Review Article

Proc IMechE Part M:

J Engineering for the Maritime Environment
2016, Vol. 230(4) 639–651
Influence of the towline material: Ó IMechE 2015
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DOI: 10.1177/1475090215610598

on towing gear design and tug deck pim.sagepub.com

fittings

Luis Carral, José Ángel Fraguela, José De Troya and

Carlos Álvarez-Feal

Abstract
The traction force or bollard pull and specific function of a tugboat determine the size of its towing gear and deck fit-
tings. These dimensions must enable the tug to carry out a manoeuvre safely. This article considers proposals made in
the implementing regulations for calculating the length and diameter of the towline. It analyses the possibility of using
high-modulus polyethylene fibre and the way it would affect the design of the towing gear and deck fittings, including the
fairleads and bits. It would be useful if regulations provided further guidance on towline length for port tugs. The final
part of this study analyses the solutions informed by a sample of 51 port tugs, the majority of which are escort tugs.

Keywords
Bollard pull, high-modulus polyethylene fibre, towing gear, towline, deck fittings

Date received: 2 December 2014; accepted: 5 August 2015

Introduction Depending on the task they have to carry out, the

In recent decades, the design of ocean-going and port
tugs has evolved. As is the case with other vessels,
these tugs have grown in size and specialisation.
Consequently, they need more features and greater
power to meet the greater demands of assistance.
Similarly, the increasingly sophisticated way in which
oil tankers and gas carriers are escorted through indi-
rect towing means that further regulations are needed
for tugs. Moreover, the hawser and deck fittings have
to be more specialised.1,2 With this development, the
connection between tug and tow continues to be impor-
tant. Every component is involved: the towline and
winch, as well as fairleads and bits. Thus, each of these
must be designed with care.2
These advances have been favoured by the spectacu-
lar way in which shipping has grown. In the last 10 years,
port tugs have had to be built. At the same time, termi-
nal safety has become more rigorous. Tug service opera-
tors are thus obliged to ask project offices to produce
innovative designs for their new units. Their goal is to
meet the need to work with greater safety and efficiency.
There have been major changes and innovations and,
with them, a wide range of technologies installed on ves-
sels through the best available technology (BAT).
tugs take on different configurations. These in turn
determine what features are found on the equipment
and components involved in the manoeuvres. One tug
is used in port manoeuvres. It has a maximum bollard
pull (MBP) between 6 and 30 Tm. Another is headed
towards ocean-going and rescue operations; its MBP
falls between 55 and 180 Tm. Along with these two,
there is an intermediate category: tugs that help large
vessels approach the port. With this third category, the
MBP is between 20 and 55 Tm.3 Nevertheless, this
group, halfway between the first two, has increased in
breadth over the years to include escort tugs whose bol-
lard pull (BP) comes close to 100 Tm.4
Deck fittings
The port tug normally uses an H-bit to fix the towing
gear to the deck. However, due to the greater length
University of A Coruña, A Coruña, Spain
Corresponding author:
Luis Carral, University of A Coruña, Escuela Politécnica Superior,
Mendizabal s/n 15403, Ferrol - La Coruña. Spain.
Email: l.carral@udc.es

