate ventilators in DC mode. The length of collector, the length of Lm ; L 1.30 m
To calculate the thermal and electrical characteristics of the lower/upper channel
studied solar photovoltaic/thermal air collector, a detailed ener- The width of collector Wm 0.65 m
The width of lower/upper channel W 0.64 m
getic model will be proposed in term of different parameters of The thickness of lower channel 0.02 m
llf
design and climatic data. The essential parameters are the photo- The thickness of upper channel laf 0.02 m
voltaic cells temperature and the outlet air temperature; apart The thickness of insulator li 0.05 m
from these two parameters all thermal and electrical performances The thickness of glass cover lgc 0.0032 m
can be evaluated. Several other parameters can also be calculated The thermal conductivity of glass cover kg 1 W/m K
The absorptivity of glass cover ag 0.06
from energy model such as: solar photovoltaic cell temperature,
The transmissivity of glass cover sg 0.84
Tedlar temperature, and metal plate temperature and other char- The emissivity of glass cover eg 0.93
acteristics can be concluded i.e.: thermal power, electrical power, The thickness of solar cell lc 0.0003 m
thermal efficiency, electrical efficiency and overall energy The absorptivity of solar cell ac 0.85
efficiency. The thermal conductivity of solar cell kc 0.035 W/m K
The thickness of Tedlar lt 0.0005 m
The thermal conductivity of Tedlar kt 0.033 W/m K
2. Description of the studied PV/T collector The absorptivity of Tedlar at 0.8
The fill factor b 0.88
The solar PV/T air collector is based on a mono-crystalline pho- The temperature coefficient bP 0.0045 (1/K)
The conversion factor of the thermal power plant Cf 0.36
tovoltaic module. The Schematic cross-sectional view of the hybrid
The solar radiation coefficient d 0.052
PV/T air collector is shown in Fig. 2.
When solar radiation falls upon the solar cells of PV panels, it is
converted into electricity and heat. The radiation passing through

The air velocity and the air temperature are considered uniform
the PV module is absorbed by an aluminum metal plate. Due to
on the vertical section of the air duct.
the photo-thermal interaction, the PV modules are heated so in this

The problem is assumed to be bidimensional.
case these they significantly lose their electrical conversion effec-

The thermo-physical properties of the system components are
tiveness. Therefore heat removal from the PV modules is essential.
constant.
For the double pass collector, the air first enters the flow channel

Only the forced convection in the two channels of PV/T system
formed by the PV module and the metal plate. After that, it enters
is taking into account.
the flow channel formed by the PV module and the glass cover of
glazing. Meanwhile, the temperature of the airflow increases as a
In order to predict the temperature and different thermal and
result of heat absorbed from the PV module and the metal plate
electric characteristics of the system, the conservation energy prin-
leading to an increase in energy efficiency of the system. So with
ciple is used for each component of the solar PV/T collector.
this pattern of hybrid PV/T air collector more energy is obtained
per unit of area.
3.1. Energy balance equations
The design parameters of the studied solar PV/T air collector are
listed in Table 1.
The application of the conservation energy principle gives a sys-
tem of equations that reflects heat exchange in the PV/T air
3. Thermal analysis collector:
2 3
The setting up of equations and the modeling in this study are
energy receiv ed by the element i
energy stored 6 7
performed by imposing certain assumptions: ¼4
ðby conduction; radiation 5
in the element i
and conv ectionÞ

Modeling in dynamic mode. 2 3
energy lost by the element i

The temperature is considered to be uniform in each compo- 6 7
nent (nodal approach).  4 ðby conduction; radiation 5

The heat loss on the lateral sides are overlooked. and conv ectionÞ

Glazing

Tedlar Glass cover Solar Cell

Metal Plate

Insulation

Fig. 2. Schematic cross-sectional view of the studied PV/T air collector.

