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Current Opinion in Food Science

Volume 5, October 2015, Pages 29-35

Essential oils in foods: extraction, stabilization, and toxicity

Cristian Dima 1 , Stefan Dima 2

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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2015.07.003 Get rights and content

Highlights
• Extraction and processing of essential oils.

• Stabilization of essential oils.

• Essential oils in foods and safety issues.

Due to their biological properties, essential oils are used as an ingredient to enhance the functionality of various products such as
foodstuff, drinks, perfumes, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, or green pesticides. Currently, research is mainly focused on developing
innovative and eco-friendly techniques to extract essential oils and subsequently stabilize them through encapsulation in order to
obtain GRAS (generally recognized as safe) natural products. The emerging market of essential oils demands diverse analytical
methods and improved regulations for their marketing and application.

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Current Opinion in Food Science 2015, 5:29–35

This review comes from a themed issue on Food engineering and processing

Edited by Maria Angela de Almeida Meireles

For a complete overview see the Issue and the Editorial

Available online 21st July 2015

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2015.07.003

2214-7993/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction

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3/9/2019 Essential oils in foods: extraction, stabilization, and toxicity - ScienceDirect
The earliest humans are presumed to have subsisted on plants and seeds (God said, ‘See, I have given you every plant yielding seed that
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is upon the face Shareand every
of all the earth, Export
tree with seed in its fruit; you shall have them for food’; Genesis 1:29). It follows then that
essential oils (EOs) from plants have occupied an important place in human history. Numerous written accounts of the extraction and
use of EOs have been found in different regions, such as India (5000 BC) and Mesopotamia or Greece (3000 BC) 1, 2•.

Since their discovery, EOs have been used as food flavors and additives, medicines, aphrodisiacs, and cosmetics, or even during cult
rituals. Presently, EOs are attracting increasing interest for research as well as diverse applications. The market demand of EOs has
increased with their wide range of uses in the foodstuff, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and perfumes, aromatherapy, and agriculture 1, 2•,
3, 4, 5•, 6, 7, 8. Thus, approximately 40 000–60 000 tons of EOs are produced annually with an estimated market value of 700 million US
dollars [4]. The prices of the products depend on the plant quality, extraction methods, and area of application
(http://www.edenbotanicals.com; http://www.newdirectionsaromatics.ca 19.03.2015).

The present paper aims to emphasize the main research directions regarding the extraction, stabilization, and application of EOs as
natural components in the food industry.

Extraction and processing of EOs

EOs are complex mixtures of volatile compounds extracted from plants. These low molecular mass compounds are insoluble in water.
However, the exact definition of EOs is still debated in the scientific community [22]. The majority accept the definition of the
International Standards Organization (ISO), which limits the extraction methods used to obtain EOs. According to the ISO 9235.2
specifications, EO is defined as ‘A product obtained from vegetable raw material — either by distillation with water or steam or — from
the epicarp of Citrus fruits by a mechanical process, or — by dry distillation’ 2•, 9••. The regulation also states that steam distillation can
be conducted in the presence or absence of water in the distillery, whereas dry distillation does not permit the presence of water or
water vapors in the still. In addition, various possible methods of processing raw EO such as redistillation, rectification, and aeration
are highlighted.

Aromatic plants used in EO extractions are ubiquitous. Some aromatic plants were collected from wild flora (wild collection) growing
beneficially in natural conditions. However, most of the aromatic herbs are harvested from systematic crops, which are cultivated
under ecological conditions.

More than 3000 types of EOs are currently known, of which only 300 are of commercial interest 1, 5•.

After being synthesized in different parts of herbs, EOs are released as an aroma through the epidermal cells of petals, or they are
accumulated and stored in different anatomical parts of the plant, such as intracellularly secreting cells, glandular trichomes, or
secretory canals and pockets 9••, 10.

Whole aromatic herbs or parts such as leaves, flowers, buds, seeds, fruits, roots, wood or bark are harvested during plant-specific stages
of maturity. Then, they are stored under controlled conditions of light, temperature, and humidity, and then subjected to different
extraction methods [10].