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640 Proc IMechE Part M: J Engineering for the Maritime Environment 230(4)
and diameter of its towing gear, the ocean-going
tug boasts a tow winch. This equipment makes it pos-
sible to stow the entire towline so that the task of pay-
ing out and hauling is easier. At the same time, the
tug can carry out manoeuvres using its brakes, by
means of brake traction. In the final stage of the pro-
cess, the staples and towing pins resting on the foun-
dations on the superstructure withstand the high
loads by driving the tow gear’s transit on the winch
deck.5
As port tugs get bigger over time, Europeans have
established a way to attach the towline that is similar
to the one for ocean-going tugs. These have towing
gear. The towline is pulled taut by the tug in the man-
oeuvre by means of the tug winch2 adapting to the
conditions of each operation.3 Nevertheless, when
there is no tow winch or an alternative system is
desired to fix the towline of the vessel, then a towing
hook coupling is installed. This device will facilitate
the manoeuvre as the towing gear can be attached
quickly. Moreover, the tug’s safe operation is ensured
because rendering is facilitated in an emergency
situation.
Towline
Depending on the type of service a tug provides and
towing traction it uses, it should be possible to deter-
mine the components of its towing gear, as well as the
material to be used for the main towline. Over the many
years, the tug has been in service, the materials used for
it have undergone changes. However, the same factors
have come into play: ease and speed in handling, as well
as an increase in safety during the manoeuvre. Another
consideration is that a reduced crew may handle this
equipment.2
On ocean-going tugs, wire has always been used for
the towline, while on port tugs, the hawser was once
made of natural fibres and then of artificial materials.
Wire had excellent mechanical properties, whereas the
hawser was easy to handle. In the late 1990s, however,
high-modulus polyethylene (HMPE) fibre lines came
onto the scene and made its mark. For tug lines, it had
the same mechanical properties and diameter as steel,
yet it was also light, flexible and easy to handle. Not in
its favour was the fact it was more sensitive to wear
through abrasion and had a much lower working
temperature.6
Objectives
To choose between HMPE and steel towlines, one must
assess a combination of factors, such as strength, con-
struction, elastic elongation characteristics and life
expectancy. In any case, the contrasting behaviour of
these materials makes it necessary to reconsider the
design features of the winch, deck fittings with it tow-
ing hook, H-bits and staple1,7 as well as the towing gear
itself.
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Implementing regulation content
Within the documents dealing with these vessels’ safety,
attention must be paid to the implementing regulation
for calculating the towing gear components and deck
fittings.
In ‘Guidelines for safe ocean towing’,8 the
International Maritime Organisation (IMO) regulates
various aspects of ocean towing and its operation.
Specifically, towing gear is analysed in Chapter 12,
‘towing equipment’. Along similar lines, a committee
working on safety at sea produced ‘Guidance on ship-
board towing and mooring equipment’.9 This circular
is intended to provide standards for the design and con-
struction of shipboard fittings and supporting hull
structures associated with towing and mooring. Here,
the term ‘shipboard fittings’ includes the bollards, bitts,
fairleads stand rollers and chocks, used for the normal
mooring of the ship. It also covers similar components
for the normal towing of the ship. However, compo-
nents like capstans, towing winches, towing hook and
towlines fall outside these regulations.
The International Standard Association (ISO) has
developed its working guidelines on the same topic
within its Technical Committee ISO – TC 8,
Shipbuilding and Marine Structure. ISO 7365:198310
deals with tow winches, ‘Shipbuilding and marine
structures – deck machinery – towing winch for deep
sea use’. It looks at the design parameters of the winch.
Other regulations are for deck fittings – ISO
3913:1980;11 welded steel bollards and towlines: ISO
2408:2004;12 steel wire ropes, EN-ISO-1141,13 1140,
1346:2012; fibre ropes, EN 14687, 14686, 14685, 14684.
It is striking that ‘at this time, there are no national or
international standards that specify the minimum
strengths for high modulus synthetic lines’.
Classification societies take a different approach
with the guidelines for the port tug’s towing gear and
hooks, but provide only a cursory definition of ship-
board fittings and towing gear for ocean-going tugs.
For towline design, they rely on the concept of mini-
mum break load (MBL). This will be calculated as a
function of the intervening design loads (DL); the
BP value is considered a parameter. Nevertheless, dif-
fering criteria are proposed for determining the BP14
(Table 7). In terms of length or components, no guide-
lines are given.
The document International Association of
Classification Societies (IACS)15 URA2 – ‘Shipboard
fittings and supporting hull structures associated with
towing and mooring on conventional vessels’ has uni-
fied the Classification Societies’ guidelines for designing
and manufacturing shipboard fittings for mooring, as
indicated:
fittings and supporting structures used for the normal
towing and mooring operations. shipboard fittings mean
those components limited to the following: bollards and
bitts, fairleads, stand rollers, chocks used for the normal
Carral et al. 641

Table 1. Classification of ocean-going tugs according to Noble Denton.16

Tug category Features

ST Ocean-going salvage tug

Suitable for carrying out activity in any geographical operational area
Equipped with two main and one spare towlines, in accordance with requirements for this component
Capacity for increased crew levels in special towages
Self-sufficiency over 35 days at 80% of the maximum continuous rating (MCR)
U Unrestrained towage
Suitable for carrying out activity in any geographical operational area
Equipped with two main and one spare towlines, in accordance with requirements for this component
Capacity for increased crew levels in special towages
C Coastal towage
Suitable for carrying out activity in routes within reach of coastal shelter zones only as required by the situation
Equipped with one main and one spare towline, in accordance with requirements for this component
R1 Restricted towage
Equipped with one main and one spare towline, in accordance with requirements for this component
R2 Benign area towagea
Equipped with one main and one spare towline, in accordance with requirements for this component
Suitable for carrying out its activity in a benign geographical zone
R3 Restricted towage in benign areasa
Equipped with one main towline.
a
Benign area: zones free of tropical storms covered by the Noble technical office.

