Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 30 (2011) 247–261

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Journal of Anthropological Archaeology

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Identifying locals, migrants, and captives in the Wari Heartland:

A bioarchaeological and biogeochemical study of human remains
from Conchopata, Peru
Tiffiny A. Tung a,⇑, Kelly J. Knudson b
a
Department of Anthropology, Vanderbilt University, VU Station B #356050, Nashville, TN 37235, USA
b
Center for Bioarchaeological Research, School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, PO Box 872402, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The site of Conchopata in the central Peruvian Andes was the secondary center in the heartland of the
Received 21 July 2010 Wari Empire (AD 600–1000), and in this study we examine whether this urban locale was populated
Revision received 10 June 2011 by locals, voluntary migrants from distant regions, and/or captives who were forcibly brought to Concho-
Available online 22 July 2011
pata. We examine radiogenic strontium isotope ratios from 72 dental enamel and bone samples repre-
senting 31 formal burials and 18 human trophy heads to distinguish between locals and non-locals,
Keywords: and we examine skeletal and archaeological data to establish whether non-local persons were voluntary
Huari
migrants or captives. We also describe a new, straightforward technique in the evaluation of radiogenic
Wari
Andes
strontium isotope ratios to assist in detecting non-locals when large datasets are available.
Violence Results show that natal Conchopata inhabitants should exhibit radiogenic strontium isotope ratios that
Migration range from 87Sr/86Sr = 0.70548 to 87Sr/86Sr = 0.70610. Thus, among the 31 burials, 29 exhibit local values,
Residential mobility suggesting that Conchopata was not a cosmopolitan center to which numerous foreigners migrated;
Trophy heads rather, it was populated by local peoples, likely the descendants of the preceding Huarpa culture. The
Sacrifice two individuals with non-local radiogenic strontium isotope ratios are an infant and a 17–22 years old
Radiogenic strontium isotopes female. The archaeological context suggests that the female may have been taken captive for subsequent
sacrifice, as she was interred in front of the ritual D-shaped structure in which decapitated human heads
(trophy heads) and sacrificed camelids were deposited. Among the 18 trophy heads sampled, 14 have
non-local values, confirming previous studies of smaller samples that suggested that Wari warriors trav-
elled to other locales and took captives—both adults and children—for subsequent transformation into
trophy heads. Additional analyses of bone-tooth pairs from a subsample (12 burials and six trophy heads)
shows that the burial group was much more sedentary (homogenous radiogenic strontium isotope ratios
in bones and teeth) and the trophy head individuals were much more mobile (heterogenous radiogenic
strontium isotope ratios in bones and teeth). Overall, the multiple lines of evidence support the notion
that the Wari Empire occasionally used militaristic means, combined with elaborate ritualism, to subju-
gate other populations, a tactic that may have helped Wari establish and maintain control in particular
regions in the Andes.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction
Urban centers may be populated by a diverse group of people,
such as descendants of those who long lived at the settlement or
by voluntary migrants from neighboring or distant regions. Some
foreign persons, however, may arrive through involuntary means;
they may have been abducted and taken to a settlement against
their will. In this study, we use radiogenic strontium isotope anal-
⇑ Corresponding author. Fax: +1 615 343 0230.
E-mail addresses: t.tung@vanderbilt.edu (T.A. Tung), kelly.knudson@asu.edu (K.J.
Knudson).
ysis to distinguish between locals and non-locals at the Wari heart-
land site of Conchopata in the central Andes, and we use
(bio)archaeological data to inquire whether non-local persons
were voluntary migrants or captives.
Identifying locals vs. non-locals with radiogenic strontium iso-
tope analysis and distinguishing between voluntary migrants and
captives based on osteological and archaeological data are crucial
for reconstructing the population composition of a community,
not just in terms of demography, but also in terms of the social
identities of community members. In turn, this may shed light on
how inhabitants interacted with one another, either cooperatively
or antagonistically. For example, evidence of foreign migrants at an

0278-4165/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2011.06.005
248 T.A. Tung, K.J. Knudson / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 30 (2011) 247–261

urban center may suggest expansive trade or marriage networks
wherein people moved there in pursuit of greater opportunities—
whether social, economic, or other (Arutinov, 2002)—or it may sug-
gest that there were forced resettlement programs (and attendant
tensions), as when the Inka resettled large groups of people in dis-
tant lands (Rowe, 1946; D’Altroy, 2002). The presence of foreigners
may also suggest that military personnel abducted individuals and
brought them back to the settlement as captives. Conversely, the
absence of migrants may suggest an exclusive community de-
signed to keep foreigners out, or it might reflect migrants disinter-
est in settling there.
In short, the radiogenic strontium isotope data are evaluated to
identify locals and non-locals, and archaeological and osteological
data are evaluated to distinguish voluntary migrants from captives
who were brought to Conchopata against their will. Further, the
skeletal remains of possible captives are examined to document