Please cite this article in press as: Slimani MEA et al. Study and modeling of energy performance of a hybrid photovoltaic/thermal solar collector: Config-
uration suitable for an indirect solar dryer. Energy Convers Manage (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.03.059
4 M.E.A. Slimani et al. / Energy Conversion and Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

For the glazing (upper glass cover) T f;in The air inlet temperature in lower channel, assumed to be
     the same as that of the environment.
dT g
Mg C g ¼ S ag G þ hr;gsky T sky  T g þ hr;ggc T gc  T g For the metal plate
dt    
þ hv;ga T a  T g  hv;gaf T g  T af ð1Þ dT p       
Mp C p ¼ S hc;pi T i  T p  hv;lfp T p  T lf  hr;pt T p  T t
dt
The effective sky temperature is estimated from the following
ð11Þ
empirical relation of Swinbank [14]:
For the thermal insulator
T sky ¼ 0:0552T a1:5 ð2Þ
dT i     
For the air flowing above the PV module (upper channel) Mi C i ¼ S hc;pi T p  T i  hv;ia ðT i  T a Þ  hr;gri T i  T gr
dt
dT af      ð12Þ
Mf C f ¼ S hv;afgc T gc  T af  hv;afg T af  T g ð3aÞ
dt
The Ground temperature is estimated by the following correlation
For a heat exchange on an elemental length dx, the Eq. (3a) can reported by Duffie and Beckman [15,17]:
be written as follows:
T gr ¼ T a þ 2 ð13Þ
_ f C f dT af ¼ W dx½hv;afgc ðT gc  T af Þ  hv;afg ðT af  T g Þ
m ð3bÞ
The Eq. (3b) can be rewritten as: 3.2. Heat transfer coefficient
dT af Wðhv;afgc þ hv;afg Þ WðT gc hv;afgc þ T g hv;afg Þ
þ T af ¼ ð3cÞ The heat transfer coefficient terms are:
dx m_ f Cf _ f Cf
m
The Eq. (3c) is in the form dT
dx
þ TA ¼ B, the general solution to this 3.2.1. Radiative heat transfer coefficient
Ax Between the glazing and sky [10,18]:
equation is T ¼ þ Ce . Using the boundary condition (x = 0,
B
A
T af ð0Þ ¼ T lf ðLÞ), the solution of Eq. (3c) can be written as:



 T 2g  T 2sky T 2g þ T 2sky
ðT gc hv;afgc þ T g hv;afg Þ hr;gsky ¼ reg   ð14Þ
T af ðxÞ ¼ T lf ðLÞ  Tg  Ta
ðhv;afgc þ hv;afg Þ
 
Wðhv;afgc þ hv;afg Þ ðT gc hv;afgc þ T g hv;afg Þ Between two flat parallel plates (glazing and glass cover, metal
 exp  x þ ð4Þ
m_  Cf ðhv;afgc þ hv;afg Þ plate and Tedlar) [10,18]:


For the glass cover of the PV module ðT 1 þ T 2 Þ T 21 þ T 22
hr;1—2 ¼ r ð15Þ
dT gc        1
þ e12  1
Mg C g ¼ S sg ag G þ hr;gcg T g  T gc þ hv;gcaf T af  T gc  hc;gcc T gc  T c e1
dt
ð5Þ where r is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant.
Between the back surface of insulator and the ground plane
For the PV cells [17]:
h   i
Mc C c
dT c
¼ S s2g ac Gb  hc;cgc T c  T gc  hc;ct ðT c  T t Þ  Q u;ele 1  

dt hr;igr ¼ rei ð1 þ cos ðp  uÞÞ T i þ T gr T 2i þ T 2gr ð16Þ
2
ð6Þ
where u is the tilt angle of PV/T air collector.
The useful electric power (Q u;ele ) produced by the hybrid PV/T
collector can be obtained mathematically as the product of the 3.2.2. Convective heat transfer coefficient
electrical efficiency of PV cells (gele , given by Eq. (49)) and the solar Between the top/back surface of the collector and the surround-
radiation power received on the total area of PV cells: ing air [7,11,19]:

Q u;ele ¼ s2g bGSgele ð7Þ hv;a ¼ 5:67 þ 3:86V w ð17Þ

where V w is wind velocity on the top/back surface of solar hybrid
For the back layer of the PV module (Tedlar)
collector.
dT t h Between the air flow within the channel and its walls:
Mt C t ¼ S s2g at Gð1  bÞ þ hc;ct ðT c  T t Þ
dt   NuK f
 hv;lft ðT t  T lf Þ  hr;pt T t  T p ð8Þ hv;f ¼ ð18Þ
DH
For the air flowing below the PV module (lower channel) To determine the Nusselt number, some correlations are used in
dT lf    this study, that have been reported by Sieder-Tate and Hausen [20–
Mf C f ¼ S hv;lft ðT t  T lf Þ  hv;lfi T lf  T p ð9aÞ 22]:
dt
For an exchange element on dx:

Laminar flow (Re < 2100)
_ f C f dT lf ¼ W dx½hv;lft ðT t  T lf Þ  hv;lfi ðT lf  T p Þ
m ð9bÞ
 0:14
Gz < 100 : Nu ¼ 3:66 þ 0:085Gz= 1 þ 0:047Gz2=3 lf =lw
The temperature distribution along the lower channel is calcu-
lated by the following relation (solution of Eq. (9b)): ð19Þ



ðT t hv;lft þ T p hv;lfp Þ  0:14
T lf ðxÞ ¼ T f;in  Gz > 100 : Nu ¼ 0:186Gz1=3 lf =lw þ0:87 1þ0:015Gz1=3
ðhv;lft þ hv;lfp Þ
  ð20Þ
Wðhv;lft þ hv;lfp Þ ðT t hv;lft þ T p hv;lfp Þ
 exp  x þ ð10Þ
m_  Cf ðhv;lft þ hv;lfp Þ 4

Transitional flow (2100 < Re < 10 )

Please cite this article in press as: Slimani MEA et al. Study and modeling of energy performance of a hybrid photovoltaic/thermal solar collector: Config-
uration suitable for an indirect solar dryer. Energy Convers Manage (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.03.059
 M.E.A. Slimani et al. / Energy Conversion and Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx 5


 0:14
Nu ¼ 0:116 Re2=3  125 Pr 1=3 1 þ ðDH =LÞ2=3 lf =lw
ð21Þ

Turbulent flow (Re > 104 )

 0:14
Nu ¼ 0:023Re0:8 Pr1=3 lf =lw ð22Þ
 0:14 Glazing
lf =lw It is a corrective term for the Nusselt number.
Where lf and lw are respectively the air viscosity measured at
the average air temperature within the channel (T f ) and the air Upper channel
viscosity evaluated at the average channel wall temperature
(T w ¼ ðT t þ T p Þ=2 for the lower channel and T w ¼ ðT g þ T gc Þ=2
for the upper channel). Glass cover

For a temperature difference (T f  T w ) less than 50 °C, the effect

PV cells
of the corrective term on the Nusselt number is negligible [22].
The following relations give respectively, The Reynolds number
(Re), the Prandtl number (Pr) and the Graetz number (Gz) Tedlar
q DH
Re ¼ f V ð23Þ
lf f Lower channel
lf
Pr ¼ Cf ð24Þ
Kf Metal plate
RePrDH
Gz ¼ ð25Þ
L Insulator

3.2.3. Conductive heat transfer coefficient

The conductive heat transfer coefficient term for a material
component j, is calculated by:
hc;j ¼ K j =lj ð26Þ
where K j and lj are the thermal conductivity and the thickness of Fig. 3. Thermal resistance circuit diagram for the studied PV/T air collector.
the component j.
The useful thermal power in terms of heat loss coefficients can
The conductive heat transfer coefficient between two neighbor-
be given by the following equation:
ing components: Glass cover – PV cells (hc;gcc ), PV cells – Tedlar
    
(hc;ct ) and Metal plate – Insulator (hc;pi ) can be written Q u;th ¼ Q th  U t T gc  T a þ U b T p  T a ð32Þ
respectively:
 The absorbed thermal power (Q th ) is defined by the part of solar
1 1 radiation dissipated as heat in the different components of hybrid
hc;gcc ¼ 1 þ ð27Þ
hc;gc hc;c solar air collector:
 
 Q th ¼ sðsaÞeff þ ag SG  Q u;ele ð33Þ
1 1
hc;ct ¼1 þ ð28Þ where
hc;c hc;t
 ðsaÞeff ¼ sg ac b þ sg at ð1  bÞ ð34Þ
1 1
hc;pi ¼1 þ ð29Þ
hc;p hc;i
4. Electrical analysis