Systemized extraction techniques in terms of required quantities, process complexity, and field of application are presented in Figure
1. Thus, large amounts of EOs for commercial use can be obtained via classical methods such as distillation, organic solvent extraction,
and cold pressing.

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3/9/2019 Essential oils in foods: extraction, stabilization, and toxicity - ScienceDirect

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Figure 1. Essential oils extraction methods.

Distillation is the oldest and simplest method of extracting EOs, applicable in several technologies. The main technological difference
underlying methods such as hydrodistillation, vapor-hydrodistillation, and steam distillation is the presence or absence of water in
contact with vegetal material. However, these methods have some disadvantages such as high energy consumption, long extraction
time (4–6 hours), simultaneous extraction of other polar components (coumarins and plant pigments), degradation of temperature-
sensitive compounds, and environment pollution 9••, 11.

Citrus EOs are obtained by cold pressing, wherein oil glands localized in the external part of the mesocarp are pressed to release EOs,
which are further separated by centrifugation.

New extraction technologies that eliminate some of the disadvantages of the classical methods have been developed over the past years.
Some methods such as ultrasound-assisted extraction [12] or microwave-assisted extraction 13, 14, 15 employ alternative sources of
energy, whereas others such as supercritical fluid extraction 16, 17, 18, 19 or subcritical water extraction 9••, 20 enhance the solvent
characteristics.

CO2 is mostly used in supercritical fluid extraction for its unique properties such as decreased values of critical parameters
(Tcr = 31.1 °C and Pcr = 7.4 MPa), low chemical reactivity, low toxicity, and reasonable price. In the supercritical phase (31–55 °C and 0.5–
7.4 MPa), CO2 behaves as a nonpolar liquid with high diffusivity, which allows the extraction of nonpolar components from the
targeted material.

Subcritical water extraction (SWE), also known as pressurized hot water extraction (PHWE) or pressurized low-polarity water extraction
(PLPWE), is a novel method of EO extraction [21]. Here, superheated water is used at temperatures ranging between 100 and 375 °C
(critical temperature) at high pressures (>20 bar). Under these conditions, the water polarity decreases with the decrease in dielectric
constant until 14.86 (350 °C and 250 bar), which ensures that nonpolar components are solubilized and extracted from plant materials
9••, 11. In general, SWE is mainly used at the laboratory and pilot plant scales to produce reduced quantities of EOs. These new
techniques have the following important advantages over traditional methods: reduced power consumption and extraction time,
extraction of a much higher number of components in a larger quantity, no degradation of temperature-sensitive components, and
decreased environment pollution.

Some research articles and review papers have described these unconventional methods as well as their application in bioactive
component extraction 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18. The optimization of parameters is particularly of interest for increasing the extraction
yield and product quality 11, 18. Further, microextraction methods are also being studied with the main aim of rapidly analyzing the
extracted components. These methods use low quantities of raw material and allow all analyses to be performed immediately after
extraction (headspace techniques and solid-phase microextraction). Often, raw EOs are processed further through redistillation,

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3/9/2019 Essential oils in foods: extraction, stabilization, and toxicity - ScienceDirect
molecular distillation, or rectification to remove any traces of lipids or natural waxes and therefore obtain highly pure fractions of
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bioactive components Export

Authenticity of EOs is a pertinent issue. EOs are most commonly falsified by using inauthentic herbs, adding natural volatile
compounds of poor quality, or even mixing with other simple vegetable oils [23••]. Falsification modifies the quality and safety of the
EO product for subsequent use (foodstuff, cosmetics, and drugs). Thus, international quality control organizations have introduced
rules and standards for EO usage to prevent and detect falsification. In addition, new authentication techniques have been developed,
including gas chromatography (GC), chiral GC, isotope-ratio mass spectrometry, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
and (HP)TLC analysis, vibrational spectroscopy (infrared, IR; Fourier transform infrared, FTIR; and near infrared, NIR), and coupled
and multidimensional chromatography (GC–GC, GC–mass spectrometry (MS)) 24, 25.