Fig. 1. Map of Peru showing sites and regions discussed in the text.
 T.A. Tung, K.J. Knudson / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 30 (2011) 247–261
their treatment by Wari captors. The individuals examined are
burials from formal tombs at Conchopata, as well as isolated skel-
etal elements, known as trophy heads and trophy hands, recovered
from ritual structures at the same site.
Conchopata and the Wari Empire
Conchopata was occupied during the Early Intermediate Period
(AD 1–550/600) when a small community of Huarpa peoples lived
and buried their dead there (Isbell and Cook, 2002; Tung, 2003).
The site was expanded, and the population increased in the Middle
Horizon (AD 600–1000), nearly simultaneous with Wari imperial
expansion into distant regions, such as Cerro Baúl in the south
(Williams and Nash, 2005, 2006), Pikillacta in the east (McEwan,
2005), Pataraya in the Nasca region to the west (Schreiber, 1999;
Edwards, 2010), and possibly Viracochapampa in the north (Topic,
1991; Topic and Topic, 2010) (Fig. 1).
Conchopata is identified as the secondary center in the imperial
core (Fig. 2), located about 12 km south of the capital site of Huari
(Isbell and Cook, 2002). The site was home to people who engaged
in a variety of tasks, including such things as childcare and the pro-
duction of food, chicha (maize beer), textiles, and ceramics; these
objects included master craft items such as intricately worked
semi-precious stone and beautifully complex iconography
Fig. 2. Map of Conchopata showing the location of the trophy heads (EA72 and EA143) and the various burial samples.
249
(Pozzi-Escott, 1991; Isbell and Cook, 2002; Cook and Glowacki,
2003; Tung and Cook, 2006; Isbell 2007; Isbell and Groleau,
2010). According to Isbell (2001, 2007) Conchopata was also home
to royal lords and their multiple wives or concubines who lived in
palace compounds; however, skeletons from these possible royal
lords and consorts have yet to be uncovered, so this hypothesis re-
mains to be tested (Tung, 2003). The Conchopata elites also hosted
public feasts (Cook and Glowacki, 2003; Cook and Benco, 2002) and
performed elaborate rituals in circular and D-shaped structures
(Ochatoma and Cabrera, 2002; Isbell and Cook, 2002) where
human trophy heads were put on display (Tung, 2008a). Military
triumphs were also celebrated in these ritual spaces, as evidenced
by the deposition of large ceramic urns showing Wari warriors
seizing prisoners and carrying trophy heads (Ochatoma and
Cabrera, 2002; Ochatoma et al., 2008; Cook, 2001). Given that tro-
phy heads and iconographic depictions of warriors wearing trophy
heads were recovered from the same ritual space, there is compel-
ling evidence that Wari warriors were involved in procuring indi-
viduals, some of whom were transformed into war trophies
(Tung, 2008a). Moreover, because previous radiogenic strontium
isotope analysis on a subsample of five Conchopata trophy heads
shows that the majority were non-local, it appears that many of
these war trophies were made from people from foreign lands
(Tung and Knudson, 2008).
250 T.A. Tung, K.J. Knudson / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 30 (2011) 247–261
The presence of foreign individuals in the preliminary trophy
head sample is congruent with the archaeological data that shows
there were Wari administrative outposts in distant regions to the
north, south, and east (Tung, 2012). This does not mean, however,
that Wari had contiguous control of all lands and people in
between. Rather, the Wari had a ‘‘mosaic of control’’ across the
Andean landscape (Schreiber, 1992, p. 266), which hints at the pos-
sibility of population movement, as when Wari administrators and
military agents travelled to distant areas or rural peoples sought to
migrate to the Wari imperial core. Conversely, some people may
have been forcibly transported to Conchopata as captives, likely
to be sacrificed and made into trophy heads.
But were all individuals who were taken captive made into tro-
phy heads? Could some have been sacrificed in some other way,
and were others integrated into the Conchopata community? That
is, rather than taking captives for transformation into trophy heads,
some may have been taken and placed in servitude, or in the case of
captive women, taken as a primary or secondary wife (see Kohler
and Turner, 2006; Cameron, 2008). Using bioarchaeological and bio-
geochemical data to make these distinctions provides a way to ex-
plore the process of peopling a settlement. It may also shed light
on the social and political organization of an ancient community,
revealing details about post-marital residence rules. For example,
higher levels of migration among females may suggest patrilocality,
while more male migrants may suggest matrilocality. Evidence for
captives, in contrast, provides insight into norms about violence
and captive-taking and how those actions might articulate with, or
defy, larger state goals promulgated by political elites as they relate
to expansion and the subjugation of other communities.
Given previous research that suggests Wari warriors engaged
in captive-taking, primarily for transforming them into war tro-
phies, we expand the investigation to evaluate whether there
were non-local peoples among the general mortuary population
buried in tombs (i.e., a group of individuals clearly distinct from
the decapitated people whose heads and hands were dismem-
bered and deposited in ritual structures). Additionally, given
the unique context of the trophy heads, which can reveal in-
sights into how militaristic and ritual activities were integrated
into Wari society, we also examine new radiogenic strontium
isotope ratios from a larger sample of Wari trophy heads to fur-
ther clarify the frequency of this practice and to suggest possible
geographical origins of some of those trophy head victims (and
exclude other regions as possible sources of captives). This latter
aspect of the study has been made possible by the expanding
database on radiogenic strontium isotope ratios in the Andes
(Andrushko et al., 2009, 2011; Bethard et al., 2008; Conlee
et al., 2009; Knudson et al., 2004, 2005; Knudson and Price,
2007; Knudson et al., 2009; Knudson and Torres-Rouff, 2009;
Knudson, 2011; Knudson and Tung, 2011; Slovak et al., 2009;
Torres-Rouff and Knudson, 2007; Turner et al., 2009).
Background on strontium isotope analysis
Briefly, radiogenic strontium isotope values vary according to
the age and composition of the bedrock in a particular geologic for-
mation (Faure, 1986). Therefore, radiogenic strontium isotope
analysis can be used to identify human movement between differ-
ent geologic zones. A general range of local radiogenic strontium
isotope ratios for the Ayacucho Basin has been previously estab-
lished based on radiogenic strontium isotope ratios from the fol-
lowing sources: (1) local geologic formations (Wise, 2004); (2)
small, modern fauna from the Ayacucho market (Knudson and
Tung, 2007); and (3) a preliminary sample of Conchopata burials
that were identified as local based on archaeological and skeletal
characteristics (Tung and Knudson, 2008). In this paper, we use a
much larger sample to refine the radiogenic strontium isotope ra-
tio for natal inhabitants of Conchopata.
Radiogenic strontium isotope ratios (87Sr/86Sr) do not fraction-
ate appreciably as strontium moves from the bedrock to soil,
water, and the plants and animals that consume strontium from
a particular geologic region (see overview in Bentley, 2006). There-
fore, in order to use radiogenic strontium isotope ratios to identify
and understand archaeological human mobility, the sources of bio-
available strontium in an individual’s diet must be identified. Bio-
available strontium refers to the strontium that is consumed and
imbibed by an individual and incorporated into their tissues, rather
than the total strontium in the environment, much of which is not
incorporated into the food chain (see overview in Bentley, 2006).
Based on stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis, Conchopata
diets were homogenous (Finucane et al., 2006). As Tung and Knud-
son (2008) have detailed elsewhere, the sources of bioavailable
strontium correspond to food sources from the Ayacucho Basin,
which was the location of the Wari imperial core. There is no evi-
dence that large amounts of bioavailable strontium from geologic
zones outside of the Ayacucho Basin was consumed or imbibed
in large quantities.
Whenever possible, bone and tooth pairs were taken from indi-
viduals to compare radiogenic strontium isotope ratios between
childhood and adulthood. The enamel, which forms during in-
fancy/childhood, incorporates bioavailable radiogenic strontium
during juvenile development and thus reflects sources of strontium
in the early years of life since tooth enamel does not remodel. Bone,
in contrast, is constantly remodeling and incorporates strontium
throughout the lifetime of the individual; thus, these values reflect
the last years of strontium consumed by a person, depending on
bone turnover rates.
Radiogenic strontium isotope analyses are increasingly com-
mon in the Andes, where broad geologic trends enable scholars
to identify movement across broad areas. The size of a geological
zone that shares a similar radiogenic strontium isotope signature
will of course vary from place to place depending on bedrock geol-
ogy. Fortunately, ongoing radiogenic strontium isotope studies are
moving beyond the identification of a basic radiogenic strontium
isotope map based solely on geological formations and are estab-
lishing the bioavailable radiogenic strontium isotope ratio for an-
cient human groups that once inhabited particular regions. For
example, much work has focused on identifying the bioavailable
radiogenic strontium isotope ratio for communities within the
Tiwanaku polity (Knudson and Price, 2007; Knudson et al., 2009;
Knudson and Blom, 2009), which was contemporaneous with the
Wari Empire, but located in the south central Andes. More recently,
scholars have focused on other Middle Horizon populations on the
coast near Lima (Slovak et al., 2009), in the Majes Valley of south-
ern Peru (Knudson and Tung, 2011), and in Cusco (Andrushko et al.,
2009), as well as both earlier and later polities like the Nasca of the
Early Intermediate Period (AD 1–600) (Knudson et al., 2009; Conlee
et al., 2009), the Chiribaya of the Late Intermediate Period (AD
1000–1400) (Knudson and Buikstra, 2007; Knudson and Price,
2007), and the Inka Empire of the Late Horizon (AD 1400–1532)
(Andrushko et al., 2008; Turner et al., 2009).
Materials and methods
Sampling strategy
To determine whether non-local individuals were at Concho-
pata—either voluntary migrants or people forcibly brought
there—52 bone and tooth samples were recently exported from
Peru to the US for radiogenic strontium isotope analysis. These
new samples (n = 52) represent 38 individuals. Bone and tooth
 T.A. Tung, K.J. Knudson / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 30 (2011) 247–261 251

Table 1
Description and radiogenic strontium isotope ratios of the burial and trophy head samples from Conchopata.

Laboratory numbera,b Architecture space (EA) Bone codesc B = burial Tr = trophy head Agec Sex c 87
Sr/86Sr Material