3.2.4. Heat loss coefficients The electrical analysis of a hybrid solar collector is based on the
Heat loss to the ambient is one of the key factors to determine electrical modeling of a photovoltaic module, where the tempera-
the thermal efficiency of a hybrid solar collector. By reducing these ture of the photovoltaic cells remains the decisive factor on the
losses, the thermal efficiency increases and electrical efficiency of electrical efficiency of the photovoltaic modules and also on certain
the photovoltaic module can be relatively reduced if the fluid electrical parameters.
velocity is not sufficient to extract all the thermal energy dissi- The single diode model for PV module is used in this study to
pated in the photovoltaic module. The thermal resistance circuit derive the equivalent circuit (Fig. 4), where the five-parameter
of the PV/T collector is shown in Fig. 3. model (IL , I0 , a, Rs , Rsh ) describes the electrical behavior of the PV
U b and U t are the overall back loss coefficient from inner surface module as nonlinear device [16]. The equivalent electrical circuit
of metal plate to ambient and the overall top loss coefficient from is used to describe the current–voltage (I–V) characteristics curve
cover glass of glazing to ambient respectively. (Eq. (35)).
For this configuration of PV/T solar collector, they are repre-
sented by the following relations: I ¼ IL  Id  Ish ð35aÞ
  where IL , Id and Ish are light current, diode current and shunt current
U t ¼ hr;gsky þ hv;ga ð30Þ
respectively.
 1
 
1 1 ðV þ IRs Þ V þ IRs
Ub ¼ þ ð31Þ IðVÞ ¼ IL  I0 exp 1  ð36bÞ
hv;ia þ hr;igr hc;pi a Rsh

Please cite this article in press as: Slimani MEA et al. Study and modeling of energy performance of a hybrid photovoltaic/thermal solar collector: Config-
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6 M.E.A. Slimani et al. / Energy Conversion and Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

 
ðV þ IRs Þ V 2 þ PRs Table 2
PðVÞ ¼ VI ¼ VIL  I0 V exp V  ð37Þ The electric parameters of the PV module Isofoton I-100/24 at standard rating
a Rsh conditions.

Parameters Value
NcKT c
a¼ ð38Þ PV module type Silicon mono-crystalline
q
Number of cells N 72
where I, V, K and q are the current at load, the voltage at load, the The short-circuit current Isc 3.27 A
The open-circuit voltage V oc 43.2 V
Boltzmann’s constant (1.381  1023 J/K) and electron charge
The maximum power point current Imp 2.87 A
(1.602  1019 C), respectively. The maximum power point voltage V mp 34.8 V
Table 2 presents the different electric parameters of the photo- The diode reverse saturation current I0 5:163  108 A
voltaic module ‘‘Isofoton I-100/24, Fig. 5” at standard rating condi- The electrical efficiency gref 0.117
tions (SRC: AM = 1.5, Gref = 1000 W=m2 and Tc = 25 °C), some of The fill factor FF 0.708
these parameters are given by Bouraioua et al. [23] and some other The maximum power Pm 100 W
Band gap energy Eg 1.2 eV
ones have been concluded.
The ideality factor c 1.17
From I–V and P–V characteristics, several electric parameters of The series resistance Rs 0.54 X
the PV module are concluded: The shunt resistance Rsh 164.3 X
The modified ideality factor a 2.164 J/C

The short-circuit current I ¼ Isc at V ¼ 0;

The open-circuit voltage V ¼ V co at I ¼ 0;

The maximum power point I ¼ Imp , V ¼ V mp at dðIVÞ=dV ¼ 0;

The shunt resistance  R1 at ½dI=dVsc .
sh

The I–V and P–V characteristic curves of the photovoltaic mod-

ule used in PV/T collector at standard rating conditions are shown
in Fig. 6.
The variations of the current and the voltage at load are given as
follows depending on the variation of solar irradiance and cells
temperature [24,25]:

 
  G G
DI ¼ IðG; T c Þ  Iref ¼ bI T c  T c;ref þ  1 Isc;ref ð39Þ
Gref Gref
 
DV ¼ V ðG; T c Þ  V ref ¼ bV T c  T c;ref  Rs DI ð40Þ
The parameters a, I0 , Il , V co , Isc are determined using the refer-
ence parameters by the following equations [24–27]:
a Tc
¼ ð41Þ
aref T c;ref

0 h
i1
 3 Eg 1  T T c
I0 ðT c Þ Tc
¼ exp @ A ð42Þ
c;ref

I0;ref T c;ref a
Fig. 5. Photograph of PV module: mono-crystalline Isofoton I-100/24.