mooring of the vessel and the similar components used for
the normal towing of the vessel.
Nevertheless, ‘other components such as capstans,
towing winch and towing gear are not covered by this
Unified Requirement’.
On the other hand, the Oil Companies International
Marine Forum (OCIMF) text ‘Mooring Equipment
Guidelines – MEG3’6 establishes the bases for safe
mooring and towing. What stands out is the special
consideration it makes for HMPE lines.
Another contribution to the body of guidelines is
made by specialist project officers, as is the case of
Noble Denton.16 Their text provides categories for
ocean-going tugs – ST, U, C, R1, R2 and R3 – whose
range is found in Table 1.
Tow gear design
A tug can operate efficiently if it is suitably joined to
the vessel it is towing. Hensen7 outlines the properties a
towline must have if operated in a port:
 Sufficient strength to withstand the forces resulting
from the operation;
 Stretch to absorb the dynamic type forces that
occur in the manoeuvre as a result of the different
responses of tog and tow. The intention here is to
avoid excessive forces between the line and attach-
ment points;
 Service life so that it undergoes the minimum
distortion and loss of strength;
 A suitable weight/diameter so that the line can be
handled with ease on board the tug and tow. When
the tug is not assisted by a winch, flexibility is an
added factor to make handling easier.
An exception may be made with the last property, which
is not relevant to ocean-going tugs. These tugs always
boast a tow winch, and therefore the other properties
come into play with the towline for an ocean-going tug.
The towline comprises various components that are
interconnected, but have different functions. These
components and the task they perform are as follows:
 Tow wire – tow rope – main component in towage.
Metal wire is normally used, as is hawser.
 Tow spring – stretcher – a length of line whose task
is to reduce the dynamic effects acting on the line.
 Tow pennant – wire pendant – lead chain – Their job
is to facilitate the connection between tug and tow and
their line. At the same time, they are to add weight to
the end of the towline and thus improve the dynamic
behaviour of the tug. This increases the weight of the
catenary, which may be a chain, line or hawser.
To calculate the characteristics of the towline, one
must rely on the BP of the tug and MBL of the line.
Before moving on to the specific example of the port
and ocean-going tug, a more general approach will be
examined. Hancox17 suggests this method for calculat-
ing the towing gear components, as seen in Table 2.
Table 3 has been informed by practical experience
with winches and data taken from the literature.7,17 It
covers towage at port or in protected bodies of water
and its ocean-going counterpart, focusing on the tow-
line made of wire and textile fibres – including HMPE
– used in each towing gear component.
Cable length for ocean towing
The line’s total length will vary widely according to the
particular circumstances, such as the type of tug and its

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642 Proc IMechE Part M: J Engineering for the Maritime Environment 230(4)

Table 2. Breaking load for the towing gear components
according to BP.17
Component
Tow wire/rope
Synthetic tow spring
Tow pennant
Weak link
Shackles
BP: bollard pull; MBL: minimum break load.
features. In the case of the ocean-going tug, there are
guidelines;8 towing gear features in Chapter 12. Here,
the minimum length of towline is expressed in metres
BP
L = 1:800
MBL
While the IMO fails to distinguish between cate-
gories of tugs, Noble Denton16 does do this in its for-
mulations. Table 4 shows how the length is calculated
for the cited categories contained in Table 1, with pro-
posals for the recommended and minimum length.
The classification societies fail to provide guidance on
the towline lengths for either ocean-going or port tugs.
Line length for port towage
Just as it is in the case with ocean-going towage, the
MBL port tug skippers determine the towline length for each
operation. They rely on their experience and critical
2.5 BP eye. Nevertheless, Hensen7 establishes the line length to
5 BP use. Here, these factors come into play:
2.5 BP
2 BP
1.2–1.5 BP  Type and length of tug;
 Type of vessel being towed, as well as its speed and
forecastle deck height;
 Geographical setting and amount of space available
for the manoeuvre;
 Type of manoeuvre.
With these factors in mind, it is necessary to deter-
ð1Þ mine the minimum line length to have on board.
International regulations do not mention the length for
port and escort towage. Gaston2 situates the length for
the former between 100 and 150 m. Hensen7 establishes
the same interval for the escort tug and indicates a sec-
ond option at the skipper’s discretion for a lower inter-
val between 60 and 80 m.
Given the lack of regulations, it is a good idea to
propose a criterion that makes it possible to determine

Table 3. Components and makeup of towing gear.

Application Component Makeup

Towage at port or in Tow wire Galvanised cable (6 3 24 + 7, 6 3 37 + 1/ordinary, 6 3 36 + 1/

protected bodies of water
Ocean-going
Warrington Steel)
Tow spring-stretcher Eight-strand polypropylene plaitedEight-strand polyester plaitedThree-
strand polyester hawser laidBraidline nylonGalvanised cable
(6 3 24 + 7, 6 3 37 + 1/ordinary, 6 3 36 + 1/Warrington Steel)
Tow rope Eight-strand polypropylene plaitedEight-strand polyester plaitedThree-
strand nylon hawserBraidline nylonHMPE
Pennant–pedant HMPEGalvanised cable (6 3 24 + 7, 6 3 37 + 1/ordinary, 6 3 36 + 1/
Warrington Steel)
Tow wire Cable galvanised cable (6 3 36 + 1/Warrington Steel, 6 3 41 + 1/
Warrington Steel)
Tow spring-stretcher Three-strand nylon hawserEight-strand plaited nylonBraidline
nylonHMPE
Tow rope Three-strand nylon or polyester hawserEight-strand plaited nylon or
polyesterBraidline nylonHMPE
Pennant–pedant ChainGalvanised cable (6 3 36 + 1/Warrington Steel, 6 3 41)

Source: Authors’ own.