ACL-0773 44A B-0950-01.01 MA M 0.70575 Max RM2

ACL-0772 44A B-0950-01.02 MA M 0.70577 Atlas
ACL-0774 44A B-0950-01.03 MA M 0.70574 R humerus
ACL-0749 20 B-1371-01.01 Teen 17–22 years F 0.71058 Mand LC
ACL-0776 39A B-1728-01.01 Adult M? 0.70571 Mand LM3
ACL-0775 39A B-1728-01.02 A M? 0.70573 Mandible fragment
ACL-0778 39A B-1818-01.01 YA ? 0.70561 Max LM1
ACL-0777 39A B-1818-01.02 YA ? 0.70573 Maxilla fragment
ACL-0767 110 B-1993-01.01 Adult ? 0.70584 Mand RM1
F1228a 6 B-2004-01 Infant ? 0.706734 Rib
ACL-0779 89A B-2052-01.01 OA F 0.70552 Max RM2
F1219a 105 B-2095-01.01 YA-MA 30–39 years F 0.705598 Mand LM2
F1218a 105 B-2095-01.02 YA-MA 30–39 years F 0.706096 R fibula
F1221a 105 B-2095-02.01 YA 21–21 years F 0.705632 Mand RM2
F1220a 105 B-2095-02.01 YA 21–21 years F 0.705739 R fibula
F1223a 105 B-2095-03.01 OA 47–53 years F 0.705647 Mand molar
F1222a 105 B-2095-03.02 OA 47–53 years F 0.705861 R fibula
F1225a 105 B-2095-04.01 YA 31–37 years F 0.705646 Mand LM2
F1224a 105 B-2095-04.02 YA 31–37 years F 0.705663 L fibula
F1227a 105 B-2095-06.01 YA 23–27 years M 0.705480 Mand RM2
F1226a 105 B-2095-06.02 YA 23–27 years M 0.705739 Rib
ACL-0786 104T5 B-2107-17.01 OA F 0.70571 Mand LP3
ACL-0787 104T5 B-2107-17.02 OA F 0.70571 Max RM1
ACL-0788 104T5 B-2107-17.03 OA F 0.70572 R humerus
ACL-0795 151 B-2858-01.01 YA 30–35 years F 0.70571 Mand LM2
ACL-0780 147 B-2884-42-01.01 Child 6–7 years ? 0.70570 Mand rm2 (deciduous)
ACL-0781 147 B-2884-42-01.02 Child 6–7 years ? 0.70571 Mand RM2
ACL-0782 150 B-2981-94-01.01 OA 50+ F 0.70576 L femur
ACL-0783 150 B-2981-94-02.01 YA 18–22 years F 0.70589 R ulna
ACL-0784 150 B-2981-94-03.01 T 14–17 years F 0.70569 R ulna
ACL-0785 150 B-2981-94-04.01 Child ? 0.70569 Metacarpal
ACL-0747 88 B-3032-54.06 C-T 11–14 years ? 0.70579 Mand RC
ACL-0745 187 B-3335-00.155 Adult ? 0.70565 Max RC
ACL-0764 205 B-3521-104.64 Inf 12–18 m ? 0.70570 L fibula
ACL-0765 205 B-3521-105.55 Inf 12–18 m ? 0.70572 L rib
ACL-0766 205 B-3521-107.18 MA F 0.70560 Mand RP3
ACL-0743 205 B-3521-107.66 MA F 0.70565 R hand phalanx
ACL-0744 205 B-3554-106-01.44 Inf 9–12 m ? 0.70572 R fibula
ACL-0750 208 B-3547-108-01.13 MA M 0.70558 Max LM2
ACL-0746 208 B-3547-108-03.05 MA F 0.70556 Max LI2
ACL-0748 208 B-3577-108-05.01 C-T 13–16 years ? 0.70558 Mand RM1
ACL-0792 N/A B-Airtower.01 YA-MA M 0.70587 Mand R12
ACL-0793 N/A B-Airtower.02 YA-MA M 0.70591 L femur
ACL-0790 N/A B-Ochat-Female OA F 0.70583 Max RC1
ACL-0791 N/A B-Ochat-Female OA F 0.7058 Metatarsal
ACL-0789 N/A B-Ochat-Male OA M 0.70576 L radius
ACL-0769 72 Tr-EA72-MandC YA-MA M 0.70615 Mand RM2
ACL-0770 72 Tr-EA72-MandD YA M 0.70821 Mand LM1
ACL-0771b 72 Tr-EA72-MandJ (Tr-C1) Child ? 0.70616 L mand condyle
F1789a 143 Tr-2907-04-01.01 (Tr-D) MA F? 0.707186 Cranial fragment
F1784a 143 Tr-2907-04-01.02 (Tr-D) MA F? 0.708811 Enamel fragment
F1785a 143 Tr-2907-05.01 (Tr-E) MA M 0.706270 Enamel fragment
F1790a 143 Tr-2907-05.02 (Tr-E) MA M 0.706483 Cranial fragment
ACL-0763b 143 Tr-2985-01.01 (Tr-A) Child ? 0.71013 Cranial fragment
ACL-0757 143 Tr-2985-03.01 (Tr-C) Teen ? 0.70626 Molar
ACL-0758 143 Tr-2985-03.02 (Tr-C) Teen ? 0.70633 Cranial fragment
ACL-0755 143 Tr-2985-06.01 (Tr-F) MA 35–42 years M 0.70762 Enamel fragment
ACL-0756 143 Tr-2985-06.02 (Tr-F) MA 35–42 years M 0.70831 Cranial fragment
ACL-0761 143 Tr-2985-09.01 (Tr-J) MA M 0.71495 Cranial fragment
F1787a 143 Tr-2985-11.01 (Tr-N) OA M 0.710204 Enamel fragment
F1792a 143 Tr-2985-11.02 (Tr-N) OA M 0.709232 Cranial fragment
ACL-0754 143 Tr-2985-13.01 (Tr-P) Child 6–8 years ? 0.70632 Molar 1
ACL-0753b 143 Tr-2985-13.02 (Tr-P) Child 6–8 years ? 0.70613 Cranial fragment
ACL-0794b 143 Tr-2985-13.03 (Tr-P) Child 6–8 years ? 0.70607 Vertebra fragment
ACL-0752 143 Tr-2985-15.01 (Tr-Q) Adult ? 0.71129 Molar 3
ACL-0751b 143 Tr-2985-15.02 (Tr-H) Child 3–7 years ? 0.71601 Hand phalanx
F1788a 143 Tr-2985-18-01.01 (Tr-R) YA M 0.706259 Enamel fragment
F1793a 143 Tr-2985-18-01.02 (Tr-R) YA M 0.707289 Cranial fragment
ACL-0760 143 Tr-2985-19.01 (Tr-S) Child 5–7 years ? 0.70596 max molar (deciduous)
ACL-0759 143 Tr-2985-21-01.01 (Tr-U) Adult ? 0.70601 Frontal fragment
ACL-0762 143 Tr-2985-21-02.01 (Tr-T) Teen 13–16 years M 0.70678 Cranial fragment
F1786a 143 Tr-2985-10-01.01 (Tr-K) OA M 0.706404 Max RC
a
Samples analyzed using a thermal ionization mass spectrometer (TIMS) at UNC-Chapel Hill and published in Tung and Knudson (2008).
b
Samples analyzed using a multi-collector inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometer (MC-ICP-MS) at Arizona State University and published in Tung and Knudson (2010).
c
Trophy head bone codes include numerals assigned in the field and letters assigned in the osteology laboratory because sometimes two trophy heads were assigned one
number. The letters also make them comparable to previous publications. Age codes: YA = young adult (20–34 years); MA = mid-adult (35–49 years); OA = old adult (50 + years).
Material codes: L = left; R = right; I = incisor; C = canine; P = premolar; M = molar.
252 T.A. Tung, K.J. Knudson / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 30 (2011) 247–261

pairs were taken from several individuals. These new radiogenic
strontium isotope data are integrated with previously published
data from six Wari-era burials and five trophy heads (Tung and
Knudson, 2008). As such, the entire corpus of radiogenic strontium
isotope data from the site of Conchopata includes 72 samples rep-
resenting 49 individuals. Specifically, the 49 individuals include
one Huarpa (pre-Wari) burial, 30 Wari-era burials, and 18 trophy
heads.
The minimum number of individuals (MNI) at Conchopata is
317 and includes 27 Huarpa (pre-Wari) burials, 259 Wari-era buri-
als, and 31 trophy heads (Tung, 2012). A sample of one Huarpa
individual represents 4% of the Huarpa burial population recovered
thus far (1/27 = 3.7%). The Wari-era individuals sampled represent
12% of the Wari burial population (31/259 = 12%), and the 18 tro-
phy head individuals represent 58% of the Wari trophy head sam-
ple (18/31 = 58%). The Wari-era burials and the trophy heads are
representative of the population from which they were drawn.
That is, there are males, females, and juveniles from both the burial
population and the trophy head group (see Table 1).
Osteological analyses
The sex and age of the Conchopata skeletons and trophy heads
were established using standard osteological methods (Buikstra
and Ubelaker, 1994). For complete burials, sex was determined
based on pelvis and cranial morphology, while the sex of trophy
heads was determined by cranial morphology alone (Buikstra and
Ubelaker, 1994; Walker, 2008). Age-at-death was based upon dental
eruption (Ubelaker, 1978), epiphyseal union, dental wear (Lovejoy,
1985; Walker et al., 1991), cranial suture closure, and changes in
the pubic symphysis (Brooks and Suchey, 1990) and auricular sur-
face (Brooks and Suchey, 1990; Meindl and Lovejoy, 1989) whenever
possible. However, because many skeletons were incomplete, many
could not be assigned a specific age in years. Instead, they were as-
signed to age cohorts (e.g., infant, child, adolescent, young adult,
etc.), similar to those presented in Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994).
local small animals plus and minus two standard deviations to
establish the local radiogenic strontium isotope ratio (Price et al.,
2002); any sample outside that local range would then be identi-
fied as non-local, a technique that is often used with good success,
particularly with smaller datasets (see Bentley et al., 2004;
Knudson et al., 2004; Knudson and Price, 2007).
In this study, because we have a larger sample (N = 72), we also
use a complementary technique developed by Wright (2005) to de-
tect non-local peoples at Conchopata. The method involves analy-
sis of the descriptive statistics (e.g., mean, median, standard
deviation, range, etc.; see Table 2) of the radiogenic strontium iso-
tope ratios from the archaeological specimens. Each radiogenic
strontium isotope ratio from the samples of interest (in this case,
Conchopata burials) are then compared to the mean and median
to identify outliers. The assumption here is that a population of lo-
cal peoples should exhibit a normal curve of radiogenic strontium
isotope ratios; those at the tail ends of the distribution (visually
identified through analysis of histograms) are removed from the
data set and identified as possible non-locals. The reduced set is
known as ‘‘the trimmed data’’ (Wright, 2005). In this way, the
mean and range of radiogenic strontium isotope ratios for a local
region are calculated based on the trimmed data from the burials.
The likelihood that outliers represent a distinct social or occupa-
tional class of local persons with a wholly distinct source of stron-
tium in the diet must also be considered, and the possible sources
of calcium-rich, imported foods (through which non-local stron-
tium isotopes would be introduced into human tissues) should
be identified if the researchers are to claim that the outliers are lo-
cals with a unique diet.
We also introduce a third technique aimed at identifying outli-
ers. It is a straightforward method that presents the radiogenic
strontium isotope ratios of all samples in ascending order, and cal-
culates the difference between each succeeding sample. For exam-
ple, consider the hypothetical data set below:
87
Sample 1 Sr=86 Sr ¼ 0:70400