G    The parameters that examine the electrical performance are the
IL ðG; T c Þ ¼ IL;ref þ bI T c  T c;ref ð43Þ fill factor (FF) and the electrical conversion efficiency (gel ).
Gref
The fill factor of a PV module is presented as a ratio of its elec-
 tric power (at MPP) over its ’dummy’ power output (the product of
G   
Isc ðG; T c Þ ¼ Isc;ref þ bI T c  T c;ref ð44Þ the open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current). While, the elec-
Gref
trical efficiency of a PV module is defined as a ratio of its electric
 power (at MPP) over the solar radiation power received by the
G  
V co ðG; T c Þ ¼ V co;ref þ aln þ bV T c  T c;ref ð45Þ active surface of this PV module.
Gref
Pm
FF ¼ ð46Þ
The open circuit voltage (V co ) varies slightly with respect to the Icc  V co
variation of the received light. However, with respect to the tem-
perature of the cells, it is reflected by Eq. (45) (of Chenlo et al. [27]): Pm V m Im
gel ¼ ¼ ð47Þ
Gi S Gi S
I
In terms of reference parameters, the electrical efficiency is given in
several studies by the following relation [28–36].
+   
gel ¼ gref 1  bP T c  T c;ref ð48Þ
V
And is given by other studies taking the effect of the solar radiation
into account [27,32,33]
-
 
  G
gel ¼ gref 1  bp T c  T c;ref þ d ln ð49Þ
Fig. 4. Equivalent electrical circuit of a photovoltaic module.
Gref

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 M.E.A. Slimani et al. / Energy Conversion and Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx 7

3,5 110

100
3.0
90

2,5 80

70
Current (A)

Power (W)
2.0
60

50
1,5
40
1.0 30

20
0,5
10

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Voltage (V) Voltage (V)

Fig. 6. The characteristic curves for (left) a current–voltage curve and (right) power–voltage.

Table 3
Experimental weather data for a day in May in the Solar Energy Park, IIT Delhi [6].

Time (h) Solar radiation (W/m2) Inlet air temperature (°C) Ambient air temperature (°C) Duct air velocity (m/s)
8:00 313.63 31.9 29.00 2.67
9:00 409.63 33.0 30.00 1.98
10:00 535.50 34.9 32.00 1.42
11:00 634.25 36.2 35.00 1.87
12:00 658.00 42.3 38.00 1.73
13:00 594.25 43.7 40.00 1.67
14:00 558.00 42.0 41.00 1.77
15:00 416.13 41.4 41.00 1.70
16:00 253.75 40.8 40.00 1.83
17:00 108.50 39.0 39.00 1.77

1 In order to evaluate the energy performance of the studied

bp ¼ ð50Þ
T c  T c;ref PV/T air collector, an iterative method is used to solve the gov-
erning equations of the system by means of the Matlab
where T c is the cell temperature at which efficiency drops to zero.
environment.
In this study, the relation (Eq. (49)) is used to evaluate the vari-
ation of electrical efficiency of the hybrid PV/T air collector.
In order to estimate the overall energy efficiency of the photo- 5. Results and discussion
voltaic/thermal air collector, the following correlation is widely
used in the previous literature. This parameter can be given by 5.1. Experimental validation
the sum of the thermal efficiency and the equivalent of the electri-
cal efficiency in the thermal efficiency [37,38]: In order to test the accuracy of the adapted numerical model for
gele this study, the experimental results of Joshi et al. [6] are used.
gov ¼ gth þ gele;th ¼ gth þ ð51Þ Simultaneously, the results of the simulation found by the numer-
Cf
ical model are compared with the ones found by Joshi et al. [6] and
The thermal efficiency can be given by the following relation: Sarhaddi et al. [16] under the same design and climatic data
_ f Cf
m (Table 3).
gth ¼ ðT of  T f;in Þ ð52aÞ Joshi et al. [6] have used a device consisting of two photovoltaic
SG
monocrystalline module types Siemens SP75, each one having
From Eqs. (4) and (10), the thermal conversion efficiency of the sys-
1.2 m of length and 0.527 m of width with an air duct integrated
tem can be written as follows:
below the PV modules of 2  1.2 m long, 0.45 m wide and 0.05 m


m_ f Cf ðT t hv;lft þ T p hv;lfp Þ ðT gc hv;afgc þ T g hv;afg Þ thick gap. The electrical energy produced by the solar PV/T air col-
gth ¼ 
SG ðhv;lft þ hv;lfp Þ ðhv;afgc þ hv;afg Þ lector is dispatched to a battery. Air is blown into the channel by
   two fans in DC mode.
ðT t hv;lft þ T p hv;lfp Þ Wðhv;lft þ hv;lfp Þ
 exp  L The Schematic cross-sectional view of hybrid PV/T air collector
ðhv;lft þ hv;lfp Þ m_ f Cf
 studied by Joshi et al. [6] is shown in Fig. 7.
Wðhv;afgc þ hv;afg Þ
 exp  L To evaluate the accuracy between the experimental results and
m_ f Cf the simulated ones, the following relation is used applying a root