HMPE: high-modulus polyethylene.

Table 4. Towline length according to tug category and the vessel’s BP , for ocean towing.

Noble Denton IMO

3
Towage category Line length (m) 3 10 Min. value (m) Line length (m) 3 103

ST: ocean-going salvage tugs 2 3 BP/MBL 800 1.8 3 BP/MBL

U: unrestricted towages 1.8 3 BP/MBL 650 (U and R1)
C: coastal
R1: restricted towages 500 (C)
R2: benign area towages or R3: restricted benign area towages 1.2 3 BP/MBL 500

Source: Noble Denton.16

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Carral et al. 643

Table 5. Towline length for escort port tug, with data from Allan18 and the authors.

Country Sample number Number of Constant BP Average BP for Towline length Average towline
(no. of vessels) companies tension interval (Tf) sample (Tf) interval (m) length (m)
under study winch

Spain 11 2 76% 45–80 67.3 100–130 135

Holland 15 2 65–100 81.2 160–300 244
Norway 8 2 50–90 75.6 200 200
Canada 5 1 70–80 76 200–250 210
United States 1 1 65 65 91 91
UAE 11 2 50–100 78.5 120–150 147

UAE: United Arab Emirates.

Figure 1. Graph with the line length in function of BP.

Source: Authors’ own.

Table 6. Determining the MBL of the towing gear according to Emirates (11). A wide percentage (76%) of vessels from
the type of tug and its BP. this sample had a winch whose render and recovery
tension was constant. In just under half of the cases
Tug type Number of BP (tn-f) MBL (47%), the vessels boasted two drums. Information
towlines
about the towline length is found in Table 5.
ST 3 \ 90 (3.8 2 BP/50) 3 BP From the sample obtained (Figure 1), there seems to
. 90 2.0 3 BP be a low correlation (0.36) between line length and the
U or C 2 \ 40 3.0 3 BP tugs’ BP. It can therefore be deduced that the para-
40–90 (3.8 2 BP/50) 3 BP
. 90 2.0 3 BP meters are not dependent. However, there appears to
R1 1 \ 40 3.0 3 BP be a close relationship between length, geographical
40–90 (3.8 2 BP/50) 3 BP setting (wave height, access geography, etc.) and the
. 90 2.0 3 BP habits of the pilots carrying out the manoeuvres or the
R2 2 – 2.0 3 BP working procedures of each company.
R3 1 – 2.0 3 BP

Source: Noble Denton.16

BP: bollard pull; MBL: minimum break load.
this length. The starting point comes from the data pro-
vided in R.G. Allan (Table 2.3 Escort Towline Systems
Data).18 There are data about the towlines for 11 port
tugs operating in Spain. Following on from this body
data, a statistical analysis was carried out on a sample
of 51 port tugs whose BP fell between 50 and 100 ton.
These vessels belonged to nine companies based in six
countries: Spain (11 vessels), Holland (15), Norway (8),
Canada (5), United States (1) and the United Arab
Considering the diameter of the cable and other
towing gear components in ocean towing
Table 6 makes it possible to calculate the MBL that
towing gear should be able to accept, working with a
certain category of tug and BP.16
In Guidelines for Safe Ocean Towing,8 the MBL for
metal cable and synthetic fibre hawser is established
according to the BP of the tug as shown in Figure 2.
They should have a breaking load that exceeds 50%
of the MBL value for line that is used. On the other
hand, ISO 7365:198310 ‘Shipbuilding and marine

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644 Proc IMechE Part M: J Engineering for the Maritime Environment 230(4)

Figure 2. Graph showing the MBL vis-à-vis the breaking load that makes it possible to compare the MBL regulations for the
towline in an ocean-going tug from the IMO8 regulations and ISO 7365:1983.10

Table 7. Considering load in the DF in each classification society.

Society Conventional tug Escort tug

ABS Defined as static BP Static BP measured in testing

BV N/A Maximum BP measured in testing
DNV Maximum continuous BP Maximum mean towing pull measured in testing
GL Maximum BP stipulated by ship owner. This may be verified in a BP test.
LRS N/A Maximum design force for tug line

Source: Authors’ own.