87
Laboratory methodology Sample 2 Sr=86 Sr ¼ 0:70401

87
All archaeological human enamel and bone samples were pre- Sample 3 Sr=86 Sr ¼ 0:70403
pared in the Archaeological Chemistry Laboratory at Arizona State
87
University. After being mechanically cleaned, bone samples were Sample 4 Sr=86 Sr ¼ 0:70417
chemically cleaned in a series of weak acetic acid washes
The difference between Samples 1 and 2 is only 0.00001 and
(Nielsen-Marsh and Hedges, 2000; Price et al., 1992; Sillen and
between Samples 2 and 3, it is 0.00002, whereas the difference
LeGros, 1991). In the W.M. Keck Foundation Laboratory for Envi-
ronmental Biogeochemistry, the samples were purified using Ei-
Chrom SrSpec resin in ion-exchange columns, and then analyzed Table 2
using a Thermo-Finnigan Neptune multi-collector inductively cou- Descriptive statistics of the radiogenic strontium isotope ratios from the Conchopata
pled plasma mass spectrometer (MC-ICP-MS). Recent 87Sr/86Sr burials and trophy heads.
analyses of strontium carbonate standard SRM-987 yield a value Statistic All All Trimmed All trophy
of 87Sr/86Sr = 0.710261 ± 0.000020 (2r), which is in agreement samples burials burial heads
with analyses of SRM-987 using a MC-ICP-MS (87Sr/86Sr = dataa
0.710251 ± 0.000006 (2r) (Balcaen et al., 2005) and a thermal ion- Mean 0.70661 0.70584 0.70572 0.70795
ization mass spectrometer (TIMS) (87Sr/86Sr = 0.710263 ± 0.000016 St. Dev. 0.00198 0.00074 0.00011 0.00268
Median 0.70577 0.70571 0.70571 0.70648
(2r) (Stein et al., 1997). In addition, archaeological human bone
Min. 0.70548 0.70548 0.70548 0.70596
and enamel samples were analyzed for major, minor and trace Max. 0.71600 0.71058 0.70610 0.71600
element concentrations on a quadrupole inductively-coupled Range 0.01052 0.00510 0.00062 0.01004
plasma mass spectrometer (Q-ICP-MS). These data were used to Skewness (std. error) 3.131 6.181 0.778 1.924
identify samples that may exhibit post-depositional or diagenetic (0.283) (0.350) (0.357) (0.456)
Kurtosis (std. error) 10.703 40.062 2.317 3.419
contamination. (0.559) (0.688) (0.702) (0.887)
Number of samples 72 46 44 26
Definitions of local and non-local radiogenic strontium isotope Number of individuals 49 31 29 18
signatures represented by the
samples

To identify non-local individuals, radiogenic strontium isotope a

The trimmed burial data are a subset of the burials (i.e., do not add this group to
analysis may use the mean radiogenic strontium isotope value of the other groups to get a total sum).
 T.A. Tung, K.J. Knudson / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 30 (2011) 247–261 253

0.7160
0.7150
0.7140
0.7130
0.7120
0.7110
87Sr/86Sr

0.7100
0.7090
0.7080
0.7070
0.7060
0.7050
0.7040
0.7030
B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B T T TBT T T T T T T T T TBT T T T T T T T T TBT T T

Fig. 3. Radiogenic strontium isotope ratios of all 72 burial (B) and trophy head (T) samples from Conchopata. Bone and enamel are both presented here in ascending order to
show the general pattern of the data. Note that the burial samples cluster together with lower radiogenic strontium isotope ratios, and the trophy head samples cluster
together in the higher range.

between Samples 3 and 4 is 0.00014. The difference between Sam- reveals this same pattern (Fig. 3). That is, the higher radiogenic
ples 3 and 4 is markedly greater and may represent a sudden break strontium isotope ratios are primarily trophy heads. This visual
in the population, suggesting that Sample 4 is non-local. Larger aptly communicates the stark distinction in the radiogenic stron-
datasets, as we present below, and additional data on burial treat- tium isotope values between the burials and trophy heads.
ment, skeletal health, burial location at the site, etc., should be fur- Following Wright (2005), a histogram of all radiogenic stron-
ther evaluated to ascertain whether the non-local value may indeed tium isotope data from Conchopata further illustrates that there
represent a foreigner. This technique should never be used in isola- is no normal distribution (Fig. 4). Instead, the histogram shows a
tion. It is applied in this study for the first time, and it proves to major grouping of samples in the range of 87Sr/86Sr = 0.70550–
facilitate the detection of outliers. 0.70620, while the other samples constitute the right tail of the
histogram. Given the distinct treatment of the burials and the tro-
phy heads, and the observation that their radiogenic strontium iso-
Results
tope ratios clustered separately, the data from each group are
evaluated independently below.
The concentrations of major, minor, and trace elements were
used to examine the extent of post-depositional or diagenetic con-
tamination in the archaeological human samples from Conchopata. Conchopata burials
It is increasingly clear that, while enamel is resistant to diagenetic
contamination, bone is not (Bentley, 2006; Price et al., 1992, 2002; Among the 46 human burial samples, the mean
87
Montgomery et al., 1999; Lee-Thorp, 2002; Lee-Thorp and Sr/86Sr = 0.70584 ± 0.00074, and the median 87Sr/86Sr = 0.70571
Sponheimer, 2003). In bone that does not exhibit diagenetic (Table 2). Compared to the radiogenic strontium isotope ratios
contamination, Ca/P = 2.1 (Sillen and LeGros, 1991) and uranium
concentrations are very low (Price et al., 2002). In archaeological
human bone and enamel from Conchopata, mean Ca/
P = 2.08 ± 0.08 (n = 51, 1r). In addition, mean archaeological hu-
man bone and enamel values are very similar (mean enamel Ca/
P = 2.07 ± 0.09 (n = 26, 1r), mean bone Ca/P = 2.09 ± 0.08 (n = 25,
1r)). These data indicate that the radiogenic strontium isotope sig-
natures at Conchopata reflect biogenic, rather than diagenetic,
values.

