CHEMISTRY Matter and Its States Metter ‘As wre look at our surroundings, we see a large variety of things with different shapes sizes and textures. Everything in this universe is made up of material which scientists have named matter. Allthe things such as stones, clouds, food, stars, plants, even a small drop of water occupy space and have mass, In other words. matter is something which hhas mass, ccupy volume, can have physical resistance, inertia and can be realised by the sense organs. Early Indian philosophers classified matter in the form of five basic elements-the "Pancha Tatvel~ air, earth, fire, sky and water. According to them, everything, living or non-living was made up of these five basic elements. Characteristics of Matter ( Matter is made up of very small particles that are beyond our imagination. {i The particles have space in between them, called the intermolecular space. ill) They are continuously moving, i., they possess kinetic energy. [As the temperature rises, speed of the particles increases. Due to which the kinetic ‘energy of the particles increases. (iv) They attract each other. The force of attraction responsible for Keeping them together is called intermolecular force. (v) The strength of this force of attraction varies from one kind of matter to another. Particles of Matter ‘Matter has mainly two particles Atoms ‘The word atom has been derived from Greek word atoms meaning indivisble. An atom is the smallest particle of an element that may or may not exist independently and retain all, its chernical properties ie., takes part in chemical reactions. Atoms of different elements have different masses and chemical properties. Molecules ‘Ammolecule isa group of two or more atoms that are chemically bonded together. It can be efined as the smallest particle of an element or a compound that is capable of independent existence and shows all the properties of that substance. However, it does not take part in a chemical reaction,a 226 Types of Molecules ‘These are of two types \i) Homomolecules or Molecules of the Element These are the molecules of an element constituted by the same type of atoms. ¢g., 02, Hs, Ny ete ‘The number of atoms constituting a molecule is called its atomicity. eg., atomicity of phosphorus (P,) is four and of sulphur (S,) is eight, (ii) Heteromolecules or Molecules of the Compounds In these molecules, atoms of different elements join together in definite proportions. Examples of Heteromolecules Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE Compound Combining Elements Ratio by Mass Wate (H:0) Hydrogen, oxen {isa ‘Ammonia (NH) wtrogen,hycrogen 14:3 Carbon dione C9,) Catton, oxygen 3:8 States of Matter Matter exists in three different states~ solid, liquid and gas These states of matter arise due to the variation in the extent of intermolecular forces and intermolecular space. 1. The Solid State In this state of matter, the substances have definite mass, volume and shape, eg., wood table, pen, book, etc. The intermolecular space in between the constituent particles of solid state Is small, but the intermolecular forces are strong. Thus, the constituent particles such as atoms, molecules or ions can not move but can only oscillate about “@) Everyday Science. their mean position. Thsisthe reason why v The shape of a rubberband changes solids are incompressible and rgidie, have wen soe tema force apple definite shape and size, Because of the bulitegains shape when the forces - removed Further excessive fore Is presence of strong intermolecular forces, Applied breaks ie. nis igd aro have these are highly ensedand generally have Sepl@d break its rigd ond have high melting point soci vee + A sponges compressive but Classification of Solids coneidered 203 sold because of the hess nee eieroar cies presence of a led holes When force ae S aple,the air expels ct and gets (® Crystalline Solids They consist papas large number of crystals. In a crystal. We can easily move our hand in aor the arrangement of particles is regular water leas ensiy than si) but for 8, sodium chloride, diamond, quartz ing the same ma sod lock of icpaalcherapnitenat sod slats oe eae. : : is because of her extent o (i) Amorphous Solids They consist of Dense of her extentol | particles of irregular shape. The patcesef cokes arrangement of partclesinamorphaus _ hnougn ec «coi butt fats over solid is disordered. eg. glass, rubber ~ water veto ta ese censty teen andplastes, Amorphous solids are also water This s because of he pressure GEN pei! satel Ge pstechied”™> °° of ak Wed apaoel dle oweaer tial HezondingMATTER AND ITS STATES 227 2. The Liquid State In this state, the substances have no fixed shape but have a fixed volume. They take up {he chape of the container in which they are kept. eg, water, of milk, etc. The upper saflace ofthe lguids fs always planar whatever be the shape ofthe container. Liquids Auw'and change thelr shape so they are not rigid and ae called fluids (substance which tan low) Th liquids, Intermolecular forces are no longer strong enough to hold the particles together that's why they are less densely compressed. However, the forces are stl eeftlene so thet particles cannot escape each other's environment, so they have sufficient mobility and fixed volume 3. The Gaseous State Jrthisslete mater havenofizedshapeandvolime,They only + Gaseus Presse in ces ine