BP: bollard pull; BV: Bureau Veritas; LRS: Lloyds Register of Shipping; DNV: Det Norske Veritas; GL Germanischer Lloyd; ABS: American Bureau of
Shipping.

structures – deck machinery – towing winch for deep
sea use’, proposes using a MBL value in function with
the MBP, also presented in Figure 2.
Considering the diameter of the towline and other
towing gear components for the port tug
For designing the line of port tugs, only the classifica-
tion societies provide guidelines that include instruc-
tions on how to carry out the calculation. These
instructions are also valid for ocean-going towage,
while an additional safety factor is established for
escort tugs. In all of these cases, however, the MBL is
relevant. It is obtained from the design forces (DF) that
are present, while the concept of BP is made to inter-
vene. As each classification society proposes different
criteria for the BP (Table 7), the DF calculation will be
affected.14
It should be mentioned that Bureau Veritas (BV)
and the Lloyds Register of Shipping (LRS) do not
establish requirements for the tug line. The other soci-
eties indicate three intervals for calculating the line.
Figure 3 makes a comparison between the classification
societies’ requirements, highlighting the differences
between them.
Calculating the breaking load (MBL) for the escort
tug’s towline means finding a new relationship for the
acting DL. However, a certain margin of safety is con-
sidered14 (Figure 4).
To summarise the situation for the two types of port
tug, conventional and escort models in each classifica-
tion society focus on different application intervals and
values, which fall between two and three times the
MBL in towing gear calculations.
Towline using HMPE
In the search for greater line efficiency, the port tug
industry has, in recent years, started to use HMPE fibre
as a material. The main advantage of doing so is a high
resistance similar to steel of the same diameter and a
better strength/weight ratio when compared to any
other natural or synthetic fibres. Its light weight gives it
buoyancy so that it will not get tangled in the propeller.
At the same time, its weight substantially facilitates
hauling up the line,4 as shown in Table 8. For these rea-
sons, its use has become widespread.

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Carral et al. 645

Figure 3. Graph with MBL vis-à-vis breaking load to compare MBL values required by the classification societies for the towline
strength for towing tugs. BV and LRS have no laid down guidelines.
Source: Authors’ own.

Figure 4. Graph with the MBL versus the breaking load, making it possible to compare the classification societies’ MBL
requirements for the escort tug towline.
Source: Authors’ own.

Although a number of companies manufacture
plaited Spectra and Dyneema HMPE lines, only two
companies make the HMPE fibre itself. Honeywell
(USA) produces SpectraÓ, while DSM Dyneema B.V.
(Holland) makes DyneemaÓ.
With the towage of the conventional port tug, the
line remains static when its end is attached to the tow-
ing hook, is made taut with the H-bit or rolled in the
drum whose brake is activated. In contrast, the escort
tug does this in a dynamic manner; the classification
societies are obliged to carry out this operation with
the towing winch activating the line.3 In any case, the
brake can activate the winch so that the line is ren-
dered when a pre-determined tension is surpassed.
Alternatively, there may be a system that works with
constant tension19 rendering and recovering the line
according to existing tension. Both operating systems
– static and dynamic – condition the choice of mate-
rial for the towline. Two factors are involved here;
one may use
 A line with high elasticity that can absorb the
dynamic loads along with a conventional tug winch,
given that the manoeuvre will be carried out with a
static drum whose brake is activated.
 A line with a high strength and low stretch along
with a constant tension winch that can absorb the
dynamic loads transmitted along the line. Here, the

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646 Proc IMechE Part M: J Engineering for the Maritime Environment 230(4)

Table 8. Comparing the properties of 72 mm lines in a variety of materials.

Material Diameter Weight MBL Rendered at Rendered at Specific Melting Dynamic coefficient
(mm) (kg/100 m) (kN) 40% of MBL 100% of MBL gravity point (°C) of friction against metal

Polyester 72 447.9 1054 8.5 15–20 1.38 250 0.12–0.15

‘double braid’
Steel 72 2200 3500 0.8 2–3 7.85 1600 0.23
HMPE 72 318.5 3470 1.5 4–5 0.97 140 0.07

Source: Authors’ own.

HMPE: high-modulus polyethylene; MBL: minimum break load.

Table 9. Noteworthy properties of the HMPE towlines.