 
WL mean square deviation (RMSD) [24,26]:
þ T f;in exp  ðhv;lft þ hv;lfp þ hv;afgc þ hv;afg Þ  1
m_ f Cf sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
P
ðT gc hv;afgc þ T g hv;afg Þ ðREi Þ2
þ ð52bÞ RMSD ¼ ð53Þ
ðhv;afgc þ hv;afg Þ n

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8 M.E.A. Slimani et al. / Energy Conversion and Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

Tedlar Glass Cover Solar Cell 5.2. Weather data

In order to obtain a numerical simulation result, weather data

was used from the weather station of Renewable Energy Develop-
Air duct ment Centre (CDER) Bouzareah in the city of Algiers.
The measured weather data includes the following factors: solar
irradiance, ambient temperature and wind velocity. The hourly
variation of solar irradiance, ambient temperature and wind veloc-
ity are shown in Fig. 10 on a typical sunny summer day (12 June
2013) from 05:30 to 20:00 in Algiers site. It should be mentioned
Fig. 7. Schematic cross-sectional view of hybrid PV/T air collector studied in [6,16]. that the inlet air velocity was taken with a value of 1 m/s.
From the correlation given by Eq. (2) (connecting sky tempera-
ture and ambient temperature), the effective temperature of the
where REi is the relative error sky can be estimated.

X sim;i  X exp;i
REi ¼ 100  ð54Þ
X sim;i 5.3. Simulation results

where X sim;i , X exp;i and n are the simulated data, the experimental
data and the number of experiments data. In the ideal case the
value of a root mean square deviation equals zero.
Table 3 shows different climatic data used by Joshi et al. [6] and
Sarhaddi et al. [16].
The simulated and experimental values of short-circuit current
and open-circuit voltage during the test day are shown in Fig. 8.
The values of the root mean square deviation are 12.94% and
2.06%, respectively. It is observed that there is a good agreement
between the simulated and experimental values of these parame-
ters according to the figures shown below.
The simulated values of the temperatures of the outlet air, pho-
tovoltaic cells, Tedlar and the corresponding experimental values
during the test day are shown in Fig. 9.
According to Fig. 9, an adequate convergence between the sim-
ulated and experimental values is reached. For the cell tempera-
ture the RMSD value is 3.64%, for the Tedlar temperature it is
3.83% and for the outlet air temperature it is 4.57%. The RMSD val-
ues of these parameters for Joshi et al. [6] are: 16.38%, 14.99% and
4.75% respectively, and those reported by Sarhaddi et al. [16] are
12.58%, 8.63% and 2.37% respectively. The simulation results found
by the numerical model of this study seem to be more accurate
than previously simulated ones through literature. This result
accurately returns to the type of energetic analysis performed
and also to the correlations brought in the developed numerical
model.
An evolution compared to different temperatures evaluated
from the equations system is shown in Fig. 11. This figure reveals
compliance and logic in the temperature distribution of the ele-
ments of the hybrid collector.
The temperatures evaluated in this numerical simulation are:
the glazing temperature (T g ), the outlet air temperature (T of ), the
temperature of glass cover (T gc ), the temperature of the photo-
voltaic cells (T c ), the temperature of back surface (Tedlar, T t ) and
the temperature of metal plate (T p ).
The temperatures of the Tedlar and the solar cells vary from a
minimum value of 20 °C at 6:00 to a maximum value of 87 and
86 °C respectively at 12:30. Then the PV cells, the Tedlar layer
and glass cover are the hottest elements in the solar PV/T air collec-
tor during the day.
Temperatures which are of interest to us are: the temperatures
of the photovoltaic cell and the outlet air. Taking these tempera-
tures into consideration, the energy performance of the solar PV/
T air collector can be evaluated. The outlet air temperature varies
from a minimum value of 20 °C to a maximum value of 50 °C at
12:00, this temperature range is very suitable for drying agricul-
tural products with low water content (such as medicinal plants).
Fig. 12 shows the simulated values of open circuit voltage and
short circuit current during the day. The open circuit voltage
reaches its maximum with a value of 37 V at 8:00 and at 18:00,
while the short current reaches its maximum at 13:00 with a value
of 3.4 A. It shows that an increase in the photovoltaic cells

10
Theo
Current ISC (A)

8 Exp
6

0
8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00
Time ( hr )

21
Voltage VCO (V)

Theo
Exp
19

17

15
8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00
Time ( hr )

Fig. 8. Hourly variation of simulated and experimental values of short-circuit current (Isc) and open circuit voltage (Vco).