shape and lz ofthe container in which they are thegoraurstte he Tepe ag, ain yO, Ny, ete. In gaseous slate, the pares move about ‘Mermekcula foros ave very weak, so the intermolecular rondomiat high spaces between the molecules are very large. This isthe reason speed. Due to this ‘that gases are highly compressible as compared to solids and they hit each other liquids. Gases also flow in the container in which they are kept. and also the walls of so they are also called fluids. the container. That's Fuitner pay epi more'as compared totigutiaaxdacide — AD SEERET han fasted Guo to the weaker intermolecular forces ae PEyuweOn ey Conmpared to liquids and sold ‘Two More States of Matter Nowa-days there is @ discussion on two more states of matter but these states ‘ccur only in extreme conditions of temperature and pressure These are Plasma Itconsits of super energetic and super excited particles. These particles are in the {form of ionized gases. The fluorescent tube (filed with helium or any other ges) ‘and neon sign bulbs (filed with neon) consist of plasma. The sun and the stars ‘low because ofthe presence of plasma in them. The plasma is created in stars Deeause of very high temperature Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC) ‘This state is named after the name of ecientsts Satyendra Nath Bose (India) and ‘Albert Einstein, The BEC is formed by cooling 2 gas of extremely low density, about ‘one-hundted-thousenth the density of normal ai, to super low temperatures. in 2001, Eric A. Cornel, Wolfgang Kettere and Carl E: Wieman of USA received the ‘Nebel Prize in Phyaiee for achieving Bose-Einstein Condensate Diffusion “The process of intermixing of particles of two different types of matter on their own is called diffusion eg. on adding a drop of ink into water, it spreads evenly throughout the ‘Water. On heating, the speed of particles increases which results in more intermolecular Space or less intermolecular forces, thus diffusion becomes faster. That's why the smell of fot siazling food reaches you several metres away. But o get the sell from cold food you nave to go close21S to # Solids, liquids and gases can diffuse into liquids. The rate of diffusion of liquids is higher than that of solids. Because in liquid state, particles move freely and have greater intermolecular space as compared to that in the solid state, Due to high speed of particles and large space between them, gases show the property of diffusing very fast into other gases. Interconversion of States of Matter The states of matter are interconvertible. They can be interchanged by changing _ Liquid AA 3 C8 cares SS Interconversion of the Three States of Matter Various terms related to interconversion of states of matter are i) Fusion The process of melting, ic. change of solid state into liquid state is also known as fusion, (i) Melting Point The temperature at which a solid starts to melt to become a liquid at the atmospheric pressure is called its melting point. The melting point ofa solid is an indication of strength of the force of attraction between its particles ie, higher the melting point of solid, higher will be the force of attraction between the particles of solid. Melting point of ice is 0°C. (ii) Sublimation It is the process used for those solids which convert directly into ‘vapours on heating without converting into liquid phase and the vapours upon cooling give back the solid. Such solids are called sublimates (iv) Vaporisation The process in which a liquid substance changes into a gas rapidly on heating is called vaporisation. The same phenomenon is called evaporation when heating is categorised to be done below the boiling point of the liquid, (v) Boiling Point The temperature at which a liquid starts bolling at the atmospheric pressure is known as its boiling point. Boiling isa bulk phenomenon and varies from place to place. Boiling point of water at normal pressure is 100°C. (vi) Condensation It is the process in which gas changes into the liquid state or liquid changes to solid state ie. solidification. (vil) Latent Heat The word latent means hidden. Thus, latent heat is the amount of heat absorbed or released by a substance undergoing a change of state such as ice changing to water or water to steam at constant temperature. Latent heat of fusion is defined as the amount of hest eneray that is required to change 1 kg ofa solid into liquid at atmospheric pressure at its melting point. Particles in water at 0°C have more energy as compared to particles in ce at thesame temperature, because of the presence of latent heat of fusion. Latent heat of vaporisation js the heat enery required to change 1 kg of a liquid to gas at the atmospheric pressure at its boiling point. Temperature remains constant during boiling due to latent heat of vaporisation. _ Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCEMATTER AND ITS STATES i peas 229 Effect of Change of Temperature On heating the solid, kinetic energy of the particles increases. Due to which they start vibrating with greater speed (at their fixed position). The energy supplied by the heat overcomes the forces of attraction between the particles. Due to reduction in force of attraction, the particles leave their fixed position and start moving freely. Due to this, 2 stage is reached when solid melts and starts to convert into liquid, Effect