Strength Attributed to the fibre, whatever the manufacture, superior to that of other fibres
Weight Lighter than polyester and much more so than steel, has buoyancy
Elongation Low, which means that it is ill-suited as a buffer for dynamic components
External and internal abrasive wear Needs external protection (sheaths); internal friction must be avoided as this leads to
internal wear through abrasion (heating)
Fatigue Has to operate on the redirection radius and buffering devices
Heat resistance Low; abrasion to be avoided or, occasionally, cooling needed
Ultraviolet ray resistance Protective covers needed (sheaths)
Chemical reactions Attacked by limnolene

Source: Authors’ own.

the line, cutting off the end that is most vulnerable to

Figure 5. Residual strength as percentage of the MBL versus
the number of work cycles, at the end and in the middle section
of the main line, as well as the pennant.
Source: Crump et al.20
drum is instrumental in carrying out the escort tug
manoeuvre.
Along with all the properties indicated in Tables 8
and 9, a further aspect to take into account is the line’s
durability. Crump et al.20 have determined that, after
1500 normal-use cycles, the residual strength of the line
is reduced by half of its original value in the pennant
and by around 30% in the case of middle section of the
main line (Figure 5). Consequently, it is a good idea to
replace the line every 1 or 2 years or however long it
takes to reach that number of normal-use cycles.
Given this limited durability, operators have devised
solutions that make it possible to extend the life of the
line beyond this point. Crump et al.20 propose rotating
abrasion. Alternatively, additional lines may be made
available with a pennant or pedant of 20–25 m at the
end of the towline in the zone subject to the mechanical
action of the bits, fairleads and chocks of the tow.
These additional lines can be made of the same mate-
rial as the main line. They may also be the traditional
polyester or polypropylene ropes called stretchers,
which work by absorbing the dynamic effects of the
tug.4
Table 10 provides the results of the port tug sample,
most of which opt for HMPE lines over polyester,
along with techniques for extending their service life.
These techniques include putting additional line at the
end of the boat being towed with pennants or pedants
(25 vessels). A widespread practice is to use external
protection or HMPE covers for the fibre (50 vessels).
When it comes to choosing the line’s composition, it is
convenient to assure if the material is suitable for the
towing winch’s characteristics. Correlations can be
traced in the tugs under study. Of the 41 vessels from
the sample which had winches with render and recovery
or constant tension systems, only 3 used polyester. The
others favoured HMPE as the towline material.
Figures 6 and 7 gather data on the lines of the 51
tugs included in the sample. It shows how many of these
have a stretcher (10 vessels) and pennant (25 vessels) in
Table 10. Length is another factor; the average of these
values is between 22.1 and 25 m.
When defining the towline and stretchers or if pen-
nants are involved, one should take into account how
the connection is made between them. In accordance
with the OCIMF,6 a cow hitch may be used, as shown
in Figure 8. The MBL on the line would decrease by

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Carral et al.
Figure 6. Graph representing the stretcher length versus BP
(10 vessels).
Source: Authors’ own.
Figure 7. BP – graph representing pennant length (25 vessels).
Source: Authors’ own.
15%. Other options for the union can be found in
Pederson et al.21 For instance, with the eye-to-eye, this
reduction is 10%. Using pennants with a lower dia-
meter and grommet is another possibility. In terms of
protecting the line, Volpenhein and Chou22 examine
how protecting the line with sheaths has an effect on
durability. The residual resistance goes down by 12%.
The ratio between the line’s BP and MBL represents
the safety coefficient that exists when the towline is in
operation. Figures 3 and 4 have already shown what
occurs with the port tug, with both the conventional
and escort models. Each classification society considers
different application intervals; their values fall between
two and three times the MBL. Nevertheless, when one
Table 10. Overview of features of escort tug lines.
BP interval (Tf) Average BP Fibre lines
sample (m)
50–100 76.2 90% HMPE
7.5% Polyester
18
Sources: Allan and authors’ own.
HMPE: high-modulus polyethylene; BP: bollard pull.
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647
considers using an HMPE line and how its timing would
affect the real-use cycles, the phenomenon of residual
strength comes into play when the towline for an escort
tug is chosen. In this way, the line meets classification
society requirements at the end of its service life.
The maximum MBL/BP to meet classification soci-
ety demands is considered, taking on the value of 3
(Figure 3). This is then increased by 30% owing to the
loss of MBL through ageing and would mean a new
value of 3.9. Other authors waver from this:
 In Allan,18 it is 5.
 Allan14 establishes a value 2.5 times the BP for the
port tug and four times the indirect towing force for
the government Fs (steering force) as a factor for
the escort tug.
 Hensen7 mentions a value of 2.5–3 times the maxi-
mum value for the retaining and governing forces
(Fb, Fs).
The analysis made on the simple of port tugs classi-
fied as escort tugs, as in Figure 9, determines an average
value of 3.2, with six values below 3 and four values
above 4.
Tow hook
The hooks for a rapid fire tug will be classified accord-
ing to how it operates while doing a job: in remote rapid
fire through an electro-pneumatic system (EPR) or by
means of an electro-hydraulic one (EHR).23
Classification societies (Table 11) determine the
position of the tow hook as they indicate that the winch
is placed lengthwise along the stern from the bridge.
However, they always use as a point of reference the
conventional screw tug, making their recommendations
irrelevant for modern Azimuthing Stern Drive (ASD)
or Voith-Schneider Propeller (VSP) tugs.14
To find the dimensions thereafter, one should use the
load determined by each classification society. With
these, it is possible to calculate the MBL for the towline,
in accordance with the contents of Figures 3 and 4.
Adapting bits and fairleads on using HMPE
lines
Once it leaves the hook or the winch drum, the towline
should have at its disposal deck fittings that limit its
Steel line Stretcher exists Pennant exists Type of protection
2.5% Existence 20% Existence 49% Defender, 32%
Material: polyester, 40%; Material: Cordura, 8%
polypropylene, 60% HMPE, 100%
HMPE covers 59%
648 Proc IMechE Part M: J Engineering for the Maritime Environment 230(4)