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 M.E.A. Slimani et al. / Energy Conversion and Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx 9

Theo

60 Exp

TC ( °C )
50
40
30
8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00
Time ( hr )
Theo
60 Exp
TT ( °C )

50
40
30
8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00
Time ( hr )
Theo
50
Exp
TOF ( °C )

45
40
35
30
8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00
Time ( hr )

Fig. 9. Hourly variation of simulated and experimental values of solar cell temperature (Tc), of back surface temperature (Tt) and outlet air temperature (Tof).

1000
Solar radiation (W/m2)

800

600

400

200

0
6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00
temperature (°C)

30
Ambient

25

20

15
6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00
Wind speed (m/s)

0
5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00
Time (h)

Fig. 10. Hourly variations of the solar irradiance, ambient temperature and wind velocity.

temperature is a favorable factor for the short circuit current, while
at the same time it is an unfavorable factor for the open circuit
voltage. Figs. 13 and 14 show the evolution of the simulated elec-
trical and thermal performance for the 12th June, 2013.
For the analyzed configuration of the PV/T air collector, the
reached values of the thermal and electric powers per unit of area
affecting important values are: 450 W/m2 and 80 W/m2, respec-
tively, at 13:00.
Compared to the basic configuration of the solar PV/T air collec-
tor (as studied by Joshi et al. [6]), an increase in photovoltaic cells
temperature is observed in the studied configuration, this increase
of temperature has an opposite effect (decreasing) on the electrical
efficiency (Fig. 14). On the other hand, the thermal efficiency
undergoes a significant increase for the studied configuration
(Fig. 15). The value of electrical efficiency is approximately stable
between 8% and 10.5%. These values are observed from 08:00 to
18:00 during the day, a very high value of thermal efficiency was
reached around 70% at 18:50.
The hourly variation of overall efficiency is shown in Fig. 16, its
value ranges between 22% and 95% for the analyzed configuration,

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10 M.E.A. Slimani et al. / Energy Conversion and Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

90
Ta
80 Tg
Tgc
70
Tc
Temperature (°C)

Tt
60
Tof
50 Tp

40

30

20

10
5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00
Time (h)

Fig. 11. Hourly variations of temperature distribution in the studied PV/T collector.

4.0 45

3,5 40
Open-circuit voltage (Vco)
Short-circuit current (Isc)

35
3.0

30
2,5
25
2.0
20
1,5
15

1.0
10

0,5 5

0 0
7:00 9:00 11:00 13:00 15:00 17:00 19:00 7:00 9:00 11:00 13:00 15:00 17:00 19:00
Time (h) Time (h)

Fig. 12. Hourly variations of open-circuit voltage and short circuit-current of the studied PV/T air collector.

90 500

80 450

400
Electrical power (W/m2)

70
Thermal power (W/m2)

350
60
300
50
250
40
200
30
150
20 100

10 50

0 0
5:00 7:00 9:00 11:00 13:00 15:00 17:00 19:00 5:00 7:00 9:00 11:00 13:00 15:00 17:00 19:00
Time (h) Time (h)

Fig. 13. Hourly variations of electric and thermal power of the studied PV/T air collector.

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 M.E.A. Slimani et al. / Energy Conversion and Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx 11

12
PV/T-a
PV/T-b
11

Electrical efficiency (%) 10

5
5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00
Time (h)

Fig. 14. Hourly variation of electrical efficiency for: the basic configuration (PV/T-a) and the analyzed configuration (PV/T-b).

80
PV/T-a
PV/T-b
70
Thermal efficiency (%)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00
Time (h)

Fig. 15. Hourly variation of thermal efficiency for: the basic configuration (PV/T-a) and the analyzed configuration (PV/T-b).

100
PV/T-a
90 PV/T-b
Overall energy efficiency (%)

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00
Time (h)

Fig. 16. Hourly variations of overall energy efficiency for: the basic configuration (PV/T-a) and the analyzed configuration (PV/T-b).