of Change of Pressure By increasing pressure and reducing temperature, we can change a gas into liquié anda liguid into solid and reverse is achieved by decreasing pressure and increasing cemperature * Due tolatent heat of vapor'sation, gates in steam ie, wate vapour at 373K (100%) have ove eneey tron thot of water tthe some erperatue Maes Why stern caus Severe Burns tan tat of ter a 100°C thigh ottudes, atmospheric pressures low, therefore the vopou pressure ofa aud becomes equal fo atrospnercpresnureat ow tempertue i, water bolls ta temperature Iessthan 100°C and hence ood requires rior time to cook 1 side he pressure cooker pressures high and hance, wote ols ata temperature higher than 100%. Ths ss me's equ to cok the food «nthe presence of mpuri, boiling pont increase ond freeing pont eereeses + Sold carbon diode stored under high pressure It gets converted iret to goseous state an deceosng pressure to atm without coming ito Fiaui state Tha’ why its ao called thie ord ko Chemical Classification of Matter (On the basis of chemical composition, matter can be classified as Matter ure Substance Mixture (+ Homogeneous + Hotoregoneous Elements Compounds (Metals + Orgarie = Non:matals * Inorganic + Metalide Element Robert Boyle was the first scientist to use the term element in 1662, Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743-94), a French chemist defined an element as a basic form of matter that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by any physical chemical process Infact, fan element is thet fundamental matter which is composed of only one Kind of atoms. Elements can be solids like Aluminium (Al), Iron (Fe), Gold (Au), Silver (Ag) etc, liquids like Mercury (Hg), Bromine (Br), ete and gases like Argon (Ar). Helium (He), Oxygen (0) ‘Hydrogen (H), ete. Presently, there are 118 elements out of which 98 are naturally occurring and rest are artificially made> Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE 230 Symbols for Some Elements Element Symbol__—-Element_—‘Symbol_-—Element Symbol ‘Aluminium a | Copper cu | Nitrogen N ‘Argon ar | Fluorine F | Oveen ° ‘Barium Ba | God Au | Potassium: K Born 8 | Hystogen H | Bien s Bromine B | tine 1 Ser te Calcium ca | tron Fe ‘Sodium Na Carton c | teed Po | sulphur s Chorine | Megs Me Uri u ota 5 Neon Ne Zine tn = 2 Symbols have been taken from the names of elements in Latin, German or Greek. The first letter of a symbol is always written as a capital letter and the second letter as a small letter. Elements can be normally divided into metals, non-metals and metalloids. We will describe their properties later. Compound A compound is a pure substance composed of two or more elements, chemically combined with one another in a fixed proportion. The composition of a compound is always fixed (same throughout) andit has totally different properties from its constituent particles, eg., water (H,0), methane (CH), sugar (CigHoz0,,), salt (NaCl, baking soda (NaHCO), ete ‘A compound can be broken down into its elements by chemical or electrochemical reactions, but not by any physical process. It is considered as a homogeneous mixture. The physical and chemical properties of the compound are different than those of its constituent elements, Compounds can be broadly categorised to organic (those with Cas main constituent) and inorganic (those in which C is not the main constituent Mixture Most of the matter present around us exist in the form of mixtures of two or more pure ‘components. Thus, mixtures are impure substances and do not have constituents in fixed broportion. eg. air (a mixture of various gases like ©, Nz, CO, ete), sea water, minerals, soil, etc are all mixtures, The mixtures can be separated into their constituents by simple physical or mechanical processes. Types of Mixtures Depending upon the nature of the components that form a mixture, we have two different types of mixtures (i) Homogeneous Mixtures These mixtures have a uniform composition throughout. Examples of such mixtures are salt in water, sugar in water, metharcl and water. vinegar, toothpaste, scap (toilet, soft drinks, ete Thesearealso known as truesohutions. In thes solutions diameter of solute particles is less than nm, (ii) Heterogeneous Mixtures These mixtures contain physically distinct parts and have non-uniform compositions. Mixtures of sodium chloride and iron filings: dust particles in ai: salt and sulphursoil and water; colloids (milkiand suspensionsare the examples of heterogeneous mixtures.MATTER AND ITS STATES * cet, Separating the Components of a Mixture Heterogeneous mixtures can be separated into their respective constituents by simple physical methods like hand picking, sieving, filtration that we use in our day-to-day life Sometimes special techniques have to be used for the separation of the components of a homogeneous mixture. ( Evaporation We can separate the volatile components (solvent) from its non-volatile components Golute) by the method of evaporation. eg.. recovery of salt from sea water. The rate of evaporation increases with rise in temperature, surface area, wind speed and decrease in humidity. (i) Centrifugation It is a process that involves use of centrifugal force for sedimentation of heterogeneous mixture, The principle is that the denser particles are forced to the bottorn and the lighter particies stay at the top when