Figure 8. Joining two lines with a cow hitch knot4 using an eye-to-eye connection.21

Figure 9. Ratio between the towline’s MBL and BP from a sample of escort tugs.
Sources: Allan18 and authors’ own.

transversal movement. A few decades ago, this was
achieved through tow beams.2 However, in all modern
port tugs, such as the tractor and stern-drive models,
the towline passes through a huge guide, known as the
towing fairlead or staple. This guide is specially
designed to bear elevated loads, a high degree of fric-
tion from the line traction. The line is exposed to a
great deal of friction due to the constant movement of
the line in vessels whose winches have a constant ten-
sion or render and recovery system.19 The arrangement
contains staples shaped like an upside-down U, O or A
(Figure 10).
They are positioned across the middle of the deck,
near the towing winch (Figure 10). Being placed length-
wise means they are located at the towing point. Here,
the towing force of the line is activated. Dependent on
this arrangement is the equilibrium between the hydro-
dynamic and propulsion forces that exist during
towage.19
The common features among the fairleads are pre-
sented in Allan.18 These include robustness in the way
they are assembled, a ratio that is adequate for the con-
tact surface they have with the line and a surface finish
that is resistant to abrasion. A fourth property is related
to the inalterability of its surface finish over time and in
all kinds of conditions.
 Robustness in the way they are assembled – as there
are elevated loads in the towage according to the
line tension value and lead angle. Griffin and
Nishimura5 have assessed how the forces trans-
mitted by the staple along the line will be equal to
the line traction for a 60° lead angle. On the other
hand, Hensen7 determines the static force (T) acting
on the line in the case of a tug under a variable ver-
tical towline angle and tug pulling force tug (P).
The graph makes it possible to find the quotient
(T/P), which in turn leads to the final values for the
vertical and horizontal force elements acting on the
fairlead simply when the T vector is projected over
the axes.
 Contact surface ratio – the case of lines having to
make contact against the rollers will be expressed as
the ratio between the contact surface diameter line
and the line diameter. With synthetic fibres,18 the
surface diameter is determined as 10 times the line

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Carral et al. 649

Table 11. Classification society guidelines for tow hooks.

Regulation ABS BV DNV GL LRS

Rapid release from the bridge1 Yes – Yes – –

Will be able to withstand a test load equal to the breaking load for the towline without Yes – Yes – –
permanent deformation
The force necessary to activate the rapid fire under low loads will be below 150 N2 – Yes – Yes –
The towline can be rendered straightaway despite the angle formed by the keel and the Yes Yes Yes – Yes
towline
Pneumatic systems should be accompanied by a mechanical ones – – Yes Yes –
Uncontrolled release of the line must be avoided – – – Yes –

Source: Authors’ own.

–: not mentioned; Yes: guideline applicable for the classification; 1ABS has a special notation (QR) for vessels with rapid rendering from the bridge.
LRS recommends, but does not require, rapid rendering from the bridge; 2GL indicates that the load is to be below 250 N.

Figure 10. Double towing fairlead in an SDM tug. Both of these are in the centre line: one where the towing winch comes out and
the other on the deck near the stern.
Source: Authors’ own.

diameter with plaited hawsers, and eight times that tension it undergoes is transformed into close contact
of the braided one. Similarly, EN ISO 3730:2012 between the fibres. As these fibres rotate to adapt to
Shipbuilding – Mooring winches sets a minimum the fairlead’s shape, this is converted into a new fric-
value six times the rope’s diameter as it is wound in tion, between the fibres, as well as between the line and
the drums. If one considers the diameter needed for the roller or staple.
the rope to move around the pedestal fairlead, the
OCIMF6 establishes a ratio of 8.
 Surface finish – Crump et al.20 (Figure 11) show
how variation in the staple’s roughness leads to
diminishing resistance in the line after 5000 abra-
sion cycles. At the same time, an 8-mm surface fin-
ish is recommended for any deck accessory that
comes into contact with the line. When it comes to
considering mooring fittings such as closed chocks,
the OCIMF6 determines a finish leading to an aver-
age roughness of Ra = 10 mm.