Burials and trophy heads

The radiogenic strontium isotope ratios for the Conchopata

burials and trophy heads are presented in Table 1, along with pre-
viously-published data in order to see the full range of radiogenic
strontium isotope values for individuals interred at the site. Among
all burial and trophy head samples (N = 72) the mean
87
Sr/86Sr = 0.70661 ± 0.00198 and the median 87Sr/86Sr = 0.70577
(see Table 2 for the descriptive statistics). A comparison of the
mean and median show that more samples exhibit radiogenic
strontium isotope values that are lower than the mean; this is be- Fig. 4. Histogram of strontium isotope ratios of all 72 burial and trophy head
cause several outliers—primarily trophy heads—are pulling up the samples (bone and enamel) from Conchopata. Note the non-normal distribution of
mean value. A graphic distribution of all Conchopata samples the samples (see Wright, 2005).
254 T.A. Tung, K.J. Knudson / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 30 (2011) 247–261
obtained from modern guinea pigs purchased at the Ayacucho
market (mean 87Sr/86Sr = 0.7063) (Knudson and Tung, 2007), the
burial samples exhibit a lower mean radiogenic strontium isotope
ratio. While both the faunal and burial data are similar to expected
radiogenic strontium isotope values in the region based on bedrock
geology, it is clear that the strontium sources in the modern faunal
and ancient human diets were slightly different. This illustrates the
complexities of establishing baseline radiogenic strontium isotope
values, particularly when using modern animal samples (Bentley
et al., 2004; Evans and Tatham, 2004; Price et al., 2002). No archae-
ological fauna were tested.
Thus, focusing on the bioavailable radiogenic strontium isotope
ratios in the archaeological human burials, two burial samples
have the greatest difference from either the mean or the median
(Table 1 and Fig. 5). When they are excluded, the ‘‘trimmed’’ burial
data exhibit a normal distribution with samples clustered around
the mean (Fig. 5), as Wright (2005) has suggested is likely for a lo-
cal population. The mean of the trimmed burial dataset is
87
Sr/86Sr = 0.70572 ± 0.00011), and the median is
87
Sr/86Sr = 0.70571 (Table 2). In the trimmed burial data set, the
mean and median are nearly identical, suggesting a normal distri-
bution of the data.
The first of the two individuals excluded from the trimmed bur-
ial data is an infant (bone 87Sr/86Sr = 0.70673, laboratory number
F1228). The infant’s relatively high radiogenic strontium isotope
ratio suggests that he or she was not natal to the Ayacucho Basin.
Although this infant was originally identified as a possible local
(Tung and Knudson, 2008; Knudson and Tung, 2007), the larger
data set presented here permits a more refined estimate of the lo-
cal bioavailable radiogenic strontium isotope signature for Concho-
pata inhabitants.
The second ‘‘outlier’’ is a late adolescent/young adult female
(mandibular canine 87Sr/86Sr = 0.71058, laboratory number ACL-
0749) (Table 1). The female (17–22 years old) received particularly
unique mortuary treatment: she was deposited in a simple pit in
an open plaza (EA20) prominently positioned directly in front of
the ritual D-shaped structure (EA72) (Fig. 2). She was buried with
four small copper tupus (pins) that still had textile fragments
adhering to them (Cook 2001, personal communication). She
exhibited mild periostitis on a tibial midshaft fragment and her left
ulna, but it is unknown if the periostitis was bilateral on the leg
and arm because the other tibia fragments and right ulna were
too poorly preserved for observation. As such, it is unclear if it
Fig. 5. Histogram of the ‘‘trimmed’’ data from the burial samples (n = 44) (see
Wright, 2005). Two burial samples were excluded; the remaining 44 burial samples
exhibit a more normal distribution.
was localized trauma that affected the shin and lower arm or a
mild systemic infection. Her cranium and cervical vertebrae were
not well enough preserved to observe for trauma, so it is unknown
if violence-related trauma to the head or neck was the mechanism
of death.
Conchopata trophy heads
The radiogenic strontium isotope ratios of the trophy heads are
much more variable than that of the burials. They range from a
minimum 87Sr/86Sr = 0.70596 to a maximum 87Sr/86Sr = 0.71600.
The mean 87Sr/86Sr = 0.70795 ± 0.00268, and the median
87
Sr/86Sr = 0.70648. The trophy heads have a higher average stron-
tium isotope value and a much wider range of values relative to
those from the Conchopata burials (Table 2).
A histogram of the radiogenic strontium isotope values from the
trophy heads shows a non-normal distribution, further suggesting
that these individuals do not constitute a single population from a
particular localized region (Fig. 6). Rather, the wide spread of val-
ues suggests that the individuals derive from several different geo-
logical locales.
Individual life histories
Bone-tooth pairs were taken from 18 individuals (12 burials
and six trophy heads) to reconstruct mobility patterns during
their lifetimes. For example, if one individual exhibits a non-
local radiogenic strontium isotope ratio in dental enamel and a
local value in bone, then it may be suggested that the person
spent their infancy/childhood in a foreign locale and their adult-
hood in the Ayacucho Basin. At Conchopata, 17 out of 18 indi-
vidual burials exhibit homogenous enamel and bone values,
suggesting that the strontium in their food sources was un-
changed from childhood to adulthood. The one exception is a
pregnant, middle-aged female (2095.01) whose enamel and bone
values differ, but still fall within the local range expected for the
Ayacucho Basin. In contrast, six out of six trophy heads for
whom tooth-bone pairs were analyzed display much more heter-
ogenous enamel and bone values (Figs. 7 and 8). This indicates
that those who were transformed into trophy heads obtained
dietary strontium from numerous regions; in turn, this suggests
that they were more mobile and resided at different locales
throughout their lifetimes. Although these data could also
Fig. 6. Histogram of the radiogenic strontium isotope ratios from the Conchopata
trophy heads (n = 26). The values exhibit a non-normal distribution.
 T.A. Tung, K.J. Knudson / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 30 (2011) 247–261 255

Fig. 7. Radiogenic strontium isotope ratios from enamel and bone from Conchopata burials. They are shown against the strontium isotope ratios from diverse regions in the
Andes. (Tiwanaku (Knudson et al., 2004); Seawater (Veizer, 1989); Cusco (Andrushko et al., 2009); Ancon (Slovak et al., 2009); Atacama (Knudson et al., 2004); Nasca
(Knudson et al., 2009; Conlee et al., 2009); Moquegua (Knudson and Buikstra, 2007); Santa Rita (Bethard et al., 2008). Color graph available in online version.

Fig. 8. Radiogenic strontium isotope ratios from enamel and bone from Conchopata trophy heads. They are shown against the strontium isotope ratios from diverse regions in
the Andes. (Pulacayo/Potosi (Knudson et al., 2005); Tiwanaku (Knudson, 2004); Seawater (Veizer, 1989); Cusco (Andrushko et al., 2009); Ancon (Slovak et al., 2009); Atacama
(Knudson, 2004); Nasca (Knudson et al., 2009; Conlee et al., 2009); Moquegua (Knudson and Buikstra, 2007). Color graph available in online version.