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12
Table 4
The daily arithmetic mean of electrical efficiency, thermal efficiency and overall energy efficiency.
Arithmetic mean (5:30–20:00)
Basic configuration (PV/T-a)
Studied configuration (PV/T-b)
100
m*=0.0078 kg/s
90 m*=0.0155 kg/s
m*=0.0467 kg/s
Overall energy efficiency (%)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
5:00 6:00 7:00
Fig. 17. Hourly variations of overall energy efficiency with various mass flow rate values.
while it ranges between 22% and 42% for the basic configuration.
This efficiency is calculated from the Eq. (51).
The arithmetic mean of electrical efficiency, thermal efficiency
and overall energy efficiency in a daily range from 5:30 to 20:00
are given in Table 4.
Analysis and interpretation from the Figs. 11–16.
The addition of a glass cover (glazing) above the PV module
generates a phenomenon known as greenhouse effect, which
causes an increase in the temperature of all the elements of PV/T
collector including the temperature of the PV cells. Due to This rise
in temperature, the heat exchange will increase; simultaneously
there will be a decrease in the electrical efficiency.
The existence of a metal plate causes convective heat exchange
with the fluid and helps the PV module to lower its high tempera-
ture through the radiative heat exchange.
In case of the solar photovoltaic thermal air collector with dou-
ble pass, the working fluid (i.e. air) cooled the top surface and the
back surface of photovoltaic module (with a large heat exchange
area). In this case, the extracted thermal power from the PV mod-
ule is maximized. Hence a significant reduction in the heat loss on
the top surface and the back surface of solar PV/T air collector is
reached.
All these factors (glazing, metal plate and double-pass) have
contributed to increase the thermal efficiency in a direct manner
and thus the overall energy efficiency of the system.
The Fig. 17 shows the variation of the overall energy efficiency
with various values of air mass flow rate during the day. The values
of the overall energy efficiency of the analyzed configuration
ranges:

Between 22% and 90% (with a daily mean of 57.43%) for a mass
flow rate of 0.0078 kg/s.

Between 22% and 95% (with a daily mean of 67.04%) for a mass
flow rate of 0.0155 kg/s.

Between 22% and 96% (with a daily mean of 80%) for a mass
flow rate of 0.0467 kg/s.
By increasing the mass flow rate through the channels of the solar
PV/T air collector, the convective heat transfer coefficient increase.
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M.E.A. Slimani et al. / Energy Conversion and Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Electrical efficiency (%) Thermal efficiency (%) Overall energy efficiency (%)
10.24 8.44 36.90
9.33 41.09 67.04
8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00
Time (h)
Indeed, the temperature of the PV cells and the heat loss will
decrease. This will lead to an increase of the overall energy efficiency.
6. Conclusions
In this paper, a detailed energetic analysis was carried out in
order to calculate the different thermal and electrical parameters
of the studied solar photovoltaic/thermal air collector. The ener-
getic performance evaluation was also carried out.
The validation test shows that the simulation results found by the
numerical model of this study are in a good agreement with the
experimental measurements indicated in the previous literature
and are proved to be more accurate than the numerical results found
by Joshi et al. [6] and Sarhaddi et al. [16]. The accuracy of the devel-
oped numerical model comes from the type of the energy analysis
and also from the appropriate correlations presented in this study.
Based on numerical models supported by experimental weather
data, the addition of glass cover, metal plate and double-pass air
flow passage in a hybrid PV/T system have been evaluated from
an electrical and a thermodynamic point of view. From this study,
several conclusions have been drawn:
The glazing of PV/T collector leads to an increase in the thermal
performance and to a decrease in the electrical performance of the
system. The average values of the thermal and the electrical effi-
ciencies of the solar PV/T air collector evaluated with the operating
conditions are 41.09% and 9.33%, respectively.
This study clearly shows that the additions of a glass cover,
metal plate and double-pass air flow passage have significantly
increased the overall efficiency of the hybrid PV/T air collector.
Also the increase in airflow rate has an important and a favorable
effect on the overall energetic performance of the hybrid collector.
These results show particular importance and effectiveness of
this type of configuration in thermal application with low electrical
power requirements such as the indirect solar dryer.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to the researchers of the Renewable
Energy Development Center of Algiers, for their help to get
 M.E.A. Slimani et al. / Energy Conversion and Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
experimental weather data, and acknowledge the financial support
provided by the faculty of physics of the University of Science and
Technology Houari Boumediene of Algiers to make this work. Also,
the authors are pleased for the helpful comments and the assis-
tance of the reviewers and the editor.
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