The way in which the winch operates rendering and

recovering the line is translated into a continuous, low-
tension movement through the fairlead. Consequently,
a friction is repeatedly produced over the staple. It has
a two-pronged effect: there is external abrasion leading Figure 11. Effect of residual resistance versus fairlead
to wear and the friction in turn causes internal heating. roughness.
This heating is due to at least three factors.5 The Source: Crump et al.20

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650
Figure 12. Stainless steel H-bit and another made from carbon steel.
Source: Crump et al.20
All of these effects grow in intensity in the case of
ocean-going journeys. The towing winch constantly
adjusts the line due to the relative movement between
the tug and tow. Thus, the BP value and, with it, the
HMPE line diameter are increased.5
 Inalterability of the surface finish. Another point to
take into account is how to preserve the staple’s sur-
face (Figure 12) so that it remains suitably rough
over time. Obviously, for this condition to be met,
stainless steel alloys are a good option.7
If one considers using this material for other tug com-
ponents, then the survey carried out by Griffin24 will be
of interest. In the name of continuous improvement, the
use of HMPE lines goes hand in hand with the use of
stainless steel on escort tugs. However, this may be the
case only for ocean-going vessels given the limitations of
HMPE; it gives off internal heat from the friction it
produces with other deck fittings, such as the staple or
pulleys in dynamic applications on the open sea.
Definitions
Bollard pull (BP), fixed point traction of the tug at zero
speed, known in practical terms as continuous BP. In
other words, it is the fixed point traction for the tug at
100% of the average maximum continuous rating
(MCR) measured during 10 min and calculated as an
average value.
Maximum bollard pull (MBP) is the fixed point traction
for the tug at 110% of the MCR, measured over 5 min.
Minimum breaking load (MBL), maximum breaking
stress (MBS) – for a bunch of cables, a sample of cable
is taken. MBL is a lower value for the breaking load
of the various towing gear components, certified by
each manufacture (towline, shackles, chain links or
ropes).
Safe working limit (SWL), working load limit (WLL),
is the maximum static load that the line or shackles can
withstand.
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Proc IMechE Part M: J Engineering for the Maritime Environment 230(4)
Conclusion
With ocean-going tugs, the recommended and mini-
mum towline lengths found in the Noble Denton
guidelines seem better adapted to the IMO’s working
model for tug fleets. These guidelines offer different
categories for the services to be carried out. They also
establish varied length requirements. On the other
hand, the IMO regulations just correspond with the
Noble Denton ones for the intermediate categories
(Table 4).
As regulations could be more specific about the line
length needed for port tugs, a study has been done with
a sample of 51 tugs, a high percentage of which were
escort models. They came from nine companies and six
countries. With this sample, it is possible to establish
that line length does not correlate with the tug’s BP.
There is, however, a relationship between the geogra-
phical area and the working practices of a company.
The average towline length is 186 m, with a variation
interval falling between 91 and 300 m.
Considering the towline diameter for ocean-going
tugs, Noble Denton’s recent proposal seems better
adjusted to real conditions. They differentiate between
working categories. When the ISO and IMO regula-
tions are compared, one can deduce that the former
ones are stricter. The IMO ones are of interest when it
comes to calculating the diameter for fibre lines.
When calculating the port tug’s towline diameter, it
is important to consider classification society guide-
lines. Safety coefficients are proposed and the BP for
the tug is related to towline’s MBL. These coefficients
differ for conventional and escort tugs. They fall
between 2 and 3, but they coincide better in their sug-
gestions for escort tugs.
HMPE towlines are widely used – 90% of the vessels
– in the port fleet under study. This is even more the
case when winches have a render and recovery or con-
stant tension system. Similarly, it is usual to find a final
stretch or pennant (49% of the cases with an average
length of 22.5 m). The stretcher, normally of polyester,
is used less (29%). In every instance, the lines were pro-
tected with covers.
Carral et al.
When one examines residual strength for HMPE
lines, it becomes obvious that the safety coefficient or
MBL/BP ratio should be increased by 30% when it is
applied to the calculation for the line diameter. In this
way, it can be used for up to 1500 cycles or 1 or 2 years.
If one takes into account the data for the safety coeffi-
cients used for the fleet in the study, the average value
for this coefficient is 3.2.
Using HMPE lines comes the need to adapt the fair-
leads and bits in terms of the surface finish, curvature
ratio and inalterability of its surface over time. The
most important factor here is the surface roughness,
whose value is 8 mm.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest
with respect to the research, authorship and/or publica-
tion of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the
research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
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