suggest that some individuals stayed in one locale and dramati-
cally changed their diet from childhood to adulthood, this is
highly unlikely because it would mean that at some time in
adulthood they switched to a diet composed primarily of im-
ported foods that were calcium rich, since strontium replaces
calcium in enamel and bone hydroxyapatite (Burton et al.,
1999; Carr et al., 1962; Comar et al., 1957; Dolphin and Eve,
1963; Schroeder et al., 1972). Moreover, because the bone and
tooth values from the six trophy head individuals are different
(i.e., they do not all show the same non-local values throughout
their lifetimes), each person would have had his own unique
geological zone(s) from which their calcium rich foods were
256 T.A. Tung, K.J. Knudson / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 30 (2011) 247–261
imported. These scenarios are highly unlikely, so we take the
intra-individual variability to be a reflection of mobility, not a
dramatic change in food sources.
Discussion
Among the 46 radiogenic strontium isotope ratios from the
burials, 44 are clustered around the mean, and they fall within
the range expected for the Ayacucho Basin. This suggests that the
29 individuals represented by those 44 samples lived their life-
times at Conchopata and the immediately surrounding area. There
is a slight chance that some of these individuals who exhibit radio-
genic strontium isotope values expected for the Ayacucho Basin
come from or near the site of Cerro Baúl, a Wari outpost in the
Moquegua Valley of southern Peru. There, the bioavailable stron-
tium isotope signature overlaps with that of the Ayacucho Basin;
inhabitants from Moquegua Valley exhibit 87Sr/86Sr = 0.7059–
0.7066 (Knudson and Price, 2007). This overlap in radiogenic stron-
tium isotope values in some parts of the Andes demonstrates the
need for additional methods for detecting non-locals and the
importance of utilizing multiple lines of biogeochemical and
archaeological evidence to ‘‘source’’ individuals. Nonetheless, a
parsimonious interpretation of the current osteological, archaeo-
logical, and biogeochemical data suggest that the 29 individuals
with similar radiogenic strontium isotope ratios are natal to
Conchopata, and were not migrants from a distinct geological
locale.
The remaining two samples exhibit much higher radiogenic
strontium isotope values, suggesting that they derive from a region
other than the Ayacucho Basin. These two samples represent two
individuals—an infant and a late adolescent/young adult female—
both of whom were buried in a manner distinct from others at
Conchopata.
Unique burial treatment of a non-local infant
The infant identified as non-local based on the radiogenic stron-
tium isotope ratio did not receive burial treatment like other in-
fants at the site. Although the infant was in association with
some ceramic sherds, there was no inverted ceramic bowl on the
infant’s head, a common burial practice for Conchopata infants
and children (and adult females) (Tung and Cook, 2006). Instead,
a rock was placed over the infant’s head, an apparently unusual
form of funerary treatment that further marked this infant as
different.
The ceramic sherds in association with this non-local infant,
from locus 2004 within architectural space 6 (EA6) included one
from a fancy Pacheco-like vessel with a black background and
plants generically referred to as maize or perhaps cotton, and a
fragment from an oversized Conchopata style urn showing the
hand of what is likely the Front Face Deity holding a staff (Cook,
personal communication, 2001). The room in which this non-local
infant was deposited (EA6) also yielded a complete llama offering,
five guinea pigs, and sherds from oversized ceramic urns, some of
which depicted the ‘‘Wari boat warriors’’. A burnt wood fragment
in association with the boat warrior ceramic fragments yielded
an AMS date of Cal AD 620–690 (2r) (Sample number Beta-
146400; 1320 +/ 40 BP) (Ketteman, 2002).
The ‘‘boat warriors’’ shown on the urns are dressed in military
garb carrying weapons and kneeling on reed boats, a form of trans-
port unnecessary in the Ayacucho Basin. For this reason, it has been
suggested that their depiction reveals journeys to distant lands,
such as Lake Titicaca or coastal areas (Isbell, 2000; Ochatoma
et al., 2008).
The infant’s radiogenic strontium isotope ratio is also a reflec-
tion of its mother’s radiogenic strontium isotope value since the
age of the infant suggests that he or she was still breastfeeding.
There is a long history of research into strontium in human breast
milk and infants, and the radiogenic strontium isotopic composi-
tion (87Sr/86Sr) of human breast milk is not appreciably changed
or fractionated as it is produced by the mother and consumed by
the infant (Hodges et al., 1950; Comar et al., 1957; Carr et al.,
1962; Kulp and Schulert, 1962; Rehnberg et al., 1969; Schroeder
et al., 1972; Mays, 2003). As such, it may be that the infant’s
mother was a voluntary migrant or a captive taken to Conchopata,
perhaps by Wari warriors similar to those depicted on the ceramic
urns from the same room. As discussed below, although the trophy
heads appear to be individuals abducted by Wari warriors, it is un-
clear how this infant (and likely his or her mother) came to
Conchopata. Nonetheless, the high radiogenic strontium isotope
ratio and the distinctive burial treatment suggest that the infant
came from elsewhere.
Possible sacrifice of a non-local female
The female from the open plaza area coded as EA20 (locus 1371)
exhibits a non-local radiogenic strontium isotope ratio, suggesting
that she was a non-local individual. She could have arrived at
Conchopata sometime after she was 5 years old or as recently as
a few days before her death. (Because her mandibular canine was
sampled, which completes enamel formation around age 5 years,
it is determined that she arrived to Conchopata sometime after
that age. A more specific age of arrival cannot be estimated until
other teeth and bones are sampled.)
While she could have died a natural death after voluntarily
migrating to Conchopata, her unique burial location and premature
death in late adolescence require that other explanations be ex-
plored. Unlike the usual burial treatment given to Conchopata’s de-
ceased, where they are interred under house floors with several
other individuals (presumably kin) (Isbell, 2004; Tung and Cook,
2006), her body was deposited alone near a small water canal just
north-west of the entrance to the D-shaped ritual structure (EA72).
This suggests that she may have been part of the ritual activities
that occurred within the building, perhaps a sacrifice to sanctify
the ritual space and the rituals that occurred within it. Those ritu-
als included the intentional destruction of huge ceramic urns
(some measuring one meter in diameter) that depicted Wari war-
riors in elaborate uniforms, some of whom are shown wearing tro-
phy heads (Ochatoma and Cabrera, 2002). Camelids were also
sacrificed and deposited in the D-shaped room (Ochatoma and
Cabrera, 2002), along with human trophy heads. Clearly, this was
a significant ritual space, and the placement of her body near its
entrance suggests that she may have had an exceptional life and/
or exceptional death, making her ideal as an offering. Moreover,
the associated sacrifice of camelids and trophy head victims com-
bined with other ritual acts in the building support the interpreta-
tion that this young woman may have been a sacrificial offering.
Notably, however, she was treated differently from the men and
children who were transformed into trophy heads and deposited
on the floor of the D-shaped ritual building (Ochatoma and
Cabrera, 2002; Tung, 2008a). Her body was kept intact, and she
was set into a pit in a flexed position wearing at least some basic
clothing or a shroud, as evidenced by the presence of four tupus
with adhering cloth fragments. Although the skeletal remains do
not reveal her mechanism of death, her age, burial treatment (solo
interment), final resting place in front of the D-shaped ritual room,
and non-local radiogenic strontium isotope ratio together suggest
she was a ‘‘foreigner’’, a social identity that may have marked this
young female as appropriate for sacrifice.
 T.A. Tung, K.J. Knudson / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 30 (2011) 247–261 257