Chemical composition and biological activity of EOs

The chemical components of EOs are produced through three different biosynthetic pathways: the methyl-erythritol pathway for
mono-terpines and diterpenes, the mevalonate pathway for sesquiterpenes, and the shikimic acid pathway for phenylpropanoids 9••,
10. A single type of EO can contain more than 100 different components in various ratios (1–70%). However, a systematic chemical
nomenclature for chemical compounds found in EOs does not exist. Their scientific names are based on their properties or prominent
sources (e.g., terpenes, limonene, pinene, thymol, among others). In general, the chemical components of EOs are classified as
terpenes, phenylpropanoids, or sulfur-containing or nitrogen-containing compounds 2•, 3, 4, 26. These groups contain cyclic and
acyclic compounds from different classes, such as alcohols, esters, phenols, ketones, lactones, aldehydes, and oxides (Figure 2).

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Figure 2. The main chemical compounds in essential oils.

In addition, the EO composition depends on the specie and subspecie of the extracted plant, the geographic location of this plant,
harvest time, extraction techniques, and processing methods. Thus, terpene-rich EOs are extracted from the Apiaceae, Asteraceae, and
Lamiaceae families; phenylpropanoid-rich EOs are extracted from the Apiaceae (Umbelliferae), Lamiaceae, Myrtaceae, Piperaceae, and
Rutaceae families; and EOs rich in sulfur-containing and nitrogen-containing compounds are found in plant families such as
Alliaceae, Rutaceae, and Brassicaceae [26].

The chemical components of EOs account for their different biological properties such as antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer,
antiviral, antimutagenic, antiprotozoal, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and antioxidant properties 27, 28, 29, 30. These features can be
exploited to develop innovative pharmaceutical or functional food products that contribute to the health of the consumer.

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Stabilization of EOs
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EOs are sensitive to few physicochemical factors such as oxygen, light, temperature, and pH. Thus, oxygen in the presence of light
leads to oxidation of the unsaturated compounds with the generation of free radicals. EOs lose small quantities of volatile compounds
when stored at high temperatures. Moreover, some components are highly unstable with varying pH, for instance, citral, which is
easily decomposed in an acidic environment [31]. EOs can be protected during storage, transport, and processing through
encapsulation. This can not only protect EOs from various physicochemical factors but also preserve their flavor and their biological
activity, mask their odor/smell and taste, and transform them into water-soluble powders [32]. Microcapsules slowly release the EO
components, which ensures that flavor is preserved and shelf life is extended. EO-loaded micro-particles and nanoparticles must be
produced via an integrated process with interrelated stages. This process should ensure that these micro-particles and nanoparticles
enhance the functionality of the foodstuff, such as safety, increased nutrition value, health benefits, good sensorial properties, and
affordable price 33, 34, 35, 36. The food-grade encapsulant material and the encapsulating techniques should agree with the nature of
the food matrix containing the EO. For example, EOs to be introduced in liquids must be converted into liquid colloidal dispersions,
or nano-emulsions and microemulsions 37••, 38, or they can be included in water-soluble molecular systems such as cyclodextrins [39].
Polymer micro-capsules and nanocapsules loaded with EOs are used in dairy 40, 41, meat 42, 43, 44, or bakery and confectionery
products [1]. The various delivery systems used in the food industry are presented in Figure 3.

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Figure 3. Micro and nano systems used to encapsulation of essential oils.

EOs in foods and safety issues

Plants have long been an integral part of human life. Based on experience, humankind began to use plants for their benefits. Presently,
plants are often used for food preservation or treatment of various diseases. However, the quantity of used plants and plant extracts is
limited by the sensitivity of the olfactory and taste sensors. Thus, no safety issues have been identified for these types of ‘natural
products,’ which are mostly neglected. Concepts such as a ‘long history of safe use’ and the ‘principle of self-limitation’ are used to
consider natural flavor complexes ‘safe under intended condition of use.’ In general, based on these two aspects, the US Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) decided that 160 EOs are ‘generally recognized as safe’ (GRAS) for use in food preparation, drugs, and cosmetics
[45•]. The food industry mainly uses cinnamon, citrus, clove, lemongrass, coriander, oregano, sage, pimento, thyme, and rosemary EOs
[46].