spun rapidly. Its also used * in diagnostic laboratories for iood and urine tests, impurities particles are separated by the process of centrifugation, + indiaries andhometo separate ‘butter from cream. = in washing machines to <& Everyday Science + Water kept in earthern pot (pitcher) becomes cool during summer. This is because tiny pores are present at the surface of the earthern po, from which water is evaporated. The eneray require for evaporation is provided by the remaining ‘water, Henee. ts temperature goes down, Je, 1 becomes cool ¥ We should wear cotton clothes in summer. ‘hs is because cotton being a good absorner provides more surface area for the ‘evaporation of water. Since, the energy Fequired for evaporation is taken up from tout body, That's why we feel relief and ‘comfort in such clathes, ¥ We see water droplets on the outer surface (of @ lass containing oe cold water. This is because the water vapours present i air, when comes in contact of glass of ice cold Water, lose their energy and get converted into liquid water which appears inthe form of water droplets ¥ Wie feel cool, wien some nail polish remover or spit is kept on our palm. is ‘due tothe evaporation of remover or spirit Which takes eat from our hand. ‘After a hot sunny dey, people sprinkle water (on the roof because the high latent heat of ‘ater helps to cool the hot surface squeeze out water from wet clothes. (ii) By the Use of Separating Funnel We can separate a mixture of two immiscible liquids by the use of separating funnel. The principle is that immiscible liquids separate out in layers depending upon their densities Its used = to separate mixture of oil and water. «= inthe extraction of iron, the lighter slag is removed from the top by this method to leave the molten iron at the bottom in the furnace (iv) Sublimation By the process of sublimation, the mixture of those two solids is separated in which one solid is sublimate. In this process. the mixture is heated due to which the sublimate substance is vaporised and the vapours are collected and cooled down to get the pure solid Sublimates like naphthalene, anthracene, camphor, benzoic acid, NHCl, HgCl,.dry ice, salicylic acid, iodine etc,, can be separated (from non-sublimates) or purified by this techniqueSS 2B2~< (v| Chromatography This name isbased on Greek word ‘Kroma’ meaning colour. tis the modern technique for separation and purification of organie compounds and is applicable for those mixtures, components of which have different adsorption capacites. This method was invented by Tswett. I is used for those solutes that dissolve in the same solvent. It's used to separate colours in dye; pigments from natural colours, drugs from the blocé and coloured components of black ink (vi) Distillation Ie is based on the difference in the boiling points of the liquids in the given mixture. On boiling, liquid having lower boiling point vaporises first and collected separately. Chloroform and aniline; acetone and water are separated by this process. The two opposite process, ie, vaporisation and condensation are involved in this process, Because first the liquid vaporises and then the vapours are cooled down to condense again into liquid form. Fractional Distillation To separate a mixture of two or more miscible liquids for which the difference in boiling points is less than 25 K, ie, for the liquids which have nearly same boiling point, fractional distillation is used. eg, separation of different gases from air, different fractions from petroleum products ete. The apparatus is similar to that of simple distillation except that a fractionating column is fitted in between distillation flask and condensor. It is used to separate a mixture of methanol and acetone; components of composite oil like petrol, diesel, ete and components of aqueous air. Distillation Under Reduced Pressure it can to used for those liquids which have very high boiling points and those, which decompose at or below their boiling points, Glycerol decomposes much before its boiling point. so it is separated from spent lye in soap industry or purified by distiltion under reduced pressure Steam Distillation This technique is applied to separate substances which are steam volatile and are immiscible with water. In this process, steam is passed through the mixture. The pure organic compound (which is steam volatile) comes out with steam and condensed and collected separately. Separating funnels used to separate these organic compounds from water. Itisused ‘to separate the mixture of ortho and para nitrophenols (non-volatile). Aniline, sandal ‘woodboil, terpentine oil, eucalyptuscil etc. are extracted or purified by this process. (vii) Crystallisation This method is used to purify solids. It sa process that separates a pure solid in the form of its crystals from a solution. In it, the substance to be purified is dissolved in a suitable solvent and the solution is concentrated (by heating) upto the saturation point. Nowr, the solution is cooled slowly. Crystals of pure solid separate out, impurities remain in the solution, called the mother liqaur The crystals are filtered, dried and separated ‘This technique is used in the purification of salt that we get from sea water and in separation of crystals of alum from impure samples. Mass Terms Related to Matter Atomic Mass Atomic mass of an element is the relative mass as compared with an atom of carbon-12 and is expressed in amu (atornic mass unit). Atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as 2 mass exactly equal to one twelth the mass of one carbon-12 atom. According to the latest TUPAC recommendations, amu is written as‘u’ (unified mass). 