Table 3 Local vs. non-local trophy heads

List of the radiogenic strontium isotope values in ascending order, and the difference in
values between one sample and the next. This method aids in detecting a break in the
samples, which can be used to evaluate which samples potentially derive from local Given the additional research question regarding local vs. non-
individuals and which from non-locals. local status among the trophy heads, we introduce a new method
Type Code 87
Sr/86Sr Difference from
for detecting outliers. First, all radiogenic strontium isotope ratios
preceding sample from the burials and trophy heads are sorted in ascending order,
Burial 2095-06.01 0.70548 N/A
and then the difference between one sample and the next is calcu-
Burial 2052-01.01 0.70552 0.00004 lated. As shown in Table 3, the largest break in values (0.00010)
Burial 3547-108-03.05 0.70556 0.00004 first occurs with trophy head Tr-R (2985-18-01.01,
Burial 3547-108-01.13 0.70558 0.00002 87
Sr/86Sr = 0.706259), suggesting that this sample and all subse-
Burial 3577-108-05.01 0.70558 0.00000
Burial 2095-01.01 0.705598 0.00002 quent ones derive from individuals that did not consume large
Burial 3521-107.18 0.7056 0.00000 amounts of strontium from the Ayacucho Basin. Thus, the 22 sam-
Burial 1818-01.01 0.70561 0.00001 ples with the highest radiogenic strontium isotope ratios (seen at
Burial 2095-02.01 0.705632 0.00002
Burial 2095-04.01 0.705646 0.00001
the end of the list) likely derive from individuals who lived else-
Burial 2095-03.01 0.705647 0.00000 where. We note that the infant from EA6 and the young woman
Burial 3335-00.155 0.70565 0.00000 from EA 20 are within this group. Thus, both Wright’s (2005) meth-
Burial 3521-107.66 0.70565 0.00000
od and the one we introduce here identified the same burials as
Burial 2095-04.02 0.705663 0.00001
Burial 2981-94-03.01 0.70569 0.00003 non-local.
Burial 2981-94-04.01 0.70569 0.00000 This method does not give a specific value for ‘‘the largest
Burial 2884-42-01.01 0.7057 0.00001 break’’ that is to be used in all radiogenic strontium isotope studies,
Burial 3521-104.64 0.7057 0.00000
Burial 2107-17.01 0.70571 0.00001
but it does permit a more detailed evaluation of the entire corpus
Burial 2107-17.02 0.70571 0.00000 of radiogenic strontium isotope ratios, so potential outliers can be
Burial 2858-01.01 0.70571 0.00000 identified based on numerical values. Other researchers can list all
Burial 2884-42-01.02 0.70571 0.00000
samples in ascending order, calculate the difference between each
Burial 1728-01.01 0.70571 0.00000
Burial 2107-17.03 0.70572 0.00001 sample, and use those numerical differences as an exploratory way
Burial 3521-105.55 0.70572 0.00000 to identify possible outliers that might necessitate further investi-
Burial 3554-106-01.44 0.70572 0.00000 gation through additional analyses of osteological, archaeological,
Burial 1728-01.02 0.70573 0.00001
Burial 1818-01.02 0.70573 0.00000
and other contextual data.
Burial 2095-02.01 0.705739 0.00001 Using this new method, six trophy head samples exhibit a
Burial 2095-06.02 0.705739 0.00000 radiogenic strontium isotope ratio consistent with living at
Burial 0950-01.03 0.70574 0.00000 Conchopata and the surrounding region. The six samples are Tr-
Burial 0950-01.01 0.70575 0.00001
Burial 2981-94-01.01 0.70576 0.00001 S, Tr-U, two samples from Tr-P, EA72-MandC, and Tr-C1 (Table 3).
Burial Ochat-Male 0.70576 0.00000 The six samples come from five individuals; however, one of these
Burial 0950-01.02 0.70577 0.00001 five people is a juvenile (2985-13.01, Tr-P) who exhibits a non-lo-
Burial 3032-54.06 0.70579 0.00002
cal radiogenic strontium isotope ratio in the first molar, suggesting
Burial Ochat-Female 0.7058 0.00001
Burial Ochat-Female 0.70583 0.00003 that infancy/early childhood (approximately age 9 months to 3–
Burial 1993-01.01 0.70584 0.00001 4 years old) was spent elsewhere (Tables 1 and 3). Thus, only four
Burial 2095-03.02 0.705861 0.00002 of the 18 trophy head individuals were likely natal to Conchopata;
Burial Airtower.01 0.70587 0.00001
Burial 2981-94-02.01 0.70589 0.00002
they include two juveniles (Tr-S and Tr-C1) and two adults (Tr-U
Burial Airtower.02 0.70591 0.00002 and Tr-EA72-MandC). These four trophy head individuals may de-
Trophy head 2985-19.01 (Tr-S) 0.70596 0.00005 rive from the local area or from a locale with similar geological
Trophy head 2985-21-01.01 (Tr-U) 0.70601 0.00005
compositions, such as the area around the Wari site of Cerro
Trophy head 2985-13.03 (Tr-P) 0.70607 0.00006
Burial 2095-01.02 0.706096 0.00003 Baúl, the southernmost Wari outpost in the Moquegua Valley
Trophy head 2985-13.02 (Tr-P) 0.70613 0.00003 (see discussion above). As such, some individuals from the Moque-
Trophy head EA72-MandC 0.70615 0.00002 gua Valley (or other geological regions with similar bioavailable
Trophy head EA72-MandJ (Tr-C1) 0.70616 0.00001
Trophy head 2985-18-01.01 (Tr-R) 0.706259 0.00010a
radiogenic strontium isotope signatures) would not appear as ‘‘for-
Trophy head 2985-03.01 (Tr-C) 0.70626 0.00000 eigners’’ based on radiogenic strontium isotope values alone.
Trophy head 2907-05.01 (Tr-E) 0.706270 0.00001 The juvenile trophy head (Tr-P) who exhibits a non-local radio-
Trophy head 2985-13.01 (Tr-P) 0.70632 0.00005
genic strontium isotope ratio in enamel and local values in bone
Trophy head 2985-03.02 (Tr-C) 0.70633 0.00001
Trophy head 2985-10-01.01 (Tr-K) 0.706404 0.00007 either voluntarily migrated to Conchopata (with kin or others) or
Trophy head 2907-05.02 (Tr-E) 0.706483 0.00008 was abducted and later transformed into a trophy head. Given
Burial EA6-2004-01 0.706734 0.00025 the difference in radiogenic strontium isotope values between
Trophy head 2985-21-02.01 (Tr-T) 0.70678 0.00005
Trophy head 2907-04-01.01 (Tr-D) 0.707186 0.00041
the enamel and bone, it appears that the child consumed food from
Trophy head 2985-18-01.02 (Tr-R) 0.707289 0.00010 the local Ayacucho Basin from about age three to four until his/her
Trophy head 2985-06.01 (Tr-F) 0.70762 0.00033 death at age six to eight. In other words, this child likely resided at
Trophy head EA72-MandD 0.70821 0.00059
Conchopata for about 3 years before being made into a trophy
Trophy head 2985-06.02 (Tr-F) 0.70831 0.00010
Trophy head 2907-04-01.02 (Tr-D) 0.708811 0.00050 head. Those few years of consuming local foods brought local
Trophy head 2985-11.02 (Tr-N) 0.709232 0.00042 strontium into his/her bones, lowering the radiogenic strontium
Trophy head 2985-01.01 (Tr-A) 0.71013 0.00090 isotope ratio from a high of 87Sr/86Sr = 0.70632 in enamel to
Trophy head 2985-11.01 (Tr-N) 0.710204 0.00007 87
Sr/86Sr = 0.70613 in the cranial bones and 87Sr/86Sr = 0.70607 in
Burial EA20-1371-01.01 0.71058 0.00038
Trophy head 2985-15.01 (Tr-Q) 0.71129 0.00071 a vertebra. Although the osteological and biogeochemical data do
Trophy head 2985-09.01 (Tr-J) 0.71495 0.00366 not reveal whether this juvenile was a migrant or an abductee,
Trophy head 2985-15.02 (Tr-H) 0.71600 0.00105 Wari iconography showing Wari warriors abducting individuals
a
This is the first, largest sudden break in the radiogenic strontium isotope ratios, and carrying trophy heads (Ochatoma and Cabrera, 2002; Ocha-
suggesting that this sample and all subsequent ones derive from non-local toma et al., 2008) may suggest that this juvenile represents one
individuals.
who was abducted.
258 T.A. Tung, K.J. Knudson / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 30 (2011) 247–261
In examining the complete list of samples in ascending order,
the remaining 20 trophy head samples exhibit non-local radiogenic
strontium isotope ratios. These samples represent 14 trophy head
individuals, and they include three children, two adolescents, one
possible female adult, seven adult males, and one adult of un-
known sex (Tables 1 and 3).
The various lines of evidence—including the non-local radio-
genic strontium isotope ratio, the cut marks and chop marks that
indicate sacrifice and dismemberment (Tung, 2008a), the postmor-
tem modifications to transform them into trophy heads, their final
ceremonious deposit in ritual structures, and the association of
ceramics showing Wari warriors wearing trophy heads and con-
trolling prisoners—together mark these 14 trophy head individuals
as foreign persons who were likely taken captive from other geo-
logical zones.
Although these data could suggest that the trophy head popula-
tion was from one specific locale and each individual consumed
large quantities of imported, calcium-rich foods from diverse geo-
logical zones, this is highly unlikely because the majority of their
diet would have had to come from elsewhere, and those imported
foods would have had to be high in calcium. Moreover, those dis-
tinct radiogenic strontium isotope ratios from the trophy heads
mean that each individual would have had their own unique
source of prodigious amounts of imported, calcium-rich foods.
For these reasons, we interpret the radiogenic strontium isotope
data from the 14 trophy head individuals as evidence that they
came from a variety of geological locales outside of the Ayacucho
Basin. In sum, the results from this much larger sample affirm
our previously published findings from a small sample of five tro-
phy heads (Tung and Knudson, 2008), and they clarify the mobility
history of these important trophy head individuals, showing that
the majority are from lands outside of the Wari heartland (Table 1
and Figs. 7 and 8).
Life histories of trophy head individuals
An examination of the bone-tooth pairs per individual discloses
the general migration history of the trophy head individuals. Four
of the trophy head victims appear quite mobile (Tr-D, Tr-F, Tr-N,
Tr-R), perhaps spending their childhood in one location and their
adulthood in another. It is also possible that the source of stron-
tium in their food changed dramatically from one phase of life to
the other. Although this is unlikely given the most common stron-
tium sources in the Andes (see discussions in Knudson et al., 2009),
this hypothesis can be tested with future analyses using stable
strontium isotopes (Knudson et al., 2010).