Testing the composition of ‘natural products’ has become all the more important with the increasing consumer demand. As a result,
the chemical and toxological characterization of EOs used in the food industry has been increasingly investigated of late. International
organisms such as FDA, Codex Alimentarium, Food Chemical Codex (FCC), the Flavor and Extract Manufactures Association (FEMA),
the International Organization of Flavor Industries (IOFI), and the Council of Europe (CoE) have established protocols for chemical

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and toxicological analyses, good practice guides for processing aromatic plants and EOs, and the limits for the quantities of minimal
and maximalDownload Share to be
volatile components Export
found in EOs. For the commercial use of EOs as food flavors, the FCC mandates that the mean
concentrations of the congener components be stated, as well as the confidence limits for a sufficient number of EOs; its key
constituents, with a zinc daily intake higher than 1.5 mg/day, which may be used to monitor its quality; and the trace constituents that
could affect its safety. Furthermore, three classes of toxic constituents were established: The first class includes low-toxicity
compounds that do not require special investigations, at the ‘fifth percentile no observed effect level’ (NOEL) of 3.0 mg/kg per day; the
second class includes components less harmless than the first class, which do not raise major toxicity suspicions, at the fifth percentile
NOEL of 0.91 mg/kg per day; and finally the third class contains components of significant toxicity, which decreases the safety of the
EO, at the fifth percentile NOEL of 0.15 mg/kg per day. Unidentified components are also categorized under the third class [47].

One of the most commonly used EOs in the food industry, coriander EO belongs to the first class and can be safely consumed when
used appropriately. The calculated individual consumption of coriander EO is 0.3624 mg/day or 0.00604 mg/kg per day (total lower-
intake value; FEMA) and 2.9476 mg/day or 0.0478 mg/kg per day (high-intake value; National Academy of Science). Based on FEMA, the
maximum quantities of coriander EO that can be used in various domains of the food industry are as follows: meat products,
68.47 ppm; alcoholic beverages, 121.20 ppm; nonalcoholic beverages, 8.94 ppm; baked goods, 62.06 ppm; frozen dairy, 47.35 ppm; and
chewing gum, 6.62 ppm [1]. The following chemical components of EOs are registered and generally recognized as safe for use as
flavoring agents in the European Union (EU) countries: carvacrol, carvone, cinnamaldehyde, citral, p-cymene, eugenol, limonene,
menthol, and thymol. Estragole and methyl eugenol were removed from the safe list [48].

Conclusions
Due to their traditional flavor and their antibacterial and antioxidant characteristics, EOs have been used as alternatives to synthetic
additives in food that is both highly safe and savory. Studies focused on embedding EOs into micro-particles and nanoparticles are
ongoing, for use in food processing or for developing new packaging technologies. However, more toxicological studies on EOs and
their effect on consumer health are warranted.

References and recommended reading

Papers of particular interest, published within the period of review, have been highlighted as:
• of special interest

•• of outstanding interest

Special issue articles Recommended articles Citing articles (28)

References
1 G.A. Burdock, I.G. Carabin
Safety assessment of coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) essential oil as a food ingredient
Food Chem Toxicol, 47 (2009), pp. 22-34
Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar

2• E. Schmidt
Production of Essential Oils
K.H.C. Baser, G. Buchbauer (Eds.), Handbook of Essential Oils. Science, Technology, and Applications, Taylor & Francis Group
(2010), pp. 83-118
CrossRef View Record in Scopus Google Scholar

This book develops all aspects of essential oils: sources, chemistry, extraction methods, analysis, antimicrobial activities,
toxicology and safety, encapsulation, storage and transport, and European legislation.

3 F. Bakkali, S. Averbeck, D. Averbeck, M. Idaomar

Biological effects of essential oils: a review
Food Chem Toxicol, 46 (2008), pp. 446-475
Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar

4 S. Burt
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