41 arm =1.66056x 10" g Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCEMATTER AND ITS STATES 233 Average Atomic Mass Many naturally occurring elements exist as more than one isotope. Usually, the atomic ‘mass used for an element is the average atomic mass obtained by taking into account the natural abundance of different isotopes of that element. Molecular Mass It is the sum of atomic masses ofall the elements present in a molecule. Itis therefore the relative mass of a molecule expressed in atomic mass unit (u). Ibis obtained by multiplying the atomic mass of each element by the number of its atoms and adding them together. eg, molecular mass of methane, x 12.011 + 4x 1008=16043u Formula Unit Mass ‘The formula unit mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic masses ofall the atoms in a formula unit of a compound. Formula unit mass of NaCl can be calculated as NaCl=1x 23+ 1x355=585u Equivalent Mass or Equivalent Weight ‘The equivalent mass of a substance is obtained by dividing its molecular mass (or formula unit mass) by its valency. Molecular mass Valency Physical and Chemical Changes Ina physical change, a substance undergoes a change in its physical properties such as shape, size, colour and state, Its generally reversible, le. the original substance is further obtained by reversing the reaction conditions. In such a change no new substance is formed. Conversion of matter from one state to another like evaporation of water, melting of ice, freezing of water, boiling of water, formation of clouds, stretching of spring, etc are the examples of physical change. ‘A change in which one or more new substances are formed, ie, the internal molecular ‘composition of original substance is deformed, is called a chemical change. Burning of ‘magnesium ribbon, coal, wood or leaves is a chemical change. A chemical change is also called a chemical reaction. Ripening of fruits, process of photosynthesis occurring in plants (CO, and H,O converted to glucose), light of sun, rusting of iron, curdling of milk, fete are some other examples of chemical change. During burning of a candle, both physical and chemical changes take place + Fefly have a specific organ for emiting light. Tis process of generation of light called bioluminescence Equivalent Weight =. Laws of Chemical Combinations ‘The combination of elements to form compounds is governed by the folowing basic laws Law of Conservation of Mass ‘This law was put forth by Antoine Lavoisier in 1789. It states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed. Inachemical reaction, [Total miasé of reactants = Total mass of products:Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE 234 Law of Definite Proportions ‘This law was given by a French chemist, Joseph Proust. He stated that agiven compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by weight. eg, CO, alvays contains carbon and cxygen elements combined in the ratio of 9:6 by weight irrespective of the source. That's why it is also called law of constant proportions. Law of Multiple Proportions This av was preposed by Dalton in 1603. According to this law iftwo elements combine to form more than one compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element, are in the ratio of small whole numbers. eg. hydrogen combines with oxygen to form two compounds, namely, water and hydrogen peroxide Hydrogen + Oxygen —» Water ‘Ss 28 168 Hydrogen + Oxygen —» Hydrogen peroxide 28 ag 348 Here, the masses of oxygen (16 g and 32g) which combine with a fixed mass af hydrogen (2g) bear a simple ratio, ie, 16:32 or 1:2. Gay-Lussac's Law of Combining Volumes This law was given by Gay Lussac in 1808. He observed that when gases combine or produced in a chemical reaction, they do so in a simple ratio by volume provided all the gases are at same temperature and pressure. eg. Hydrogen + Oxygen —> Water joomL —SOmL 100 mL ‘Thus, the volumes of hydrogen and axygen (100 mL. and 50 mL] which combine together bear a simple ratio of 2:1 Mole Concept The mote isthe SI base unit for an amount of a chemical species. The word mole was {introduced around 1896 by Wilhelm Ostwald who derived it from Latin word ‘moles ‘means 'aheap'or ‘a pile: In 1967, this word was accepted as a unit of chemical substances under Si system. It is represented by the symbol ‘mol 1 mole of any substance is defined as ~ the amount which weighs exactly same as its formula weight in gram. + theamount which has same numberof entities as there are atoms in exactly 12 8 ‘of C12 isotope ie, 6022 10% entities. The number 6022%10% is called Avogadro's number and represented by Np or Ng. Thus. 41g atom = 6.022% 10 atoms 1 mole = 6.022 x 10 atoms ‘A mole isthe chemists counting unit. + the mass of 1 mole cf a substance is equal to its relative atomic or molecular mass in gram. ‘= the amount which occupies 22.4 L at STP (if itis taken for a gas. ‘Arwount of substance in gram Wiolecular weight/Aiomic weight in gram .= Number of particles at STP _ Volume of gas at STP (in litre) “Avogadro's number 224 Number of moles =