Although the precise geographical origin of these trophy head
individuals cannot be determined due to similar geologic forma-
tions throughout different parts of the Andes, comparisons to other
radiogenic strontium isotope studies reveal possible places of ori-
gin, while also excluding some regions as place of original resi-
dence. For example, Tr-D and Tr-F exhibit radiogenic strontium
isotope ratios consistent with those in Cusco, Ancon, San Pedro
de Atacama, and possibly Tiwanaku, but do not overlap with values
expected for Moquegua and Nasca. The value of Tr-N falls within
the range expected for Tiwanaku, but not other locales (at least
based on what has been published thus far), and the ratios from
Tr-R are consistent with those observed for Moquegua and Nasca.
This is not to suggest that these individuals are from those partic-
ular places; we note that the radiogenic strontium isotope data
from the outliers in this study may be from a combination of differ-
ent geologic zones, or from geologic zones not yet characterized by
radiogenic strontium isotope research in the Andes. Rather, the sig-
nificant insight from this is that trophy head individuals derive
from a variety of locales, suggesting that people from diverse re-
gions either voluntarily migrated to the Wari heartland or Wari
warriors travelled far and wide, taking captives from several differ-
ent geological regions.
Conclusions
The exclusive Wari Site of Conchopata vs. the inclusive site of
Tiwanaku
Among the 31 individuals who were buried intact in tombs or
pits, 29 exhibit radiogenic strontium isotope ratios expected for
the Ayacucho Basin, indicating that they were natal to Conchopata
and the surrounding region. This suggests that the Wari heartland
site of Conchopata was populated primarily by local people who
likely descended from previous Huarpa inhabitants. Currently,
there is little evidence to suggest that Conchopata was a cosmopol-
itan center with individuals migrating there from distant areas.
The observation that Conchopata was comprised of local peo-
ples marks Conchopata distinct from the contemporaneous site
of Tiwanaku near Lake Titicaca where diverse groups of people set-
tled (Blom, 2005). This important insight sheds light on some of the
ways that the Wari and Tiwanaku polities may have differed.
While the secondary Wari settlement of Conchopata seems to have
been more exclusive in terms of who could settle and be buried
there, the primary site of the Tiwanaku state appears to have been
more inclusive, with distinct subgroups living and undergoing
mortuary rites at the settlement (Couture, 2003; Couture and
Sampeck, 2003; Janusek, 2004, 2005; Blom, 2005; Knudson and
Price, 2007; Berryman, 2010). Granted, as noted previously (Tung,
2008b), a more suitable comparison between the Wari and
Tiwanaku polities would be osteological and biogeochemical
analyses of skeletal populations from the eponymous sites of Huari
and Tiwanaku, the primary sites of each state. However, Middle
Horizon skeletal samples from Huari must still be located, exca-
vated, and analyzed.
Non-local individuals at Conchopata: an infant, a sacrificed female,
and trophy head victims
Only two burials appear as non-local at Conchopata: a late ado-
lescent female and an infant (and perhaps by extension, the in-
fant’s mother), individuals who received distinct burial treatment
relative to others interred at Conchopata. No male burials exhibit
a non-local radiogenic strontium isotope signature, suggesting that
men who later received normal funerary treatment (i.e., men who
were buried intact in tombs and not transformed into trophy
heads) were not migrants from elsewhere. As such, current data
suggests that Wari society—at least as represented by Conchopat-
a—did not practice a form of matrilocality where men from distinct
geological regions resettled at Conchopata with their marriage or
reproductive partners.
The radiogenic strontium isotope evidence also suggests that
it was rare for non-local women to be integrated into the
Conchopata community. No adult female in a formal tomb
exhibited a non-local radiogenic strontium isotope ratio. The
only female who expressed a non-local value was the adolescent
directly in front of the D-shaped structure. Indirect evidence sug-
gests that another non-local female relocated to Conchopata,
bringing her foreign-born infant with her. Her infant, who was
buried in EA6 (discussed above), shows a non-local radiogenic
strontium isotope ratio, suggesting that the strontium ingested
in utero and/or from breast milk were from a region outside
the Ayacucho Basin. There is no evidence to indicate what hap-
pened to the mother of this infant. She could have been adopted
into the community as a servant, wife, or some other social role,
or perhaps sacrificed, or she could have cycled through all of
 T.A. Tung, K.J. Knudson / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 30 (2011) 247–261
those social roles during her lifetime. The infant also could have
been abducted alone, leaving the mother behind (dead or alive)
at her natal settlement.
As for the young female with a non-local radiogenic stron-
tium isotope value, she may have been a captive. She was depos-
ited directly in front of the D-shaped structure, in which the
trophy heads, sacrificed camelids, and ceramic offerings were lo-
cated. Previous preliminary findings (Tung and Knudson, 2008,
2010) and the new data presented here demonstrate that 14 of
the 18 trophy heads sampled represent foreign persons who
were likely taken captive and then dismembered to convert
them into trophies. However, these new data also suggest that
not all Wari captives underwent trophy head transformation. In-
deed, at least one individual—the late adolescent female—may
have been taken captive for another purpose. Namely, she may
have been deposited there as a ritual offering, her intact body
in stark contrast to the dismembered males and juveniles inside
the ritual building. It is unclear if she was intentionally sacrificed
or died a natural death before being placed in this prominent
location, as the skeletal remains do not reveal the mechanism
of death.
If she was not a voluntary migrant and was indeed taken cap-
tive, then the context in which she was abducted was likely not
a battlefield. Rather, she may have been taken by Wari warriors
in a village raid. This is supported by the fact that the trophy head
victims included children; a quarter of the trophy heads are juve-
niles under 11 years of age, suggesting that village raids, where
young children and adolescent females are present, were common
contexts in which people were taken captive by Wari warriors
(Tung, 2008a). Certainly, some individuals could have been taken
in battles, but it is highly unlikely that juveniles and late adoles-
cent females were taken in warfare battles.
While the four trophy heads that exhibit local radiogenic stron-
tium isotope ratios could have been manufactured from naturally
deceased community members or judicial killings of locals, this
seems less likely in light of the Wari iconography. Images showing
captives controlled by Wari warriors (Ochatoma et al., 2008) and
others depicting bound captives and trophy heads in the same
scene (Isbell and Cook, 2002) suggest that Wari military personnel
took captives who were subsequently transformed into trophy
heads. Furthermore, the radiogenic strontium isotope data indicate
that a vast majority of the adult and child trophy heads were from
other geological locales, suggesting that Wari military agents tra-
versed the landscape to obtain captives from several distinct geo-
logical zones.
In all, we suggest that activities in the ritual structures at
Conchopata may have included the sacrifice of these prisoners, fol-
lowed by their transformation into trophy heads. Given the pleth-
ora of evidence of human sacrifice in the Andes (Bourget, 2001;
Ceruti, 2004; Cordy-Collins, 2001; Gaither et al., 2008; Reinhard,
1996; Verano, 2001), the skeletal evidence for dismemberment
and decapitation (Tung, 2008a), and the prisoner/trophy head ico-
nography on state-produced ceramics (Isbell and Cook, 2002;
Ochatoma and Cabrera, 2002; Ochatoma et al., 2008), the evidence
that Wari engaged in captive-taking and sacrifice is compelling.
Moreover, not only was human sacrifice part of the Wari ritual rep-
ertoire, it appears that Wari state structures were used to facilitate
and promote this ritual production and destruction of human
bodies and trophy heads. These acts of violence against the body
were not random or unplanned. Rather, they seem to have been
well orchestrated acts that brought together military elites who
obtained prisoners and heads, ritual specialists with supernatural
and technical skills to transform humans into trophy heads, and
master artisans that could portray elaborately dressed warriors
and deities with prisoners and trophy heads on large, state-
produced urns.
259
Acknowledgments
We gratefully acknowledge funding to Tung from the Na-
tional Science Foundation (BCS-0118751), the Wenner-Gren
Foundation for Anthropological Research (Grant Numbers 6680
and 8169), the Council of American Overseas Research Centers,
and a Vanderbilt Interdisciplinary Discovery Grant, and funding
to Knudson from the School of Human Evolution and Social
Change and the Institute for Social Science Research at Arizona
State University. The authors also want to thank William Isbell,
Anita Cook, Jose Ochatoma, and Martha Cabrera for granting per-
mission to analyze the Conchopata skeletons, and the National
Institute of Culture in Ayacucho and Lima for granting permis-
sion to export skeletal samples. In the Archaeological Chemistry
Laboratory, Meridith Masoner and Jonathan Wiggins provided
useful assistance, and we thank Ariel Anbar and Gwyneth
Gordon for their assistance and expertise in the W.M. Keck Foun-
dation Laboratory for Environmental Biogeochemistry at Arizona
State University. Finally, we thank the thoughtful and detailed
comments from two anonymous reviewers, which we believe
improved the manuscript.
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